985:) were imposed upon the conquered; for when everything was surrendered to him who was the more powerful in arms, it is the victor's right and privilege to decide what of the conquered's property he wishes to confiscate; the second, when states that are equally matched in war conclude peace and friendship on terms of equality; under these conditions demands for restitution are made and granted by mutual agreement, and if the ownership of any property has been rendered uncertain by the war, these questions are settled according to the rules of traditional law or the convenience of each party; the third exists when states that have never been at war come together to pledge mutual friendship in a treaty of alliance; neither party gives or accepts conditions; for that happens when a conquering and a conquered party meet.
127:
952:. Questions of "international law" might arise in relation to individual grants of citizenship, and whether these accorded with treaty. Because there was no generally accepted principle of international law, controversy might also arise over whether "Rome was bound by an agreement concluded by a field commander without approval of the Senateβtypically an
860:
as comprising wars, national interests, kingship and sovereignty, rights of ownership, property boundaries, settlements, and commerce, "including contracts of buying and selling and letting and hiring, except for certain contractual elements distinguished through
1744:(ius gentium est sedium occupatio, aedificatio, munitio, bella, captivitates, servitutes, postliminia, foedera pacis, indutiae, legatorum non violandorum religio, conubia inter alienigenas prohibita. Et inde ius gentium, quia eo iure omnes fere gentes utuntur)
832:, however, divided law into three branches: natural law, which existed in nature and governed animals as well as humans; the law of nations, which was distinctively human; and, civil law, which was the body of laws specific to a people.
1121:
is occupation, construction, fortification, wars, captivity, the right of regaining citizenship after captivity, slavery, treaties, peace, armistice, the inviolability of ambassadors, the prohibition of mixed marriages; and it is the
925:
were brought under Roman rule, Roman law became in effect international law. Local laws remained in force as long as they did not come into conflict with Roman law; this compatibility was understood as reflecting the underlying
768:(law of nations, or law of the world) as being the law observed by all mankind. Thus the Roman people observes partly its own peculiar law and partly the common law of all mankind.
814:
as a higher law of moral obligation binding human beings beyond the requirements of civil law. A person driven into exile, for instance, lost his legal standing as a
1003:, "a relation of friendship without any further concrete engagements, i.e. the mere exclusion of hostilities; β¦ it could be concluded by a treaty but also without".
748:) observes partly its own peculiar law and partly the common law of all mankind. That law which a people established for itself is peculiar to it and is called
677:
1073:, "trustworthiness, loyalty, credibility", was a quality the Romans wanted to pride themselves for upholding, including respect for the law and
1023:, originally a sacred oath made by a fetial priest on behalf of the Roman people, who will suffer a "self-damnation" if they violate the treaty.
894:
1447:
889:
670:
274:
650:
264:
762:(state), while the law that natural reason establishes among all mankind is followed by all peoples alike, and is called
435:
1043:, surrender, with "the inherent normative expectation that the victor would in any case spare the inhabitants' lives".
257:
240:
663:
235:
1843:
888:
was far more developed among the Romans than that of international law. The earliest form of international law was
252:
245:
1231:
Quoted in
Laurens Winkel, "The Peace Treaties of Westphalia as an Instance of the Reception of Roman Law", in
1198:(Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2002, originally published 1997 by Scholars Press for Emory University), pp. 66β67; Dyson,
944:. Laws originally pertaining to matters of contract law among Roman citizens, such as property transfers and
94:
1388:(Transaction Publishers, 2010, 2nd ed., originally published 1960 by Princeton University Press), p. 210.
1386:
Politics and
Culture in International History from the Ancient Near East to the Opening of the Modern Age
82:
1848:
448:
1059:
were excluded from the universal citizenship extended to all free inhabitants of the empire under the
1035:, "cease-fires" that "do not end the war as a whole, but interrupt the hostilities only temporarily".
513:
215:
1769:
1170:
Peace
Treaties and International Law in European History from the Late Middle Ages to World War One
940:) is thought by many scholars to have played an important role in extending Roman civil law to the
710:
117:
1061:
833:
551:
853:
794:
distinguished between things that are written and those that are unwritten but upheld by the
921:, there was no framework of international law per se with which a treaty had to conform. As
193:
70:("peoples" or "nations") in "reasoned compliance with standards of international conduct".
1476:
was thereafter the only other major power with which Rome was in regular contact. Baldus,
959:
A key passage pertaining to what Romans understood as "international law" is presented by
818:, but was supposed to retain the basic protections extended to all human beings under the
8:
691:
328:
1812:
1103:
936:
899:
774:
586:
225:
994:
Terminology associated with Roman international law was non-specialized but included:
1762:
1015:, is "an obligation to peace and neutrality" with "a duty to grant military support".
