1474:"while in all ancient monarchies religion and sacerdotalism were a political as well as a social power, the position of the Christian Church in the Roman Empire was a new thing in the world, presenting problems of a kind with which no ruler had hitherto been confronted and to which no past experience offered a key. The history of the Empire would have been profoundly different if the Church had remained as independent of the State as it had been before Constantine. But heresies and schisms and religious intolerance on one side, and the despotic instinct to control all social forces on the other, brought about a close union between State and Church which altered the character and spirit of the State, and constituted perhaps the most striking difference between the early and the later Empire."
771:
frontiers to defend. To govern a large state by two independent but perfectly similar machines, controlled not from one centre but from two foci, without sacrificing its unity was an interesting and entirely new experiment. These bureaucratic machines worked moderately well, and their success might have been extraordinary if the monarchs who directed them had always been men of superior ability. Blots of course and defects there were, especially in the fields of economy and finance. The political creation of the
Illyrian Emperors was not unworthy of the genius of Rome.
963:
734:. The stresses and strains of those years (chronic usurpations, military insurrections, simultaneous military conflicts across multiple frontiers) exposed the weaknesses in the Roman state under the Principate, and saw a gradual movement from the collegiate model of government that existed prior to AD 235 to a more formally autocratic version that begins after AD 285. In broad terms, it saw the gradual exclusion of the senatorial elite from high military commands and the parallel elevation of the
1612:
as the pagan temples had in granting asylum to any who requested it. Bishops were permitted to act as judges in civil cases when both parties had agreed, and no appeal was permitted once the Bishop had made their ruling. The state made increasing use of the ecclesiastical authorities in local administration due to the decline in the civic life of the urban communities, which coincided with the increasing local influence of the bishops. Finally, bishops were given the same role as the
1238:
40:
927:
man halfway through his career, in his early thirties for a patrician, or in his early forties for most others. If they were especially skilled or valued, they may even have achieved a second (or rarely, a third) consulate. Prior to achieving the consulate, these individuals already had a significant career behind them, and would expect to continue serving the state, filling in the post upon which the state functioned.
1959:
1289:
Prefects were the
Emperor's top administrators, ranking just below the Emperor himself in dignity. While initially serving as the Emperor's second in command in all matters of imperial administration (military, civil, judicial, taxation, etc.), during the course of the Dominate the Prefects gradually had portions of their authority stripped from them and given to other offices: the
1096:, including the diocesan and provincial governor's staffs, would have consisted of somewhere around 10,000 individuals. This figure did not include the staff of the military commanders, or the financial and other central ministries, and contrasts with the estimated 300 state bureaucrats that were employed across all the provinces during the period of the Julio-Claudian emperors.
1454:" or "border commanders"). These commanders were the closest in function to the Imperial Legates of the Principate. Most Dukes were given command of forces in a single province, but a few controlled more than one province. In the East, the Dukes reported to the Master of the Soldiers of their district whereas in the West they reported to their respective Military Count.
1811:) and were surrounded by a court of individuals who, only due to the favor and proximity of the Emperor, attained the highest honorific titles and bureaucratic functions. In fact, many offices associated with the palatine life and that suggested intimate relationship with royalty eventually developed connotations of power, such as the offices of
1203:, was the minimum qualification for membership of the Senate. It was automatically awarded as part of the governorship of a province, and to a myriad of other lesser officers. It was held by a large number of junior imperial public servants, as well as being awarded to them after their retirement. The generosity of the emperors in bestowing the
1408:, the Master of Both Services was the supreme military commander of the West, ranking only below the Emperor and above all other military commanders, and commander of half the Palace Troops. The Master of the Horse held command over half the Palace Troops and the Field Army of Gaul, but still under the command of the Master of Both Services.
1281:. During the Crisis of the Third Century, greater authority over imperial military matters was ceded to the Praetorian Prefects, while the imperial legates took advantage of weakened centralised authority to use the troops under their command to rebel against the emperor and claim the imperial title for themselves.
1520:
god. To avoid offending
Christians, Constantine abandoned the emperor's formal claim to divinity and ceased to demand sacrifices to the emperor that formed part of the imperial cult. In an attempt to appeal to both Christians and pagans, Constantine adopted two new religious symbols into the imperial
1515:
It was under
Constantine I that the religious transformation began to take its late Dominate shape, initially with Constantine officially favouring the worship of a single deity in the shape of Sol Invictus. During the course of his reign, the identification of Sol Invictus as the principal god began
1500:, but this was not officially encouraged during the Principate, and it was not introduced into Italy. It was Diocletian who altered this to have the worship of the living emperors as an official part of the religious framework of the entire empire. To facilitate this, Diocletian was linked to the god
1611:
The emperors had, over time, conceded many privileges to the clergy and the churches. Firstly, all clergy, like the holders of the pagan religious offices, were exempted from taxation. There were no restrictions placed on churches receiving bequests through wills, and they were given the same rights
840:
became unable to cope with multiple and simultaneous invasions and usurpations that required the emperor to be everywhere at once. Further, it was their absence which caused usurpations to occur in response to a local or provincial crisis that traditionally would have been dealt with by the emperor.
1536:
in 312, as the full effects were not visible until paganism was prohibited at the end of the 4th century. Ultimately, however, as a result of the imperial patronage of
Constantine and especially his sons, Christianity rapidly emerged as the official religion of the empire, although many vestiges of
1146:
All important offices automatically carried with them admission into the Senate, thereby further eroding the standing of the traditional aristocratic
Senatorial families of the Principate under the Dominate. This resulted in a senatorial body of around 2,000 members during the reign of Constantine,
953:
when they were later granted an ordinary consulship by the emperor. All this had the effect of further devaluing the office of consul, to the point that by time of the
Dominate, holding an ordinary consulate was occasionally left out of the cursus inscriptions, while suffect consulships were hardly
926:
Consequently, the high regard placed upon the ordinary consulate remained intact, as it was one of the few offices that one could share with the emperor, and during this period it was filled mostly by patricians or by individuals who had consular ancestors. It was a post that would be occupied by a
1842:
The style of
Government so memorably described by Marcus, whereby the emperor sought to show himself as a model of correct aristocratic deportment, had given way to a style in which the emperor was seen to be distinct from all other mortals. His house could no longer be a grander version of houses
940:
consulship granted at an earlier age, to the point that by the 4th century, it was being held by men in their early twenties, and possibly younger. As time progressed, second consulates, usually ordinary, became far more common than had been the case during the first two centuries, while the first
1288:
who initially divided the military administrative apparatus and the civil administration in order to mitigate the risk that future imperial governors or
Praetorian Prefects might attempt to seize the throne through force, and then he reorganized both of them. During the Tetrarchy, the Praetorian
1022:
to the senatorial order, with the larger or more important provinces handed over to those senators who had held an ordinary consulship. However, unlike the time of the
Principate, the role of governor was much reduced, being a purely civil magistrate with no military functions, and with provinces
1486:
as the supreme deity of the empire. Although the worship of Sol Invictus did not remove the veneration towards the traditional Roman gods, it was seen as a mark of imperial favouritism, and the emperors linked his cult to the well-being of the state and on-going military victories of the empire.
970:
One of the key changes in the management of the empire during the Dominate was the large scale removal of old-style senatorial participation in administrative and military functions. The process began with the reforms of Gallienus, who removed senators from military commands, placing them in the
1026:
The decline in the functions carried out by the old aristocratic senatorial families acting collegially with the emperor in the running of the empire was offset by the rise of an expanded imperial bureaucracy who served the emperor in a subordinate role. Interposed between the governors and the
1057:
were under the authority of the emperor. The Praetorian Prefects had wide-ranging administrative, financial, judicial and legislative powers. The provincial governors were appointed at his recommendation, and with him rested their dismissal, subject to the Emperor's approval. The only civilian
770:
constructed with the most careful attention to details, was a solution of the formidable problem of holding together a huge heterogeneous empire, threatened with dissolution and bankruptcy, an empire which was far from being geographically compact and had four long, as well as several smaller,
922:
consuls who began in office at the start of the year. Throughout the Principate, the imperial consulate was an important position, albeit as the method through which the Roman aristocracy could progress through to the higher levels of imperial administration – only former consuls could become
988:(or super-provinces). The exclusion of the old Italian aristocracy, both senatorial and equestrian, from the political and military power that they had monopolised for many centuries was largely complete. The Senate became politically insignificant, although it retained great prestige.
984:). Hereditary senators were limited to administrative jobs in Italy and a few neighbouring provinces (Sicily, Africa, Achaea and Asia), despite the fact that senior administrative posts had been greatly multiplied by the tripling of the number of provinces and the establishment of
917:
was the highest elected magistracy in the Roman state, with two consuls elected annually. With the arrival of the Principate, although all real power was invested in the emperor, the consuls were still in theory the head of state, and the calendar year was identified by the two
999:, a role which had acted as a form of apprenticeship for an ambitious senator during the Principate, it was downgraded during the Dominate and assigned to the sons of senators, with the legal qualifying age lowered to sixteen. This was followed by a suffect consulship and/or a
1301:
The next reforms were undertaken by Constantine I, who reorganised the supreme military command. Two significant parts of the reform are apparent: the separation of military commanders from civil administration and the division of the army into two classes: the Field Armies
1857:) that has come to be a prerogative of the Imperial position. Originally an exceptional honour awarded by the Senate to an Emperor posthumously, the elevation had devolved to an expected convention for still-living Caesars. To dissuade the rebellions and usurpations of the
1652:
Rome was increasingly seen to be too distant a residence for the emperor when troubles could erupt along any of the borders of the empire. In the west, Mediolanum was seen to be a much better strategic city for the emperor to be based at, as it gave good access through the
738:, the reorganisation of the armed forces and the creation of mobile field armies, changes in imperial dress and ceremonial displays, a religious policy aiming at religious unity, large scale monetary reforms, and the creation of an empire-wide civil bureaucracy.
1297:
for central civilian administration. These reforms were the result of both the lack of officials suitable for the prefect's wide-ranging tasks, and of the desire to reduce the potential challenge to the Emperor's authority posed by a powerful Prefect.
754:
were given an escalating importance in the administration of Rome and the empire." Not all the changes that produced the 'Dominate' were completed by the time of Diocletian's abdication in AD 305; many changes were either introduced or modified by
1018:; during this period the office gained in effective power, as the imperial court was removed from the city of Rome, meaning that the prefects were no longer under the emperor's direct supervision. The most significant change was the return of
1618:, who was responsible for protecting the poor against exploitation by government officials and defending them from other powerful individuals, during the course of which the bishop could bring cases of illegality directly to the emperor.
