Bioarchaeology - Knowledge

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crown is forming. Not all enamel layers are visible on the tooth surface because enamel layers that are formed early in crown development are buried by later layers. Hypoplasias on this part of the tooth do not show on the tooth surface. Because of this buried enamel, teeth record stressors form a few months after the start of the event. The proportion of enamel crown formation time represented by this buried enamel varies from up to 50 percent in molars to 15-20 percent in anterior teeth. Surface hypoplasias record stressors occur from about one to seven years, or up to 13 years if the third molar is included.

249:(2209–1907 BP) period, the rate of females with cribra orbitalia remained roughly the same, while incidence among males and children declined (29.4 percent of the total female population, 5.3 percent of the total male population, and 25 percent of the juvenile population had cribra orbitalia). This study hypothesized that adults may have lower rates of cribra orbitalia than juveniles because lesions either heal with age or lead to death. Higher rates of cribia orbitalia among females may indicate lesser health status, or greater survival of young females with cribia orbitalia into adulthood. 637:

mechanisms of the global water cycle. Evaporated water vapor is more enriched in O (isotopically lighter; more negative delta value) compared to the remaining water, which is depleted in O (isotopically heavier; more positive delta value). An accepted first-order approximation for the isotopic composition of animal drinking water is local precipitation, though this is complicated to varying degrees by confounding water sources like natural springs or lakes. The baseline δO used in archaeological studies is modified depending on the relevant environmental and historical context.

333:, which states that bones are physically affected and remodeled by physical activity or inactivity. Increases in mechanical stress tend to produce thicker and stronger bones. Disruptions in homeostasis caused by nutritional deficiency or disease or profound inactivity/disuse/disability can lead to bone loss. While the acquisition of bipedal locomotion and body mass appear to determine the size and shape of children's bones, activity during the adolescent growth period seems to exert a greater influence on the size and shape of adult bones than exercise later in life. 619: 640:δO values of bioapatite in human skeletal remains are assumed to have formed in equilibrium with body water, thus providing a species-specific relationship to oxygen isotopic composition of body water. The same cannot be said for human bone collagen, as δO values in collagen seem to be impacted by drinking water, food water, and a combination of metabolic and physiological processes. δO values from bone minerals are essentially an averaged isotopic signature throughout the entire life of the individual. 410: 470: 537:

to those carried out by peoples inhabiting tropical areas known to be targeted by slavers who brought enslaved individuals from other parts of Africa to the colony. Based on this evidence, it was argued that these individuals represent enslaved persons from areas of Africa where C4 plants were consumed and who were brought to the Cape as laborers. These individuals were not assigned to a specific ethnicity, but similar dental modifications are carried out by the

7763: 340:) have been thought to be impacted in the same way, causing entheseal changes. These changes were widely used to study activity-patterns, but research has shown that processes associated with aging have a greater impact than occupational stresses. It has also been shown that geometric changes to bone structure (described above) and entheseal changes differ in their underlying cause with the latter little affected by occupation. Joint changes, including 104:

variety of skeletal series methods to assess these types of changes have been developed. For instance, in children age is typically estimated by assessing dental development, ossification and fusion of specific skeletal elements, or long bone length. For children, different teeth erupt from the gums serially are the most reliable for telling a child's age. However, fully developed teeth are less indicative. In adults, degenerative changes to the

680:) is particularly useful since it is the most abundant of the rare isotopes. This system is less commonly used on its own and typically complements studies of carbon and nitrogen. In bioarchaeology, the sulfur system has been used to investigate paleodiets and spatial behaviors through the analysis of hair and bone collagen. Dietary proteins incorporated into living organisms tend to determine the stable isotope values of their organic tissues. 421:

carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur are the primary stable isotope systems used to interrogate archeological discoveries. Isotopic signatures from multiple systems are typically used in tandem to create a comprehensive understanding of the analyzed material. These systems are most commonly used to trace the geographic origin of archaeological remains and investigate the diets, mobility, and cultural practices of ancient humans.

135:, although overlap in body shape and sexual characteristics is possible. Not all skeletons can be assigned a sex, and some may be wrongly identified. Biological males and biological females differ most in the skull and pelvis; bioarchaeologists focus on these body parts, although other body parts can be used. The female pelvis is generally broader than the male pelvis, and the angle between the two inferior 7774: 533:, South Africa, were analyzed using stable isotope data in order to determine geographical histories and life histories. The people buried in this cemetery were assumed to be slaves and members of the underclass based on the informal nature of the cemetery; biomechanical stress analysis and stable isotope analysis, combined with other archaeological data, seem to support this supposition. 730:

Studies have measured δS values of bone collagen, though the interpretation of these values was not reliable until quality criteria were published in 2009. Though bone collagen is abundant in skeletal remains, less than 1% of the tissue is made of sulfur, making it imperative that these studies carefully assess the meaning of bone collagen δS values.

