1006:, the old magistracies (consuls, praetors, censors, aediles, quaestors and tribunes) lost the majority of their actual powers, effectively being reduced to municipal officers in charge of various games and holidays. The vast majority of actual political and administrative work was transferred into the emperor. The founding of the empire was tantamount to a restoration of the old monarchy. The chief executive became the unchallenged power in the state, with overwhelming dominance of the Senate, which, while it as a body gained practically all authorities formerly held by the Assemblies, also became nothing more than a rubber stamp for the emperor.
40:
1028:. None of the others are as well known to us today, and none of the others governed such a vast empire for so long. Therefore, the Roman Constitution was used as a template, often the only one, when the first constitutions of the modern era were being drafted. Because of this, many modern constitutions have superstructures which are similar, or even identical (such as a separation of powers and checks and balances) to the Roman Constitution.
1040:
760:). Members also had no authority to introduce bills for consideration; only executive magistrates could introduce new bills. This arrangement is also similar to what is found in many modern countries. Usually, ordinary citizens cannot propose new laws for their enactment by a popular election. Unlike many modern assemblies, in the early Republic, the Roman assemblies also had judicial functions.
999:("ultimate decree of the Senate") which suspended civil government, and declared (something analogous to) martial law. It would declare "videant consules ne res publica detrimenti capiat" ("let the consuls see to it that the state suffer no harm"). In effect, the consuls would be vested with dictatorial powers.
975:
were not officially "magistrates", since they were elected only by the plebeians. Since they were considered to be the embodiment of the people of Rome, their office and their person were considered sacrosanct. It was considered to be a capital offense to harm a tribune, to attempt to harm a tribune
837:
The period was marked by prolonged warfare against foreign enemies. The result was that both the popular assemblies and the executive magistrates deferred to the collective wisdom of the Senate. The late
Republic saw a decline in the Senate's power. This decline began following the reforms of the
813:
in 476 AD. It was, in contrast to many modern institutions named 'Senate', not a legislative body, but rather, an advisory one. The power of the Senate waxed and waned throughout its history. During the days of the kingdom, it was little more than an advisory council to the king, though in the
848:
The Senate of the very early Roman Empire was as weak as it had been during the late
Republic. However, after the transition from republic to empire was complete, the Senate arguably held more power than it had held at any previous point. All constitutional powers, legislative, executive and
829:
During the early
Republic, the Senate was politically weak. During these early years, the executive magistrates were quite powerful. The transition from monarchy to constitutional rule was probably more gradual than the legends suggest. Thus, it took a prolonged weakening of these executive
607:
was an uncodified set of guidelines and principles passed down mainly through precedent. The Roman constitution was not formal or even official, largely unwritten and constantly evolving. Having those characteristics, it was therefore more like the
British and United States
976:
or to attempt to obstruct a tribune in any way. All other powers of the tribunate derived from this sacrosanctity, with two rights: intercession between magistrates and advocacy for the people. The tribunes were assisted by plebeian aediles.
849:
judicial, had been transferred to the Senate. However, unlike the Senate of the
Republic, the Senate of the Empire was dominated by the emperor. It was through the Senate that the emperor exercised his autocratic powers, and by the late
856:
Much of the surviving literature from the imperial period was written by senators. To a large degree, this demonstrates the strong cultural influence of the Senate, even during the late empire. The institution survived the fall of the
845:. The declining influence of the Senate during this era, in large part, was caused by the class struggles that had dominated the early Republic. The end result was the overthrow of the Republic, and the creation of the Roman Empire.
830:
magistrates before the Senate was able to assert its authority over those magistrates. By the middle
Republic, the Senate reached the apex of its republican power. This occurred because of the convergence of two factors. The
993:. In practice, the dictator functioned as a consul without any constitutional checks on his power. After 202 BC, the dictatorship fell into disuse, and during emergencies, the Senate would pass the
714:, was founded during the early kingdom. Its only political role was to elect new kings. Sometimes, the king would submit his decrees to it for ratification. In the early years of the Republic, the
1167:
The
Political Works of Marcus Tullius Cicero: Comprising his Treatise on the Commonwealth; and his Treatise on the Laws. Translated from the original, with Dissertations and Notes in Two Volumes
1018:
and
Carthage were drafted and utilised either on paper or by nature much of their existence is only known through secondary sources, and such constitutions are questioned in the book II of
969:, which consisted of a rod with an embedded axe, symbols of the coercive power of the state. Quaestors were not curule magistrates, but rather, administrators and had little real power.
801:
The Roman Senate was the most permanent of all of Rome's political institutions. It was probably founded before the first king of Rome ascended the throne. It survived the fall of the
731:
Most modern legislative assemblies are bodies consisting of elected representatives. Their members typically propose and debate bills. These modern assemblies use a form of
834:
had recently achieved full political enfranchisement. Therefore, they were not as aggressive as they had been during the early
Republic in pushing for radical reforms.
1310:
682:. The actual changes, however, were quite gradual. Together, these four constitutions formed four epochs in the continuous evolution of one master constitution.
861:, and even enjoyed a modest revival as imperial power was reduced to a government of Italy only. The senatorial class was severely affected by the Gothic wars.