1081:
The increasing administrative machinery surrounding the emperor resulted in an explosion of bureaucratic offices. These state officials were paid originally both in food and with money, but over the course of the Dominate, the
741:
Although Diocletian is commonly thought of as creator of the Dominate, its origins lie in the innovations of earlier emperors, principally those undertaken by Aurelian (AD 270–275). Some reforms stretch back to the reigns of
1088:(or food ration) was converted into money. Their salaries therefore consumed a considerable chunk of the imperial budget. Although precise numbers are not available, it has been speculated that the state bureaucracy in the
2007:
Kuhoff, Wolfgang (2002). "Die diokletianische Tetrarchie als Epoche einer historischen Wende in antiker und moderner Sicht". International Journal of the Classical Tradition. 9 (2): 177–178. doi:10.1007/BF02898434 JSTOR
1116:(officer responsible for managing the secretarial departments in the palace, the conduct of court ceremonies, and controlling the special department which dealt with ceremonial arrangements and Imperial audiences)
1351:. Over time, the numbers and types of Masters would vary across the empire. The establishment of solely military officials provided for a more professional military leadership. The Masters were all ranked as
1433:
Within the West, there were six such Military Counts, one for each of the five Field Armies in Illyria, Africa, Tingitania, Hispania, and Britannia. The sixth military count, the Count of the Saxon Shore
1767:
issued legislation that greatly restricted the rights of the coloni and tied them to the land. Coloni and lower-ranking plebeians were no longer allowed to change their occupation. Ultimately, with the
1532:
At the Imperial court, Christians began indiscernibly to rise in favour, to the detriment of pagans. This did not begin to immediately hamper the advancement of pagan courtiers after the defeat of
1704:, it finally replaced Nicomedia as the site of the emperor's residence in the east in 330. Constantinople would remain the capital of the eastern provinces throughout the period of the Dominate.
1490:
Next, it was during Diocletian's reign that emperor worship was fully adopted by the emperors, as a method of expressing loyalty to the state. Previously, deceased emperors had been worshiped as
941:
consulship was usually a suffect consulate. Also, the consulate during this period was no longer just the province of senators – the automatic awarding of a suffect consulship to the equestrian
1760:(reigned 284–305) assessed taxes based both on land and on the inhabitants of that land, it became administratively inconvenient for peasants to leave the land where the census counted them.
654:
dynasties, between the years 565 and 641. In form, the Dominate is considered to have been more authoritarian, less collegial and more bureaucratic than the Principate from which it emerged.
980:
Under Diocletian, the military equestrian transformation was taken a stage further, with the removal of hereditary senators from most administrative, as well as military, posts (such as the
936:
into the traditional senatorial administrative and military functions meant that senatorial careers virtually vanished prior to their appointment as consuls. This had the effect of seeing a
1661:
to the west. Further, it was well positioned to guard against incursions through the alpine passes. This decision was confirmed when Diocletian established the Tetrarchy, and his colleague
1834:
describes the transformation of government under Diocletian when describing the shifts in imagery the Emperor used to display his power (in this case the building of a huge new palace at
1314:"). The Field Armies served as the Empire's strategic reserve to respond to crisis where it may arise whereas the Frontier Troops were permanently stationed along the Empire's borders ("
3005:
bornĂk PracĂ FilosofickĂ© Fakulty BrnenskĂ© University = Studia minora Facultatis Philosophicae Universitatis Brunensis. Rada archeologicko-klasicka = Series archaeologica et classica
1377:. Each of these three Masters exercised independent command over one of the three Field Armies of the Eastern Empire. There were also two Masters of the Soldiers in the Presence (
1003:. The office of Praetor had also lost much of its influence, as it had been stripped of its legal functions, so that during the Dominate its purpose was primarily to organise the
759:. Consequently, just as the Principate emerged over the period 31 BC through to 14 AD, it is only by AD 337 that the reforms that resulted in the Dominate were largely complete.
1727:, the governor who represented the emperor in Italy. Ravenna would retain this position until 751, when the Byzantine Empire finally lost the central Italian provinces to the
1926:
In contrast to the situation in the Principate, however, emperors in the Dominate could not be deified as it was, excepting the two initial decades and the reign of
813:
was conferred onto that person was the point when imperial authority could be exercised. Over the course of the Principate, it became common for the emperor (or
3166:
1614:
901:
was autonomous within each portion of the empire they managed, all laws that were introduced by any emperor were valid across the entirety of the empire.
590:
1430:"). Unlike the Military Counts of the West, this Count commanded the Frontier Troops stationed in Egypt and reported directly to the Eastern Emperor.
793:. Augustus and his successors usually took great care to disguise the autocratic nature of the office by hiding behind the institutions of the
866:), each of whom shared in the imperial power. This original power sharing model lasted from AD 289 through to AD 324, being undone during the
3053:
1569:
1466:
Principate origins. Its principal feature was the elevation of a supreme deity that all peoples in the empire were to worship. According to
3595:
651:
647:
1719:
in 402. Ravenna remained the western imperial capital until the loss of Italy in 476. Although Rome was reincorporated into the empire by
3637:
3625:
3684:
1150:
All the higher officials in the imperial bureaucracy belonged to one of the three classes or ranks introduced by Constantine I – the
1529:. By the time of Constantine's death in AD 337, this process was largely complete, with Constantine being baptized on his deathbed.
1381:) who accompanied the Eastern Emperor and who each commanded half of the Palace Troops. Each of the five Masters were of equal rank.
5018:
5013:
5008:
3600:
5003:
4998:
4972:
3610:
1827:, after the loss of every residue of political power they had had in the Principate, became mere honorifics in the later Empire.
4917:
3605:
3339:
1931:
1023:
greatly reduced in size, and the number increasing from the roughly fifty pre-existing provinces to approximately one hundred.
583:
187:
3024:
Vitiello, Massimiliano. 2015. "Blaming the Late Republic: Senatorial Ideology and Republican Institutions in Late Antiquity."
563:
4887:
3712:
3239:
2900:
1972:
1880:, were venerated after death. In the Eastern Roman Empire after 476 AD, the symbiotic relation between the Imperial Crown in
1605:
1219:. This inflationary pressure resulted in the creation of a new senatorial rank before the middle of the 6th century, that of
690:
throughout the Principate, usually in the form of excessive flattery (or political invective) when referring to the emperor.
177:
1147:
and these numbers only increased when there were two senatorial bodies in existence, one at Rome and one at Constantinople.
4977:
4852:
4005:
3558:
348:
1896:
on his death (518 AD). The title appears to have been abandoned thereafter on grounds of its spiritual impropriety (see
1784:
colleagues and successors openly displayed the naked face of Imperial power. They ceased using the more modest title of
1164:, all of whom were automatically members of the senatorial order. The heads of the great central civil ministries, the
3229:
1585:
1361:
1093:
844:
Under the Dominate, the burden of the imperial position was increasingly shared between colleagues, referred to as the
170:
153:
1396:. Over time, it became more common for the offices (foot and horse) to be combined under a single person, then styled
4897:
3657:
3224:
3219:
3195:
3046:
1937:
Another clear symptom of the upgrading of the imperial status was the notion of the emperor as an incarnation of the
1665:
informally established Mediolanum as the senior western emperor's official residence. Diocletian, conscious that the
1601:
1373:
1089:
576:
148:
1326:"), who accompanied the Emperor as he travelled around the Empire, functioning as the successor to the Principate's
1142:(the emperor's chamberlain, who exercised a general authority over all officers associated with the imperial court).
4912:
3585:
3234:
3161:
1669:
threat to the eastern provinces required a continuous imperial presence, placed his eastern capital in the city of
1549:
891:
639:
165:
1496:
across the empire. Living emperors had been worshiped as gods in the eastern half of the empire since the time of
3178:
3111:
2934:
1444:
and reported to the Count of Britannia. The five regular Military Counts reported to the Master of Both Services.
158:
3932:
3857:
3615:
2864:
1589:
1392:
3003:
Melounová, Markéta. 2012. "Trials with Religious and Political Charges from the Principate to the Dominate." S
4428:
1897:
1386:
1271:
were under the proconsular authority of the emperor, who managed those provinces through designated legates (
1872:
Emperors imported rituals such as kneeling before the Emperor, and kissing of the hem of the Imperial robe (
1339:"), who were the supreme military commanders of the empire. Beginning with the head of the foot troops, the
730:
The Dominate system of government emerged as a response to the 50 years of chaos that is referred to as the
706:
encouraged its use, but none of the emperors used the term in any semi-official capacity until the reign of
4268:
3872:
3324:
3039:
1866:
1492:
1273:
878:, lasting until AD 350. The model became a permanent feature of the empire in AD 364 with the accession of
4967:
4892:
4651:
3707:
3590:
3136:
1858:
1744:
867:
833:
731:
1749:
Large Roman landowners increasingly relied on Roman freemen, acting as tenant farmers to provide labor.
722:
was adopted as part of the emperor's official titulature, forming part of Diocletian's radical reforms.
4927:
4591:
4483:
4253:
4025:
3847:
3755:
3620:
3563:
1593:
1138:
804:
361:
3019:
Social Dynamics in the Northwest Frontiers of the Late Roman Empire: Beyond Transformation or Decline.
1418:"). There were six such Military Counts throughout the Empire. The Military Counts were all ranked as
966:
Roman Emperor Constantine, who adjusted many of the civil and military reforms initiated by Diocletian
789:, the position of emperor saw the concentration of various civil and military offices within a single
4947:
4040:
3995:
3922:
3842:
3790:
3780:
3732:
3079:
1333:
Around the same time, Constantine established the new military roles of the Master of the Soldiers ("
1322:
426:
128:
2958:
4548:
4458:
3967:
3947:
3942:
3927:
3880:
3820:
3775:
3577:
1634:. This precedent had already been established by Gallienus in 260, who moved the imperial court to
1436:
1108:(the officer responsible for drafting the laws, and the Imperial rescripts responding to petitions)
686:, traditionally used by Roman slaves to address their masters, was sporadically used in addressing
30:
1772:, non-Patrician Roman citizens themselves would find themselves displaced and would become serfs.
1626:
One of the most visible signs of the changes brought about by the Dominate was the downgrading of
4957:
4937:
4877:
4867:
4857:
4263:
3952:
3852:
3832:
3747:
3737:
3442:
3382:
3362:
3074:
1885:
1597:
1067:
1063:
464:
2948:
2892:
646:
its end is disputed, with the majority of opinions placing it around the transition between the
4962:
4952:
4902:
4882:
4696:
4671:
4636:
4518:
4243:
3890:
3652:
3183:
2644:
1862:
1808:
1740:
1707:
In the west, Mediolanum continued to be the imperial residence until the repeated invasions by
1207:
witnessed the gradual erosion in its value. As a consequence, the emperors began to raise many
1104:
829:
did not have access to the powers of the emperor, nor was he delegated any official authority.