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experienced significant musculoskeletal stress. Overall, the interred show signs of significant musculoskeletal stress and heavy workloads, although workload and activities varied by individual. Some show high levels of stress, while others do not. This indicates the variety of types of labor (e.g., domestic vs. carrying heavy loads) labor.

791:. Bioarchaeology has been criticized for having little to no concern for culture or history. One scholar argued that scientific/forensic scholarship ignores cultural/historic factors. He proposed that a biocultural version of bioarchaeology offered a more meaningful, nuanced, and relevant picture, especially for descent populations. 154:. Skeletal size and robustness are influenced by nutrition and activity levels. Pelvic and cranial features are considered to be more reliable indicators of biological sex. Sexing skeletons of young people who have not completed puberty is more difficult and problematic, because the body has not fully developed. 610:. Therefore, one potential explanation for lower δN values in human remains is an increased consumption of legumes or animals that eat them. N values increase with meat consumption, and decrease with legume consumption. The N/N ratio could be used to gauge the contribution of meat and legumes to the diet. 473:

The composition of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere influences the isotopic values of C3 and C4 plants, which then impacts the δC of consumer collagen and apatite based on their diets. The values in this diagram are average δC compositions for the respective categories based on Fig 11.1 in Staller et

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Anemia incidence may be a result of inequalities within society, and/or indicative of different work patterns and activities among different groups within society. A study of iron-deficiency among early Mongolian nomads showed that although overall rates of cribra orbitalia declined from 28.7 percent

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refers to transverse furrows or pits that form in the enamel surface of teeth when the normal process of tooth growth stops, leaving a deficit. Enamel hypoplasias generally form due to disease and/or poor nutrition. Linear furrows are commonly referred to as linear enamel hypoplasias (LEHs); LEHs can

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Based on stable isotope levels, one study reported that eight Cobern Street Burial Ground individuals consumed a diet based on C4 (tropical) plants in childhood, then consumed more C3 plants, which were more common there later in their lives. Six of these individuals had dental modifications similar

522:, a mineral component of bones and teeth, has an ~14‰ offset from dietary plants due fractionation associated with mineral formation. Stable carbon isotopes have been used as tracers of C4 plants in paleodiets. For example, the rapid and dramatic increase in C in human collagen after the adoption of 383:

Evidence of perimortal fractures (or fractures inflicted on a fresh corpse) can be distinguished in unhealed metal blade injuries to the bones. Living or freshly dead bones are somewhat resilient, so metal blade injuries to bone generate a linear cut with relatively clean edges rather than irregular

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Markers of occupational stress, which include morphological changes to the skeleton and dentition as well as joint changes at specific locations have been widely used to infer specific (rather than general) activities. Such markers are often based on single cases described in late nineteenth century

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Until the age of about 30, human bones keep growing. Different bones fuse at different points of growth. This development can vary acros individuals. Wear and tear on bones further complicates age estimates. Often, estimates are limited to 'young' (20–35 years), 'middle' (35–50 years), or 'old' (50+

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Inequalities exist in all human societies. Bioarchaeology has helped to dispel the idea that life for foragers of the past was "nasty, brutish and short"; bioarchaeological studies reported that foragers of the past were often healthy, while agricultural societies tended to have increased incidence

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Variations in nitrogen values within the same trophic level are also considered. Nitrogen variations in plants, for example, can be caused by plant-specific reliance on nitrogen gas which causes the plant to mirror atmospheric values. Enriched or higher δN values can be achieved in plants that grew

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The different photosynthesis pathways used by C3 and C4 plants cause them to discriminate differently towards C leading to distinctly different ranges of δC. C4 plants range between -9 and -16‰, and C3 plants range between -22 and -34‰. The isotopic signature of consumer collagen is close the δC of

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form before adulthood, when bone growth is temporarily halted or slowed down due to some sort of stress (typically disease or malnutrition). During this time, bone mineralization continues, but growth does not, or does so at reduced levels. If and when the stressor is overcome, bone growth resumes,

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Bioarchaeology in Europe was not as disrupted by repatriation issues. However, because much of European archaeology has been focused on classical roots, artifacts and art have been emphasized and Roman and post-Roman skeletal remains were nearly completely neglected until the 1980s. In prehistoric

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sacrificial practices. δS values helped them conclude that the children had not been eating marine protein before their death. Historical insight coupled with consistent sulfur signatures for three of the children suggests that they were living in the same location 6 months prior to the sacrifice.