1748:
906:, the "executive branch" was composed of both ordinary as well as extraordinary magistrates. Each ordinary magistrate would be elected by one of the two major
1547:
1073:
750:. That is to say that bills did not have to pass both major assemblies in order to be enacted into law. In addition, no other branch had to ratify a bill (
767:. When the Senate elected magistrates, the results of those elections would be read to the assemblies. Occasionally, the emperor would submit laws to the
1332:
590:
1487:
1063:
1449:
1058:
1542:
1068:
627:
Concepts that originated in the Roman constitution live on in both forms of government to this day. Examples include checks and balances, the
1635:
2177:
1519:
1364:
907:
699:
2219:
2207:
1524:
1464:
878:
695:
2266:
1567:
874:
703:
882:
739:. The Roman assemblies were bodies of ordinary citizens, rather than elected representatives. In this regard, bills voted on (called
979:
In an emergency, a dictator would be selected by the Senate. A newly appointed dictator would usually select a deputy, known as the
853:, the Senate's power had declined into near-irrelevance. It never again regained the power that it had held in the middle Republic.
2182:
3554:
2192:
1502:
1078:
624:, even though the constitution's evolution through the years was often directed by passage of new laws and repeal of older ones.
3580:
3499:
2187:
1921:
1237:
Orations and
Letters of Cicero: With Historical Introduction, An Outline of the Roman Constitution, Notes, Vocabulary and Index
583:
187:
563:
3469:
2294:
1821:
1557:
679:
177:
3559:
3434:
2587:
2140:
348:
1014:
The Roman Constitution was one of the few constitutions to exist before the 18th century. Although the constitutions of
1811:
1507:
1492:
903:
671:
170:
153:
3479:
2239:
1806:
1801:
1777:
1628:
1600:
1454:
1389:
1213:
1184:
1152:
1053:
667:
576:
148:
3494:
2167:
1816:
1743:
1552:
1469:
1357:
675:
165:
1760:
1693:
1572:
1497:
1083:
660:
158:
1337:
2514:
2439:
2197:
3010:
763:
After the founding of the empire, the vast majority of the powers of the assemblies were transferred to the
2850:
2454:
1906:
1621:
1514:
915:
792:
718:
was the only legislative assembly with any power. Shortly after the founding of the Republic, however, the
3549:
3474:
3233:
2289:
2172:
1718:
1459:
1350:
788:
3509:
3173:
3065:
2835:
2607:
2429:
2337:
2202:
2145:
1562:
922:. The terms for all annual offices would begin on New Year's Day, and end on the last day of December.
819:
796:
613:
361:
3529:
2622:
2577:
2504:
2424:
2372:
2362:
2314:
1661:
995:
426:
128:
775:. After this point, the assemblies simply served as vehicles through which citizens would organize.
3130:
3040:
2549:
2529:
2524:
2509:
2462:
2402:
2357:
2159:
732:
30:
20:
3539:
3519:
3459:
3449:
3439:
2845:
2534:
2434:
2414:
2329:
2319:
2024:
1964:
1944:
1656:
464:
3544:
3534:
3484:
3464:
3278:
3253:
3218:
3100:
2825:
2472:
2234:
1765:
1590:
1195:
895:, whom he appointed. He would often appoint other assistants for other tasks. When he died, an
959:, which was a symbol of state power. Consuls and praetors where attended by bodyguards called
3514:
3444:
3268:
3020:
2820:
2815:
2612:
2519:
2444:
2407:
2392:
2367:
2347:
2249:
1328:
Considerations on the Causes of the Greatness of the Romans and their Decline, by Montesquieu
666:
Over the years, the Roman constitution continuously evolved. By the late 5th century BC, the
659:. Even some lesser used modern constitutional concepts, such as the bloc voting found in the
3524:
3489:
3178:
3045:
2945:
2870:
2735:
2698:
2074:
1738:
1024:
1015:
972:
858:
628:
106:
3168:
8:
3454:
3303:
3105:
2975:
2925:
2244:
1841:
1414:
1327:
1045:
241:
1315:
3504:
3228:
3035:
2890:
2830:
2750:
2693:
2557:
1772:
652:
499:
3143:
3138:
2990:
2745:
2705:
2683:
1891:
1431:
1209:
1180:
1148:
870:
418:
411:
214:
1299:
A. Lintott, "The Constitution of the Roman Republic" (Oxford University Press, 1999)
823:
3203:
3163:
3095:
3030:
2955:
2950:
2722:
2645:
2592:
2387:
2382:
2271:
2130:
2079:
2039:
2009:
2004:
1999:
1989:
1911:
1858:
1851:
1836:
1831:
1755:
1683:
1424:
1409:
1404:
1316:
Rome at the End of the Punic Wars: An Analysis of the Roman Government; by Polybius
1289:
E. S. Gruen, "The Last Generation of the Roman Republic" (U California Press, 1974)
1201:
981:
736:
710:
691:
540:
534:
527:
513:
342:
321:
266:
251:
246:
231:
115:
3298:
3110:
3090:
3050:
2985:
2935:
2930:
2805:
2755:
2663:
2497:
2477:
2397:
1846:
1671:
1419:
943:
allowed a magistrate to command a military force. Consuls held a higher grade of
771:
for ratification. The assemblies ratified laws up until the reign of the Emperor
724:
621:
256:
3353:
2995:
2730:
2678:
2650:
2597:
2582:
2562:
2377:
2352:
2309:
2299:
2125:
2099:
2029:
2014:
1979:
1939:
1700:
1479:
1172:
911:
806:
545:
492:
336:
311:
220:
68:
1206:
Roman Voting Assemblies: From the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorship of Caesar
3574:
2885:
2855:
2770:
2304:
2281:
2094:
1949:
1934:
1881:
1688:
1441:
802:
678:. By 300 AD, the Constitution of the Roman Empire had been reformed into the
617:
441:
291:
59:
674:. By 27 BC, the Constitution of the Roman Republic had transformed into the
3363:
3223:
2668:
2617:
2572:
2567:
2419:
2229:
2115:
2059:
2054:
1826:
1710:
1644:
1534:
1399:
1381:
956:
948:
926:
899:
would preside over the Senate and assemblies until a new king was elected.