4932:
4862:
4686:
4438:
4238:
4233:
4030:
3937:
3862:
3825:
3810:
3785:
3765:
3667:
1573:
1348:
1071:
1054:
995:, basing the magistracies on previous offices but with changed functions. Beginning with the
871:
756:
4942:
4907:
4596:
4463:
4363:
4288:
4153:
4116:
3492:
3156:
1889:
1812:
1724:
1584:'s authority extended over the whole western or Latin half of the Empire, and included the
1316:
1038:
856:
815:
643:
635:
106:
4586:
2840:
History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian
2762:
History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian
2749:
History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian
2736:
History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian
2607:
History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian
2594:
History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian
2581:
History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian
2565:
History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian
2479:
History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian
2466:
History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian
2436:
History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian
2423:
History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian
2410:
History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian
2397:
History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian
2376:
History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian
2200:
History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian
1692:
After the collapse of the Tetrachy, Constantine I at first placed his imperial capital at
1537:
the imperial cult took some time to pass (such as the Emperors still assuming the role of
8:
4872:
4721:
4523:
4393:
4343:
3662:
3259:
1964:
1927:
1764:
1674:
1657:
northwards to both the Danubian provinces in the east as well as the Rhine provinces and
1561:
1501:
1412:
To support the Masters of the Soldiers, the Empire established several Military Counts ("
1294:
1112:
809:
241:
930:
Under the Dominate, the loss of many pre-consular functions and the encroachment of the
4922:
4646:
4453:
4308:
4248:
4168:
4111:
3975:
3211:
3190:
2885:
2880:
1831:
1712:
1678:
1278:
1042:
1034:
942:
846:
499:
138:
4561:
850:. It was Diocletian who introduced this form of government, under a system called the
4556:
4408:
4163:
4123:
4101:
3309:
2906:
2896:
2860:
1943:
1920:
1467:
1367:
418:
411:
214:
1384:
Within the West, there were originally four Masters of the Soldiers; foot and horse
1084:
4621:
4581:
4513:
4448:
4373:
4368:
4140:
4063:
4010:
3805:
3800:
3689:
3548:
3497:
3457:
3427:
3422:
3417:
3407:
3329:
3276:
3269:
3254:
3249:
3173:
3101:
1803:
Emperors inhabited luxurious palaces (the ruins of Diocletian's enormous palace in
1753:
1538:
1335:
1327:
1290:
1166:
1012:
The most prestigious post that a senator could hold under the Dominate was that of
981:
923:
consular legates, the proconsuls of Africa and Asia, or the urban prefect of Rome.
807:. This role was almost always filled by a single individual, and the date that the
735:
540:
534:
527:
513:
342:
321:
266:
251:
246:
231:
115:
20:
1462:
The Dominate saw enormous changes in the official religion of the empire from its
1426:
Within the East, there was only one Military Count: the Military Count of Egypt ("
1037:, both of which were civilian (non-military) roles. Gone was the division between
4716:
4528:
4508:
4468:
4403:
4353:
4348:
4223:
4173:
4081:
3915:
3895:
3815:
3264:
3089:
2269:
A History of the Roman Empire from its Foundation to the Death of Marcus Aurelius
2239:
A History of the Roman Empire from its Foundation to the Death of Marcus Aurelius
2226:
A History of the Roman Empire from its Foundation to the Death of Marcus Aurelius
2213:
A History of the Roman Empire from its Foundation to the Death of Marcus Aurelius
1785:
1666:
1441:
1262:
1242:
1014:
256:
1320:"). Recruited from the ranks of the Field Armies were the Palace Troops units ("
836:
that the traditional imperial approach of a single imperial magistrate based at
4771:
4413:
4148:
4096:
4068:
4015:
4000:
3980:
3795:
3770:
3727:
3717:
3543:
3517:
3447:
3432:
3397:
3357:
3118:
3021:
Amsterdam archaeological studies, 26. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.
2953:
1881:
1797:
1793:
1701:
1581:
1557:
1046:
1019:
992:
962:
910:
862:
821:
794:
545:
492:
336:
311:
220:
68:
1796:; and, they started wearing jeweled robes and shoes in contrast to the simple
1359:
Within the East, by the late 4th century, there were Masters of the Soldiers,
4992:
4303:
4273:
4188:
3722:
3699:
3512:
3367:
3352:
3299:
3106:
2910:
2633:
Manichaeism in the Later Roman Empire and Medieval China: A Historical Survey
2146:
2124:
1912:("King"). In the Eastern half of the Empire, and especially from the time of
1900:
for more on the divinity of Roman leaders). The last ruler to use the titles
1877:
1820:
1639:
1631:
1565:
1221:
1152:
1075:
1058:
officials not under the direct oversight of the Praetorian Prefects were the
1050:
985:
879:
687:
441:
291:
59:
2453:
The Cambridge Ancient History Vol. 10: The Augustan Empire 43 B.C. – A.D. 69
1696:
before erecting a new imperial capital on the site of the old Greek city of
623:. Until the empire was reunited in 313, this phase is more often called the
4781:
4641:
4086:
4035:
3990:
3985:
3837:
3647:
3533:
3477:
3472:
3244:
3128:
3062:
1824:
1769:
1734:
1723:
in 540, it was Ravenna which was selected as the official residence of the
1627:
1545:
1517:
1483:
1343:("Master of the Foot"), and one for the more prestigious horse troops, the
1304:
1268:
914:
887:
616:
354:
306:
276:
202:
77:
4576:
4198:
4020:
3910:
3304:
1913:
1905:
1873:
1720:
1199:
1005:
397:
2019:
From Rome to Byzantium AD 363 to 565: The Transformation of Ancient Rome
1552:
had aligned to the civil administration of the empire. Every city had a
4801:
4741:
4706:
4498:
4433:
4423:
4318:
4203:
4091:
3674:
3642:
3387:
3314:
3146:
3141:
2281:
1757:
1635:
1592:
had oversight over the civil dioceses of Thrace, Pontus, and Asia. The
1285:
1183:
790:
786:
763:
715:
699:
631:
620:
478:
208:
88:
3031:
1237:
4831:
4826:
4786:
4711:
4681:
4661:
4538:
4478:
4388:
4338:
4333:
4258:
4218:
4106:
4076:
3885:
3760:
3553:
3437:
3412:
3291:
2977:
The Roman Empire in Late Antiquity, A Political and Military History.
1917:
1816:
1697:
1670:
1577:
1533:
1463:
1310:
1277:), while the units stationed at Rome were under the authority of the
1059:
957:
851:
743:
624:
550:
520:
386:
368:
331:
1347:("Master of the Horse"), these were established in each of the four
39:
4791:
4776:
4766:
4751:
4666:
4656:
4626:
4616:
4611:
4601:
4503:
4418:
4298:
4283:
4213:
4193:
4183:
4178:
4158:
3957:
3538:
3502:
3392:
3319:
2998:
The Triumph of Empire: The Roman World from Hadrian to Constantine.
1843:
that other people might live in: it, like him, had to be different.
1804:
1728:
1708:
1682:
1662:
1646:
1642:
1509:
1505:
1497:
1479:
1405:
1029:
996:
799:
707:
703:
695:
691:
612:
485:
375:
286:
197:
4811:
4806:
4796:
4761:
4756:
4746:
4691:
4676:
4493:
4488:
4473:
4443:
4398:
4378:
4358:
4313:
4045:
3900:
3679:
3487:
3482:
3372:
1938:
1835:
1716:
1693:
1686:
1526:
1522:
1257:
in the command structure of the army of the Western Roman Empire.
1229:, all of the highest state officials were regraded to this rank.
1182:) was assigned to a large group of civil servants, including the
1000:
973:
937:
932:
874:'s death in AD 337, the empire was again shared between multiple
751:
471:
450:
301:
281:
4821:
4701:
4631:
4571:
4566:
4533:
4293:
4278:
4228:
4208:
3630:
3507:
3402:
2984:
The Emperor and the Army in the Later Roman Empire, AD 235–395.
2970:
Principal Coins of the Romans, III: The Dominate, A.D. 294–498.
1621:
1553:
883:
747:
506:
296:
1888:
led to the distinctive character of the medieval Roman state.
1448:
The various Frontier Troops were under the command of Dukes ("
1099:
Among the most important offices under the Dominate were the:
949:
upon achieving their office) allowed them to style themselves
4606:
4328:
4055:
3347:
1853:
1789:
1414:
1178:, the highest of the new senatorial ranks. The second class (
667:
4816:
4383:
4323:
3905:
3281:
2717:
2715:
2713:
2357:
2355:
2319:
Bagnall, R. S.; Cameron, A.; Schwartz, S. R.; Worp, K. A.,
2297:
Bagnall, R. S.; Cameron, A.; Schwartz, S. R.; Worp, K. A.,
1788:; they adopted the veneration of the potentates of ancient
1756:, steadily eroded. Because the tax system implemented by
1658:
1654:
837:
710:
in AD 274, where coins were issued bearing the inscription
675:
2315:
2313:
2311:
2309:
2307:
3377:
3017:
Roymans, Nico, Stijn Heeren, and Wim de Clerq eds. 2016.
2575:
2573:
1450:
457:
404:
2710:
2352:
1752:
The status of these tenant farmers, eventually known as
1735:
Intensification of coloni use and the origins of serfdom
1673:. Meanwhile, the Caesars also had imperial residences –
1170:
and other high level military commanders as well as the
991:
Constantine I, however, re-introduced a limited form of
2304:
2570:
1990:
1988:
1440:"), commanded Frontier Troops along both sides of the
2859:. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 298.
2136:
2134:
803:
or first citizen, whose authority was granted by the
2891:. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. pp.
1954:
890:
from AD 392–395, this approach would last until the
860:) and two respectively subordinate junior emperors (
2161:
Gallienus: A Study in Reformist and Sexual Politics
2116:
Gallienus: A Study in Reformist and Sexual Politics
1985:
1645:as well as defending Italy from the ravages of the
630:It may begin with the commencement of the reign of
2884:
2131:
1541:, chief priest of the pagan cults, until AD 381).