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are caused by localized destruction of tooth enamel, as a result of acids produced by bacteria feeding upon and fermenting carbohydrates in the mouth. Agriculture is strongly associated with a higher rate of caries than foraging, because of the associated higher levels of carbohydrates produced by

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Studies of dental enamel hypoplasia are used to study child health. Unlike bone, teeth are not remodeled, so intact enamel can provide a more reliable indicator of past health events. Dental hypoplasias provide an indicator of health status during the time in childhood when the enamel of the tooth

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and terrestrial ecosystems are highly variable. The sulfate content of the modern ocean is well-mixed with a δS of approximately +21‰, while riverine water is heavily influenced by sulfur-bearing minerals in surrounding bedrock and terrestrial plants are influenced by the sulfur content of local

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uses variations in isotopic signatures and relates them to biogeochemical processes. The science is based on the preferential fractionation of lighter or heavier isotopes, which results in enriched and depleted isotopic signatures compared to a standard value. Essential elements for life such as

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Various studies have analyzed the isotopic ratios of sulfur in mummified hair. Hair is a good candidate for sulfur studies as it typically contains at least 5% elemental sulfur. One study incorporated sulfur isotope ratios into their paleodietary investigation of four mummified child victims of

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manifests as transverse lines on radiographs. Lines tend to be thicker with prolonged and severe malnutrition. Harris line formation typically peaks in long bones around 2–3 years after birth and becomes rare after the age of 5 until adulthood. Harris lines occur more frequently in boys than in

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It is however, unlikely that iron deficiency anemia is a cause of either porotic hyperostosis or cribra orbitalia. These are more likely the result of vascular activity in these areas and are unlikely to be pathological. The development of cribra orbitalia and porotic hyperostosis could also be

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Age estimation attempts to determine the skeletal/biological age-at-death. The primary assumption is that an individual's skeletal age is closely associated with their chronological age. Age estimation can be based on patterns of growth and development or degenerative changes in the skeleton. A

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Variations in δO values in skeletal remains are directly related to the isotopic composition of the consumer's body water. isotopic composition of mammalian body water is primarily controlled by consumed water. δO values of freshwater drinking sources vary due to mass fractionations related to

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level helps determine the position of protein sources in the food web. N increases 3-4% with each trophic step upward. It has been suggested that the relative difference between human δN values and animal protein values scales with the proportion of that animal protein in the diet, though this

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Danforth argues that more "complex" state-level societies display greater health differences between elites and the rest of society, with elites having the advantage, and that this disparity increases as societies become more unequal. Some status differences in society do not necessarily mean

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of the vertebrae was common even among the young. The pattern of osteoarthritis combined with the early age of onset provides evidence of labor that resulted in mechanical strain to the neck. One male skeleton shows stress lesions at 37 percent of 33 muscle or ligament attachments, showing he

172:, interpreting this as indicative of gendered work patterns. Such skeletal changes could have resulted from women spending long periods kneeling while grinding grain with the toes curled forward. Investigation of gender from mortuary remains is of growing interest to archaeologists. 1430:

Bazarsad, Naran. "Iron-Deficiency Anemia in Early Mongolian Nomads." Ancient Health: Skeletal Indicators of Agricultural and Economic Intensification. Eds. Mark Nathan Cohen and Gillian M.M. Crane-Kramer. Gainesville/Tallahassee/Tampa/Boca Raton: University Press of Florida, 2007.

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While carbon and nitrogen are used primarily to investigate the diets of ancient humans, oxygen isotopes offer insight into body water at different life stages. δO values are used to understand drinking behaviors, animal husbandry, and track mobility. 97 burials from the ancient

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are the canonical sulfur-containing amino acids. Of the two, δS values of methionine are considered to better reflect isotopic compositions of dietary sulfur, since cysteine values are impacted by diet and internal cycling. While other stable isotope systems have significant

660:. Historical context combined with isotopic data from burials were used to argue that migrant individuals were a part of lower and higher social classes within Tikal. Female migrants who arrived in Tikal during Early Classic period could have been the brides of Maya elite. 805:

Another type of bioarchaeology focuses on quality of life, lifestyle, behavior, biological relatedness, and population history. It does not closely link skeletal remains to their archaeological context, and may best be viewed as a "skeletal biology of the past".

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ecosystems have increased complexity due to seawater and river inputs. The extreme range of δS values for freshwater ecosystems often interferes with terrestrial signals, making it difficult to use the sulfur system as the sole tool in paleodiet studies.

