History of anthropology

2714:(1969) was the first of its kind on displacement caused by a big dam in India. In 1960 B.K. Roy Burman, an anthropologist appointed as Assistant Commissioner for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, Government of India undertook an anthropological study on the problems of the tribal and other populations who were displaced by the establishment of the huge public sector steel factory at Rourkela in Orissa. On his suggestion the study of the "Social Processes in the Industrialization of Rourkela" was taken up as a project for being investigated by the Census Organization. The study was carried out by a team under the leadership of Roy Burman and the results were published by him under the Monograph Series of the Census of India, 1961. It is not only the first social impact assessment research on industrialisation in India but one of the pioneering studies on development caused displacement and resettlement at the global level. The application of anthropological knowledge for the development and welfare of the tribal populations in the post-independence period became a major thrust area of study for the anthropologists and notable contributions in this field were made by Verrier Elwin, Christoph von Fürer-Haimendorf, L.P. Vidyarthi, B.N. Sahay, Sachchidananda, B.K. RoyBurman and others. The physical anthropologists in India have also contributed immensely not only in the study of the classification of human groups on the basis of the biological characters but also in the bio-social fields of human growth, nutrition and health in the context of society and culture. The colonial "Physical Anthropology" (represented by H.H. Risley and his classification of the Indian population into "Races") gradually transformed into much wider "Human Biology", which devoted itself to the task of building a healthy nation. 2678:

of anthropology and added interdisciplinary collaborations with other biological and social sciences, like biochemistry, geography and linguistics. A report of the University Grants Commission(UGC) of India in 2001 revealed that anthropology as an independent discipline of teaching and research emerged in colonial India and before 1960 there were only nine anthropology departments in the country. The report further observed that more than 60 percent of anthropology departments were created after 1960 and they were mainly established in those states where there was higher concentration of tribal population, which included Eastern and North Eastern regions. The process of opening new departments of anthropology continues even today. In more than 90 percent of the universities anthropology departments are having an integrated course outline where all sub-disciplines of anthropology are being taught. Anthropology and anthropologists in India played important roles in the Annual Conferences of the Indian Science Congress Association in pre-independence and post-independence periods. Notable sectional presidential lectures were delivered by B.S. Guha (1938), T.C. Das (1941), S.S. Sarkar (1951), D.N. Majumdar (1946) and N.K. Bose (1963) who highlighted the contributions of both Indian and foreign anthropologists in all the sub-disciplines of the subject.

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lectures in the Anthropology section of the Indian Science Congress. The first Department of Anthropology was established at Calcutta University in 1920 by the famous Indian Vice-Chancellor, Sir Asutosh Mukhopadhyay and Ananthakrishna Ayer (a pioneering Indian anthropologist) was its Head of the Department. Famous Indian anthropologists, some of them trained outside India, were the founder teachers in the Department. Saratchandra Mitra (1863–1938), who was the first professor of Anthropology in the first department of Anthropology in India at the University of Calcutta in 1921. Ramaprasad Chanda (1873–1942), Haran Chandra Chakladar (1874–1958), Panchanan Mitra (1892–1936), B.S. Guha (1894–1961), K.P. Chattppadhaya (1897–1963), T.C. Das (1898–1964), N.K. Bose (1901–1972), Irawati Karve (1905–1970), D. Sen (1909–1980), S.S. Sarkar (1908–1969), and many others (including Varrier Elwin (1902–1964) and D.N. Majumdar (1903–1960) developed a strong empirical tradition of Anthropology in India characterised by ethnographic fieldwork in social-cultural anthropology and anthropometry in physical anthropology. The thrust on a holistic approach was the cardinal feature of anthropology in India. The second professional journal of anthropology, which has completed one hundred year in 2021 named

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Bengali refugees from erstwhile East Pakistan in an UNESCO project. The work of T.C. Das who was a teacher at the Department of Anthropology, Calcutta University on the Great Bengal Famine was published in 1949. This was a unique study which depicted the misery of the famine affected people of Bengal through the anthropological method of fieldwork and was published by the University of Calcutta in 1949. Much later, T.C. Das's firsthand empirical information on Bengal famine was profusely used by the Nobel Laureate economist Amartya Sen and the American historian Mark Tauger to build their own theoretical formulations on famine and Bengali society and culture under acutely critical conditions Das's another earlier study on the Purum Kuki tribe of the north-east India also became well-known at the national and international levels since the data presented by Das in his book

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centre of learning in India, the scholars in Asiatic Society studied language, history, arts and the sciences. The next impetus for Anthropology in India came with the Census operations by the British administration in 1881. Indian census data and its publications included huge amount of anthropological information and the first Census Commissioner Sir H.H.Risley (1851–1911) constructed the racial classification of the Indian population in 1908. The focus of the Indian census, however changed after the independence of the country. The national government in India became more interested to employ census operations towards the economic development and reconstruction of the country. The first professional journal of anthropology in India was the

2372:, published in 1854. Reproducing the work of Louis Agassiz and Samuel Morton, the authors spread the virulent and explicitly racist views to a wider, more popular audience. The first printing sold out quickly and by the end of the century it had undergone nine editions. Although many Southerners felt that all the justification for slavery they needed was found in the Bible, others used the new science to defend slavery and the repression of American Indians. Abolitionists, however, felt they had to take this science on its own terms. And for the first time, African American intellectuals waded into the contentious debate. In the immediate wake of Types of Mankind and during the pitched political battles that led to Civil War, 2691:"An anthropologist does not merely play the part of an observer in a game of chess. He has a greater and deeper commitment, namely, that in India he has to draw a lesson from what he observes, so that he can utilize his knowledge in the attainment of the egalitarian ideal which our nation has set before itself as its goal. If he also accepts this ideal, then, with his superior analytical apparatus, and the use of comparisons and synthetic thinking, he can suggest many modifications in the ways in which the government or leaders of society are trying to bring about justice where injustice prevails today. And this is where anthropology has a very significant role to play and a heavy responsibility to bear" (Bose 1974: iv). 2376:(1818–1895), the statesman and persuasive abolitionist, directly attacked the leading theorists of the American School of Anthropology. In an 1854 address, entitled "The Claims of the Negro Ethnologically Considered", Douglass argued that "by making the enslaved a character fit only for slavery, excuse themselves for refusing to make the slave a freeman.... For let it be once granted that the human race are of multitudinous origin, naturally different in their moral, physical, and intellectual capacities ... a chance is left for slavery, as a necessary institution.... There is no doubt that Messrs. Nott, Glidden, Morton, Smith and Agassiz were duly consulted by our slavery propagating statesmen" (p. 287). 2630:

synthesize the ideas of ancient Indian philosophers with western anthropological concepts. Panchanan Mitra, (1892–1936) who was a professor of ancient Indian history, culture and anthropology during 1919–1929 and 1930–1936 at the University of Calcutta, and a contemporary of S.C. Roy also held similar views as regards the importance of the Indian philosophy towards the development of an Indian anthropological tradition. Panchanan Mitra was among the first Indians to study at Yale University and conducted several anthropological expeditions in India and abroad. He was the head of the department of anthropology of the University of Calcutta and is mostly known for his pioneering book,

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this book revealed with empirical information that peasant life in India cannot be improved without understanding its material diversity. Second, it showed the real value of collecting first hand information from the peasants, which should be the guiding principle behind planning and policy formulation from below, not from the top. Third, peasant life in India has an underlying cultural unity of non-competitive tolerance and peaceful coexistence, which shaped the ambition and aspiration of the peasants throughout the centuries. At the end of his life N.K. Bose in his posthumous article spoke out on the role of anthropologists in nation building in unequivocal terms:

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anthropological profile of all the communities of India and (ii) the impact on them of change and development processes and the links that bring them together. From 1985 to 1992 as many as 4635 communities in all the states and union territories of India were identified and described out of the 6748 listed initially. As many as 600 scholars participated in this project, including 19 from 26 institutions. About 100 workshops and rounds of discussions were held in all the states and union territories, and in these about 3000 scholars participated. The outputs of this project have already been published under several volumes.

1559:—from other species), and as a particular adaptation to local conditions that takes the form of highly variable beliefs and practices. Thus, "culture" not only transcends the opposition between nature and nurture; it transcends and absorbs the peculiarly European distinction between politics, religion, kinship, and the economy as autonomous domains. Anthropology thus transcends the divisions between the natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities to explore the biological, linguistic, material, and symbolic dimensions of humankind in all forms. 1010:: "...sociocultural entities are constructed from the direct or indirect observation of the behavior and thought of specific individuals ...." Institutions are not a physical reality; only people are. When they act in society, they do so according to the laws of history, of which they are not aware; hence, there is no historical element of free will. Like the 20th-century anthropologists in general, Harris places a high value on the empiricism, or collection of data. This function must be performed by trained observers. 2327:(1829–1837). Jackson was responsible for implementing the Indian Removal Act, the coerced and forced removal of an estimated 100,000 American Indians during the 1830s to Indian Territory in present-day Oklahoma; for insuring that the franchise was extended to all white men, irrespective of financial means while denying virtually all black men the right to vote; and, for suppressing abolitionists' efforts to end slavery while vigorously defending that institution. Finally, he was responsible for appointing Chief Justice 2682:

from the Siwalik hills, which documented the important stages of human evolution and also designed an instrument known as 'pelvimeter' for measuring angles of the pelvis in primates including humans. Nirmal Kumar Bose after joining the Anthropological Survey of India in 1959 as Director involved all researchers in a mega project to collect data on the socio-economic and cultural aspects of villages covering 311 districts of India out of 322 and the results of this survey was published in a volume entitled

1342: 1658:. At the time, the field was dominated by 'the comparative method'. It was assumed that all societies passed through a single evolutionary process from the most primitive to most advanced. Non-European societies were thus seen as evolutionary 'living fossils' that could be studied in order to understand the European past. Scholars wrote histories of prehistoric migrations which were sometimes valuable but often also fanciful. It was during this time that Europeans first accurately traced 2265: 1036:. Synchronic ("same time") with reference to anthropological data is contemporaneous and cross-cultural. Diachronic ("through time") data shows the development of lines through time. Cultural materialism, being a "processually holistic and globally comparative scientific research strategy" must depend for accuracy on all four types of data. Cultural materialism differs from the others by the insertion of culture as the effect. Different material factors produce different cultures. 6599: 2634:, as early as 1923. Another notable Indian anthropologist of the pre-independence period was Bhupendranath Datta (1880–1961) who was the younger brother of the famous Hindu revivalist social reformer Swami Vivekananda. He joined the anti-British struggle and sent to prison by the colonial government in India, and later earned an M.A. in sociology from Brown University, US and a PhD in anthropology from the University of Hamburg, Germany in 1923. His books 6587: 6576: 1972:; while British anthropology has continued to emphasize social organization and economics over purely symbolic or literary topics, differences among British, French, and American sociocultural anthropologies have diminished with increasing dialogue and borrowing of both theory and methods. Today, social anthropology in Britain engages internationally with many other social theories and has branched in many directions. 1494:

remotest zones; industries whose products are consumed, not only at home, but in every quarter of the globe. In place of the old wants, satisfied by the production of the country, we find new wants, requiring for their satisfaction the products of distant lands and climes. In place of the old local and national seclusion and self-sufficiency, we have intercourse in every direction, universal interdependence of nations.