1190:, the military governors in the provinces and the
958:Transformation of the traditional Senatorial order
882:, who shared the imperial office with his brother
2535:The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine
1630:from its status as the official residence of the
854:, which originally consisted of two co-emperors (
725:
4990:
1996:Power and Status in the Roman Empire, AD 193–284
1892:was the last emperor known to be consecrated as
1638:in response to a suspected future attack by the
1478:The origins of the change began in the reign of
886:. Barring the 3-year period of solitary rule by
797:and the fiction that the emperor was simply the
2032:A History of the Later Roman Empire, AD 284–641
1851:as a formal title reflected the divine status (
1267:Under the Principate, provinces that contained
904:
2857:Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History
2280:Bagnall, R. S.; Cameron, A.; Schwartz, S. R.;
1715:to relocate to the strongly fortified city of
1215:, which in turn cheapened the highest rank of
1039:provinces under the jurisdiction of the Senate
619:. It followed the earlier period known as the
3047:
1122:(the emperor's secretaries, belonging to the
584:
2850:
2848:
2827:The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine
2814:The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine
2801:The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine
2788:The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine
2775:The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine
2723:The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine
2692:The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine
2552:The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine
2505:The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine
2492:The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine
2393:The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine
2380:The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine
2363:The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine
2334:The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine
2256:The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine
2187:The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine
2103:The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine
1622:Downgrading of Rome as capital of the empire
698:in particular is said to have reviled it as
638:of AD 235–284, and end in the west with the
2879:
1608:dominated the three Palestinian provinces.
714:('born god and master'). It was only under
3054:
3040:
2174:Trajan, Optimus Princeps: A Life and Times
1916:, the system of the Dominate evolved into
1600:had jurisdiction over the majority of the
1596:corresponded to the Diocese of Egypt. The
1404:("master of both forces"). By the time of
819:) to nominate an heir (referred to as the
591:
577:
3012:New Approaches to the later Roman Empire.
2993:Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
2845:
1908:(died 565), giving place to the title of
1876:). Even some Christian emperors, such as
1861:, the Emperors sought the kind of divine
1236:
1043:those under the authority of the emperor
961:
615:form of imperial government of the late
3061:
2979:Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2883:(2009). "Conclusion: A Simple Answer".
694:actively discouraged the practice, and
4991:
2854:
2449:Provincial Administration and Taxation
1745:Slavery in ancient Rome § Serfdom
1437:comes littoris Saxonici per Britanniam
1241:The original command structure of the
16:Late Roman Empire administration phase
3035:
1973:Constitution of the Late Roman Empire
892:overthrow of the last western emperor
3000:Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
2887:How Rome Fell: Death of a Superpower
1800:used by Emperors of the Principate.
1775:
1457:
780:
1232:
673:, which translates into English as
13:
2928:
2378:Vol I (1958), p. 18; Southern, P.
1586:Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum
1094:Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum
775:
14:
5030:
2679:Diocletian and the Roman Recovery
2537:(2006), p. 187; Jones, A. H. M.,
2321:Consuls of the later Roman Empire
2299:Consuls of the later Roman Empire
2286:Consuls of the later Roman Empire
1741:History of serfdom § Origins
1602:Praetorian prefecture of the East
1090:Praetorian prefecture of the East
750:(AD 98–117), during whose reign "
1957:
1521:iconography, in the form of the
1211:graded officials to the rank of
762:In the opinion of the historian
640:fall of the Western Roman Empire
38:
5019:5th century in the Roman Empire
5014:4th century in the Roman Empire
5009:3rd century in the Roman Empire
2873:
2832:
2819:
2806:
2793:
2780:
2767:
2754:
2741:
2728:
2697:
2684:
2671:
2658:
2638:
2625:
2612:
2599:
2586:
2557:
2544:
2523:
2510:
2497:
2484:
2471:
2458:
2441:
2428:
2415:
2402:
2385:
2368:
2339:
2326:
2291:
2274:
2261:
2244:
2231:
2218:
2205:
2192:
2179:
2166:
2153:
2108:
1045:during the Principate. Now all
5004:Government of the Roman Empire
4999:Roman Empire in late antiquity
3010:Minamikawa, Takashi ed. 2015.
2991:Ruling the Later Roman Empire.
2252:Aurelian and the Third Century
2095:
2090:Aurelian and the Third Century
2082:
2066:
2053:
2037:
2024:
2011:
2001:
1590:Patriarchate of Constantinople
1482:, who promoted the worship of
1253:in place of the later overall
726:Transition from the Principate
1:
2986:London; New York: Routledge.
2651:(1994) pp. 161–162; Rees, R.
1978:
1898:Imperial cult of ancient Rome
1308:") and the Frontier Troops ("
1293:for military affairs and the
1225:. Higher in grading than the
19:For the album by Adagio, see
3626:Frontiers and fortifications
3026:Classical Receptions Journal
2959:Resources in other libraries
2855:Mackay, Christopher (2004).
2705:Diocletian and the Tetrarchy
2666:Diocletian and the Tetrarchy
2653:Diocletian and the Tetrarchy
1934:period of the Roman Empire.
1402:magister utriusquae militiae
1274:Legatus Augusti pro praetore
905:Devaluation of the Consulate
766:, the system of government,
657:
7:
3685:Decorations and punishments
2996:Kulikowski, Michael. 2016.
2395:(2001) p. 255; Bury, J. B.
1950:
1859:Crisis of the Third Century
1711:forced the western emperor
1428:Comes rei militaris Aegypti
1398:magister equitum et peditum
868:Civil wars of the Tetrarchy
834:Crisis of the Third Century
732:Crisis of the Third Century
10:
5035:
4592:Dionysius of Halicarnassus
3167:historiography of the fall
2972:London: Brit. Museum Publ.
2531:Bureaucracy and Government
2254:(2004) p. 5; Southern, P.
1738:
1594:Patriarchate of Alexandria
1548:, the organisation of the
1260:
1172:Praepositus sacri cubiculi
1139:Praepositus sacri cubiculi
18:
4973:External wars and battles
4840:
4734:
4547:
4139:
4132:
4054:
3966:
3871:
3746:
3698:
3576:
3526:
3465:
3456:
3338:
3290:
3210:
3127:
3097:
3088:
3070:
2989:Kelly, Christopher 2004.
2982:Hebblewhite, Mark 2017.
2954:Resources in your library
2881:Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith
2118:(1997) p. 2; Körner, C.,
2073:Cambridge Ancient History
2044:Cambridge Ancient History
1807:survive to this day; see
1606:Patriarchate of Jerusalem
634:in AD 284, following the
427:Senatus consultum ultimum
322:Extraordinary magistrates
3014:Kyoto: Kyoto University.
2620:The Cult of Sol Invictus
2468:Vol I (1958), pp. 19; 34
2147:De Imperatoribus Romanis
2125:De Imperatoribus Romanis
642:in AD 476, while in the
31:Politics of ancient Rome
4968:Roman–Iranian relations
3443:Optimates and populares
2940:Dominate (Roman Empire)
2751:Vol I (1958), pp. 64–65
2596:Vol I (1958), pp. 36–37
2438:Vol I (1958), pp. 32–33
2425:Vol I (1958), pp. 27–28
2412:Vol I (1958), pp. 26–28
2142:Aurelian (A.D. 270–275)
2120:Aurelian (A.D. 270–275)
1886:Eastern Orthodox Church
1685:sited his residence at
1598:Patriarchate of Antioch
1291:Masters of the Soldiers
1197:The entry level class,
4978:Civil wars and revolts
4244:Sextus Pompeius Festus
3891:Conflict of the Orders
3250:Legislative assemblies
2968:Carson, Robert. 1981.
2645:Sextus Aurelius Victor
2539:The Later Roman Empire
2518:The Later Roman Empire
2347:The Later Roman Empire
1845:
1574:Praetorian Prefectures
1572:. At the level of the
1504:, while his colleague
1476:
1349:Praetorian Prefectures
1258:
1105:Quaestor sacri palatii
967:
773:
188:Political institutions
4687:Simplicius of Cilicia
4439:Quintus Curtius Rufus
3668:Siege in Ancient Rome
3277:Executive magistrates
1947:became high treason.
1840:
1472:
1261:Further information:
1240:
1055:Praetorian prefecture
1020:provincial government
965:
768:
712:deus et dominus natus
4697:Stephanus Byzantinus
4602:Eusebius of Caesaria
4464:Sidonius Apollinaris
4154:Ammianus Marcellinus
3493:Tribune of the plebs
2842:Vol I (1958), p. 163
2529:Kelly, Christopher.
1763:Starting in 332 AD,
1604:, while the smaller
1508:was associated with
1033:and, above him, the
947:ornamenta consularia
945:(who were given the
666:is derived from the
644:Eastern Roman Empire
636:Third Century Crisis
607:, also known as the
267:Ordinary magistrates
4873:Distinguished women
4524:Velleius Paterculus
4364:Nicolaus Damascenus
4344:Marcellus Empiricus
3733:Republican currency
2975:Elton, Hugh. 2018.
2803:(2001) pp. 144; 180
2764:Vol I (1958), p. 65
2738:Vol I (1958), p. 64
2649:Liber de Caesaribus
2622:(1972) pp. 152; 162
2618:Halsberghe, G. H.,
2609:Vol I (1958), p. 63
2583:Vol I (1958), p. 36
2567:Vol I (1958), p. 35
2533:. In Lenski, Noel.
2481:Vol I (1958), p. 34
2399:Vol I (1958), p. 25
2202:Vol I (1958), p. 25
2061:Rome and her Empire
1965:Ancient Rome portal
1809:Diocletian's Palace
1780:Diocletian and his
1765:Emperor Constantine
1675:Constantius Chlorus
1415:Comes rei militaris
1295:Imperial Chancellor
1192:magistri scriniorum
1174:were all graded as
1120:Magistri scriniorum
1113:Magister officiorum
943:praetorian prefects
810:Potestas tribunicia
4647:Phlegon of Tralles
4454:Seneca the Younger
3928:Naming conventions
3658:Personal equipment
3191:Later Roman Empire
2829:(2001) pp. 180–181
2554:(2001) pp. 271–273
2507:(2001) pp. 153–157
2349:(1964) pp. 525–526
2336:(2001) pp. 254–255
2241:(1893) pp. 20; 523
1867:Eastern monarchies
1679:Augusta Treverorum
1615:defensor civitatis
1516:to merge with the
1279:Praetorian Prefect
1259:
1245:, with a separate
1035:Praetorian Prefect
968:
847:Consortium imperii
832:It was during the
500:Triumvir monetalis
434:Titles and honours
4986:
4985:
4948:Pontifices maximi
4730:
4729:
4587:Diogenes Laërtius
4409:Pliny the Younger
4164:Asconius Pedianus
4124:Romance languages
3996:Civil engineering
3738:Imperial currency
3611:Political control
3572:
3571:
3206:
3205:
2935:Library resources
2902:978-0-300-13719-4
2516:Jones, A. H. M.,
2345:Jones, A. H. M.,
2176:(1997) pp.108-111
2034:(2014), Chapter 1
1776:Stylistic changes
1468:John Bagnall Bury
1458:Religious reforms
1074:, along with the
1027:emperors was the
993:senatorial career
781:Multiple emperors
764:John Bagnall Bury
746:(AD 253–268) and
736:equestrian orders
609:late Roman Empire
601:
600:
419:Quaestio perpetua
412:Senatus consultum
215:Roman citizenship
5026:
4938:Magistri equitum
4853:Cities and towns
4846:
4772:Constantinopolis
4582:Diodorus Siculus
4514:Valerius Maximus
4449:Seneca the Elder
4369:Nonius Marcellus
4137:
4136:
3690:Hippika gymnasia
3653:Infantry tactics
3559:Consular tribune
3549:Magister equitum
3498:Military tribune
3463:
3462:
3423:Pontifex maximus
3418:Princeps senatus
3408:Magister militum
3174:Byzantine Empire
3095:
3094:
3056:
3049:
3042:
3033:
3032:
3007:. 17.2: 117–130.