505:
498:
301:
39:
1784:
1506:
1427:
1397:
Christian Baldus, "Vestigia pacis. The Roman Peace Treaty: Structure or Event?" in
1245:
787:
627:
621:
614:
600:
429:
408:
353:
338:
333:
318:
202:
93:
disintegrated as individual
European nations developed distinct bodies of law, the
74:
1451:"); Daniel Peretz, "The Roman Interpreter and His Diplomatic and Military Roles",
1469:
845:
343:
47:
1816:
1725:
Karl-Heinz
Ziegler, "The Influence of Medieval Roman Law on Peace Treaties," in
1099:
870:
721:
632:
579:
423:
398:
307:
155:
1792:
1212:
Quod vero naturalis ratio inter omnes homines constituit β¦ vocator ius gentium
786:
was regarded as "innate in every human being", a view that was consonant with
1837:
1827:
1788:
1308:
815:
528:
378:
146:
63:
1802:
1774:
914:
704:
441:
393:
363:
289:
164:
78:
1761:, Franciscus de Victoria (lect. 1532, first pub. 1557). Available online
1087:
945:
885:
806:
800:
699:
484:
102:
55:
1434:
of Q. Mucius
Scaevola: "If someone strikes an ambassador of the enemy (
715:
565:
295:
175:
59:
856:, a Roman jurist of the second half of the 3rd century, described the
1144:
Natural Law and
Political Realism in the History of Political Thought
1095:
1047:
953:
637:
607:
473:
455:
418:
43:
126:
1007:
999:
572:
462:
373:
284:
182:
1029:, "both the state of peace and the means to achieve it by treaty".
1436:
1039:
931:
757:
558:
537:
388:
368:
1473:
1375:
1.1.5; Winkel, "The Peace
Treaties of Westphalia", pp. 225β226.
1181:
Randall
Lesaffer, "Peace Treaties from Lodi to Westphalia", in
1019:
973:
903:
829:
826:
791:
729:
593:
383:
1441:), he is regarded as having acted against the law of nations (
1051:, a person who became a subject of the Roman Empire through a
977:), he said, by which states and kings concluded friendships (
35:
1250:
The Stoic
Tradition from Antiquity to the Early Middle Ages
960:
98:
544:
491:
22:
1727:
Peace Treaties and International Law in European History
1714:
Peace Treaties and International Law in European History
1399:
Peace Treaties and International Law in European History
1233:
Peace Treaties and International Law in European History
1183:
Peace Treaties and International Law in European History
1472:
in 168 BC, no Western power was equal to that of Rome.
1801:, Cornelius van Bynkershoek (1737). Available online
1746:; Winkel, "The Peace Treaties of Westphalia," p. 226.
910:, and it was a religious violation to harm an envoy.
898:), which should only be undertaken with a ritualized
1244:
Winkel, "The Peace Treaties of Westphalia", p. 225;
906:priests. Foreign ambassadors were protected by the
840:, even though under natural law all are born free (
956:concluded in distress and on unfavourable terms."
89:. By the 16th century, the shared concept of the
50:law traditions based on or influenced by it. The
1835:
1513:(Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 134; Dyson,
1414:(Cambridge University Press, 2004), pp. 231β239
1315:(University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011), p. 29.
1313:Law, Language, and Empire in the Roman Tradition
892:and pertained to the concept of the "just war" (
1826:, St. George Tucker (1803). Available online
1445:), because ambassadors are regarded as sacred (
1106:(c. 560β636), enumerated the principles of the
869:was thus in practice important in facilitating
1172:(Cambridge University Press, 2004), pp. 5, 13.
16:Customary law concept within international law
1536:Politics and Culture in International History
1519:Politics and Culture in International History
1495:Politics and Culture in International History
754:(civil law) as being the special law of that
671:
876:
742:) that is governed by statutes and customs (
1430:(2nd century AD), in his commentary on the
963:, as spoken by an envoy of King Antiochus:
763:
755:
749:
743:
737:
1484:(Edinburgh University Press, 2008), p. 47.
1159:(Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 85.
948:, were thus "internationalized" among the
678:
664:
105:created subject nations outside the West.
917:might be said to fall broadly within the
1773:, Hugo Grotius (1625). Available online
1011:, although sometimes a mere synonym for
844:). In this tripartite division of law,
1836:
1098:in addition to Roman legal theory. In
804:, "ancestral custom". In his treatise
38:for "law of nations") is a concept of
1511:The Praetorship in the Roman Republic
836:, for instance, was supported by the
1280:Roman Law: Mechanisms of Development
1126:because nearly every nation uses it.