891:) was the only executive magistrate with any power. He was assisted by two
815:
810:
784:
764:
354:
306:
276:
202:
77:
3158:
2780:
2602:
2492:
1886:
919:
648:
644:
397:
3383:
3323:
3288:
3080:
3015:
3005:
2900:
2785:
2673:
2256:
2224:
1969:
1896:
1728:
1723:
1003:
850:
740:
636:
609:
478:
208:
88:
1613:
3413:
3408:
3368:
3293:
3263:
3243:
3120:
3060:
2970:
2920:
2915:
2840:
2800:
2688:
2658:
2467:
2342:
2135:
2019:
1994:
1873:
1595:
1342:
1019:
831:
747:
656:
550:
520:
386:
368:
331:
39:
3373:
3358:
3348:
3333:
3248:
3238:
3208:
3198:
3193:
3183:
3085:
3000:
2880:
2865:
2795:
2775:
2765:
2760:
2740:
2539:
2120:
2084:
1974:
1901:
1733:
1267:
935:
892:
772:
735:. In contrast, the assemblies of the Roman Republic used a form of
485:
375:
286:
197:
95:
3393:
3388:
3378:
3343:
3338:
3328:
3273:
3258:
3075:
3070:
3055:
3025:
2980:
2960:
2940:
2895:
2627:
2482:
2261:
2069:
2064:
1954:
960:
930:
842:
839:
814:
interregnum between monarchs, it elected the next king. The last
752:
471:
450:
301:
281:
3403:
3283:
3213:
3153:
3148:
3115:
2875:
2860:
2810:
2790:
2212:
2089:
1984:
965:
952:
640:
506:
296:
1116:(3 ed.). New York: Noble Offset Printers Inc. p. 18.
3188:
2910:
2637:
1929:
955:, were regarded as "curule magistrates". They would sit on a
728:
became the predominant elective and legislative assemblies.
3398:
2965:
2905:
2487:
1863:
1169:. By Francis Barham, Esq. London: Edmund Spettigue. Vol. 1.
632:
1192:
The General History of Polybius: Translated from the Greek
1162:. U.S. Government Printing Office, Senate Document 103-23.
1114:
A History and Descriptions of Roman Political Institutions
1959:
1145:
A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions
746:
Unlike many modern assemblies, Roman assemblies were not
457:
404:
663:, originate from ideas found in the Roman constitution.
1338:
What a Terrorist Incident in Ancient Rome Can Teach Us
1230:
Researches Into the History of the Roman Constitution
1198:. Oxford: Printed by W. Baxter. Fifth Edition, Vol 2.
1074:
History of the Constitution of the Late Roman Empire
1035:
612:
system than a sovereign law system like the English
1120:
989:were extraordinary magistrates, and they both held
925:The two highest ranking ordinary magistrates, the
1258:The Theory of the Mixed Constitution in Antiquity
1064:History of the Constitution of the Roman Republic
887:During the years of the Roman Kingdom, the king (
3572:
1059:History of the Constitution of the Roman Kingdom
947:than praetors. Consuls and praetors, as well as
1069:History of the Constitution of the Roman Empire
985:("Master of the Horse"). Both the dictator and
918:. Most magistrates were elected annually for a
914:, would be appointed upon authorization by the
910:. The principal extraordinary magistrate, the
743:) were similar to modern popular referendums.
1629:
1358:
584:
1333:The Roman Constitution to the Time of Cicero
1321:
1260:. Columbia University Press, New York. 1975.
908:Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic
805:in the late 5th century BC, the fall of the
700:Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic
879:Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic
696:Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Kingdom
1636:
1622:
1365:
1351:
875:Executive Magistrates of the Roman Kingdom
704:Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Empire
591:
577:
1251:The Development of the Roman Constitution
883:Executive Magistrates of the Roman Empire
685:
1272:Cambridge Ancient History, Volumes 9–13.
1096:
864:
1643:
1079:Constitutional reforms of Julius Caesar
3573:
1372:
1177:The Constitution of the Roman Republic
1126:
1111:
661:electoral college of the United States
1617:
1346:
1105:
680:Constitution of the Late Roman Empire
1239:. Scott, Foresman and Company. 1891.
1208:. The University of Michigan Press (
13:
1304:
1221:
933:, held a type of authority called
904:Constitution of the Roman Republic
672:Constitution of the Roman Republic
14:
3592:
1054:History of the Roman Constitution
756:) in order for it to become law (
668:Constitution of the Roman Kingdom
1311:Cicero's De Re Publica, Book Two
1160:The Senate of the Roman Republic
1038:
826:that was planned in the Senate.
676:Constitution of the Roman Empire
38:
16:Set of guidelines and principles
1165:Cicero, Marcus Tullius (1841).
1084:Constitutional reforms of Sulla
1002:After the establishment of the
1294:The Emperor in the Roman World
809:in 27 BC, and the fall of the
708:The first Roman assembly, the
1:
3581:Constitutions of ancient Rome
1136:
822:, was overthrown following a
2208:Frontiers and fortifications
1235:Johnston, Harold Whetstone.
1143:Abbott, Frank Frost (1901).
1112:Abbott, Frank Frost (1963).
916:Senate of the Roman Republic
793:Senate of the Roman Republic
7:
2267:Decorations and punishments
1179:. Oxford University Press (
1031:
843:Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus
789:Senate of the Roman Kingdom
10:
3597:
3174:Dionysius of Halicarnassus
1749:historiography of the fall
1296:, (Duckworth, 1977, 1992).
1253:. D. Apple & Co. 1886.
1232:. William Pickering. 1853.