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the Anadaman islands from the then East Pakistan was done by Surajit Sinha in 1951. Resettlement of displaced people by mega development projects (dams and industries) under the five year plans was also studied by the anthropologists in the post-independence period. Irawati Karve, who contributed profusely in both Physical and Social Anthropology conducted a study with Jai Nimbkar published in a book entitled

984:; that is, they provide laws. He intends "to reassert the methodological priority of the search for the laws of history in the science of man". He is looking for "a general theory of history". His perception of the laws: "I believe that the analogue of the Darwinian strategy in the realm of sociocultural phenomena is the principle of techno-environmental and techno-economic determinism", he calls 812:, has always meant "the study (or science) of man". The topics to be included and the terminology have varied historically. At present they are more elaborate than they were during the development of anthropology. For a presentation of modern social and cultural anthropology as they have developed in Britain, France, and North America since approximately 1900, see the relevant sections under 2291: 48: 2642:(1963) although published much later, can be regarded as pioneering works on Indian society and culture from a Marxist perspective. Datta's scholarship was not limited to his specialised area in biological anthropology in which he did his doctorate but was as vast as to include sociology, history, law, philosophy, statistics and literature. Some of his remarkable books were 901:, which he says defines the word as "speaking or treating of man". This view is entirely wishful thinking, as Liddell and Scott go on to explain the meaning: "i.e. fond of personal conversation". If Aristotle, the very philosopher of the logos, could produce such a word without serious intent, there probably was at that time no anthropology identifiable under that name. 1384:(1798), which treats it as a branch of philosophy. Kant is not generally considered to be a modern anthropologist, as he never left his region of Germany, nor did he study any cultures besides his own. He did, however, begin teaching an annual course in anthropology in 1772. Developments in the systematic study of ancient civilizations through the disciplines of 2705:

Lounsbury and others. The Indian anthropologists too continued their ethnographic enterprise on the Purum on behalf of the premier governmental institution of the country, the Anthropological Survey of India. A team of anthropologists were sent to the field area where Das conducted his ethnographic observations during 1931–1936 and a book was published entitled

999:, given certain causes, the result and only that result must occur. Different philosophers, however, use determinism in different senses. The deterministic element that Harris sees is lack of human social engineering: "free will and moral choice have had virtually no significant effect upon the direction taken thus far by evolving systems of social life." 1549:, they proposed the scientific study of a new object: "humankind", conceived of as a whole. Crucial to this study is the concept "culture", which anthropologists defined both as a universal capacity and propensity for social learning, thinking, and acting (which they see as a product of human evolution and something that distinguishes 2365:

Scott decision, underpinned miscegenation laws, and eventually fueled Jim Crow. Samuel G. Morton, for example, claimed to be just a scientist but he did not hesitate to provide evidence of Negro inferiority to John C. Calhoun, the prominent pro-slavery Secretary of State to help him negotiate the annexation of Texas as a slave state.

1311:'s systematic observations of nature, anthropology, and geography are another example of studying human variation across space. Polo's travels took him across such a diverse human landscape and his accounts of the peoples he met as he journeyed were so detailed that they earned for Polo the name "the father of modern anthropology". 2336:

plurality of origins and the antiquity of distinct types. Like the monogenists, these theories were not monolithic and often used words like races, species, hybrid, and mongrel interchangeably. A scientific consensus began to emerge during this period "that there exists a Genus Homo, embracing many primordial types of 'species'".

1752:, analyzed similarities in religious belief and symbolism globally. Neither Tylor nor Frazer, however, was particularly interested in fieldwork, nor were they interested in examining how the cultural elements and institutions fit together. The Golden Bough was abridged drastically in subsequent editions after his first. 2443:

origins in Boasian Anthropology, dividing the discipline in the four crucial and interrelated fields of sociocultural, biological, linguistic, and archaic anthropology (e.g. archaeology). Anthropology in the United States continues to be deeply influenced by the Boasian tradition, especially its emphasis on culture.

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in 1985 as an outcome of a symposium in which about 20 anthropologists, two educated members of the tribe participated and presented their views/papers on the Purums (Das Gupta et.al. 1985). Another important anthropological study on the social impact assessment of the resettlement of the refugees in

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In this scheme, Russia occupied a middle position. On the one hand, it had a large region (largely east of the Urals) of highly distinct, pre-industrial, often non-literate peoples, similar to the situation in the Americas. On the other hand, Russia also participated to some degree in the nationalist

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In the successor states of continental Europe, on the other hand, anthropologists often joined with folklorists and linguists in building cultural perspectives on nationalism. Ethnologists in these countries tended to focus on differentiating among local ethnolinguistic groups, documenting local folk

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who would decide, in Scott v. Sandford (1857), that Negroes were "beings of an inferior order, and altogether unfit to associate with the white race ... and so far inferior that they had no rights which the white man was bound to respect". As a result of this decision, black people, whether free

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as the earliest stage, and noting that "religion" has many components, of which he believed the most important to be belief in supernatural beings (as opposed to moral systems, cosmology, etc.). Frazer, a Scottish scholar with a broad knowledge of Classics, also concerned himself with religion, myth,

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As academic disciplines began to differentiate over the course of the nineteenth century, anthropology grew increasingly distinct from the biological approach of natural history, on the one hand, and from purely historical or literary fields such as Classics, on the other. A common criticism was that

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using multi-cultural forces raised from many different locations, but were decisively defeated by the Greek city-states. Herodotus was far from interested in only the non-repeatable events. He provides ethnic details and histories of the peoples within the empire and to the north of it, in most cases

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as resident on the southern coast of the Baltic, Slavic forefathers were known to Tacitus, who in observing them there, asked himself whether to classify them among Asiatics or among Europeans. He answers thus: Among the latter, for they build houses, wear shields, and fight on foot, all of which is

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were all influential proponents of this school. While some were disinterested scientists, others were passionate advocates who used science to promote slavery in a period of increasing sectional strife. All were complicit in establishing the putative science that justified slavery, informed the Dred

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Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown's influence stemmed from the fact that they, like Boas, actively trained students and aggressively built up institutions that furthered their programmatic ambitions. This was particularly the case with Radcliffe-Brown, who spread his agenda for "Social Anthropology" by

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All old-established national industries have been destroyed or are daily being destroyed. They are dislodged by new industries, whose introduction becomes a life and death question for all civilized nations, by industries that no longer work up indigenous raw material but raw material drawn from the

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There was a tendency in late eighteenth century Enlightenment thought to understand human society as natural phenomena that behaved according to certain principles and that could be observed empirically. In some ways, studying the language, culture, physiology, and artifacts of European colonies was

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comprises the characteristics of organisms past and present, so cultural or social history comprises the characteristics of society past and present. It includes both documented history and prehistory, but its slant is toward institutional development rather than particular non-repeatable historical

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Gradually, universities in Lucknow, Delhi, Madras, Pune, and Ranchi also developed strong traditions of anthropological research and teaching and the largest governmental organisation, the Anthropological Survey of India was established by Dr. B.S. Guha which also began with the holistic framework

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established academic anthropology in the United States in opposition to this sort of evolutionary perspective. His approach was empirical, skeptical of overgeneralizations, and eschewed attempts to establish universal laws. For example, Boas studied immigrant children to demonstrate that biological

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It was in this context that the so-called American School of Anthropology thrived as the champion of polygenism or the doctrine of multiple origins—sparking a debate between those influenced by the Bible who believed in the unity of humanity and those who argued from a scientific standpoint for the

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such as Fathers LeClercq, Le Jeune and Sagard, in the 17th century, provide the oldest ethnographic records of native tribes in what was then the Dominion of Canada. The academic discipline has drawn strongly on both the British Social Anthropology and the American Cultural Anthropology traditions,

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Toward the turn of the twentieth century, a number of anthropologists became dissatisfied with this categorization of cultural elements; historical reconstructions also came to seem increasingly speculative to them. Under the influence of several younger scholars, a new approach came to predominate

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in 1961.The plethora of data on the material and ideological aspects of rural India contained in the book is one of the best works done by the anthropologists in the government department. This is a book which has tremendous contemporary policy relevance at least for three important reasons. First

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In contrast to Europe, Indian anthropologists paid more importance to the collection of data from the field rather than on building theories. In this context the seminal contributions of S.R.K. Chopra (1931–1984) of Panjab University deserve mention. Professor Chopra discovered pre-hominid fossils

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Ironically, this universal interdependence, rather than leading to greater human solidarity, has coincided with increasing racial, ethnic, religious, and class divisions, and new—and to some confusing or disturbing—cultural expressions. These are the conditions of life with which people today must

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published in 1945 by the Calcutta University became one of the major sources of database in the acrimonious debate on descent versus alliance theories on kinship in Anglo-American Anthropology which involved mavericks like Claude Levi-Strauss, George Homans, David Schneider, Rodney Needham, Floyd

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meeting held in 1914 and since then the subject continued to be included in the Indian Science Congress and the pioneering Indian anthropologists, like B.S.Guha, S.S.Sarkar, N.K.Bose, D.N.Majumdar, Irawati Karve, Surajit Sinha, Pranab Ganguly and many eminent scholars delivered their presidential

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which was founded in 1886. The founding editor of the journal was Edward Tyrrell Leith, a British national and professor of Law at the Government Law College, Bombay (now Mumbai). This journal continued up to 1973. Anthropology, first under the name of Ethnography was included as a section in the

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In doing so, he fought discrimination against immigrants, blacks, and indigenous peoples of the Americas. Many American anthropologists adopted his agenda for social reform, and theories of race continue to be popular subjects for anthropologists today. The so-called "Four Field Approach" has its

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as "that complex whole, which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by as of society". However, as Stocking notes, Tylor mainly concerned himself with describing and mapping the distribution of particular elements of culture, rather

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According to Harris, the 19th-century anthropologists were theorizing under the presumption that the development of society followed some sort of laws. He decries the loss of that view in the 20th century by the denial that any laws are discernable or that current institutions have any bearing on

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Asian countries and former British colonies like India also developed their own traditions of studying anthropology. In India the Asiatic Society was established on 15 January 1784 in Kolkata by Sir William Jones, a philologist although, anthropology was not separately studied in this pioneering

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Grottanelli, Vinigi; Ausenda, Giorgio; Bernardi, Bernardo; Bianchi, Ugo; Bodemann, Y. Michal; Goody, Jack; Jablonko, Allison; Kertzer, David I.; Lanternari, Vittorio; Marazzi, Antonio; Miller, Roy A.; Minelli, Laura Laurencich; Moss, David M.; Moss, Leonard W.; Denmark, H. R. H. Prince Peter of

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Harris, like many other anthropologists, in looking for anthropological method and data before the use of the term anthropology, had little difficulty finding them among the ancient authors. The ancients tended to see players on the stage of history as ethnic groups characterized by the same or

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In the post-independence period the Indian anthropologists also became interested in the task of nation building, which was evident in the notable works done by T.C. Das on Bengal famine and B.S. Guha, the founder director of the Anthropological Survey of India on the social tensions among the

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Elsewhere he refers to "my theories of historical determinism", defining the latter: "By a deterministic relationship among cultural phenomena, I mean merely that similar variables under similar conditions tend to give rise to similar consequences." The use of "tends to" implies some degree of

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origin of the name of anthropology does not exclude the possibility that ancient authors presented anthropogical material under another name (see below). Such an identification is speculative, depending on the theorist's view of anthropology; nevertheless, speculations have been formulated by

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The empirical tradition of Indian anthropology was continued by the People of India project launched by the Anthropological Survey of India by its Director General Dr. K.S. Singh. The People of India project started in October 1985 and its objectives were to (i) generate a brief, descriptive

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Roy elaborately discussed the origin of professional anthropological research in India. Roy not only critically evaluated the major theories developed in the then western anthropology, like evolutionism, diffusionism and functionalism with much skepticism but he also made a novel attempt to

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asserts: "Herodotus, as we know, was both Father of History and Father of Anthropology." Herodotus calls his method of travelling around taking notes "theorizing". Redfield translates it as "tourism" with a scientific intent. He identifies three terms of Herodotus as overlapping on culture:

2415:. He focused on understanding how cultures integrated and systematized, and how the various features of one culture indicate an evolutionary status in comparison with other cultures. Generally, Morgan used technology (such as bowmaking or pottery) as an indicator of position on this scale. 2101: 1052:

Eriksen and Nielsen use the term proto-anthropology to refer to near-anthropological writings, which contain some of the criteria for being anthropology, but not all. They classify proto-anthropology as being "travel writing or social philosophy", going on to assert "It is only when these

1510:). This was the study of human beings—typically people living in European colonies. Thus studying the language, culture, physiology, and artifacts of European colonies was more or less equivalent to studying the flora and fauna of those places. It was for this reason, for instance, that 2206:

exerted across multiple disciplines, Lévi-Strauss established ties with American and British anthropologists. At the same time, he established centers and laboratories within France to provide an institutional context within anthropology, while training influential students such as

2577:(cultural and political) movements of Central and Eastern Europe. After the Revolution of 1917, views expressed by anthropologists in the USSR, and later the Soviet Bloc countries, were highly shaped by the requirement to conform to Marxist theories of social evolution. 2110:

Anthropology in France has a less clear genealogy than the British and American traditions, in part because many French writers influential in anthropology have been trained or held faculty positions in sociology, philosophy, or other fields rather than in anthropology.