2922:
2921:
2919:
2917:
2890:
2877:
2871:
2870:
2852:
2843:
2836:
2830:
2823:
2817:
2810:
2804:
2797:
2791:
2790:(2001) pp. 88–89
2784:
2778:
2771:
2765:
2758:
2752:
2745:
2739:
2732:
2726:
2719:
2708:
2701:
2695:
2688:
2682:
2675:
2669:
2668:(2004) pp. 54–55
2662:
2656:
2642:
2636:
2631:Lieu, S. N. C.,
2629:
2623:
2616:
2610:
2603:
2597:
2590:
2584:
2577:
2568:
2561:
2555:
2548:
2542:
2527:
2521:
2514:
2508:
2501:
2495:
2488:
2482:
2475:
2469:
2462:
2456:
2445:
2439:
2432:
2426:
2419:
2413:
2406:
2400:
2389:
2383:
2372:
2366:
2359:
2350:
2343:
2337:
2330:
2324:
2317:
2302:
2295:
2289:
2278:
2272:
2265:
2259:
2258:(2001) pp. 251–2
2248:
2242:
2235:
2229:
2228:(1893) pp. 23–26
2222:
2216:
2215:(1893) pp. 28–30
2209:
2203:
2196:
2190:
2183:
2177:
2170:
2164:
2157:
2151:
2138:
2129:
2112:
2106:
2105:(2001) pp. 12–13
2099:
2093:
2086:
2080:
2070:
2064:
2057:
2051:
2041:
2035:
2028:
2022:
2015:
2009:
2005:
1999:
1992:
1967:
1962:
1961:
1960:
1847:The adoption of
1819:. The titles of
1539:Pontifex Maximus
1345:magister equitum
1341:magister peditum
1336:Magister Militum
1328:Praetorian Guard
1255:magister militum
1251:magister peditum
1247:magister equitum
1233:Military reforms
1167:magistri militum
982:Legatus legionis
913:, the office of
662:The modern term
593:
586:
579:
535:Pontifex maximus
528:Princeps senatus
514:Magister militum
349:Consular tribune
343:Magister equitum
171:Augustan reforms
42:
26:
25:
21:Dominate (album)
5034:
5033:
5029:
5028:
5027:
5025:
5024:
5023:
4989:
4988:
4987:
4982:
4844:
4842:
4836:
4726:
4562:AĂ«tius of Amida
4543:
4529:Verrius Flaccus
4509:Valerius Antias
4469:Silius Italicus
4404:Pliny the Elder
4349:Marcus Aurelius
4224:Cornelius Nepos
4174:Aurelius Victor
4128:
4050:
3962:
3896:Secessio plebis
3867:
3742:
3694:
3568:
3522:
3452:
3334:
3286:
3202:
3123:
3084:
3066:
3060:
2965:
2964:
2963:
2943:
2942:
2938:
2931:
2929:Further reading
2926:
2925:
2915:
2913:
2903:
2878:
2874:
2867:
2853:
2846:
2837:
2833:
2824:
2820:
2811:
2807:
2798:
2794:
2785:
2781:
2772:
2768:
2759:
2755:
2746:
2742:
2733:
2729:
2720:
2711:
2702:
2698:
2689:
2685:
2676:
2672:
2663:
2659:
2643:
2639:
2630:
2626:
2617:
2613:
2604:
2600:
2591:
2587:
2578:
2571:
2562:
2558:
2549:
2545:
2528:
2524:
2515:
2511:
2502:
2498:
2489:
2485:
2476:
2472:
2463:
2459:
2446:
2442:
2433:
2429:
2420:
2416:
2407:
2403:
2390:
2386:
2373:
2369:
2360:
2353:
2344:
2340:
2331:
2327:
2318:
2305:
2296:
2292:
2279:
2275:
2266:
2262:
2249:
2245:
2236:
2232:
2223:
2219:
2210:
2206:
2197:
2193:
2184:
2180:
2171:
2167:
2158:
2154:
2139:
2132:
2113:
2109:
2100:
2096:
2087:
2083:
2077:The High Empire
2071:
2067:
2058:
2054:
2048:The High Empire
2042:
2038:
2029:
2025:
2016:
2012:
2006:
2002:
1993:
1986:
1981:
1963:
1958:
1956:
1953:
1778:
1747:
1739:Main articles:
1737:
1624:
1550:Imperial Church
1544:By the time of
1460:
1442:English Channel
1265:
1263:Late Roman army
1243:Late Roman army
1235:
1015:Praefectus urbi
960:
954:ever recorded.
907:
783:
778:
776:Characteristics
728:
660:
597:
568:
564:Other countries
555:
424:
381:
316:
261:
226:
182:
159:Sullan republic
124:
120:
111:
102:
98:
91:
81:
72:
63:
33:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
5032:
5022:
5021:
5016:
5011:
5006:
5001:
4984:
4983:
4981:
4980:
4975:
4970:
4965:
4960:
4955:
4950:
4945:
4940:
4935:
4930:
4925:
4920:
4915:
4910:
4905:
4900:
4895:
4890:
4885:
4880:
4875:
4870:
4865:
4860:
4855:
4849:
4847:
4838:
4837:
4835:
4834:
4829:
4824:
4819:
4814:
4809:
4804:
4799:
4794:
4789:
4784:
4779:
4774:
4769:
4764:
4759:
4754:
4749:
4744:
4738:
4736:
4732:
4731:
4728:
4727:
4725:
4724:
4719:
4714:
4709:
4704:
4699:
4694:
4689:
4684:
4679:
4674:
4669:
4664:
4659:
4654:
4649:
4644:
4639:
4634:
4629:
4624:
4619:
4614:
4609:
4604:
4599:
4594:
4589:
4584:
4579:
4574:
4569:
4564:
4559:
4553:
4551:
4545:
4544:
4542:
4541:
4536:
4531:
4526:
4521:
4516:
4511:
4506:
4501:
4496:
4491:
4486:
4481:
4476:
4471:
4466:
4461:
4456:
4451:
4446:
4441:
4436:
4431:
4426:
4421:
4416:
4414:Pomponius Mela
4411:
4406:
4401:
4396:
4391:
4386:
4381:
4376:
4371:
4366:
4361:
4356:
4351:
4346:
4341:
4336:
4331:
4326:
4321:
4316:
4311:
4306:
4301:
4296:
4291:
4286:
4281:
4276:
4271:
4266:
4261:
4256:
4251:
4246:
4241:
4236:
4231:
4226:
4221:
4216:
4211:
4206:
4201:
4196:
4191:
4186:
4181:
4176:
4171:
4166:
4161:
4156:
4151:
4149:Aelius Donatus
4145:
4143:
4134:
4130:
4129:
4127:
4126:
4121:
4120:
4119:
4117:Ecclesiastical
4114:
4109:
4104:
4099:
4094:
4089:
4084:
4079:
4071:
4066:
4060:
4058:
4052:
4051:
4049:
4048:
4043:
4038:
4033:
4028:
4023:
4018:
4013:
4008:
4003:
3998:
3993:
3988:
3983:
3978:
3972:
3970:
3964:
3963:
3961:
3960:
3955:
3950:
3945:
3940:
3935:
3930:
3925:
3920:
3919:
3918:
3908:
3903:
3898:
3893:
3888:
3883:
3877:
3875:
3869:
3868:
3866:
3865:
3860:
3858:Toys and games
3855:
3850:
3845:
3840:
3835:
3830:
3829:
3828:
3818:
3813:
3808:
3803:
3798:
3793:
3788:
3783:
3778:
3773:
3768:
3763:
3758:
3752:
3750:
3744:
3743:
3741:
3740:
3735:
3730:
3725:
3720:
3715:
3710:
3704:
3702:
3696:
3695:
3693:
3692:
3687:
3682:
3677:
3672:
3671:
3670:
3665:
3660:
3655:
3650:
3640:
3635:
3634:
3633:
3623:
3618:
3613:
3608:
3603:
3598:
3593:
3588:
3582:
3580:
3574:
3573:
3570:
3569:
3567:
3566:
3561:
3556:
3551:
3546:
3541:
3536:
3530:
3528:
3524:
3523:
3521:
3520:
3515:
3510:
3505:
3500:
3495:
3490:
3485:
3480:
3475:
3469:
3467:
3460:
3454:
3453:
3451:
3450:
3445:
3440:
3435:
3430:
3425:
3420:
3415:
3410:
3405:
3400:
3398:Vigintisexviri
3395:
3390:
3385:
3380:
3375:
3370:
3365:
3360:
3358:Cursus honorum
3355:
3350:
3344:
3342:
3336:
3335:
3333:
3332:
3327:
3322:
3317:
3312:
3307:
3302:
3296:
3294:
3288:
3287:
3285:
3284:
3279:
3274:
3273:
3272:
3267:
3262:
3257:
3247:
3242:
3237:
3232:
3227:
3222:
3216:
3214:
3208:
3207:
3204:
3203:
3201:
3200:
3199:
3198:
3188:
3187:
3186:
3181:
3171:
3170:
3169:
3164:
3157:Western Empire
3154:
3149:
3144:
3139:
3133:
3131:
3125:
3124:
3122:
3121:
3116:
3115:
3114:
3104:
3098:
3092:
3086:
3085:
3083:
3082:
3077:
3071:
3068:
3067:
3059:
3058:
3051:
3044:
3036:
3030:
3029:
3022:
3015:
3008:
3001:
2994:
2987:
2980:
2973:
2962:
2961:
2956:
2951:
2945:
2944:
2933:
2932:
2930:
2927:
2924:
2923:
2901:
2872:
2865:
2844:
2831:
2818:
2805:
2792:
2779:
2766:
2753:
2740:
2727:
2709:
2696:
2683:
2670:
2657:
2647:; Bird, H. W.