963:. The lictors would carry
868:
820:Lucius Tarquinius Superbus
797:Senate of the Roman Empire
782:
689:
655:, and regularly scheduled
622:United States Constitution
614:Constitutions of Clarendon
18:
3555:External wars and battles
3422:
3316:
3129:
2721:
2714:
2636:
2548:
2453:
2328:
2280:
2158:
2108:
2047:
2038:
1920:
1872:
1792:
1709:
1679:
1670:
1652:
1581:
1533:
1478:
1440:
1380:
1322:Secondary source material
1009:
996:senatus consultum ultimum
778:
427:Senatus consultum ultimum
322:Extraordinary magistrates
1286:, (Fontana Press, 1978).
1279:, (Fontana Press, 1993).
1244:Roman Constitutional Law
1089:
733:representative democracy
31:Politics of ancient Rome
21:Constitution (Roman law)
19:Not to be confused with
3550:Roman–Iranian relations
2025:Optimates and populares
939:(Latin for "command").
653:the powers of the purse
3560:Civil wars and revolts
2826:Sextus Pompeius Festus
2473:Conflict of the Orders
1832:Legislative assemblies
1591:Conflict of the Orders
1277:The Later Roman Empire
725:comitia populi tributa
686:Legislative assemblies
188:Political institutions
3269:Simplicius of Cilicia
3021:Quintus Curtius Rufus
2250:Siege in Ancient Rome
1859:Executive magistrates
1158:Byrd, Robert (1995).
865:Executive magistrates
670:had given way to the
3279:Stephanus Byzantinus
3184:Eusebius of Caesaria
3046:Sidonius Apollinaris
2736:Ammianus Marcellinus
2075:Tribune of the plebs
1147:. Elibron Classics (
629:separation of powers
267:Ordinary magistrates
3455:Distinguished women
3106:Velleius Paterculus
2946:Nicolaus Damascenus
2926:Marcellus Empiricus
2315:Republican currency
1508:reforms of Augustus
1046:Ancient Rome portal
641:quorum requirements
3229:Phlegon of Tralles
3036:Seneca the Younger
2510:Naming conventions
2240:Personal equipment
1773:Later Roman Empire
1374:Roman Constitution
1284:The Roman Republic
1242:Mommsen, Theodor.
859:Empire in the West
720:comitia centuriata
605:Roman Constitution
500:Triumvir monetalis
434:Titles and honours
3568:
3567:
3530:Pontifices maximi
3312:
3311:
3169:Diogenes Laërtius
2991:Pliny the Younger
2746:Asconius Pedianus
2706:Romance languages
2578:Civil engineering
2320:Imperial currency
2193:Political control
2154:
2153:
1788:
1787:
1611:
1610:
1558:(post Diocletian)
1548:(post Diocletian)
1503:reforms of Caesar
1256:Von Fritz, Kurt.
1202:Taylor, Lily Ross
1190:Polybius (1823).
973:Plebeian tribunes
871:Roman Magistrates
601:
600:
419:Quaestio perpetua
412:Senatus consultum
215:Roman citizenship
3588:
3520:Magistri equitum
3435:Cities and towns
3428:
3354:Constantinopolis
3164:Diodorus Siculus
3096:Valerius Maximus
3031:Seneca the Elder
2951:Nonius Marcellus
2719:
2718:
2272:Hippika gymnasia
2235:Infantry tactics
2141:Consular tribune
2131:Magister equitum
2080:Military tribune
2045:
2044:
2005:Pontifex maximus
2000:Princeps senatus
1990:Magister militum
1756:Byzantine Empire
1677:
1676:
1638:
1631:
1624:
1615:
1614:
1498:reforms of Sulla
1367:
1360:
1353:
1344:
1343:
1249:Tighe, Ambrose.
1130:
1124:
1118:
1117:
1109:
1103:
1100:
1048:
1043:
1042:
1041:
987:magister equitum
982:magister equitum
920:term of one year
737:direct democracy
692:Roman assemblies
593:
586:
579:
535:Pontifex maximus
528:Princeps senatus
514:Magister militum
349:Consular tribune
343:Magister equitum
171:Augustan reforms
42:
26:
25:
3596:
3595:
3591:
3590:
3589:
3587:
3586:
3585:
3571:
3570:
3569:
3564:
3426:
3424:
3418:
3308:
3144:AĂ«tius of Amida
3125:
3111:Verrius Flaccus
3091:Valerius Antias
3051:Silius Italicus
2986:Pliny the Elder
2931:Marcus Aurelius
2806:Cornelius Nepos
2756:Aurelius Victor
2710:
2632:
2544:
2478:Secessio plebis
2449:
2324:
2276:
2150:
2104:
2034:
1916:
1868:
1784:
1705:
1666:
1648:
1642:
1612:
1607:
1577:
1529:
1474:
1436:
1376:
1371:
1324:
1307:
1305:Primary sources
1302:
1228:Ihne, Wilhelm.