967:There were three kinds of treaties (
732:has established among all peoples":
66:thought to be held in common by all
1146:(Peter Lang, 2005), vol. 1, p. 127.
981:): one, when in time of war terms (
13:
1752:
1168:Randall Lesaffer, introduction to
1081:
848:might be considered a part of the
14:
1860:
1515:Natural Law and Political Realism
1200:Natural Law and Political Realism
85:also contributed to the European
1781:The Law of Nature and of Nations
1480:, pp. 111β112; Olivier Hekster,
125:
1732:
1719:
1706:
1693:
1680:
1667:
1654:
1641:
1628:
1615:
1602:
1589:
1580:
1567:
1554:
1541:
1524:
1500:
1487:
1482:Rome and Its Empire, AD 193β284
1462:
1455:55.4 (2006), p. 454; Bederman,
1421:
1404:
1391:
1378:
1366:
1350:
1334:
1318:
1302:
1285:
1272:
1457:International Law in Antiquity
1412:International Law in Antiquity
1259:
1238:
1225:
1205:
1188:
1175:
1162:
1157:International Law in Antiquity
1149:
1136:
989:
884:The theory and terminology of
782:As a form of natural law, the
1:
1130:
934:assigned to foreign affairs (
698:was regarded as an aspect of
1282:(Mouton, 1978), pp. 254β255.
108:
7:
10:
1865:
1815:(1758). Available online
1712:Lesaffer, introduction to
1361:The Idea of Natural Rights
1345:The Idea of Natural Rights
1329:The Idea of Natural Rights
1220:The Idea of Natural Rights
1196:The Idea of Natural Rights
852:, but not of natural law.
44:ancient Roman legal system
1791:1703). Available online
514:Senatus consultum ultimum
409:Extraordinary magistrates
1770:The Law of War and Peace
709:, as distinguished from
118:Politics of ancient Rome
1844:Latin legal terminology
1799:Questions of Public Law
1459:, pp. 104β105, 114β115.
1062:Constitutio Antoniniana
1252:(Brill, 1980), p. 360
1128:
987:
825:The 2nd-century Roman
780:
764:
756:
750:
744:
738:
275:Political institutions
1795:, under construction.
1267:Partitiones oratoriae
1116:
1077:in foreign relations.
965:
734:
1688:Rome and Its Empire,
1278:A. Arthur Schiller,
1114:, "peace treaties":
354:Ordinary magistrates
1534:, p. 529; Bozeman,
1517:, p. 127; Bozeman,
1410:David J. Bederman,
1297:The Stoic Tradition
1155:David J. Bederman,
913:While the terms of
877:War, peace and the
692:classical antiquity
1813:Emmerich de Vattel
1809:The Law of Nations
1327:1.1.1.4; Tierney,
1104:Isidore of Seville
937:praetor peregrinus
900:declaration of war
587:Triumvir monetalis
521:Titles and honours
1849:International law
1384:Adda B. Bozeman,
1295:3.17.69; Colish,
810:, he regards the
728:as what "natural
688:
687:
506:Quaestio perpetua
499:Senatus consultum
302:Roman citizenship
54:is not a body of
40:international law
1856:
1785:Samuel Pufendorf
1747:
1736:
1730:
1723:
1717:
1710:
1704:
1697:
1691:
1684:
1678:
1671:
1665:
1658:
1652:
1645:
1639:
1632:
1626:
1619:
1613:
1606:
1600:
1593:
1587:
1586:Livy, 34.57.7β9.