2637:
2624:
2611:
2598:
2585:
2569:
2556:
2543:
2522:
2509:
2496:
2483:
2470:
2457:
2447:Bowman, A. K.
2440:
2427:
2414:
2401:
2384:
2367:
2351:
2338:
2325:
2303:
2290:
2273:
2267:Bury, J. B.,
2260:
2243:
2237:Bury, J. B.,
2230:
2224:Bury, J. B.,
2217:
2211:Bury, J. B.,
2204:
2191:
2178:
2165:
2163:(1997) pp. 2–3
2152:
2130:
2107:
2094:
2081:
2065:
2059:Shorter, D.,
2052:
2036:
2030:Mitchell, S.,
2023:
2021:(2013) p. xiii
2010:
2000:
1983:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1976:
1975:
1969:
1968:
1952:
1949:
1941:of Rome; thus
1902:Dominus Noster
1882:Constantinople
1798:toga praetexta
1777:
1774:
1736:
1733:
1702:Constantinople
1623:
1620:
1582:Bishop of Rome
1459:
1456:
1446:
1445:
1431:
1410:
1409:
1382:
1234:
1231:
1144:
1143:
1135:
1117:
1109:
1076:Urban Prefects
959:
956:
911:Roman Republic
906:
903:
795:Roman Republic
782:
779:
777:
774:
727:
724:
718:that the term
659:
656:
599:
598:
596:
595:
588:
581:
573:
570:
569:
567:
566:
560:
557:
556:
554:
553:
548:
543:
538:
531:
524:
517:
510:
503:
496:
493:Vigintisexviri
489:
482:
475:
468:
461:
454:
446:
445:
444:
436:
435:
431:
430:
423:
422:
415:
408:
401:
393:
390:
389:
383:
382:
380:
379:
372:
365:
358:
351:
346:
339:
334:
328:
325:
324:
318:
317:
315:
314:
309:
304:
299:
294:
289:
284:
279:
273:
270:
269:
263:
262:
260:
259:
254:
249:
244:
238:
235:
234:
228:
227:
225:
224:
221:Cursus honorum
217:
212:
205:
200:
194:
191:
190:
184:
183:
181:
180:
175:
174:
173:
163:
162:
161:
151:
145:
142:
141:
135:
134:
133:
132:
123:
122:
113:
103:
101:
100:
93:
92:27 BC – AD 284
85:
84:
83:
82:27 BC – AD 395
74:
69:Roman Republic
65:
53:
52:
48:
47:
44:
43:
35:
34:
29:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5031:
5020:
5017:
5015:
5012:
5010:
5007:
5005:
5002:
5000:
4997:
4996:
4994:
4979:
4976:
4974:
4971:
4969:
4966:
4964:
4961:
4959:
4956:
4954:
4951:
4949:
4946:
4944:
4941:
4939:
4936:
4934:
4931:
4929:
4926:
4924:
4921:
4919:
4916:
4914:
4911:
4909:
4906:
4904:
4901:
4899:
4896:
4894:
4891:
4889:
4886:
4884:
4881:
4879:
4876:
4874:
4871:
4869:
4866:
4864:
4861:
4859:
4856:
4854:
4851:
4850:
4848:
4839:
4833:
4830:
4828:
4825:
4823:
4820:
4818:
4815:
4813:
4810:
4808:
4805:
4803:
4800:
4798:
4795:
4793:
4790:
4788:
4785:
4783:
4780:
4778:
4775:
4773:
4770:
4768:
4765:
4763:
4760:
4758:
4755:
4753:
4750:
4748:
4745:
4743:
4740:
4739:
4737:
4733:
4723:
4720:
4718:
4715:
4713:
4710:
4708:
4705:
4703:
4700:
4698:
4695:
4693:
4690:
4688:
4685:
4683:
4680:
4678:
4675:
4673:
4670:
4668:
4665:
4663:
4660:
4658:
4655:
4653:
4650:
4648:
4645:
4643:
4640:
4638:
4635:
4633:
4630:
4628:
4625:
4623:
4620:
4618:
4615:
4613:
4610:
4608:
4605:
4603:
4600:
4598:
4595:
4593:
4590:
4588:
4585:
4583:
4580:
4578:
4575:
4573:
4570:
4568:
4565:
4563:
4560:
4558:
4555:
4554:
4552:
4550:
4546:
4540:
4537:
4535:
4532:
4530:
4527:
4525:
4522:
4520:
4517:
4515:
4512:
4510:
4507:
4505:
4502:
4500:
4497:
4495:
4492:
4490:
4487:
4485:
4482:
4480:
4477:
4475:
4472:
4470:
4467:
4465:
4462:
4460:
4457:
4455:
4452:
4450:
4447:
4445:
4442:
4440:
4437:
4435:
4432:
4430:
4427:
4425:
4422:
4420:
4417:
4415:
4412:
4410:
4407:
4405:
4402:
4400:
4397:
4395:
4392:
4390:
4387:
4385:
4382:
4380:
4377:
4375:
4372:
4370:
4367:
4365:
4362:
4360:
4357:
4355:
4352:
4350:
4347:
4345:
4342:
4340:
4337:
4335:
4332:
4330:
4327:
4325:
4322:
4320:
4317:
4315:
4312:
4310:
4307:
4305:
4304:Julius Paulus
4302:
4300:
4297:
4295:
4292:
4290:
4287:
4285:
4282:
4280:
4277:
4275:
4272:
4270:
4267:
4265:
4262:
4260:
4257:
4255:
4252:
4250:
4247:
4245:
4242:
4240:
4239:Fabius Pictor
4237:
4235:
4232:
4230:
4227:
4225:
4222:
4220:
4217:
4215:
4212:
4210:
4207:
4205:
4202:
4200:
4197:
4195:
4192:
4190:
4187:
4185:
4182:
4180:
4177:
4175:
4172:
4170:
4167:
4165:
4162:
4160:
4157:
4155:
4152:
4150:
4147:
4146:
4144:
4142:
4138:
4135:
4131:
4125:
4122:
4118:
4115:
4113:
4110:
4108:
4105:
4103:
4100:
4098:
4095:
4093:
4090:
4088:
4085:
4083:
4080:
4078:
4075:
4074:
4072:
4070:
4067:
4065:
4062:
4061:
4059:
4057:
4053:
4047:
4044:
4042:
4039:
4037:
4034:
4032:
4029:
4027:
4024:
4022:
4019:
4017:
4014:
4012:
4009:
4007:
4004:
4002:
3999:
3997:
3994:
3992:
3989:
3987:
3984:
3982:
3979:
3977:
3976:Amphitheatres
3974:
3973:
3971:
3969:
3965:
3959:
3956:
3954:
3951:
3949:
3946:
3944:
3941:
3939:
3936:
3934:
3931:
3929:
3926:
3924:
3921:
3917:
3914:
3913:
3912:
3909:
3907:
3904:
3902:
3899:
3897:
3894:
3892:
3889:
3887:
3884:
3882:
3879:
3878:
3876:
3874:
3870:
3864:
3861:
3859:
3856:
3854:
3851:
3849:
3846:
3844:
3841:
3839:
3836:
3834:
3831:
3827:
3824:
3823:
3822:
3819:
3817:
3814:
3812:
3809:
3807:
3804:
3802:
3799:
3797:
3794:
3792:
3789:
3787:
3784:
3782:
3779:
3777:
3774:
3772:
3769:
3767:
3764:
3762:
3759:
3757:
3754:
3753:
3751:
3749:
3745:
3739:
3736:
3734:
3731:
3729:
3726:
3724:
3721:
3719:
3716:
3714:
3713:Deforestation
3711:
3709:
3706:
3705:
3703:
3701:
3697:
3691:
3688:
3686:
3683:
3681:
3678:
3676:
3673:
3669:
3666:
3664:
3663:Siege engines
3661:
3659:
3656:
3654:
3651:
3649:
3646:
3645:
3644:
3641:
3639:
3636:
3632:
3629:
3628:
3627:
3624:
3622:
3619:
3617:
3614:
3612:
3609:
3607:
3604:
3602:
3599:
3597:
3596:Establishment
3594:
3592:
3589:
3587:
3584:
3583:
3581:
3579:
3575:
3565:
3562:
3560:
3557:
3555:
3552:
3550:
3547:
3545:
3542:
3540:
3537:
3535:
3532:
3531:
3529:
3527:Extraordinary
3525:
3519:
3516:
3514:
3513:Promagistrate
3511:
3509:
3506:
3504:
3501:
3499:
3496:
3494:
3491:
3489:
3486:
3484:
3481:
3479:
3476:
3474:
3471:
3470:
3468:
3464:
3461:
3459:
3455:
3449:
3446:
3444:
3441:
3439:
3436:
3434:
3431:
3429:
3426:
3424:
3421:
3419:
3416:
3414:
3411:
3409:
3406:
3404:
3401:
3399:
3396:
3394:
3391:
3389:
3386:
3384:
3381:
3379:
3376:
3374:
3371:
3369:
3366:
3364:
3361:
3359:
3356:
3354:
3351:
3349:
3346:
3345:
3343:
3341:
3337:
3331:
3328:
3326:
3323:
3321:
3318:
3316:
3313:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3303:
3301:
3300:Twelve Tables
3298:
3297:
3295:
3293:
3289:
3283:
3280:
3278:
3275:
3271:
3268:
3266:
3263:
3261:
3258:
3256:
3253:
3252:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3238:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3223:
3221:
3218:
3217:
3215:
3213:
3209:
3197:
3194:
3193:
3192:
3189:
3185:
3182:
3180:
3177:
3176:
3175:
3172:
3168:
3165:
3163:
3160:
3159:
3158:
3155:
3153:
3150:
3148:
3145:
3143:
3140:
3138:
3135:
3134:
3132:
3130:
3126:
3120:
3117:
3113:
3110:
3109:
3108:
3105:
3103:
3100:
3099:
3096:
3093:
3091:
3087:
3081:
3078:
3076:
3073:
3072:
3069:
3064:
3057:
3052:
3050:
3045:
3043:
3038:
3037:
3034:
3027:
3023:
3020:
3016:
3013:
3009:
3006:
3002:
2999:
2995:
2992:
2988:
2985:
2981:
2978:
2974:
2971:
2967:
2966:
2960:
2957:
2955:
2952:
2950:
2947:
2946:
2941:
2936:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2898:
2894:
2889:
2888:
2882:
2876:
2868:
2862:
2858:
2851:
2849:
2841:
2835:
2828:
2825:Southern, P.