1224:
1222:Further reading
1219:
1173:Lintott, Andrew
1139:
1134:
1133:
1125:
1121:
1110:
1106:
1101:
1097:
1092:
1044:
1039:
1037:
1034:
1012:
885:
867:
799:
781:
769:comitia tributa
716:comitia curiata
711:comitia curiata
706:
688:
597:
568:
564:Other countries
555:
424:
381:
316:
261:
226:
182:
159:Sullan republic
124:
120:
111:
102:
98:
91:
81:
72:
63:
33:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3594:
3584:
3583:
3566:
3565:
3563:
3562:
3557:
3552:
3547:
3542:
3537:
3532:
3527:
3522:
3517:
3512:
3507:
3502:
3497:
3492:
3487:
3482:
3477:
3472:
3467:
3462:
3457:
3452:
3447:
3442:
3437:
3431:
3429:
3420:
3419:
3417:
3416:
3411:
3406:
3401:
3396:
3391:
3386:
3381:
3376:
3371:
3366:
3361:
3356:
3351:
3346:
3341:
3336:
3331:
3326:
3320:
3318:
3314:
3313:
3310:
3309:
3307:
3306:
3301:
3296:
3291:
3286:
3281:
3276:
3271:
3266:
3261:
3256:
3251:
3246:
3241:
3236:
3231:
3226:
3221:
3216:
3211:
3206:
3201:
3196:
3191:
3186:
3181:
3176:
3171:
3166:
3161:
3156:
3151:
3146:
3141:
3135:
3133:
3127:
3126:
3124:
3123:
3118:
3113:
3108:
3103:
3098:
3093:
3088:
3083:
3078:
3073:
3068:
3063:
3058:
3053:
3048:
3043:
3038:
3033:
3028:
3023:
3018:
3013:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2996:Pomponius Mela
2993:
2988:
2983:
2978:
2973:
2968:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2948:
2943:
2938:
2933:
2928:
2923:
2918:
2913:
2908:
2903:
2898:
2893:
2888:
2883:
2878:
2873:
2868:
2863:
2858:
2853:
2848:
2843:
2838:
2833:
2828:
2823:
2818:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2788:
2783:
2778:
2773:
2768:
2763:
2758:
2753:
2748:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2731:Aelius Donatus
2727:
2725:
2716:
2712:
2711:
2709:
2708:
2703:
2702:
2701:
2699:Ecclesiastical
2696:
2691:
2686:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2661:
2653:
2648:
2642:
2640:
2634:
2633:
2631:
2630:
2625:
2620:
2615:
2610:
2605:
2600:
2595:
2590:
2585:
2580:
2575:
2570:
2565:
2560:
2554:
2552:
2546:
2545:
2543:
2542:
2537:
2532:
2527:
2522:
2517:
2512:
2507:
2502:
2501:
2500:
2490:
2485:
2480:
2475:
2470:
2465:
2459:
2457:
2451:
2450:
2448:
2447:
2442:
2440:Toys and games
2437:
2432:
2427:
2422:
2417:
2412:
2411:
2410:
2400:
2395:
2390:
2385:
2380:
2375:
2370:
2365:
2360:
2355:
2350:
2345:
2340:
2334:
2332:
2326:
2325:
2323:
2322:
2317:
2312:
2307:
2302:
2297:
2292:
2286:
2284:
2278:
2277:
2275:
2274:
2269:
2264:
2259:
2254:
2253:
2252:
2247:
2242:
2237:
2232:
2222:
2217:
2216:
2215:
2205:
2200:
2195:
2190:
2185:
2180:
2175:
2170:
2164:
2162:
2156:
2155:
2152:
2151:
2149:
2148:
2143:
2138:
2133:
2128:
2123:
2118:
2112:
2110:
2106:
2105:
2103:
2102:
2097:
2092:
2087:
2082:
2077:
2072:
2067:
2062:
2057:
2051:
2049:
2042:
2036:
2035:
2033:
2032:
2027:
2022:
2017:
2012:
2007:
2002:
1997:
1992:
1987:
1982:
1980:Vigintisexviri
1977:
1972:
1967:
1962:
1957:
1952:
1947:
1942:
1940:Cursus honorum
1937:
1932:
1926:
1924:
1918:
1917:
1915:
1914:
1909:
1904:
1899:
1894:
1889:
1884:
1878:
1876:
1870:
1869:
1867:
1866:
1861:
1856:
1855:
1854:
1849:
1844:
1839:
1829:
1824:
1819:
1814:
1809:
1804:
1798:
1796:
1790:
1789:
1786:
1785:
1783:
1782:
1781:
1780:
1770:
1769:
1768:
1763:
1753:
1752:
1751:
1746:
1739:Western Empire
1736:
1731:
1726:
1721:
1715:
1713:
1707:
1706:
1704:
1703:
1698:
1697:
1696:
1686:
1680:
1674:
1668:
1667:
1665:
1664:
1659:
1653:
1650:
1649:
1641:
1640:
1633:
1626:
1618:
1609:
1608:
1606:
1605:
1604:
1603:
1593:
1587:
1585:
1579:
1578:
1576:
1575:
1570:
1565:
1560:
1555:
1550:
1545:
1539:
1537:
1531:
1530:
1528:
1527:
1522:
1517:
1512:
1511:
1510:
1505:
1500:
1490:
1484:
1482:
1480:Roman Republic
1476:
1475:
1473:
1472:
1467:
1462:
1457:
1452:
1446:
1444:
1438:
1437:
1435:
1434:
1429:
1428:
1427:
1422:
1417:
1412:
1402:
1397:
1392:
1386:
1384:
1378:
1377:
1370:
1369:
1362:
1355:
1347:
1341:
1340:
1335:
1330:
1323:
1320:
1319:
1318:
1313:
1306:
1303:
1301:
1300:
1297:
1290:
1287:
1280:
1273:
1270:
1261:
1254:
1247:
1240:
1233:
1225:
1223:
1220:
1218:
1217:
1199:
1188:
1170:
1163:
1156:
1140:
1138:
1135:
1132:
1131:
1119:
1104:
1094:
1093:
1091:
1088:
1087:
1086:
1081:
1076:
1071:
1066:
1061:
1056:
1050:
1049:
1033:
1030:
1011:
1008:
866:
863:
807:Roman Republic
780:
777:
687:
684:
599:
598:
596:
595:
588:
581:
573:
570:
569:
567:
566:
560:
557:
556:
554:
553:
548:
543:
538:
531:
524:
517:
510:
503:
496:
493:Vigintisexviri
489:
482:
475:
468:
461:
454:
446:
445:
444:
436:
435:
431:
430:
423:
422:
415:
408:
401:
393:
390:
389:
383:
382:
380:
379:
372:
365:
358:
351:
346:
339:
334:
328:
325:
324:
318:
317:
315:
314:
309:
304:
299:
294:
289:
284:
279:
273:
270:
269:
263:
262:
260:
259:
254:
249:
244:
238:
235:
234:
228:
227:
225:
224:
221:Cursus honorum
217:
212:
205:
200:
194:
191:
190:
184:
183:
181:
180:
175:
174:
173:
163:
162:
161:
151:
145:
142:
141:
135:
134:
133:
132:
123:
122:
113:
103:
101:
100:
93:
92:27 BC – AD 284
85:
84:
83:
82:27 BC – AD 395
74:
69:Roman Republic
65:
53:
52:
48:
47:
44:
43:
35:
34:
29:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3593:
3582:
3579:
3578:
3576:
3561:
3558:
3556:
3553:
3551:
3548:
3546:
3543:
3541:
3538:
3536:
3533:
3531:
3528:
3526:
3523:
3521:
3518:
3516:
3513:
3511:
3508:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3498:
3496:
3493:
3491:
3488:
3486:
3483:
3481:
3478:
3476:
3473:
3471:
3468:
3466:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3441:
3438:
3436:
3433:
3432:
3430:
3421:
3415:
3412:
3410:
3407:
3405:
3402:
3400:
3397:
3395:
3392:
3390:
3387:
3385:
3382:
3380:
3377:
3375:
3372:
3370:
3367:
3365:
3362:
3360:
3357:
3355:
3352:
3350:
3347:
3345:
3342:
3340:
3337:
3335:
3332:
3330:
3327:
3325:
3322:
3321:
3319:
3315:
3305:
3302:
3300:
3297:
3295:
3292:
3290:
3287:
3285:
3282:
3280:
3277:
3275:
3272:
3270:
3267:
3265:
3262:
3260:
3257:
3255:
3252:
3250:
3247:
3245:
3242:
3240:
3237:
3235:
3232:
3230:
3227:
3225:
3222:
3220:
3217:
3215:
3212:
3210:
3207:
3205:
3202:
3200:
3197:
3195:
3192:
3190:
3187:
3185:
3182:
3180:
3177:
3175:
3172:
3170:
3167:
3165:
3162:
3160:
3157:
3155:
3152:
3150:
3147:
3145:
3142:
3140:
3137:
3136:
3134:
3132:
3128:
3122:
3119:
3117:
3114:
3112:
3109:
3107:
3104:
3102:
3099:
3097:
3094:
3092:
3089:
3087:
3084:
3082:
3079:
3077:
3074:
3072:
3069:
3067:
3064:
3062:
3059:
3057:
3054:
3052:
3049:
3047:
3044:
3042:
3039:
3037:
3034:
3032:
3029:
3027:
3024:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3004:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2992:
2989:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2954:
2952:
2949:
2947:
2944:
2942:
2939:
2937:
2934:
2932:
2929:
2927:
2924:
2922:
2919:
2917:
2914:
2912:
2909:
2907:
2904:
2902:
2899:
2897:
2894:
2892:
2889:
2887:
2886:Julius Paulus
2884:
2882:
2879:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2849:
2847:
2844:
2842:
2839:
2837:
2834:
2832:
2829:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2821:Fabius Pictor
2819:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2728:
2726:
2724:
2720:
2717:
2713:
2707:
2704:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2656:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2644:
2643:
2641:
2639:
2635:
2629:
2626:
2624:
2621:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2611:
2609:
2606:
2604:
2601:
2599:
2596:
2594:
2591:
2589:
2586:
2584:
2581:
2579:
2576:
2574:
2571:
2569:
2566:
2564:
2561:
2559:
2558:Amphitheatres
2556:
2555:
2553:
2551:
2547:
2541:
2538:
2536:
2533:
2531:
2528:
2526:
2523:
2521:
2518:
2516:
2513:
2511:
2508:
2506:
2503:
2499:
2496:
2495:
2494:
2491:
2489:
2486:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2471:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2461:
2460:
2458:
2456:
2452:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2433:
2431:
2428:
2426:
2423:
2421:
2418:
2416:
2413:
2409:
2406:
2405:
2404:
2401:
2399:
2396:
2394:
2391:
2389:
2386:
2384:
2381:
2379:
2376:
2374:
2371:
2369:
2366:
2364:
2361:
2359:
2356:
2354:
2351:
2349:
2346:
2344:
2341:
2339:
2336:
2335:
2333:
2331:
2327:
2321:
2318:
2316:
2313:
2311:
2308:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2298:
2296:
2295:Deforestation
2293:
2291:
2288:
2287:
2285:
2283:
2279:
2273:
2270:
2268:
2265:
2263:
2260:
2258:
2255:
2251:
2248:
2246:
2245:Siege engines
2243:
2241:
2238:
2236:
2233:
2231:
2228:
2227:
2226:
2223:
2221:
2218:
2214:
2211:
2210:
2209:
2206:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2191:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2179:
2178:Establishment
2176:
2174:
2171:
2169:
2166:
2165:
2163:
2161:
2157:
2147:
2144:
2142:
2139:
2137:
2134:
2132:
2129:
2127:
2124:
2122:
2119:
2117:
2114:
2113:
2111:
2109:Extraordinary
2107:
2101:
2098:
2096:
2095:Promagistrate
2093:
2091:
2088:
2086:
2083:
2081:
2078:
2076:
2073:
2071:
2068:
2066:
2063:
2061:
2058:
2056:
2053:
2052:
2050:
2046:
2043:
2041:
2037:
2031:
2028:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2006:
2003:
2001:
1998:
1996:
1993:
1991:
1988:
1986:
1983:
1981:
1978:
1976:
1973:
1971:
1968:
1966:
1963:
1961:
1958:
1956:
1953:
1951:
1948:
1946:
1943:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1927:
1925:
1923:
1919:
1913:
1910:
1908:
1905:
1903:
1900:
1898:
1895:
1893:
1890:
1888:
1885:
1883:
1882:Twelve Tables
1880:
1879:
1877:
1875:
1871:
1865:
1862:
1860:
1857:
1853:
1850:
1848:
1845:
1843:
1840:
1838:
1835:
1834:
1833:
1830:
1828:
1825:
1823:
1820:
1818:
1815:
1813:
1810:
1808:
1805:
1803:
1800:
1799:
1797:
1795:
1791:
1779:
1776:
1775:
1774:
1771:
1767:
1764:
1762:
1759:
1758:
1757:
1754:
1750:
1747:
1745:
1742:
1741:
1740:
1737:
1735:
1732:
1730:
1727:
1725:
1722:
1720:
1717:
1716:
1714:
1712:
1708:
1702:
1699:
1695:
1692:
1691:
1690:
1687:
1685:
1682:
1681:
1678:
1675:
1673:
1669:
1663:
1660:
1658:
1655:
1654:
1651:
1646:
1639:
1634:
1632:
1627:
1625:
1620:
1619:
1616:
1602:
1599:
1598:
1597:
1594:
1592:
1589:
1588:
1586:
1584:
1583:Miscellaneous
1580:
1574:
1571:
1569:
1566:
1564:
1561:
1559:
1556:
1554:
1551:
1549:
1546:
1544:
1541:
1540:
1538:
1536:
1532:
1526:
1523:
1521:
1518:
1516:
1513:
1509:
1506:
1504:
1501:
1499:
1496:
1495:
1494:
1491:
1489:
1486:
1485:
1483:
1481:
1477:
1471:
1468:
1466:
1463:
1461:
1458:
1456:
1453:
1451:
1448:
1447:
1445:
1443:
1442:Roman Kingdom
1439:
1433:
1430:
1426:
1423:
1421:
1418:
1416:
1413:
1411:
1408:
1407:
1406:
1403:
1401:
1398:
1396:
1393:
1391:
1388:
1387:
1385:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1368:
1363:
1361:
1356:
1354:
1349:
1348:
1345:
1339:
1336:
1334:
1331:
1329:
1326:
1325:
1317:
1314:
1312:
1309:
1308:
1298:
1295:
1291:
1288:
1285:
1282:M. Crawford,
1281:
1278:
1274:
1271:
1269:
1265:
1264:The Histories
1262:
1259:
1255:
1252:
1248:
1245:
1241:
1238:
1234:
1231:
1227:
1226:
1215:
1214:0-472-08125-X
1211:
1207:
1203:
1200:
1197:
1196:James Hampton
1193:
1189:
1186:
1185:0-19-926108-3
1182:
1178:
1174:
1171:
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3500:Institutions
3364:Leptis Magna
3317:Major cities
3224:Philostratus
3011:Quadrigarius
2831:Rufus Festus
2694:Contemporary
2415:Romanization
2338:Architecture
1945:Collegiality
1794:Constitution
1793:
1645:Ancient Rome
1582:
1553:Constitution
1535:Roman Empire
1493:Constitution
1455:Constitution
1395:Constitution
1394:
1382:Ancient Rome
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836:
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816:king of Rome
811:Roman Empire
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730:
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649:impeachments
626:
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139:Constitution
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78:Roman Empire
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3495:Geographers
3179:Dioscorides
3159:Cassius Dio
2781:Cassiodorus
2684:Renaissance
2290:Agriculture
2262:Auxiliaries
2203:Engineering
2040:Magistrates
1892:Citizenship
1887:Mos maiorum
1822:Late Empire
1573:Magistrates
1525:Magistrates
1470:Magistrates
1432:Magistrates
1292:F. Millar,
1246:. 1871-1888
1127:Abbott 1963
824:coup d'Ă©tat
741:plebiscites
645:term limits
637:filibusters
398:Mos maiorum
178:Late Empire
121:AD 395–1453
3384:Mediolanum
3324:Alexandria
3289:Themistius
3254:Porphyrius
3081:Tertullian
3016:Quintilian
3006:Propertius
2901:Lactantius
2851:Fulgentius
2786:Censorinus
2608:Sanitation
2593:Metallurgy
2550:Technology
2515:Demography
2463:Patricians
2430:Spectacles
2388:Literature
2383:Hairstyles
2220:Technology
1970:Praefectus
1922:Government
1912:Litigation
1897:Auctoritas
1842:Centuriate
1729:Principate
1724:Pax Romana
1684:Foundation
1601:Obligation
1568:Assemblies
1520:Assemblies
1465:Assemblies
1415:Centuriate
1405:Assemblies
1137:References
1004:Principate
902:Under the
869:See also:
851:Principate
783:See also:
690:See also:
610:common law
479:Praefectus