1930:, took BSA in new directions through their introduction of explicitly Marxist-informed theory, their emphasis on conflicts and conflict resolution, and their attention to the ways in which individuals negotiate and make use of the social structural possibilities. 1653:

Anthropology grew increasingly distinct from natural history and by the end of the nineteenth century the discipline began to crystallize into its modern form—by 1935, for example, it was possible for T.K. Penniman to write a history of the discipline entitled

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remain popular with the American public, Mead and Benedict never had the impact on the discipline of anthropology that some expected. Boas had planned for Ruth Benedict to succeed him as chair of Columbia's anthropology department, but she was sidelined by

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Monismus oder Pluralismus der Rechtskulturen? Anthropologische und ethnologische Grundlagen traditioneller und moderner Rechtssysteme / Monistic or Pluralistic Legal Culture? Anthropological and Ethnological Foundations of Traditional and Modern Legal

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similar languages and customs: the Persians, the Germans, the Scythians, etc. Thus the term history meant to a large degree the "story" of the fortunes of these players through time. The ancient authors never formulated laws. Apart from a rudimentary

1869:, which focused on how institutions in societies worked to balance out or create an equilibrium in the social system to keep it functioning harmoniously. (This contrasted with Malinowski's functionalism, and was quite different from the later French 2481:, who each produced richly detailed studies of indigenous North American cultures. They provided a wealth of details used to attack the theory of a single evolutionary process. Kroeber and Sapir's focus on Native American languages helped establish 2434:

rather than societies whose evolution could be measured by how much or how little "civilization" they had. He believed that each culture has to be studied in its particularity, and argued that cross-cultural generalizations, like those made in the

1415:) that occurred during the European colonization of the seventeenth, eighteenth, nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Programs of ethnographic study originated in this era as the study of the "human primitives" overseen by colonial administrations. 2588:(laography), in the form of "a science of the interior", although theoretically weak; but the connotation of the field deeply changed after World War II, when a wave of Anglo-American anthropologists introduced a science "of the outside". 2080:(director in 1895). Dawson's support for anthropology created impetus for the profession in Canada. This was expanded upon by Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier, who established a Division of Anthropology within the Geological Survey in 1910. 2500:

marked a turning point in American anthropology. After three decades of amassing material, Boasians felt a growing urge to generalize. This was most obvious in the 'Culture and Personality' studies carried out by younger Boasians such as

2257:, who trained formally in philosophy and sociology and eventually held the Chair of Sociology at the Collège de France. Like Mauss and others before him, he worked on topics both in sociology and anthropology. His fieldwork among the 1522:. This is also why the material culture of 'civilized' nations such as China have historically been displayed in fine arts museums alongside European art while artifacts from Africa or Native North American cultures were displayed in 1032:. Only trained observers can avoid eticism, or description without regard to the meaning in the culture: "... etics are in part observers' emics incorrectly applied to a foreign system...." He makes a further distinction between 2215:. They proved influential in the world of French anthropology. Much of the distinct character of France's anthropology today is a result of the fact that most anthropology is carried out in nationally funded research laboratories ( 1296:

Medieval scholars may be considered forerunners of modern anthropology as well, insofar as they conducted or wrote detailed studies of the customs of peoples considered "different" from themselves in terms of geography.

959:, or that anthropology excludes current social practices, as the general meaning of history, which it has in "history of anthropology", would seem to imply. He is using "history" in a special sense, as the founders of 1724:, stating that there are three ways that different groups can have similar cultural forms or technologies: "independent invention, inheritance from ancestors in a distant region, transmission from one race [ 2399:. His comparative analyses of religion, government, material culture, and especially kinship patterns proved to be influential contributions to the field of anthropology. Like other scholars of his day (such as 1426:, who argued that all societies passed through a single evolutionary process, from the most primitive to the most advanced, and various forms of non-lineal theorists, who tended to subscribe to ideas such as 908:, enough to justify its later use as a productive suffix. The ancient Greeks often used suffixes in forming compounds that had no independent variant. The etymological dictionaries are united in attributing 1574:

many social sciences (such as economists, sociologists, and psychologists) in Western countries focused disproportionately on Western subjects, while anthropology focused disproportionately on the "other".

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became unattended "laboratories", especially the so-called "ethnological exhibitions" or "Negro villages". Thus, "savages" from the colonies were displayed, often nudes, in cages, in what has been called

1738:

than with the larger function, and he generally seemed to assume a Victorian idea of progress rather than the idea of non-directional, multilineal cultural development proposed by later anthropologists.

3858:; Axel Montenbruck: "Zivilisation. Eine Rechtsanthropologie. Staat und Mensch, Gewalt und Recht, Kultur und Natur", 2. Auflage, 2010. Universitätsbibliothek der Freien Universität Berlin, open access, 2246:

is only a spokesperson for the group when it has to deal with other groups ("international relations") but has no inside authority, and may be violently removed if he attempts to abuse this position.

1526:

with dinosaur bones and nature dioramas. Curatorial practice has changed dramatically in recent years, and it would be wrong to see anthropology as merely an extension of colonial rule and European

1991:, and the like. In other countries (and in some, particularly smaller, British and North American universities), anthropologists have also found themselves institutionally linked with scholars of 1881:. From the late 1930s until the postwar period appeared a string of monographs and edited volumes that cemented the paradigm of British Social Anthropology (BSA). Famous ethnographies include 2261:

of Algeria places him solidly in anthropology, while his analysis of the function and reproduction of fashion and cultural capital in European societies places him as solidly in sociology.

1796:(1884–1942) was beginning what he expected to be a brief period of fieldwork in the old model, collecting lists of cultural items, when the outbreak of the First World War stranded him in 1717:, mainly the Classics (literature and history of Greece and Rome), the work of the early European folklorists, and reports from missionaries, travelers, and contemporaneous ethnologists. 4903: 2847: 1353:(1715–1789), a period when Europeans attempted to study human behavior systematically, the known varieties of which had been increasing since the fifteenth century as a result of the 4316: 1354: 1273:. Others argue, however, that he hardly can be considered an anthropologist in the conventional sense. He wrote detailed comparative studies on the religions and cultures in the 2549:

Anthropology as it emerged amongst the Western colonial powers (mentioned above) has generally taken a different path than that in the countries of southern and central Europe (

2565:). In the former, the encounter with multiple, distinct cultures, often very different in organization and language from those of Europe, has led to a continuing emphasis on 3640:

Mauss, Marcel (1938). "Une Catégorie de L'Esprit Humain: La Notion de Personne Celle de 'Moi'" [A Category of the Human Spirit: The Notion of Person That of 'Me'].

6306: 5951: 1234: 5828:. Revised and augmented throughout by Sir Henry Stuart Jones with the assistance of Roderick McKenzie. Oxford, UK; Medford, MA: Clarendon Press; Perseus Digital Library. 3859: 2602:

Some German and Austrian scholars have increased cultural anthropology as both legal anthropology regarding "other" societies and anthropology of Western civilization.

2088:

Anthropologists were recruited from England and the US, setting the foundation for the unique Canadian style of anthropology. Scholars include the linguist and Boasian

2304:

in the United States was influenced greatly by the ready availability of Native American societies as ethnographic subjects. The field was pioneered by staff of the

5547: 2892: 1053:

aspects ... are fused, that is, when data and theory are brought together, that anthropology appears." This process began to occur in the 18th century of the

924:

says: "(It is one of) derivatives independently built to logos." Its morphological type is that of an abstract noun: log-os > log-ia (a "qualitative abstract")

3867: 5927: 4977:

Bose, N.K. (1974).Anthropology after fifty years. In D.Sen (Ed.) Indian Anthropology Today (pp. i-iv). Calcutta: Department of Anthropology, Calcutta University.

1333:, which, includes the passage: "Genealogy or issue which they had, Artes which they studied, Actes which they did. This part of History is named Anthropology." 3344: 850:, "study". The compound, however, is unknown in ancient Greek or Latin, whether classical or mediaeval. It first appears sporadically in the scholarly Latin 4855:

Bharati, Agehananda (1980). "Rise of Anthropology in India. Vol. 1, The Tribal Dimensions. Vol. 2, The Rural, Urban and Other Dimensions. L. P. Vidyarthi".

4022: 2323:

Late-eighteenth-century ethnology established the scientific foundation for the field, which began to mature in the United States during the presidency of

2625:

was established by Sarat Chandra Roy,(1871–1942) a pioneering Indian anthropologist, in 1921. In his landmark article published in the first volume of

2595:

and related studies did not receive as much attention as other branches of learning, but nonetheless included important researchers and thinkers like

2517:, these authors sought to understand the way that individual personalities were shaped by the wider cultural and social forces in which they grew up. 6012: 2052:

Canadian anthropology began, as in other parts of the Colonial world, as ethnological data in the records of travellers and missionaries. In Canada,

1392:

informed both archaeology and eventually social anthropology, as did the study of East and South Asian languages and cultures. At the same time, the

1430:. Most nineteenth-century social theorists, including anthropologists, viewed non-European societies as windows onto the pre-industrial human past. 3792:

Greece and; Pinto, Diana; Scotti, Pietro; Tentori, Tullio (1977). "Ethnology and/or Cultural Anthropology in Italy: Traditions and Developments ".

5152: 2283:

From its beginnings in the early 19th century through the early 20th century, anthropology in the United States was influenced by the presence of

904:

The lack of any ancient denotation of anthropology, however, is not an etymological problem. Liddell and Scott list 170 Greek compounds ending in

2573:

culture, and representing the prehistory of what has become a nation through various forms of public education (e.g., museums of several kinds).

1541:

as well as developing new techniques involving not only structured interviews but unstructured "participant-observation"—and drawing on the new

6281: 5619: 3490:

Clifford, James and George E. Marcus (1986) Writing culture: the poetics and politics of ethnography. Berkeley: University of California Press.

804:

in this article refers primarily to the 18th- and 19th-century precursors of modern anthropology. The term anthropology itself, innovated as a

4910: 1442:

once characterized anthropology as "the most scientific of the humanities, and the most humanistic of the social sciences". Understanding how

4645: 6157: 2403:), Morgan argued that human societies could be classified into categories of cultural evolution on a scale of progression that ranged from 2216: 1789:, as well as a linguist, a botanist, and other specialists. The findings of the expedition set new standards for ethnographic description. 3850:

Wolfgang Fikentscher: "Law and Anthropology: Outlines, Issues, and Suggestions", Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, C.H. Beck 2009,

3774:

Geneviève Zoïa, "L'anthropologie en Grèce", Terrain, Numéro 14—L'incroyable et ses preuves (mars 1990), , mis en ligne le 7 octobre 2005,

1142:

These "researches" have been considered anthropological since at least as early as the late 19th century. The title, "Father of History" (

6331: 6326: 6296: 6286: 6276: 1720:

Tylor advocated strongly for unilinealism and a form of "uniformity of mankind". Tylor in particular laid the groundwork for theories of

1650:

in the "indigenous village"; it received 24 million visitors in six months, thus demonstrating the popularity of such "human zoos".

3953: 6336: 6321: 6316: 6301: 5579: 4935: 4761: 4058: 3860:

http://edocs.fu-berlin.de/docs/servlets/MCRFileNodeServlet/FUDOCS_derivate_000000001228/Zivilisation_2__Aufl__ORIGINAL_21_9.pdf?hosts=

2159:, and his Huxley lecture on the notion of the person, the first comparative study of notions of person and selfhood cross-culturally. 4729: 1634: 3389: 1481:: as the world is becoming smaller and more integrated, people's experience of the world is increasingly atomized and dispersed. As 5884:

Wiedman, Dennis W.; Martinez, Iveris L. (2021). "Anthropologists in Medical Education in the United States: 1890s to the Present".

4385: 3708:

Spiro, Melford E. (2020). "Some Reflections on Cultural Determinism and Relativism with Special Reference to Emotion and Reason".

1983:, which may be connected with departments of biology or zoology; and from archaeology, which may be connected with departments of 2820: 1139:

being the first to do so. His methods were reading accounts, interviewing witnesses, and in some cases taking notes for himself.

735: 5955: 1217: 5862:

Redman, Samuel J. Bone Rooms: From Scientific Racism to Human Prehistory in Museums. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 2016.

3868:

http://edocs.fu-berlin.de/docs/servlets/MCRFileNodeServlet/FUDOCS_derivate_000000001194/Western_Anthropology,_2nd_ed.pdf?hosts=

3605:

Heyck, Thomas William; Stocking, George W.; Goody, Jack (December 1997). "After Tylor: British Social Anthropology 1888-1951".

1507: 1412: 788: 6369: 3195:

quite contrary to the actions of the Sarmatians . Thus the famous history writer anticipated the statements of anthropology .

1369:

then evolved into something more closely resembling the modern views of these disciplines and informed the development of the

1241:

Another candidate for one of the first scholars to carry out comparative ethnographic-type studies in person was the medieval

6546: 6311: 6235: 6005: 5901: 4276: 3880: 3855: 3725: 3589: 2284: 2272: 1671: 2862: 5735: 1865:) that paid close attention to the meaning and purpose of rituals and myths. Over time, he developed an approach known as 6624: 6245: 6230: 6180: 5554: 4631: 2617: 2156: 1870: 985: 760: 652: 2178:

are examples of people who combined anthropology with the French avant-garde. During this time most of what is known as

3481:

Stocking, George W. (1968) Race, Culture, and Evolution: Essays in the history of anthropology. London: The Free Press.