2822:
2816:(2001) p. 180
2815:
2812:Southern, P.
2809:
2802:
2799:Southern, P.
2796:
2789:
2786:Southern, P.
2783:
2776:
2773:Southern, P.
2770:
2763:
2757:
2750:
2744:
2737:
2731:
2725:(2001) p. 281
2724:
2721:Southern, P.
2718:
2716:
2714:
2707:(2004) p. 206
2706:
2700:
2694:(2001) p. 280
2693:
2690:Southern, P.
2687:
2681:(1996) p. 203
2680:
2677:Williams, S.
2674:
2667:
2661:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2641:
2634:
2628:
2621:
2615:
2608:
2602:
2595:
2589:
2582:
2576:
2574:
2566:
2560:
2553:
2550:Southern, P.
2547:
2541:(1964) p. 101
2540:
2536:
2532:
2526:
2520:(1964) p. 371
2519:
2513:
2506:
2503:Southern, P.
2500:
2494:(2001) p. 257
2493:
2490:Southern, P.
2487:
2480:
2474:
2467:
2461:
2455:(1996) p. 353
2454:
2450:
2444:
2437:
2431:
2424:
2418:
2411:
2405:
2398:
2394:
2391:Southern, P.
2388:
2382:(2001) p. 255
2381:
2377:
2371:
2365:(2001) p. 255
2364:
2361:Southern, P.
2358:
2356:
2348:
2342:
2335:
2332:Southern, P.
2329:
2322:
2316:
2314:
2312:
2310:
2308:
2300:
2294:
2288:(1987) pp.1–2
2287:
2283:
2277:
2270:
2264:
2257:
2253:
2247:
2240:
2234:
2227:
2221:
2214:
2208:
2201:
2195:
2189:(2001) p. 246
2188:
2185:Southern, P.
2182:
2175:
2169:
2162:
2159:Bray, J. J.,
2156:
2149:
2148:
2143:
2137:
2135:
2127:
2126:
2121:
2117:
2114:Bray, J. J.,
2111:
2104:
2101:Southern, P.
2098:
2092:(2004) p. 188
2091:
2085:
2078:
2074:
2069:
2063:(2014) p. 174
2062:
2056:
2049:
2045:
2040:
2033:
2027:
2020:
2014:
2004:
1997:
1991:
1989:
1984:
1974:
1971:
1970:
1966:
1955:
1948:
1946:
1945:
1940:
1935:
1933:
1929:
1924:
1922:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1870:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1855:
1850:
1844:
1839:
1837:
1833:
1828:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1801:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1773:
1771:
1766:
1761:
1759:
1755:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1732:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1705:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1694:Ulpia Serdica
1690:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1677:was based at
1676:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1650:
1648:
1644:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1619:
1617:
1616:
1609:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1578:Patriarchates
1576:sat the five
1575:
1571:
1567:
1566:civil diocese
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1542:
1540:
1535:
1530:
1528:
1524:
1519:
1513:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1494:
1488:
1485:
1481:
1475:
1471:
1469:
1465:
1455:
1453:
1452:
1451:duces limitis
1443:
1439:
1438:
1432:
1429:
1425:
1424:
1423:
1421:
1417:
1416:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1394:
1389:
1388:
1383:
1380:
1376:
1375:
1370:
1369:
1364:
1363:
1362:per Illyricum
1358:
1357:
1356:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1337:
1331:
1329:
1325:
1324:
1319:
1318:
1313:
1312:
1307:
1306:
1299:
1296:
1292:
1287:
1282:
1280:
1276:
1275:
1270:
1264:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1239:
1230:
1228:
1224:
1223:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1201:
1195:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1168:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1154:
1148:
1141:
1140:
1136:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1118:
1115:
1114:
1110:
1107:
1106:
1102:
1101:
1100:
1097:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1086:
1079:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1062:governors of
1061:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1031:
1024:
1021:
1017:
1016:
1010:
1008:
1007:
1002:
998:
994:
989:
987:
983:
978:
976:
975:
971:hands of the
964:
955:
952:
948:
944:
939:
935:
934:
928:
924:
921:
916:
912:
902:
900:
895:
893:
889:
885:
881:
880:Valentinian I
877:
873:
872:Constantine I
869:
865:
864:
859:
858:
853:
849:
848:
842:
839:
835:
830:
828:
824:
823:
818:
817:
812:
811:
806:
802:
801:
796:
792:
788:
772:
767:
765:
760:
758:
757:Constantine I
753:
749:
745:
739:
737:
733:
723:
721:
717:
713:
709:
705:
701:
697:
693:
689:
685:
682:
678:
677:
672:
669:
665:
655:
653:
649:
645:
641:
637:
633:
628:
626:
622:
618:
614:
610:
606:
594:
589:
587:
582:
580:
575:
574:
572:
571:
565:
562:
561:
559:
558:
552:
549:
547:
544:
542:
539:
537:
536:
532:
530:
529:
525:
523:
522:
518:
516:
515:
511:
509:
508:
504:
502:
501:
497:
495:
494:
490:
488:
487:
483:
481:
480:
476:
474:
473:
469:
467:
466:
462:
460:
459:
455:
453:
452:
448:
447:
443:
440:
439:
438:
437:
433:
432:
429:
428:
421:
420:
416:
414:
413:
409:
407:
406:
402:
400:
399:
395:
394:
392:
391:
388:
385:
384:
378:
377:
373:
371:
370:
366:
364:
363:
359:
357:
356:
352:
350:
347:
345:
344:
340:
338:
335:
333:
330:
329:
327:
326:
323:
320:
319:
313:
310:
308:
305:
303:
300:
298:
295:
293:
292:Promagistrate
290:
288:
285:
283:
280:
278:
275:
274:
272:
271:
268:
265:
264:
258:
255:
253:
250:
248:
245:
243:
240:
239:
237:
236:
233:
230:
229:
223:
222:
218:
216:
213:
211:
210:
206:
204:
201:
199:
196:
195:
193:
192:
189:
186:
185:
179:
176:
172:
169:
168:
167:
164:
160:
157:
156:
155:
152:
150:
147:
146:
144:
143:
140:
137:
136:
131:
130:
126:
125:
119:
118:
114:
110:
109:
105:
104:
97:
94:
90:
87:
86:
80:
79:
75:
71:
70:
66:
62:
61:
60:Roman Kingdom
57:
56:
55:
54:
50:
49:
46:
45:
41:
37:
36:
32:
28:
27:
22:
4918:Institutions
4782:Leptis Magna
4735:Major cities
4642:Philostratus
4429:Quadrigarius
4249:Rufus Festus
4112:Contemporary
3833:Romanization
3756:Architecture
3363:Collegiality
3212:Constitution
3151:
3063:Ancient Rome
3025:
3018:
3011:
3004:
2997:
2990:
2983:
2976:
2969:
2949:Online books
2939:
2914:. Retrieved
2886:
2875:
2856:
2839:
2838:Bury, J. B.
2834:
2826:
2821:
2813:
2808:
2800:
2795:
2787:
2782:
2777:(2001) p. 88
2774:
2769:
2761:
2760:Bury, J. B.
2756:
2748:
2747:Bury, J. B.
2743:
2735:
2734:Bury, J. B.
2730:
2722:
2704:
2699:
2691:
2686:
2678:
2673:
2665:
2660:
2655:(2004) p. 46
2652:
2648:
2640:
2635:(1985) p. 93
2632:
2627:
2619:
2614:
2606:
2605:Bury, J. B.
2601:
2593:
2592:Bury, J. B.
2588:
2580:
2579:Bury, J. B.
2564:
2563:Bury, J. B.
2559:
2551:
2546:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2525:
2517:
2512:
2504:
2499:
2491:
2486:
2478:
2477:Bury, J. B.
2473:
2465:
2464:Bury, J. B.
2460:
2452:
2448:
2443:
2435:
2434:Bury, J. B.
2430:
2422:
2421:Bury, J. B.
2417:
2409:
2408:Bury, J. B.
2404:
2396:
2392:
2387:
2379:
2375:
2374:Bury, J. B.
2370:
2362:
2346:
2341:
2333:
2328:
2320:
2298:
2293:
2285:
2276:
2271:(1893) p. 38
2268:
2263:
2255:
2251:
2246:
2238:
2233:
2225:
2220:
2212:
2207:
2199:
2198:Bury, J. B.
2194:
2186:
2181:
2173:
2172:Bennett, J.
2168:
2160:
2155:
2145:
2141:
2140:Körner, C.,
2123:
2119:
2115:
2110:
2102:
2097:
2089:
2088:Watson, A.,
2084:
2079:(2008) p. 81
2076:
2072:
2068:
2060:
2055:
2050:(2008) p. 82
2047:
2043:
2039:
2031:
2026:
2018:
2017:Lee, A. D.,
2013:
2003:
1998:(2011) p. 21
1995:
1944:lèse majesté
1942:
1936:
1925:
1909:
1901:
1893:
1890:Anastasius I
1871:
1852:
1848:
1846:
1841:
1832:David Potter
1829:
1802:
1781:
1779:
1770:Fall of Rome
1762:
1751:
1748:
1706:
1700:. Naming it
1691:
1651:
1625:
1613:
1610:
1564:, and every
1562:metropolitan
1546:Theodosius I
1543:
1531:
1514:
1491:
1489:
1484:Sol Invictus
1477:
1473:
1461:
1449:
1447:
1435:
1427:
1419:
1413:
1411:
1401:
1397:
1391:
1385:
1379:in praesenti
1378:
1374:per Orientem
1372:
1368:per Thracias
1366:
1360:
1352:
1344:
1340:
1334:
1332:
1321:
1315:
1309:
1305:comitatenses
1303:
1300:
1283:
1272:
1266:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1226:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1198:
1196:
1191:
1187:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1151:
1149:
1145:
1137:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1111:
1103:
1098:
1083:
1080:
1028:
1025:
1013:
1011:
1004:
997:quaestorship
990:
979:
972:
969:
950:
946:
931:
929:
925:
919:
908:
898:
896:
888:Theodosius I
875:
861:
855:
845:
843:
831:
826:
820:
814:
808:
798:
784:
769:
761:
740:
729:
719:
711:
683:
680:
674:
670:
663:
661:
629:
617:Roman Empire
608:
604:
602:
533:
526:
519:
512:
505:
498:
491:
484:
477:
470:
463:
456:
449:
425:
417:
410:
403:
396:
374:
367:
360:
353:
341:
219:
207:
203:Collegiality
139:Constitution
127:
116:
107:
95:
78:Roman Empire
76:
67:
58:
4913:Geographers
4597:Dioscorides
4577:Cassius Dio
4199:Cassiodorus
4102:Renaissance
3708:Agriculture
3680:Auxiliaries
3621:Engineering
3458:Magistrates
3310:Citizenship
3305:Mos maiorum
3240:Late Empire
3028:7.1: 31–45.