387:Public law
242:Centuriate
232:Assemblies
209:Auctoritas
112:AD 395–476
99:AD 284–641
89:Principate
64:753–509 BC
3540:Quaestors
3470:Empresses
3460:Dynasties
3450:Dictators
3425:and other
3414:Volubilis
3409:Vindobona
3369:Londinium
3294:Theodoret
3264:Procopius
3244:Polyaenus
3219:Pausanias
3121:Vitruvius
3066:Symmachus
3061:Suetonius
2971:Petronius
2956:Obsequens
2921:Macrobius
2916:Lucretius
2841:Frontinus
2816:Eutropius
2801:Columella
2751:Augustine
2741:Appuleius
2689:Neo-Latin
2664:Classical
2655:Versions
2563:Aqueducts
2505:Patronage
2425:Sexuality
2398:Mythology
2373:Education
2363:Cosmetics
2188:Campaigns
2183:Structure
2136:Decemviri
1995:Imperator
1694:overthrow
1596:Roman law
1102:Byrd, 161
1020:Aristotle
893:quaestors
832:plebeians
748:bicameral
657:elections
521:Imperator
369:Decemviri
362:Triumviri
332:Corrector
73:509–27 BC
3575:Category
3545:Tribunes
3535:Praetors
3485:Generals
3465:Emperors
3374:Lugdunum
3359:Eboracum
3349:Carthage
3334:Aquileia
3249:Polybius
3239:Plutarch
3209:Libanius
3199:Josephus
3194:Herodian
3086:Tibullus
3001:Priscian
2976:Phaedrus
2936:Manilius
2881:Jordanes
2866:Hydatius
2796:Claudian
2776:Catullus
2766:Boëthius
2761:Ausonius
2679:Medieval
2651:Alphabet
2623:Theatres
2598:Numerals
2583:Concrete
2573:Circuses
2540:Bagaudae
2530:Adoption
2525:Marriage
2498:Assembly
2403:Religion
2378:Folklore
2358:Clothing
2353:Calendar
2310:Currency
2300:Commerce
2198:Strategy
2160:Military
2146:Triumvir
2126:Dictator
2121:Interrex
2100:Governor
2085:Quaestor
2048:Ordinary
2030:Province
2020:Tetrarch
2010:Augustus
1975:Vicarius
1965:Officium
1902:Imperium
1852:Plebeian
1812:Republic
1734:Dominate
1701:Republic
1662:Timeline
1425:Plebeian
1268:Polybius
1204:(1966).
1175:(1999).
1032:See also
1025:Politics
991:imperium
945:imperium
941:Imperium
936:imperium
931:praetors
912:dictator
897:interrex
840:tribunes
838:radical
773:Domitian
722:and the
551:Tetrarch
541:Augustus
486:Vicarius
465:Officium
376:Interrex
337:Dictator
312:Governor
287:Quaestor
252:Plebeian
198:Imperium
154:Republic
129:Timeline
96:Dominate
3515:Legions
3475:Fiction
3445:Consuls
3440:Climate
3394:Ravenna
3389:Pompeii
3379:Lutetia
3344:Bononia
3339:Berytus
3329:Antioch
3304:Zosimus
3299:Zonaras
3274:Sozomen
3259:Priscus
3234:Photius
3076:Terence
3071:Tacitus
3056:Statius
3041:Servius
3026:Sallust
2981:Plautus
2961:Orosius
2941:Martial
2896:Juvenal
2871:Hyginus
2856:Gellius
2715:Writers
2646:History
2628:Thermae
2618:Temples
2568:Bridges
2535:Slavery
2483:Equites
2455:Society
2435:Theatre
2408:Deities
2368:Cuisine
2348:Bathing
2330:Culture
2305:Finance
2282:Economy
2173:Borders
2168:History
2070:Tribune
2065:Praetor
1955:Legatus
1950:Emperor
1837:Curiate
1807:Kingdom
1802:History
1778:History
1761:decline
1719:History
1689:Kingdom
1672:History
1657:Outline
1543:History
1488:History
1450:History
1410:Curiate
1390:History
961:lictors
953:aediles
949:censors
927:consuls
753:rogatio
620:or the
472:Praeses
451:Legatus
442:Emperor
302:Tribune
282:Praetor
247:Curiate
149:Kingdom
117:Eastern
108:Western
51:Periods
3525:Nomina
3510:Legacy
3490:Gentes
3427:topics
3423:Lists
3404:Smyrna
3284:Strabo
3214:Lucian
3204:Julian
3154:Arrian
3149:Appian
3139:Aelian
3116:Vergil
2891:Justin
2876:Jerome
2861:Horace
2846:Fronto
2836:Florus
2811:Ennius
2791:Cicero
2771:Caesar
2669:Vulgar
2493:Tribes
2420:Romans
2230:Legion
2213:castra
2090:Aedile
2060:Censor
2055:Consul
2015:Caesar
1985:Lictor
1907:Status
1847:Tribal
1827:Senate
1817:Empire
1711:Empire
1647:topics
1563:Senate
1515:Senate
1460:Senate
1420:Tribal
1400:Senate
1212:
1183:
1151:
1016:Sparta
1010:Legacy
966:fasces
881:, and
795:, and
779:Senate
702:, and
633:vetoes
546:Caesar
507:Lictor
307:Censor
297:Aedile
277:Consul
257:Tribal
166:Empire
3189:Galen
3131:Greek
3101:Varro
2911:Lucan
2723:Latin
2638:Latin
2613:Ships
2603:Roads
2588:Domes
2520:Women
2468:Plebs
2393:Music
1935:Forum
1930:Curia
1194:. By
1090:Notes
3505:Laws
3480:Film
3399:Roma
2966:Ovid
2906:Livy
2674:Late
2488:Gens
2445:Wine
2257:Navy
2225:Army
1864:SPQR
1766:fall
1744:fall
1210:ISBN
1181:ISBN
1149:ISBN
951:and
929:and
616:and
603:The
2659:Old
2343:Art
2116:Rex
1960:Dux
1874:Law
1266:by
1022:'s
889:rex
758:lex
458:Dux
405:Ius
355:Rex
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