2933:

There is currently some regional and traditional equivocation about whether it should be called culture history, as in

2538: 2462: 1568: 5935: 2162:

Throughout the interwar years, French interest in anthropology often dovetailed with wider cultural movements such as

2141:) drew on ethnography and philology to analyze societies that were not as 'differentiated' as European nation states. 1499:

contend, but they have their origins in processes that began in the 16th century and accelerated in the 19th century.

6195: 5654: 5170: 4617: 4112: 3447: 3415: 2238:. These stateless societies are not less evolved than societies with states, but chose to conjure the institution of 2027: 1261:

with a given group of people, learnt their language and studied their primary texts, and presented his findings with

890: 697: 610: 316: 5374: 3461: 3072: 6150: 5998: 5355: 1927: 1813: 5260:

Tauger, M.(2009). ‘The Indian Famine Crises of World War II’. British Scholar, Vol.I, Issue 2,166-96, March, 2009.

3442:

Jacobs, Brian, and Kain, Patrick (eds.), Essays on Kant's Anthropology, Cambridge University Press, 2003, 278pp.,

3348: 2368:

The high-water mark of polygenic theories was Josiah Nott and Gliddon's voluminous eight-hundred page tome titled

6493: 2528: 5511:

Ganguly, Pranab (1974). "Variation in physique in North India in relation to urbanization and economic status".

4033: 1325:

The first use of the term "anthropology" in English to refer to a natural science of humanity was apparently in

6531: 6437: 6225: 3892: 2938: 1713:, both he and Frazer derived most of the material for their comparative studies through extensive reading, not 717: 500: 5972: 5200:

Bengal Famine (1943): As Revealed in a Survey of the Destitutes of Calcutta.1949.Calcutta University: Calcutta

4987: 3080:. Anthropology, Culture and Society Series (2nd ed.). London: Pluto Press. pp. 10–12. Archived from 2133:

group. While Durkheim and others examined the state of modern societies, Mauss and his collaborators (such as

1620: 1044:, the stages of history, such as are found in Lubbock, Tylor, Morgan, Marx and others, are yet unformulated. 886: 750: 740: 1446:

developed contributes to understanding how it fits into other academic disciplines. Scholarly traditions of

1093:(1961), and many others. An equally long list may be found in French and German as well as other languages. 6503: 6465: 6220: 2729:

In the mid-20th century, American anthropology began to study its own history more systematically. In 1967

2337: 2309: 1975:

In countries of the British Commonwealth, social anthropology has often been institutionally separate from

1919: 921: 745: 338: 6205: 1197:(c. 56 – c. 120 CE), wrote many of the only surviving contemporary accounts in describing several ancient 1021:

is a description of sounds developed without regard to the meaning and structure of the language, while a

6602: 6498: 6455: 6143: 2268: 2073: 1889: 1774: 1326: 1028:

system describes the meaningful sounds actually used within the language, so anthropological data can be

898: 600: 515: 428: 291: 5846: 4581: 2784: 1804:

resident on a British colonial possession, he was effectively confined to New Guinea for several years.

6346: 5833: 2950: 2427:

race was not immutable, and that human conduct and behavior resulted from nurture, rather than nature.

2167: 781: 755: 398: 378: 306: 5251:

Sen, A. (1999). Poverty and Famines: An essay on Entitlement and Deprivation. Oxford University Press.

4659:

Elwin, Verrier (1948). "The Anthropological Survey of India: Part I, History and Recent Development".

3555:

Primitive culture: researches into the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, art, and custom

2741:, established the historicist school, examining the historical contexts of anthropological movements. 1853:

in the old style of historical reconstruction. However, after reading the work of French sociologists

6590: 6185: 3318: 2566: 2202:

helped institutionalize anthropology in France. Along with the enormous influence that his theory of

1942: 471: 210: 145: 1761:

among British anthropologists, concerned with analyzing how societies held together in the present (

1624:(1916). Such exhibitions were attempts to illustrate and prove in the same movement the validity of 881:. There is no independent noun, logia, however, of that meaning in classical Greek. The word λόγος ( 6402: 6190: 2305: 1866: 1826: 1741:

Tylor also theorized about the origins of religious beliefs in human beings, proposing a theory of

933: 682: 672: 662: 637: 558: 388: 230: 205: 155: 1320: 1228: 6541: 6427: 6260: 6255: 2755: 2738: 2486: 2465:

to train and develop multiple generations of students. His first generation of students included

2212: 1878: 1822: 1801: 1397: 1266: 1258: 1033: 862:, transferred into English as anthropology. It does belong to a class of words produced with the 707: 573: 505: 421: 301: 193: 130: 95: 85: 58: 19: 4949: 3137: 2297:, one of the pioneers of modern anthropology, often called the "Father of American Anthropology" 1837: 1793: 980:

ancient. He coins the term ideographic for them. The 19th-century views, on the other hand, are

6508: 6450: 6417: 6384: 6250: 3835: 2750: 2522: 2317: 1829:

interpretation, which examined how social institutions functioned to satisfy individual needs.

1769:

or historical analysis), and emphasizing long-term (one to several years) immersion fieldwork.

1523: 1270: 647: 448: 433: 373: 281: 220: 5484:

Burman, B. K. Roy (1989). "Problems and Prospects of Tribal Development in North-East India".

2760: 2199: 2183: 1969: 1158:

in 1908 had believed that Herodotus was an anthropologist on a par with those of his own day,

6629: 6579: 6485: 6470: 6422: 6240: 6124: 6119: 6114: 6109: 6104: 6099: 6094: 6089: 6084: 6079: 6074: 6069: 6064: 6059: 6054: 2934: 2301: 2146: 1976: 1923: 1846: 1778: 1721: 1404:, whose work formed the basis for the "culture concept", which is central to the discipline. 1298: 1262: 960: 774: 687: 667: 453: 393: 353: 323: 311: 261: 215: 165: 90: 31: 5785:

Coming of Age in Chicago: The 1893 World's Fair and the Coalescence of American Anthropology

2129: 1933:

In Britain, anthropology had a great intellectual impact, it "contributed to the erosion of

951:

with the statement that anthropology is "the science of history". He is not suggesting that

6556: 6551: 6475: 6364: 6354: 5870:. Science and Culture in the Nineteenth Century, 18. London; Vermont: Pickering and Chatto. 2718: 2345: 2341: 2077: 2035: 1770: 1698: 1350: 1246: 1054: 968: 677: 358: 328: 296: 271: 170: 160: 135: 125: 4736: 2127:, to be the founder of the French anthropological tradition. Mauss belonged to Durkheim's 1807:

He made use of the time by undertaking far more intensive fieldwork than had been done by

1614:, labelled "the missing link" between an orangutan and the "white race"—Grant, a renowned 826: 8: 6561: 6526: 6518: 6407: 6397: 3386: 2946: 2458: 2388: 2361: 1938: 1706: 1639: 1542: 1423: 1278: 1254: 692: 525: 408: 383: 286: 276: 256: 100: 5409:"Census of India 1961, Part XI E: Social Processes in the Industrialization of Rourkela" 3123:

The mirror of Herodotus : the representation of the other in the writing of history

1474:

whose work formed the basis for the culture concept which is central to the discipline.

6536: 6392: 6374: 6359: 6166: 5907: 5493: 5466: 5439: 5234: 5176: 5133: 4787: 4711: 4676: 4545: 4234: 4207: 4085: 3990: 3982: 3866:. 2nd edition 2010, Universitätsbibliothek der Freien Universität Berlin. open access, 3817: 3809: 3731: 3657: 3622: 3523: 3300: 3265: 3227: 3160: 2737:, presenting argumentative examinations of anthropology's historical developments, and 2596: 2384: 2373: 2313: 1849:

also published a seminal work in 1922. He had carried out his initial fieldwork in the

1782: 1674:

was actively discussed as a way to classify—and rank—human beings based on difference.

1629: 1511: 1250: 1116: 1007: 712: 403: 348: 120: 4882: 4805: 4448: 4331: 3407:

The Anthropology of the Enlightenment | Edited by Larry Wolff and Marco Cipolloni

1705:(1 January 1854 – 7 May 1941) are generally considered the antecedents to modern 1127:. His text begins: "These are the researches of Herodotus of Halicarnassus ...." 844:, "human being" (understood to mean "humankind" or "humanity"), and a supposed -λογία 6586: 6291: 5911: 5897: 5650: 5643: 5573: 5389: 5238: 5180: 5166: 5137: 4929: 4755: 4564: 4089: 4077: 4052: 4008: 3994: 3876: 3851: 3821: 3735: 3721: 3585: 3582:

The Expansive Moment: The Rise of Social Anthropology in Britain and Africa 1918-1970

3443: 3431: 3411: 3304: 3164: 2953:. Different theorists have different practices, the distinctions being mainly verbal. 2804:

Webster's Third New International Dictionary Unabridged and Seven Language Dictionary

2069: 1625: 1546: 1222: 1159: 1131: 1065:

Many anthropological writers find anthropological-quality theorizing in the works of

520: 510: 488: 235: 225: 5979: 5375:"Social integration and population displacement: the contribution of social science" 5341:

A survey of the people displaced from Koyna dam by Irwati Karve Jai Nimbakar PART II

3430:

Foucault, Michel. "Introduction" to his 1961 translation of Kant's work, reprinted,

2430:

Influenced by the German tradition, Boas argued that the world was full of distinct

2124: 2104: 2026:

Anthropology has been used in Britain to provide an alternative explanation for the

1854: 1477:

These intellectual movements in part grappled with one of the greatest paradoxes of

1257:. According to Akbar S. Ahmed, like modern anthropologists, he engaged in extensive 1134:, deciding to bring Greece into its domain, conducted a massive invasion across the 6412: 5889: 5520: 5324:

A survey of the people displaced from Koyna dam by Irwati Karve Jai Nimbakar PART I

5273:. Anthropological Survey of India. Department of Culture, Govt. of India. Calcutta. 5226: 5158: 5125: 4864: 4703: 4668: 4537: 4423: 4365: 4199: 3974: 3932: 3801: 3713: 3649: 3614: 3513: 3292: 3257: 3219: 3152: 2558: 2392: 2208: 2016: 2008: 1748: 1746:

and magic. His comparative studies, most influentially in the numerous editions of

1486: 1202: 1066: 1041: 458: 438: 175: 150: 5430:

Sachchidananda (1973). "Planning, Development and Applied Anthropology in India".

4868: 4707: 4370: 4353: 4203: 3518: 3501: 3248:

Tapper, Richard (1995). "'Islamic Anthropology' and the 'Anthropology of Islam'".

920:, "to collect". The thing collected is primarily ideas, especially in speech. The 5792: 5685: 5457:

VIDYARTHI, L.P. (1972). "Problems and Prospects of Tribal Development in India".

4596:"Advent of Anthropology and the birth of Social Anthropology in Delhi University" 4528:

Roy, Rai Bahadur Sarat Chandra (1938). "172. An Indian Outlook on Anthropology".

4409: 3393: 3179: 2436: 2254: 2250: 2223: 2040: 2000: 1850: 1833: 1733:

Tylor formulated one of the early and influential anthropological conceptions of

1587: 1538: 1503: 1471: 1459: 1408: 1401: 1370: 1086: 972: 964: 702: 642: 619: 368: 5893: 3906: 1950: 1946: 1821:

that became standard in the field: getting "the native's point of view" through

1766: 1762: 1380:(1724–1804) 25 years to write one of the first major treatises on anthropology, 955:

be renamed to anthropology, or that there is no distinction between history and

5406: 5114:"Nation Building on the Margins: How the Anthropologists of India Contributed?" 4410:"Ethnography | Definition, Types, Examples, & Facts | Britannica" 3642:

The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland

2942: 2562: 2493: 2466: 2353: 2349: 2328: 2324: 2235: 2171: 2012: 1786: 1583: 1341: 1242: 1143: 1070: 657: 363: 180: 140: 3775: 3683: 1305:. His report was unusual in its detailed depiction of a non-European culture. 846: 6618: 5715:

One Discipline, Four Ways: British, German, French, and American anthropology

5393: 5344:. Building Centenary and Silver Jubilee Series. Vol. 61. Deccan College. 5327:. Building Centenary and Silver Jubilee Series. Vol. 61. Deccan College. 5285:"Resettlement of East Pakistani Refugees in Andaman Islands by Surajit Sinha" 5230: 5196:"Bengal Famine (1943): As revealed in a survey of the destitutes of Calcutta" 5129: 3978: 3542:

Researches into the early history of mankind the development of civilization.