2282:Worp, K. A.
2250:Watson, A.
2075:, Vol. XI,
2046:, Vol. XI,
1994:Menne, I.,
1914:Justinian I
1906:Justinian I
1878:Constantine
1874:proskynesis
1865:invoked by
1813:Chamberlain
1721:Justinian I
1464:pantheistic
1420:spectabiles
1393:per Italiam
1387:per Gallias
1213:spectabiles
1205:clarissimus
1200:clarissimus
1180:spectabiles
1158:spectabiles
1128:epistularum
1060:proconsular
1006:Ludi Romani
1001:praetorship
909:During the
897:While each
894:in AD 476.
825:), but the
398:Mos maiorum
178:Late Empire
121:AD 395–1453
4993:Categories
4802:Mediolanum
4742:Alexandria
4707:Themistius
4672:Porphyrius
4499:Tertullian
4434:Quintilian
4424:Propertius
4319:Lactantius
4269:Fulgentius
4204:Censorinus
4026:Sanitation
4011:Metallurgy
3968:Technology
3933:Demography
3881:Patricians
3848:Spectacles
3806:Literature
3801:Hairstyles
3638:Technology
3388:Praefectus
3340:Government
3330:Litigation
3315:Auctoritas
3260:Centuriate
3147:Principate
3142:Pax Romana
3102:Foundation
2866:0521809185
2323:(1987) p.2
2301:(1987) p.1
1979:References
1921:absolutism
1918:autocratic
1863:legitimacy
1830:Historian
1758:Diocletian
1636:Mediolanum
1286:Diocletian
1209:clarissimi
1184:Proconsuls
1162:clarissimi
1132:libellorum
1053:, and the
791:magistracy
787:Principate
785:Under the
716:Diocletian
700:sycophancy
632:Diocletian
621:Principate
479:Praefectus
387:Public law
242:Centuriate
232:Assemblies
209:Auctoritas
112:AD 395–476
99:AD 284–641
89:Principate
64:753–509 BC
4958:Quaestors
4888:Empresses
4878:Dynasties
4868:Dictators
4843:and other
4832:Volubilis
4827:Vindobona
4787:Londinium
4712:Theodoret
4682:Procopius
4662:Polyaenus
4637:Pausanias
4539:Vitruvius
4484:Symmachus
4479:Suetonius
4389:Petronius
4374:Obsequens
4339:Macrobius
4334:Lucretius
4259:Frontinus
4234:Eutropius
4219:Columella
4169:Augustine
4159:Appuleius
4107:Neo-Latin
4082:Classical
4073:Versions
3981:Aqueducts
3923:Patronage
3843:Sexuality
3816:Mythology
3791:Education
3781:Cosmetics
3606:Campaigns
3601:Structure
3554:Decemviri
3413:Imperator
3112:overthrow
2911:262432329
2703:Rees, R.
2664:Rees, R.
1932:Christian
1817:Constable
1698:Byzantium
1671:Nicomedia
1534:Maxentius
1518:Christian
1353:illustres
1311:limitanei
1227:illustres
1217:illustres
1176:illustres
1153:illustres
1047:provinces
852:Tetrarchy
744:Gallienus
658:Etymology
652:Heraclian
648:Justinian
625:Tetrarchy
611:, is the
521:Imperator
369:Decemviri
362:Triumviri
332:Corrector
73:509–27 BC
4963:Tribunes
4953:Praetors
4903:Generals
4883:Emperors
4792:Lugdunum
4777:Eboracum
4767:Carthage
4752:Aquileia
4667:Polybius
4657:Plutarch
4627:Libanius
4617:Josephus
4612:Herodian
4504:Tibullus
4419:Priscian
4394:Phaedrus
4354:Manilius
4299:Jordanes
4284:Hydatius
4214:Claudian
4194:Catullus
4184:Boëthius
4179:Ausonius
4097:Medieval
4069:Alphabet
4041:Theatres
4016:Numerals
4001:Concrete
3991:Circuses
3958:Bagaudae
3948:Adoption
3943:Marriage
3916:Assembly
3821:Religion
3796:Folklore
3776:Clothing
3771:Calendar
3728:Currency
3718:Commerce
3616:Strategy
3578:Military
3564:Triumvir
3544:Dictator
3539:Interrex
3518:Governor
3503:Quaestor
3466:Ordinary
3448:Province
3438:Tetrarch
3428:Augustus
3393:Vicarius
3383:Officium
3320:Imperium
3270:Plebeian
3230:Republic
3152:Dominate
3119:Republic
3080:Timeline
2008:30224306
1951:See also
1910:Basileus
1884:and the
1805:Dalmatia
1786:princeps
1729:Lombards
1713:Honorius
1709:Alaric I
1683:Galerius
1681:, while
1663:Maximian
1647:Alamanni
1643:Postumus
1558:province
1556:, every
1525:and the
1510:Hercules
1506:Maximian
1498:Augustus
1480:Aurelian
1406:Stilicho
1323:Palatini
1222:gloriosi
1134:bureaus)
1124:memoriae
1092:and the
1051:dioceses
1030:Vicarius
986:dioceses
920:ordinary
899:augustus
816:Augustus
800:princeps
708:Aurelian
704:Domitian
696:Tiberius
692:Augustus
688:emperors
664:dominate
613:despotic
605:Dominate
551:Tetrarch
541:Augustus
486:Vicarius
465:Officium
376:Interrex
337:Dictator
312:Governor
287:Quaestor
252:Plebeian
198:Imperium
154:Republic
129:Timeline
96:Dominate
4933:Legions
4893:Fiction
4863:Consuls
4858:Climate
4812:Ravenna
4807:Pompeii
4797:Lutetia
4762:Bononia
4757:Berytus
4747:Antioch
4722:Zosimus
4717:Zonaras
4692:Sozomen
4677:Priscus
4652:Photius
4494:Terence
4489:Tacitus
4474:Statius
4459:Servius
4444:Sallust
4399:Plautus
4379:Orosius
4359:Martial
4314:Juvenal
4289:Hyginus
4274:Gellius
4133:Writers
4064:History
4046:Thermae
4036:Temples
3986:Bridges
3953:Slavery
3901:Equites
3873:Society
3853:Theatre
3826:Deities
3786:Cuisine
3766:Bathing
3748:Culture
3723:Finance
3700:Economy
3591:Borders
3586:History
3488:Tribune
3483:Praetor
3373:Legatus
3368:Emperor
3255:Curiate
3225:Kingdom
3220:History
3196:History
3179:decline
3137:History
3107:Kingdom
3090:History
3075:Outline
2916:28 July
1939:majesty
1849:Dominus
1836:Sirmium
1821:Senator
1782:augusti
1717:Ravenna
1687:Sirmium
1667:Persian
1640:usurper
1632:emperor
1568:had an
1527:Labarum
1523:Chi Rho
1502:Jupiter
1284:It was
1269:legions
1188:vicarii
974:Equites
951:cos. II
938:suffect
933:equites
876:augusti
870:. With
863:caesars
857:augusti
752:knights
720:dominus
684:Dominus
681:master.
671:dominus
472:Praeses
451:Legatus
442:Emperor
302:Tribune
282:Praetor
247:Curiate
149:Kingdom
117:Eastern
108:Western
51:Periods
4943:Nomina
4928:Legacy
4908:Gentes
4845:topics
4841:Lists
4822:Smyrna
4702:Strabo
4632:Lucian
4622:Julian
4572:Arrian
4567:Appian
4557:Aelian
4534:Vergil
4309:Justin
4294:Jerome
4279:Horace
4264:Fronto
4254:Florus
4229:Ennius
4209:Cicero
4189:Caesar
4087:Vulgar
3911:Tribes
3838:Romans
3648:Legion
3631:castra
3508:Aedile
3478:Censor
3473:Consul
3433:Caesar
3403:Lictor
3325:Status
3265:Tribal
3245:Senate
3235:Empire
3129:Empire
3065:topics
2937:about
2909:
2899:
2895:–415.
2863:
2150:(2001)
2128:(2001)
1930:, the
1928:Julian
1825:Consul
1794:Persia
1754:coloni
1743:, and
1725:Exarch
1588:. The
1580:. The
1570:exarch
1560:had a
1554:bishop
1371:, and
1249:and a
1130:, and
1085:annona
1068:Achaea
1064:Africa
915:Consul
884:Valens
827:caesar
822:Caesar
805:Senate
748:Trajan
546:Caesar
507:Lictor
307:Censor
297:Aedile
277:Consul
257:Tribal
166:Empire
4607:Galen
4549:Greek
4519:Varro
4329:Lucan
4141:Latin
4056:Latin
4031:Ships
4021:Roads
4006:Domes
3938:Women
3886:Plebs
3811:Music
3353:Forum
3348:Curia
1894:divus
1854:divus
1790:Egypt
1493:divus
1317:limes
668:Latin
4923:Laws
4898:Film
4817:Roma
4384:Ovid
4324:Livy
4092:Late
3906:Gens
3863:Wine
3675:Navy
3643:Army
3282:SPQR
3184:fall
3162:fall
2918:2011
2907:OCLC
2897:ISBN
2861:ISBN
1904:was
1823:and
1815:and
1792:and
1659:Gaul
1655:Alps
1628:Rome
1390:and
1160:and
1072:Asia
1070:and
1041:and
838:Rome
676:lord
650:and
603:The
4077:Old
3761:Art
3534:Rex
3378:Dux
3292:Law
2893:405
2451:in
1838:):
1400:or
679:or
458:Dux
405:Ius
355:Rex
4995::
2905:.
2847:^
2712:^
2572:^
2354:^
2306:^
2284:,
2144:,
2133:^
2122:,
1987:^
1923:.
1869:.
1731:.
1689:.
1649:.
1512:.
1470:,
1434:("
1422:.
1365:,
1355:.
1330:.
1302:("
1194:.
1186:,
1156:,
1126:,
1078:.
1066:,
1049:,
1009:.
977:.
702:.
627:.
3055:e
3048:t
3041:v
2920:.
2869:.
592:e
585:t
578:v
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.