1584:
1578:
1571:
1565:
1558:
1552:
1545:
1539:
1528:
1522:
1507:T. Corey Brennan
1504:
1498:
1491:
1485:
1466:
1460:
1428:Sextus Pomponius
1425:
1419:
1408:
1402:
1395:
1389:
1382:
1376:
1370:
1364:
1359:1.1.5; Tierney,
1354:
1348:
1343:1.1.4; Tierney,
1338:
1332:
1322:
1316:
1306:
1300:
1289:
1283:
1276:
1270:
1263:
1257:
1246:Marcia L. Colish
1242:
1236:
1229:
1223:
1218:1.1.9; Tierney,
1209:
1203:
1192:
1186:
1179:
1173:
1166:
1160:
1153:
1147:
1140:
788:Stoic philosophy
778:
767:
761:
753:
747:
741:
680:
673:
666:
622:Pontifex maximus
615:Princeps senatus
601:Magister militum
436:Consular tribune
430:Magister equitum
258:Augustan reforms
129:
113:
112:
75:Christianization
1864:
1863:
1859:
1858:
1857:
1855:
1854:
1853:
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1755:
1753:Further reading
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1525:
1505:
1501:
1492:
1488:
1470:Battle of Pydna
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1371:
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1230:
1226:
1210:
1206:
1194:Brian Tierney,
1193:
1189:
1180:
1176:
1167:
1163:
1154:
1150:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1084:
1082:Medieval Europe
992:
882:
846:property rights
779:
772:
684:
655:
651:Other countries
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511:
468:
403:
348:
313:
269:
246:Sullan republic
211:
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17:
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5:
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1796:
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1749:
1748:
1731:
1718:
1705:
1701:Vestigia pacis
1692:
1679:
1675:Vestigia pacis
1666:
1662:Vestigia pacis
1653:
1649:Vestigia pacis
1640:
1638:, pp. 120β121.
1636:Vestigia pacis
1627:
1623:Vestigia pacis
1614:
1610:Vestigia pacis
1601:
1597:Vestigia pacis
1588:
1579:
1577:, pp. 114β115.
1575:Vestigia pacis
1566:
1562:Vestigia pacis
1553:
1551:, pp. 135β136.
1549:Vestigia pacis
1540:
1538:, pp. 206β208.
1523:
1499:
1497:, pp. 208β209.
1486:
1478:Vestigia pacis
1461:
1420:
1403:
1401:, pp. 112β113.
1390:
1377:
1365:
1363:, pp. 136β137.
1349:
1333:
1317:
1301:
1284:
1271:
1258:
1237:
1224:
1204:
1187:
1174:
1161:
1148:
1134:
1132:
1129:
1110:, focusing on
1100:late antiquity
1083:
1080:
1079:
1078:
1068:
1067:
1066:
1036:
1030:
1024:
1016:
1004:
991:
988:
915:peace treaties
881:
875:
871:commercial law
770:
745:leges et mores
736:Every people (
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685:
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583:
580:Vigintisexviri
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179:27 BC β AD 284
172:
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169:27 BC β AD 395
161:
156:Roman Republic
152:
140:
139:
135:
134:
131:
130:
122:
121:
116:
110:
107:
101:declined, and
73:Following the
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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1797:
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1789:Basil Kennett
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1314:
1310:
1309:Clifford Ando
1305:
1298:
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1127:
1125:
1120:
1115:
1113:
1112:foedera pacis
1109:
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1101:
1097:
1094:derived from
1093:
1089:
1076:
1072:
1069:
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1005:
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909:
905:
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896:
895:bellum iustum
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868:
864:
859:
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854:Hermogenianus
851:
847:
843:
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817:
816:Roman citizen
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184:
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177:
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147:Roman Kingdom
144:
143:
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137:
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115:
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106:
104:
100:
96:
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69:
65:
64:customary law
62:, but rather
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
32:
27:
26:
24:
1823:
1808:
1798:
1780:
1768:
1758:
1743:
1739:
1734:
1726:
1721:
1713:
1708:
1700:
1695:
1687:
1682:
1674:
1669:
1661:
1656:
1648:
1643:
1635:
1630:
1622:
1617:
1609:
1604:
1596:
1591:
1582:
1574:
1569:
1561:
1556:
1548:
1543:
1535:
1531:
1526:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1502:
1494:
1489:
1481:
1477:
1464:
1456:
1452:
1446:
1442:
1435:
1431:
1423:
1415:
1411:
1406:
1398:
1393:
1385:
1380:
1372:
1368:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1312:
1304:
1296:
1292:
1287:
1279:
1274:
1266:
1261:
1253:
1249:
1240:
1232:
1227:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1199:
1195:
1190:
1182:
1177:
1169:
1164:
1156:
1151:
1143:
1142:R.W. Dyson,
1138:
1123:
1118:
1117:
1111:
1107:
1091:
1085:
1074:
1070:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1046:
1038:
1032:
1026:
1018:
1012:
1006:
998:
993:
982:
978:
972:
968:
966:
958:
949:
941:
935:
927:
922:
918:
912:
907:
893:
883:
878:
866:
862:
857:
849:
841:
837:
824:
819:
811:
805:
799:
795:
783:
781:
735:
725:
724:defined the
722:jurist Gaius
713:
705:ius naturale
702:
695:
689:
620:
613:
606:
599:
592:
585:
578:
571:
564:
557:
550:
543:
536:
512:
504:
497:
490:
483:
461:
454:
447:
440:
428:
306:
294:
290:Collegiality
226:Constitution
214:
203:
194:
165:Roman Empire
163:
154:
145:
90:
86:
79:Roman Empire
72:
67:
51:
30:
29:
21:
20:
18:
1787:(1674, tr.