2730: 2510: 2506: 2502: 2478: 2450: 2357: 2258: 2203: 2175: 1663: 1647: 1607: 1447: 1377: 1358: 1029: 944: 831: 535: 530: 478: 200: 5751:

Collections and Objections: Aboriginal Material Culture in Southern Ontario.

5524: 3717: 3125:. New historicism, 5. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 379. 2264: 6033: 4568: 4081: 3674:

Bartholomew Dean "Critical Re-vision: Clastres' Chronicle and the optic of

2534: 2474: 2470: 2400: 2138: 2134: 2120: 2089: 2031: 2030:

to the technical explanations rooted in economic and political theory. Dr.

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Guha, Abhijit (2018). "Social Anthropology of B.S. Guha: An Exploration".

4150:"Social Life in Ancient India: « Studies in Vatsyayana's * Kamasutra" 3405: 3296: 1285:. Biruni's tradition of comparative cross-cultural study continued in the 866:

suffix, such as archeo-logy, bio-logy, etc., "the study (or science) of".

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Sinha, D. P.; Coon, Carleton S. (1963). "Biraja Sankar Guha, 1894-1961".

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Sen Gupta, S., Folklorists of Bengal, Calcutta: Indian Publications, 1965

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Language and solitude: Wittgenstein, Malinowski, and the Habsburg dilemma

3675: 3081: 2482: 2020: 1980: 1531: 1463: 1393: 1290: 1274: 1206: 1003: 996: 928: 809: 615: 483: 240: 113: 80: 5678:. Translated by Norbert Guterman. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World. 5470: 5443: 4828:"Progress of Anthropology and Archaeology in India by Nirmal Kumar Bose" 4791: 3986: 3362: 1861:, Radcliffe-Brown published an account of his research (entitled simply 1221:

Cannibalism among "the savages" in Brazil, as described and pictured by

5497: 5308:

Anthropology in the East: Founders of Indian Sociology and Anthropology

5013: 4680: 4549: 4238: 3813: 3661: 3626: 3269: 3231: 2764: 2423: 2294: 2243: 2187: 2163: 2056: 1988: 1965: 1873:, which examined the conceptual structures in language and symbolism.) 1797: 1682: 1615: 1596: 1527: 1389: 1308: 1282: 1155: 1119:

of 499 to 449 BCE. He did so in a surviving work conventionally termed

1074: 981: 956: 595: 4715: 4211: 3527: 2190:, and anthropology had a close relationship with studies of folklore. 1686:

Sir E. B. Tylor (1832–1917), nineteenth-century British anthropologist

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BEROSE International Encyclopaedia of the Histories of Anthropology.

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Nation-Building in Indian Anthropology: Beyond the Colonial Encounter

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The rise of anthropological theory: a history of theories of culture

5594: 5408: 5339: 5322: 5303: 5284: 5214: 5113: 5094: 5075: 5056: 5039: 4827: 4672: 4632:"Department of Anthropology : Savitribai Phule Pune University" 4595: 4541: 4506: 4474: 4149: 4126: 4074:

Bibliographies of eminent Indian anthropologists, with life-sketches

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Walbridge, J. T. (1998). "Explaining Away the Greek Gods in Islam".

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as a truly general science and free it from its historical focus on

2144:

Two works by Mauss in particular proved to have enduring relevance:

2038:

trained anthropologist who went on to become a senior editor at the

1690: 932:

credible anthropologists, especially those that consider themselves

5195: 5080:

Studies in Social Tensions among the refugees from eastern Pakistan

5061:

Studies in Social Tensions among the refugees from eastern Pakistan

5041:

Studies in Social Tensions among the refugees from eastern Pakistan

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Race, Culture, and Evolution: Essays in the history of anthropology

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Colonial Subjects: Essays on the Practical History of Anthropology

5810:

The Land of Prehistory: A Critical History of American Archaeology

5304:"In the Cause of Anthropology: The Life and Work of Irawati Karve" 2234:

that "primitive societies" actively oppose the institution of the

1349:

Many scholars consider modern anthropology as an outgrowth of the

1331:

Philadelphus, a defense of the legend of Brutus in British history

6460: 5985: 5669:. Translated from the French by John Russell. New York: Atheneum. 4326: 4324: 3935:. Calcutta, Thacker, Spink & Co.; London, W. Thacker & Co 3790: 2100: 1742: 1734: 1302: 1194: 1022: 952: 605: 585: 553: 343: 5954:. Institute for Ice Age Studies. 12 January 2008. Archived from 4768: 2446: 1968:, among others, introduced French structuralism in the style of 5645:

After the fact: two countries, four decades, one anthropologist

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Das Gupta, B.K., Basu, A., Raychaudhuri, B., Gupta, P. (1985).

4841: 3210:

Ahmed, Akbar S. (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist".

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or enslaved, could never become citizens of the United States.

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developed during this time and informed the development of the

1151: 580: 5407:

J.S. Tandon; P. N. Saxena; B. K. Roy Burman; A. Mitra (1968).

4646:"Anthropology - Official Website of Ranchi University, Ranchi" 4495:

Bulletin of Yale University 1941:295-296 & Nature 1936:750

4321: 1755: 1407:

Institutionally, anthropology emerged from the development of

889:

attempted to rescue the etymology in his first address to the

4254:"Tarak Chandra das: Contributions and Contemporary Relevance" 4225:

Hutton, J. H. (1963). "193. K. P. Chattopadhyay: 1898-1963".

2580:

In Greece, there was since the 19th century a science of the

2569:

and a receptiveness to certain kinds of cultural relativism.

2550: 2152: 1667: 1666:

for instance—although some of them believed it originated in

1600: 1253:, who wrote about the peoples, customs, and religions of the 1198: 1168: 882: 863: 834: 5743:

Invisible Genealogies: A History of Americanist Anthropology

5624: 5513:

Bulletins et Mémoires de la Société d'anthropologie de Paris

4424:"Anthropometry | Human Body Measurement & Analysis" 3319:"West Asian views on black Africans during the medieval era" 2684:

Peasant life in India: A Study in Indian Unity and Diversity

2290: 1586:

were not the only site of anthropological studies: with the

1336: 990:

Cultural Materialism: The Struggle for a Science of Culture.

5595:"An Anthropologist in search of a purpose by Amitabha Basu" 5082:. Memoirs. Vol. 1. Delhi: The Manager of Publications. 5063:. Memoirs. Vol. 1. Delhi: The Manager of Publications. 5044:. Memoirs. Vol. 1. Delhi: The Manager of Publications. 1832:

British social anthropology had an expansive moment in the

963:

used it: "the natural history of society", in the words of

590: 3177: 2806:. Vol. II H to R. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 1986. 2379: 1115:), a Greek writer, set about to chronicle and explain the 967:, or the "universal history of mankind", the 18th-century 4565:"Bhupendranath Datta: An Unnoticed Indian Anthropologist" 3870:; Peter Sack, Carl P. Wellman, Mitsukuni Yasaki (Hrsg.): 3108:

Map is Not Territory: Studies in the History of Religions

2395:, became an advocate for and ethnological scholar of the 1726: 1591: 1419:

not unlike studying the flora and fauna of those places.

1396:

reaction to the Enlightenment produced thinkers, such as

1178: 5713:

Barth, Fredrik; Gingrich, Andre; Parkin, Robert (2005).

4304:

Bright Sparks: Inspiring Indian Scientists from the Past

3965:

Shah, A.M. (2014). "Anthropology in Bombay, 1886-1936".

3502:"Matthew Arnold, E. B. Tylor, and the Uses of Invention" 2893:

The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language

1945:

of the primitive in modern life, and the replacement of

1836:, with key contributions coming from the Polish-British 1466:

reaction to the Enlightenment produced thinkers such as

1462:

of which anthropology was a part. At the same time, the

47: 5271:

Proceedings of the Symposium on Purum (Chote) Revisited

5014:"People of India | Antropological Survey of India" 2707:

Proceedings of the Symposium on Purum (Chote) Revisited

2509:. Influenced by psychoanalytic psychologists including 1792:

A decade and a half later, Polish anthropology student

1002:

Harris agrees with the 19th-century view that laws are

856:

of Renaissance France, where it spawns the French word

3071:

Eriksen, Thomas Hylland; Nielsen, Finn Sivert (1013).

2712:

A Survey of the People Displaced Through the Koyna Dam

1562: 3893:"Anthropology - World anthropology | Britannica" 3181:

Who are the Slavs?: A Contribution to Race Psychology

1709:

in Britain. Although Tylor undertook a field trip to

1422:

Early anthropology was divided between proponents of

5337: 5320: 3110:. Chicage: University of Chicago Press. p. 245. 2219:) rather than academic departments in universities. 1433: 5793:"Introductory Address on the Study of Anthropology" 5787:(University of Nebraska Press, 2016). xliv, 574 pp. 5712: 5215:"A Forgotten Book by a Marginalised Anthropologist" 4694:"Department of Anthropology, Government of India". 4076:. Anthropological Survey of India, Govt. of India. 2123:(1872–1950), nephew of the influential sociologist 2044:is one of the leaders in this use of anthropology. 5642: 5095:"Social anthropology of B.S. Guha: An Exploration" 3864:Western Anthropology: Democracy and Dehumanization 3604: 2060:producing a hybrid "Socio-cultural" anthropology. 4950:"Nirmal Kumar Bose Memorial Lecture First (1993)" 3875:. Vorwort von / Preface by Ota Weinberger. 1991. 1167:, material goods such as houses and consumables; 6616: 5973:"Harris on the Universal Structure of Societies" 5634:he innocent anthropologist: notes from a mud hut 5537:file:///C:/Users/AG/Downloads/CurrSC1993641.pdf 5306:. In P. Uberoi; N. Sundar; S. Deshpande (eds.). 4842:"Profile | Anthropological Survey of India" 2613:Journal of the Anthropological Society of Bombay 2249:The most important French social theorist since 5883: 4131:Journal of the Indian Anthropological Institute 2222:Other influential writers in the 1970s include 1953:, all of which are central to modern culture." 1150:), had been conferred on Herodotus probably by 995:freedom to happen or not happen, but in strict 893:as president and founder, 1863. He did find an 5952:"Historical Trends in Anthropological Thought" 5759:Cannibals and kings : origins of cultures 5620:List of important publications in anthropology 5429: 5310:. Ranikhet: Permanent Black. pp. 360–416. 4009:"Government of India, Indian Science Congress" 3070: 1918:, together with many of his colleagues at the 1811:anthropologists, and his classic ethnography, 1677: 6151: 6006: 5868:The Making of British Anthropology, 1813–1871 5824:Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert (1940). 5783:Hinsley, Curtis M. and David R. Wilcox, eds. 4258:Journal of the Indian Anthropological Society 3243: 3241: 2537:, and Mead was limited to her offices at the 2170:, which drew on ethnography for inspiration. 1013:He borrows terms from linguistics: just as a 782: 5853: 5823: 5745:. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. 5664: 2858: 2843: 2816: 2724: 1894:The Dynamics of Clanship Among the Tallensi, 857: 6020: 5865: 5854:Pels, Peter; Salemink, Oscar, eds. (2000). 5818:David Boyle: From Artisan to Archaeologist. 5726:. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. 5708:. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press. 5690:. Berkeley: University of California Press. 5649:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 3387:The Renaissance Foundations of Anthropology 1756:Bronislaw Malinowski and the British School 1701:(2 October 1832 – 2 January 1917) and 1382:Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View 851: 6575: 6158: 6144: 6013: 5999: 5858:. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. 5696: 5673: 5073: 5054: 4351: 3238: 2917: 2915: 2672:Swami Vivekananda: Patriot-Prophet—a study 1785:and including a physician-anthropologist, 1628:, which first formulation may be found in 1502:Institutionally anthropology emerged from 789: 775: 5706:Anthropology & the Colonial Encounter 5625:Fieldnotes and memoirs of anthropologists 5456: 5419:. Office of the Registrar General, India. 4369: 4189: 3701: 3598: 3517: 3345:"Resources for a History of Anthropology" 3282: 2242:as a separate function from society. The 1635:An Essay on the Inequality of Human Races 1337:The Enlightenment roots of the discipline 939: 936:and others in history so classified now. 5874: 3570:. New York, Harcourt, Brace & World 3499: 3205: 3203: 3184:. Vol. 1. R. G. Badger. p. 469 3135: 2702:The Purums: An Old Kuki tribe of Manipur 2445: 2289: 2263: 2099: 1689: 1681: 1340: 1227: 1216: 5768:Theories of Culture in Postmodern Times 5740: 5732:Anthropological Theory in North America 5717:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 5683: 5676:A diary in the strict sense of the term 5510: 4854: 4507:"Research leads in Indian anthropology" 3752:. New York: Cambridge University Press. 3568:A diary in the strict sense of the term 2912: 2380:Lewis Henry Morgan in the United States 2182:was restricted to museums, such as the 2063: 1902:African Systems of Kinship and Marriage 6617: 6165: 5970: 5774: 5765: 5756: 5724:Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin 5640: 5636:. London: British Museum Publications. 5631: 5578:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 5483: 5372: 5301: 4934:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 4760:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 4224: 4057:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 3930: 3765:. New York: Columbia University Press. 3247: 3120: 3058: 3046: 3034: 3022: 3010: 2998: 2986: 2974: 2962: 2921: 2193: 947:, a historian of anthropology, begins 6139: 5994: 5934:. National Geographic. Archived from 5807: 5282: 4883:"INSA :: Deceased Fellow Detail" 4806:"INSA :: Deceased Fellow Detail" 4658: 4593: 4504: 4332:"INSA :: Deceased Fellow Detail" 4297: 4274: 3931:Risley, Herbert Hope (18 July 1908). 3707: 3680:Best of Anthropology Today, 1974–2000 3639: 3579: 3209: 3200: 3105: 2721:has followed different trajectories. 2668:Dialectics of Land Economics of India 1047: 830:ostensibly is a produced compound of 5790: 5721: 5703: 5592: 5382:International Social Science Journal 5212: 5150: 5111: 5092: 5037: 4777: 4562: 4277:"Nirmal Kumar Bose Memorial Lecture" 4251: 4166: 4147: 4127:"Late Rai Bahadur Ramaprasad Chanda" 3964: 2906: 2873: 2831: 1910: 1900:; well-known edited volumes include 1877:teaching at universities across the 1373:, of which anthropology was a part. 5779:. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press. 5770:. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press. 5761:. New York; Toronto: Vintage Books. 5687:Reflections on Fieldwork in Morocco 5193: 4527: 4475:"Anthropological Research in India" 4472: 4071: 3459: 3410:. Stanford University Press. 2007. 3178:Paul Rankov Radosavljevich (1919). 2886:"Appendix I: Indo-European Roots". 2644:Bharater Ditiya Swadhinatar Sangram 2618:Indian Science Congress Association 2360:, and even South Carolina Governor 2226:, who explains in his books on the 1694:Sir James George Frazer (1854–1941) 1599:". For example, in 1906, Congolese 1563:National anthropological traditions 1293:'s work in the fourteenth century. 13: 5928:"Encyclopedic Entry: Anthropology" 4306:. Indian National Science Academy. 4167:Bose, Kaushik (10 December 2006). 2735:The Rise of Anthropological Theory 2544: 2463:American Museum of Natural History 2308:and the Smithsonian Institution's 1569:History of anthropology by country 1553:—and perhaps all species of genus 1177:, the authoritative precedents or 949:The Rise of Anthropological Theory 14: 6641: 6196:History and philosophy of science 5920: 5886:Anthropology in Medical Education 4618:"Welcome to University of Madras" 3907:"About us | Asiatic Society" 1520:The American Beaver and His Works 1434:Overview of the modern discipline 891:Anthropological Society of London 6598: 6597: 6585: 6574: 6204: 5734:. Westport: Berin & Garvey. 5730:Cerroni-Long, E. L., ed. (1999) 5586: 5540: 5531: 5504: 5477: 5450: 5423: 5400: 5366: 5348: 5331: 5314: 5302:Sundar, Nandini (January 2010). 5295: 5276: 5263: 5254: 5245: 5206: 5187: 5144: 5105: 5086: 5067: 5048: 5031: 5006: 4980: 4971: 4942: 4825: 4317:History of anthropology in India 2278: 1825:. Theoretically, he advocated a 1817:(1922) advocated an approach to 1814:Argonauts of the Western Pacific 1355:first European colonization wave 1060: 46: 5613: 5283:Sinha, Surajit Chandra (1955). 4988:""Tribals conserve to survive"" 4896: 4875: 4848: 4834: 4819: 4798: 4722: 4687: 4652: 4638: 4624: 4610: 4587: 4575: 4563:Guha, Abhijit (December 2019). 4556: 4521: 4498: 4489: 4466: 4441: 4416: 4402: 4378: 4345: 4310: 4291: 4268: 4245: 4218: 4183: 4160: 4141: 4119: 4105: 4096: 4065: 4015: 4001: 3958: 3947: 3924: 3899: 3885: 3844: 3828: 3784: 3768: 3763:Soviet and Western anthropology 3755: 3742: 3688: 3668: 3633: 3573: 3560: 3547: 3534: 3493: 3484: 3475: 3453: 3436: 3424: 3398: 3380: 3355: 3337: 3311: 3285:Journal of the History of Ideas 3276: 3171: 3129: 3114: 3099: 3064: 3052: 3040: 3028: 3016: 3004: 2992: 2980: 2968: 2956: 2927: 2640:Studies in Indian Social Polity 2529:The Chrysanthemum and the Sword 2114: 2083: 2068:True anthropology began with a 1656:A Hundred Years of Anthropology 1590:period, starting in the 1870s, 1514:could write monographs on both 1301:reported of his stay among the 1232:Table of natural history, 1728 897:from Aristotle in the standard 5986:https://www.berose.fr/?lang=en 5812:. New York; London: Routledge. 5674:Malinowski, Bronislaw (1967). 5593:Guha, Abhijit (January 1974). 5112:Guha, Abhijit (January 2021). 4148:Guha, Abhijit (January 1929). 3607:The American Historical Review 3584:. Cambridge University Press. 3557:. 2 vols. London, John Murray. 2939:Culture-historical archaeology 2900: 2879: 2867: 2852: 2837: 2825: 2810: 2795: 2789:Online Etymological Dictionary 2777: 1956:Later in the 1960s and 1970s, 1537:Drawing on the methods of the 1506:(expounded by authors such as 1411:(expounded by authors such as 1314: 1212: 1083:The Anthropology of the Greeks 736:Anthropologists by nationality 1: 5875:Stocking, George Jr. (1968). 5749:Hamilton, Michelle A. (2010) 5665:Lévi-Strauss, Claude (1967). 5486:Economic and Political Weekly 4869:10.1525/aa.1980.82.1.02a00960 4708:10.1525/aa.1948.50.3.02a00250 4371:10.1525/aa.1965.67.2.02a00140 4352:Mandelbaum, David G. (1965). 4204:10.1525/aa.1963.65.2.02a00120 3943:– via Internet Archive. 3911:www.asiaticsocietykolkata.org 3566:Malinowski, Bronisław (1967) 3519:10.1525/aa.1963.65.4.02a00010 2770: 2636:Dialectics of Hindu Ritualism 2591:In Italy, the development of 2418: 2028:Financial crisis of 2007–2010 1621:The Passing of the Great Race 1105: 1091:Anthropology and the Classics 869:The mixed character of Greek 5338:Irawati Karve; Jai Nimbkar. 5321:Irawati Karve; Jai Nimbkar. 5291:. Government of West Bengal. 4252:Guha, Abhijit (March 2013). 3778:, Consulté le 15 juin 2007. 3761:Gellner, Ernest, ed. (1980) 3500:Stocking, George W. (1963). 2557:, and the successors to the 2310:Bureau of American Ethnology 1926:, collectively known as the 1920:Rhodes-Livingstone Institute 1775:multidisciplinary expedition 1530:, since its relationship to 1173:, the mores or customs; and 1096: 922:American Heritage Dictionary 840: 819: 7: 6547:Neurology and neurosurgery 5894:10.1007/978-3-030-62277-0_2 5877:Race, Culture and Evolution 5866:Sera-Shriar, Efram (2013). 5803:. London: Trübner & Co. 5722:Buck, Carl Darling (1933). 5373:Cernea, Michael. M (1995). 4300:"Irawati Karve (1905-1970)" 4072:Ray, Shyamal Kumar (1974). 3837:De Martino, Ernesto Summary 3694:Stocking, George W. (1968) 3471:. University of Pittsburgh. 3136:Redfield, James M. (1985). 3106:Smith, Jonathan Z. (1993). 2744: 2656:Baishnab Sahitye Samajtatta 2457:Boas used his positions at 2387:(1818–1881), a lawyer from 2119:Most commentators consider 2074:Geological Survey of Canada 1890:Edward Evan Evans-Pritchard 1678:E.B. Tylor and James Frazer 988:, which he also details in 808:scientific word during the 10: 6646: 6625:History of social sciences 5797:The Anthropological Review 5617: 5605:(2) (published July 1974). 5194:Das, Tarakchandra (1949). 5074:Chatterjee, B. K. (1954). 5055:Chatterjee, B. K. (1954). 2951:sociocultural anthropology 1906:African Political Systems. 1670:. Finally, the concept of 1638:(1853–1855). In 1931, the 1606:was put by anthropologist 1577: 1566: 1516:The League of the Iroquois 1318: 1271:cross-cultural comparisons 1184: 1079:Herodotus and Anthropology 835: 756:List of indigenous peoples 17: 6570: 6517: 6484: 6436: 6383: 6345: 6269: 6213: 6202: 6173: 6047: 6026: 5975:. Socio-cultural Systems. 5971:Elwell, Frank W. (2007). 5704:Asad, Talal, ed. (1973). 5641:Geertz, Clifford (1995). 5202:. University of Calcutta. 4505:Mitra, Panchanan (1933). 4354:"Verrier Elwin 1902–1964" 3698:. London: The Free Press. 3250:Anthropological Quarterly 3121:Hartog, François (1988). 3074:A History of Anthropology 2725:20th-century developments 2567:cross-cultural comparison 2095: 2047: 1642:in Paris still displayed 1618:, was also the author of 1345:Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) 1034:synchronic and diachronic 501:Cross-cultural comparison 5808:Kehoe, Alice B. (1998). 5775:—— (2001) . 5757:Harris, Marvin (1991) . 5741:Darnell, Regna. (2001). 5356:"Roy Burman passes away" 5231:10.1177/0049085719863892 5130:10.1177/0038022920956753 5038:Guha, B.S., ed. (1954). 3979:10.1177/0038022920140302 3748:Gellner, Ernest. (1998) 3710:Culture and Human Nature 2859:Liddell & Scott 1940 2844:Liddell & Scott 1940 2817:Liddell & Scott 1940 2664:Hindu Law of Inheritance 2648:Bharatiyo Samaj Padhyati 2605: 2306:Bureau of Indian Affairs 1867:structural functionalism 673:Historical particularism 18:Not to be confused with 6261:20th century in science 6256:19th century in science 6039:History of anthropology 6021:History of anthropology 5879:. New York: Free Press. 5826:A Greek-English Lexicon 5816:Killan, Gerald. (1983) 5766:—— (1999). 5697:History of anthropology 5525:10.3406/bmsap.1974.2087 5078:. In Guha, B.S. (ed.). 5059:. In Guha, B.S. (ed.). 4857:American Anthropologist 4696:American Anthropologist 4358:American Anthropologist 4192:American Anthropologist 4113:"Folklorists of Bengal" 3718:10.4324/9780429336812-3 3506:American Anthropologist 3138:"Herodotus the Tourist" 2756:List of anthropologists 2739:George W. Stocking, Jr. 2652:Amar Amerikar Abhijnata 2487:Indo-European languages 1949:modes of analysis with 1823:participant observation 1802:Austro-Hungarian Empire 1524:natural history museums 1489:observed in the 1840s: 1438:Marxist anthropologist 1398:Johann Gottfried Herder 1259:participant observation 1081:(1908); E. E. Sikes in 802:History of anthropology 506:Participant observation 20:Historical anthropology 6181:Theories and sociology 5684:Rabinow, Paul (1977). 5632:Barley, Nigel (1983). 5599:Indian Museum Bulletin 5213:Guha, Abhijit (2019). 5151:Guha, Abhijit (2022). 5093:Guha, Abhijit (2018). 4992:www.downtoearth.org.in 4600:Eastern Anthropologist 4298:Gupta, Arvind (2009). 3469:Slovak Studies Program 2751:History of archaeology 2693: 2523:Coming of Age in Samoa 2454: 2318:Frank Hamilton Cushing 2298: 2275: 2151:a seminal analysis of 2107: 1941:, an awareness of the 1800:. As a subject of the 1781:in 1898, organized by 1765:analysis, rather than 1695: 1687: 1662:migrations across the 1496: 1346: 1238: 1225: 1147: 940:The science of history 858: 852: 648:Cross-cultural studies 6241:Scientific Revolution 5459:Indian Anthropologist 5432:Indian Anthropologist 5163:10.4324/9781003341581 5118:Sociological Bulletin 5099:Indian Anthropologist 4780:Indian Anthropologist 3967:Sociological Bulletin 3933:"The people of India" 3432:Generation-online.org 3297:10.1353/jhi.1998.0030 2949:, or the compromise, 2935:cultural anthropology 2896:(4th ed.). 2009. 2689: 2520:Though such works as 2449: 2439:, were not possible. 2302:Cultural anthropology 2293: 2267: 2103: 2070:Government department 1977:physical anthropology 1924:Manchester University 1863:The Andaman Islanders 1847:A. R. Radcliffe-Brown 1779:Torres Strait Islands 1722:cultural diffusionism 1693: 1685: 1491: 1344: 1321:Bernardino de Sahagún 1299:John of Plano Carpini 1231: 1220: 961:cultural anthropology 899:ancient Greek Lexicon 6494:Agricultural science 6246:Age of Enlightenment 5791:Hunt, James (1863). 5415:. Monograph Series. 4916:on 17 September 2021 4702:(3): 576–581. 1948. 4594:Joshi, P.C. (2015). 4389:www.encyclopedia.com 4030:www.new.dli.ernet.in 3862:; Axel Montenbruck: 3794:Current Anthropology 3580:Goody, Jack (1995). 3553:Tylor, E. B. (1871) 3544:London: John Murray. 3540:Tylor, E. B. (1865) 3462:"Herder on Language" 3351:on 31 December 2012. 3087:on 19 September 2015 2719:world anthropologies 2346:Samuel A. Cartwright 2342:Samuel George Morton 2253:and Lévi-Strauss is 2078:George Mercer Dawson 2064:George Mercer Dawson 2036:Cambridge University 1879:British Commonwealth 1838:Bronisław Malinowski 1794:Bronisław Malinowski 1771:Cambridge University 1699:Edward Burnett Tylor 1582:Museums such as the 1534:was and is complex. 1357:. The traditions of 1351:Age of Enlightenment 1247:Abu Rayhan al-Biruni 1154:. Pointing out that 1055:Age of Enlightenment 986:cultural materialism 969:Age of Enlightenment 885:) has that meaning. 741:Anthropology by year 678:Boasian anthropology 653:Cultural materialism 638:Actor–network theory 236:Paleoanthropological 6532:Veterinary medicine 6226:Classical Antiquity 5560:on 12 November 2021 5076:"Part II: AZADGARH" 4137:(1–2): i–iii. 1938. 3363:"Marco Polo's Asia" 3145:Classical Philology 3001:, pp. xii–xiii 2947:social anthropology 2717:The development of 2492:The publication of 2459:Columbia University 2362:James Henry Hammond 2200:Claude Lévi-Strauss 2194:Claude Lévi-Strauss 1939:cultural relativism 1730:] to another". 1707:social anthropology 1703:James George Frazer 1640:Colonial Exhibition 1543:theory of evolution 1255:Indian subcontinent 971:objective. Just as 693:Performance studies 586:Kinship and descent 526:Cultural relativism 176:Paleoethnobotanical 151:Ethnoarchaeological 6167:History of science 5888:. pp. 13–51. 4994:. 29 February 1996 4742:on 8 November 2021 4473:Roy, S.C. (1921). 4428:www.britannica.com 3776:Terrain.revues.org 3712:. pp. 32–58. 3392:2012-09-04 at the 2597:Ernesto De Martino 2455: 2385:Lewis Henry Morgan 2374:Frederick Douglass 2314:John Wesley Powell 2299: 2276: 2213:Françoise Héritier 2130:Année Sociologique 2108: 1783:Alfred Cort Haddon 1696: 1688: 1630:Arthur de Gobineau 1512:Lewis Henry Morgan 1347: 1251:Islamic Golden Age 1239: 1226: 1117:Greco-Persian Wars 1048:Proto-anthropology 1008:empirical evidence 713:Post-structuralism 472:Research framework 6612: 6611: 6504:Materials science 6466:Political science 6231:Medieval European 6133: 6132: 5980:The Historyscoper 5903:978-3-030-62276-3 5841:Missing or empty 5834:cite encyclopedia 5667:Tristes tropiques 5289:Government Report 4582:Department detail 4386:"Majumdar, D. N." 4169:"Panchanan Mitra" 3881:978-3-428-07193-7 3856:978-3-7696-0977-6 3727:978-0-429-33681-2 3591:978-0-521-45666-1 3460:Votruba, Martin. 2632:Prehistoric India 2147:Essay on the Gift 1960:and his students 1928:Manchester School 1911:Post WW II trends 1626:scientific racism 1610:in a cage in the 1547:natural selection 1281:, and especially 1160:James M. Redfield 1132:Achaemenid Empire 1130:The Persia-based 799: 798: 698:Political economy 521:Thick description 318:Political economy 181:Zooarchaeological 141:Bioarchaeological 6637: 6605: 6601: 6600: 6593: 6589: 6578: 6577: 6499:Computer science 6347:Natural sciences 6312:Medieval Islamic 6208: 6160: 6153: 6146: 6137: 6136: 6015: 6008: 6001: 5992: 5991: 5976: 5967: 5965: 5963: 5947: 5945: 5943: 5915: 5880: 5871: 5859: 5850: 5844: 5839: 5837: 5829: 5813: 5804: 5780: 5771: 5762: 5746: 5727: 5718: 5709: 5691: 5679: 5670: 5660: 5648: 5637: 5607: 5606: 5590: 5584: 5583: 5577: 5569: 5567: 5565: 5559: 5553:. 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Archived from 3341: 3335: 3334: 3332: 3330: 3315: 3309: 3308: 3280: 3274: 3273: 3245: 3236: 3235: 3207: 3198: 3197: 3191: 3189: 3175: 3169: 3168: 3142: 3133: 3127: 3126: 3118: 3112: 3111: 3103: 3097: 3096: 3094: 3092: 3086: 3079: 3068: 3062: 3056: 3050: 3049:, pp. 75–76 3044: 3038: 3032: 3026: 3020: 3014: 3008: 3002: 2996: 2990: 2984: 2978: 2972: 2966: 2960: 2954: 2931: 2925: 2919: 2910: 2904: 2898: 2897: 2883: 2877: 2871: 2865: 2856: 2850: 2841: 2835: 2829: 2823: 2814: 2808: 2807: 2799: 2793: 2792: 2781: 2761:Musée de l'Homme 2559:Austro-Hungarian 2437:natural sciences 2370:Types of Mankind 2338:Charles Caldwell 2209:Maurice Godelier 2184:Musée de l'Homme 2017:cultural studies 2009:social relations 1937:, the growth of 1922:and students at 1749:The Golden Bough 1539:natural sciences 1487:Friedrich Engels 1327:Richard Harvey's 1114: 1110: 1107: 1067:Classical Greece 1042:three-age system 861: 855: 843: 838: 837: 791: 784: 777: 319: 201:Anthrozoological 50: 27: 26: 6645: 6644: 6640: 6639: 6638: 6636: 6635: 6634: 6615: 6614: 6613: 6608: 6596: 6584: 6566: 6513: 6480: 6438:Social sciences 6432: 6379: 6341: 6265: 6209: 6200: 6169: 6164: 6134: 6129: 6043: 6022: 6019: 5961: 5959: 5958:on 21 June 2013 5950: 5941: 5939: 5926: 5923: 5918: 5904: 5842: 5840: 5831: 5830: 5753:Montreal: MQUP. 5699: 5694: 5657: 5627: 5622: 5616: 5611: 5610: 5591: 5587: 5571: 5570: 5563: 5561: 5557: 5550: 5548:"Archived copy" 5546: 5545: 5541: 5536: 5532: 5509: 5505: 5492:(13): 693–697. 5482: 5478: 5455: 5451: 5428: 5424: 5405: 5401: 5377: 5371: 5367: 5362:. 27 June 2012. 5354: 5353: 5349: 5336: 5332: 5319: 5315: 5300: 5296: 5281: 5277: 5268: 5264: 5259: 5255: 5250: 5246: 5211: 5207: 5192: 5188: 5173: 5149: 5145: 5110: 5106: 5091: 5087: 5072: 5068: 5057:"Part I: JIRAT" 5053: 5049: 5036: 5032: 5022: 5020: 5012: 5011: 5007: 4997: 4995: 4986: 4985: 4981: 4976: 4972: 4962: 4960: 4952: 4948: 4947: 4943: 4927: 4926: 4919: 4917: 4913: 4906: 4904:"Archived copy" 4902: 4901: 4897: 4887: 4885: 4881: 4880: 4876: 4853: 4849: 4840: 4839: 4835: 4826:Guha, Abhijit. 