1759:Relectiones
1740:Etymologies
1443:ius gentium
1293:De officiis
1124:ius gentium
1119:Ius gentium
1108:ius gentium
1092:ius gentium
1088:Middle Ages
990:Terminology
971:, singular
946:manumission
928:ius gentium
919:ius gentium
908:ius gentium
886:private law
867:ius gentium
858:ius gentium
850:ius gentium
838:ius gentium
820:ius gentium
812:ius gentium
807:De officiis
801:mos maiorum
796:ius gentium
784:ius gentium
765:ius gentium
726:ius gentium
700:natural law
696:ius gentium
485:Mos maiorum
265:Late Empire
208:AD 395β1453
103:colonialism
91:ius gentium
87:ius gentium
56:statute law
52:ius gentium
42:within the
31:jus gentium
1838:Categories
1824:Blackstone
1530:Schiller,
1468:After the
1432:ius civile
1131:References
1048:dediticius
863:ius civile
751:ius civile
716:ius civile
566:Praefectus
474:Public law
329:Centuriate
319:Assemblies
296:Auctoritas
199:AD 395β476
186:AD 284β641
176:Principate
151:753β509 BC
60:legal code
1822:Tucker's
1738:Isidore,
1729:, p. 147.
1703:, p. 140.
1686:Hekster,
1677:, p. 122.
1664:, p. 122.
1651:, p. 122.
1625:, p. 120.
1612:, p. 120.
1599:, p. 113.
1564:, p. 132.
1532:Roman Law
1521:, p. 208.
1493:Bozeman,
1416:et passim
1347:, p. 136.
1331:, p. 136.
1299:, p. 150.
1254:et passim
1235:, p. 225.
1222:, p. 136.
1202:, p. 236.
1096:canon law
1057:dediticii
979:amicitiae
954:armistice
890:religious
711:civil law
608:Imperator
456:Decemviri
449:Triumviri
419:Corrector
160:509β27 BC
109:Roman law
95:authority
83:canon law
1699:Baldus,
1673:Baldus,
1660:Baldus,
1647:Baldus,
1634:Baldus,
1621:Baldus,
1608:Baldus,
1595:Baldus,
1573:Baldus,
1560:Baldus,
1547:Baldus,
1453:Historia
1291:Cicero,
1265:Cicero,
1185:, p. 34.
1033:indutiae
1013:amicitia
1008:societas
1000:amicitia
775:G. Inst.
771:β
638:Tetrarch
628:Augustus
573:Vicarius
552:Officium
463:Interrex
424:Dictator
399:Governor
374:Quaestor
339:Plebeian
285:Imperium
241:Republic
216:Timeline
183:Dominate
1716:, p. 5.
1448:sanctus
1439:hostium
1437:legatus
1269:37.130.
1086:In the
1053:deditio
1040:deditio
969:foedera
932:praetor
902:by the
865:". The
834:Slavery
798:or the
773:Gaius,
758:civitas
739:populus
559:Praeses
538:Legatus
529:Emperor
389:Tribune
369:Praetor
334:Curiate
236:Kingdom
204:Eastern
195:Western
138:Periods
97:of the
77:of the
48:Western
25:gentium
1690:p. 47.
1474:Persia
1373:Digest
1357:Digest
1341:Digest
1325:Digest
1216:Digest
1090:, the
1020:foedus
974:foedus
950:gentes
942:gentes
930:. The
923:gentes
904:fetial
879:gentes
842:liberi
830:Ulpian
827:jurist
792:Cicero
730:reason
720:. The
694:, the
633:Caesar
594:Lictor
394:Censor
384:Aedile
364:Consul
344:Tribal
253:Empire
68:gentes
58:nor a
1075:fides
1071:fides
983:leges
36:Latin
1828:here
1817:here
1803:here
1793:here
1775:here
1763:here
1742:5.6
961:Livy
99:Pope
46:and
19:The
1027:pax
777:1.1
690:In
545:Dux
492:Ius
442:Rex
28:or
23:ius
1840::
1811:,
1783:,
1509:,
1311:,
1248:,
1214:,
1102:,
1055:;
873:.
822:.
790:.
81:,
1830:.
1819:.
1805:.
1777:.
1765:.
1418:.
1256:.
1065:.
718:)
714:(
707:)
703:(
679:e
672:t
665:v
34:(
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