4824: 4820: 4810: 4808: 4804: 4803: 4799: 4776: 4769: 4753: 4752: 4745: 4743: 4739: 4732: 4730:"Archived copy" 4728: 4727: 4723: 4693: 4692: 4688: 4673:10.2307/2793255 4657: 4653: 4644: 4643: 4639: 4630: 4629: 4625: 4616: 4615: 4611: 4592: 4588: 4580: 4576: 4561: 4557: 4542:10.2307/2793210 4526: 4522: 4503: 4499: 4494: 4490: 4471: 4467: 4457: 4455: 4447: 4446: 4442: 4432: 4430: 4422: 4421: 4417: 4408: 4407: 4403: 4393: 4391: 4384: 4383: 4379: 4350: 4346: 4336: 4334: 4330: 4329: 4322: 4315: 4311: 4296: 4292: 4282: 4280: 4273: 4269: 4250: 4246: 4223: 4219: 4188: 4184: 4173:Current Science 4165: 4161: 4146: 4142: 4125: 4124: 4120: 4111: 4110: 4106: 4101: 4097: 4070: 4066: 4050: 4049: 4042: 4040: 4036: 4025: 4023:"Archived copy" 4021: 4020: 4016: 4007: 4006: 4002: 3963: 3959: 3952: 3948: 3938: 3936: 3929: 3925: 3915: 3913: 3905: 3904: 3900: 3891: 3890: 3886: 3849: 3845: 3834: 3833: 3829: 3789: 3785: 3779: 3773: 3769: 3760: 3756: 3747: 3743: 3728: 3706: 3702: 3693: 3689: 3673: 3669: 3654:10.2307/2844128 3638: 3634: 3619:10.2307/2171126 3603: 3599: 3592: 3578: 3574: 3565: 3561: 3552: 3548: 3539: 3535: 3498: 3494: 3489: 3485: 3480: 3476: 3464: 3458: 3454: 3441: 3437: 3429: 3425: 3418: 3404: 3403: 3399: 3394:Wayback Machine 3385: 3381: 3371: 3369: 3361: 3360: 3356: 3343: 3342: 3338: 3328: 3326: 3317: 3316: 3312: 3281: 3277: 3262:10.2307/3318074 3246: 3239: 3224:10.2307/3033407 3208: 3201: 3187: 3185: 3176: 3172: 3140: 3134: 3130: 3119: 3115: 3104: 3100: 3090: 3088: 3084: 3077: 3069: 3065: 3057: 3053: 3045: 3041: 3033: 3029: 3021: 3017: 3009: 3005: 2997: 2993: 2985: 2981: 2973: 2969: 2961: 2957: 2932: 2928: 2920: 2913: 2905: 2901: 2885: 2884: 2880: 2872: 2868: 2857: 2853: 2842: 2838: 2830: 2826: 2815: 2811: 2801: 2800: 2796: 2783: 2782: 2778: 2773: 2747: 2727: 2608: 2563:Ottoman empires 2547: 2545:Other countries 2421: 2382: 2285:Native American 2281: 2255:Pierre Bourdieu 2224:Pierre Clastres 2196: 2117: 2098: 2086: 2066: 2050: 2041:Financial Times 2001:human geography 1913: 1851:Andaman Islands 1834:Interwar period 1758: 1680: 1588:New Imperialism 1580: 1571: 1565: 1504:natural history 1472:Wilhelm Dilthey 1460:social sciences 1436: 1409:natural history 1402:Wilhelm Dilthey 1371:social sciences 1339: 1323: 1317: 1215: 1187: 1148:pater historiae 1112: 1108: 1099: 1087:Clyde Kluckhohn 1073:; for example, 1063: 1050: 973:natural history 965:Herbert Spencer 942: 822: 795: 766: 765: 731: 723: 722: 703:Practice theory 643:Alliance theory 633: 625: 624: 620:Postcolonialism 549: 541: 540: 474: 464: 463: 429:Anthropological 424: 414: 413: 317: 267: 266: 246: 245: 196: 186: 185: 116: 106: 105: 76: 68: 23: 12: 11: 5: 6643: 6633: 6632: 6627: 6610: 6609: 6607: 6606: 6594: 6582: 6571: 6568: 6567: 6565: 6564: 6559: 6554: 6549: 6544: 6539: 6534: 6529: 6527:Human medicine 6523: 6521: 6515: 6514: 6512: 6511: 6506: 6501: 6496: 6490: 6488: 6482: 6481: 6479: 6478: 6473: 6468: 6463: 6458: 6453: 6448: 6442: 6440: 6434: 6433: 6431: 6430: 6425: 6420: 6415: 6410: 6405: 6400: 6395: 6389: 6387: 6381: 6380: 6378: 6377: 6372: 6367: 6362: 6357: 6351: 6349: 6343: 6342: 6340: 6339: 6334: 6329: 6324: 6319: 6314: 6309: 6304: 6299: 6294: 6289: 6284: 6279: 6273: 6271: 6267: 6266: 6264: 6263: 6258: 6253: 6248: 6243: 6238: 6233: 6228: 6223: 6217: 6215: 6211: 6210: 6203: 6201: 6199: 6198: 6193: 6188: 6186:Historiography 6183: 6177: 6175: 6171: 6170: 6163: 6162: 6155: 6148: 6140: 6131: 6130: 6128: 6127: 6122: 6117: 6112: 6107: 6102: 6097: 6092: 6087: 6082: 6077: 6072: 6067: 6062: 6057: 6051: 6049: 6045: 6044: 6042: 6041: 6036: 6030: 6028: 6024: 6023: 6018: 6017: 6010: 6003: 5995: 5989: 5988: 5982: 5977: 5968: 5948: 5922: 5921:External links 5919: 5917: 5916: 5902: 5881: 5872: 5863: 5860: 5851: 5821: 5814: 5805: 5788: 5781: 5772: 5763: 5754: 5747: 5738: 5728: 5719: 5710: 5700: 5698: 5695: 5693: 5692: 5681: 5671: 5662: 5655: 5638: 5628: 5626: 5623: 5618:Main article: 5615: 5612: 5609: 5608: 5585: 5539: 5530: 5503: 5476: 5449: 5422: 5399: 5365: 5347: 5330: 5313: 5294: 5275: 5262: 5253: 5244: 5205: 5186: 5171: 5143: 5104: 5085: 5066: 5047: 5030: 5005: 4979: 4970: 4941: 4895: 4874: 4863:(1): 215–216. 4847: 4833: 4818: 4797: 4767: 4721: 4686: 4651: 4637: 4623: 4609: 4586: 4584:lkouniv.ac.in 4574: 4555: 4520: 4497: 4488: 4465: 4453:INDIAN CULTURE 4449:"Man in India" 4440: 4415: 4412:. 8 June 2023. 4401: 4377: 4364:(2): 448–452. 4344: 4320: 4309: 4290: 4267: 4244: 4217: 4198:(2): 382–387. 4182: 4159: 4140: 4118: 4104: 4095: 4064: 4014: 4000: 3973:(3): 355–367. 3957: 3946: 3923: 3898: 3884: 3843: 3827: 3806:10.1086/201970 3800:(4): 593–614. 3783: 3767: 3754: 3741: 3726: 3700: 3687: 3667: 3632: 3597: 3590: 3572: 3559: 3546: 3533: 3512:(4): 783–799. 3492: 3483: 3474: 3452: 3435: 3423: 3416: 3397: 3379: 3354: 3336: 3325:. 15 July 2023 3323:www.colorq.org 3310: 3291:(3): 389–403. 3275: 3256:(3): 185–193. 3237: 3199: 3170: 3157:10.1086/366908 3128: 3113: 3098: 3063: 3051: 3039: 3027: 3015: 3003: 2991: 2979: 2967: 2955: 2943:social history 2926: 2911: 2899: 2878: 2866: 2851: 2836: 2824: 2809: 2794: 2775: 2774: 2772: 2769: 2768: 2767: 2758: 2753: 2746: 2743: 2733:published his 2726: 2723: 2660:Banglar Itihas 2607: 2604: 2546: 2543: 2494:Alfred Kroeber 2467:Alfred Kroeber 2420: 2417: 2381: 2378: 2354:Josiah C. Nott 2350:George Gliddon 2329:Roger B. Taney 2325:Andrew Jackson 2312:, men such as 2280: 2277: 2195: 2192: 2172:Marcel Griaule 2125:Émile Durkheim 2116: 2113: 2105:Émile Durkheim 2097: 2094: 2085: 2082: 2065: 2062: 2049: 2046: 2013:ethnic studies 1997:museum studies 1912: 1909: 1855:Émile Durkheim 1787:William Rivers 1757: 1754: 1679: 1676: 1584:British Museum 1579: 1576: 1567:Main article: 1564: 1561: 1435: 1432: 1338: 1335: 1316: 1313: 1214: 1211: 1186: 1183: 1113: 425 BCE 1098: 1095: 1071:Classical Rome 1062: 1059: 1049: 1046: 941: 938: 934:functionalists 821: 818: 797: 796: 794: 793: 786: 779: 771: 768: 767: 764: 763: 758: 753: 748: 743: 738: 732: 729: 728: 725: 724: 721: 720: 718:Systems theory 715: 710: 705: 700: 695: 690: 685: 680: 675: 670: 665: 660: 658:Culture theory 655: 650: 645: 640: 634: 631: 630: 627: 626: 623: 622: 613: 608: 603: 598: 593: 588: 583: 578: 577: 576: 566: 561: 556: 550: 547: 546: 543: 542: 539: 538: 533: 528: 523: 518: 513: 508: 503: 498: 493: 492: 491: 481: 475: 470: 469: 466: 465: 462: 461: 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5978: 5974: 5969: 5957: 5953: 5949: 5938:on 8 May 2012 5937: 5933: 5929: 5925: 5924: 5913: 5909: 5905: 5899: 5895: 5891: 5887: 5882: 5878: 5873: 5869: 5864: 5861: 5857: 5852: 5848: 5835: 5827: 5822: 5820:Toronto: UTP. 5819: 5815: 5811: 5806: 5802: 5798: 5794: 5789: 5786: 5782: 5778: 5773: 5769: 5764: 5760: 5755: 5752: 5748: 5744: 5739: 5737: 5733: 5729: 5725: 5720: 5716: 5711: 5707: 5702: 5701: 5689: 5688: 5682: 5677: 5672: 5668: 5663: 5658: 5656:9780674008717 5652: 5647: 5646: 5639: 5635: 5630: 5629: 5621: 5604: 5600: 5596: 5589: 5581: 5575: 5556: 5549: 5543: 5534: 5526: 5522: 5518: 5514: 5507: 5499: 5495: 5491: 5487: 5480: 5472: 5468: 5464: 5460: 5453: 5445: 5441: 5437: 5433: 5426: 5418: 5414: 5410: 5403: 5395: 5391: 5388:(1): 91–112. 5387: 5383: 5376: 5369: 5361: 5357: 5351: 5343: 5342: 5334: 5326: 5325: 5317: 5309: 5305: 5298: 5290: 5286: 5279: 5272: 5266: 5257: 5248: 5240: 5236: 5232: 5228: 5224: 5220: 5219:Social Change 5216: 5209: 5201: 5197: 5190: 5182: 5178: 5174: 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July 2016 4786:(1): 1–12. 4606:(1): 35–41. 4536:: 146–150. 4275:Date/Time. 4233:: 155–156. 3780:(in French) 3678:", 2002 In 3676:primitivism 3648:: 263–281. 3613:(5): 1486. 3059:Harris 1999 3047:Harris 2001 3035:Harris 1999 3023:Harris 1999 3011:Harris 1991 2999:Harris 1991 2989:, p. 3 2987:Harris 2001 2977:, p. 2 2975:Harris 2001 2963:Harris 2001 2924:, p. 1 2922:Harris 2001 2834:, p. 1 2763:founded by 2670:(1952) and 2638:(1950) and 2483:linguistics 2287:societies. 2198:Above all, 2186:founded by 2168:primitivism 2157:reciprocity 2021:social work 1981:primatology 1773:financed a 1532:imperialism 1450:, history, 1361:, history, 1315:Renaissance 1291:Ibn Khaldun 1289:through to 1275:Middle East 1263:objectivity 1235:Cyclopaedia 1213:Middle Ages 1193:historian, 1121:the History 997:determinism 929:Renaissance 810:Renaissance 616:Colonialism 559:Development 516:Reflexivity 484:Ethnography 434:Descriptive 292:Development 231:Nutritional 206:Biocultural 131:Battlefield 6619:Categories 6486:Technology 6471:Psychology 6423:Statistics 6270:By culture 6174:Background 5225:(3): 493. 4746:8 November 4517:(1): 1–16. 4043:11 January 3684:Amazon.com 2771:References 2765:Paul Rivet 2586:laographia 2424:Franz Boas 2419:Franz Boas 2295:Franz Boas 2269:Blumenbach 2188:Paul Rivet 2180:ethnologie 2164:surrealism 1989:Egyptology 1966:Nur Yalman 1951:synchronic 1947:diachronic 1798:New Guinea 1767:diachronic 1763:synchronic 1660:Polynesian 1616:eugenicist 1597:human zoos 1528:chauvinism 1470:and later 1400:and later 1390:Egyptology 1319:See also: 1309:Marco Polo 1283:South Asia 1267:neutrality 1156:John Myres 1111: – c. 1109: 484 1075:John Myres 982:nomothetic 957:prehistory 887:James Hunt 873:and Latin 596:Prehistory 449:Historical 422:Linguistic 334:Historical 302:Ecological 194:Biological 96:Linguistic 86:Biological 6580:Timelines 6557:Pathology 6552:Nutrition 6476:Sociology 6456:Economics 6365:Chemistry 6355:Astronomy 6292:Byzantine 6287:Brazilian 6282:Argentine 6048:By decade 5932:Education 5912:234104348 5413:Monograph 5394:895509648 5360:The Hindu 5239:204395389 5181:252881003 5138:225121400 4667:: 68–69. 4283:11 August 4090:182424319 3995:164875955 3822:146232744 3736:216446331 3305:170321617 3188:7 October 3165:162300677 2907:Buck 1933 2874:Buck 1933 2832:Hunt 1863 2802:"-logy". 2593:ethnology 2515:Carl Jung 2432:cultures, 2409:barbarism 2389:Rochester 2240:authority 2230:tribe in 2005:sociology 1819:fieldwork 1715:fieldwork 1612:Bronx Zoo 1604:Ota Benga 1483:Karl Marx 1479:modernity 1456:sociology 1452:philology 1440:Eric Wolf 1367:sociology 1363:philology 1209:peoples. 1136:Bosphorus 1102:Herodotus 1097:Herodotus 879:Neo-Latin 871:anthropos 841:anthrōpos 824:The term 820:Etymology 806:Neo-Latin 569:Evolution 564:Ethnicity 496:Ethnology 374:Political 282:Cognitive 221:Molecular 6603:Category 6562:Pharmacy 6519:Medicine 6408:Geometry 6398:Calculus 6317:Japanese 5736:download 5574:cite web 5471:41919217 5444:41919227 4930:cite web 4792:26633108 4756:cite web 4485:: 11–55. 4053:cite web 3987:43854979 3390:Archived 2945:, as in 2937:; i.e., 2745:See also 2674:(1954). 2666:(1957), 2662:(1963), 2658:(1945), 2654:(1933), 2650:(1958), 2646:(1949), 2582:folklore 2461:and the 2405:savagery 2397:Iroquois 2393:New York 2271:'s five 2251:Foucault 2232:Paraguay 2153:exchange 1993:folklore 1985:Classics 1943:survival 1884:The Nuer 1545:through 1464:Romantic 1394:Romantic 1386:Classics 1376:It took 1245:scholar 1203:Germanic 1085:(1914); 976:events. 836:ἄνθρωπος 751:Journals 668:Feminism 454:Semiotic 394:Symbolic 389:Religion 324:Feminist 312:Economic 262:Cultural 216:Forensic 171:Maritime 166:Forensic 161:Feminist 136:Biblical 126:Aviation 91:Cultural 32:a series 30:Part of 6537:Anatomy 6461:History 6393:Algebra 6375:Physics 6360:Biology 6337:Spanish 6332:Russian 6327:Mexican 6302:Chinese 6277:African 5962:1 April 5942:7 April 5498:4394606 5101:: 1–12. 5023:18 July 4998:18 July 4963:18 July 4888:18 July 4811:18 July 4681:2793255 4550:2793210 4458:18 July 4433:18 July 4394:18 July 4337:18 July 4279:. 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History of anthropology

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