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has marked effects on the flat bones of the cranium of infants and young children. That as the body attempts to compensate for low iron levels by increasing red blood cell production in the young, sieve-like lesions develop in the cranial vaults (termed

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Walker, Phillip L. "Wife Beating, Boxing, and Broken Noses: Skeletal Evidence for the Cultural Patterning of Violence." Troubled Times: Violence and Warfare in the Past. Eds. Martin, Debra L. and David W. Frayer. Amsterdam: Gordon and Breach, 1997.

825:. Researchers analyzing traumatic injuries on human remains have shown that social status and gender can have a significant impact on exposure to violence. Numerous researchers study violence in human remains, exploring violent behavior, including 450:. Isotope ratios in food, especially plant food, are directly and predictably reflected in bone chemistry, allowing researchers to partially reconstruct recent diet using stable isotopes as tracers. Stable isotope analysis monitors the ratio of 62:

approach to understanding the past. Proponents of New Archaeology advocate testing hypotheses about the interaction between culture and biology, or a biocultural approach. Some archaeologists advocate a more holistic approach that incorporates

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Klaus, Haagen D. "The Bioarchaeology of Structural Violence: A Theoretical Model and a Case Study." 2012. The Bioarchaeology of Violence. Eds. Martin, Debra L., Ryan P. Harrod and Ventura R. Pérez. Gainesville: University of Florida Press.

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Gendered work patterns may leave marks on bones and be identifiable in the archaeological record. One study found extremely arthritic big toes, a collapse of the last dorsal vertebrae, and muscular arms and legs among female skeletons at

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Schutkowski, Holger. "Thoughts for Food: Evidence and Meaning of Past Dietary Habits." Between Biology and Culture. Ed. Holger Schutkowski. Cambridge Studies in Biological and Evolutionary Anthropology: Cambridge University Press, 2008.

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Biocultural bioarchaeology combines standard forensic techniques with investigations of demography and epidemiology in order to assess socioeconomic conditions experienced by human communities. For example, incorporation of analysis of

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Lorentz, Kirsi. "From Bodies to Bones and Back: Theory and Human Bioarchaeology." Between Biology and Culture. Ed. Holger Schutkowski. Cambridge Studies in Biological and Evolutionary Anthropology: Cambridge University Press, 2008.

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agriculture. For example, bioarchaeologists have used caries in skeletons to correlate a diet of rice with disease. Women may be more vulnerable to caries compared to men due to having lower saliva flow, the positive correlation of

2142:"What can bones tell about labour and occupation : the analysis of skeletal markers of occupational stress in the Identified Skeletal Collection of the Anthropological Museum of the University of Coimbra (preliminary results)" 1960:

Schug, Robbins; Gwen; Gupta, Sat; Cowgill, Libby W.; Sciulli, Paul; Blatt, Samantha (2013). "Panel regression formulas for stature and body mass estimation in immature human skeletons, without reference to specific age estimates".

676:(V-CDT), the agreed upon standard. The ratio of the most abundant sulfur isotope, S, compared to rarer isotopes such as, S, S, and S, is used to characterize biological signatures and geological reservoirs. The fractionation of S ( 549:, which is a point of significance for local Muslims. Their isotopic signatures indicate that they grew up in a temperate environment consuming mostly C3 plants, but some C4 The study argued that these individuals were from the 4833:

Wilson, Andrew S.; Taylor, Timothy; Ceruti, Maria Constanza; Chavez, Jose Antonio; Reinhard, Johan; Grimes, Vaughan; Meier-Augenstein, Wolfram; Cartmell, Larry; Stern, Ben; Richards, Michael P.; Worobey, Michael (2007-10-16).

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fractures in bone is difficult, as both types of fractures show signs of weathering. Unless evidence of bone healing or other factors are present, researchers may choose to regard all weathered fractures as post-depositional.

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Milella, Marco; Giovanna Belcastro, Maria; Zollikofer, Christoph P. E.; Mariotti, Valentina (2012-07-01). "The effect of age, sex, and physical activity on entheseal morphology in a contemporary Italian skeletal collection".

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Larsen, Clark Spencer. "The Changing Face of Bioarchaeology: An Interdisciplinary Science." Bioarchaeology: The Contextual Analysis of Human Remains. Eds. Jane E. Buikstra and Lane A Beck: Academic Press Elsevier, 2006.

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Martin, Debra L., Ryan P. Harrod, and Misty Fields. "Beaten Down and Worked to the Bone: Bioarchaeological Investigations of Women and Violence in the Ancient Southwest." Landscapes of Violence 1.1 (2010): Article 3.

876:. Concerns about mistreatment of remains are not unfounded: in a 1971 Minnesota excavation, White and Native American remains were treated differently; Whites were reburied, while Native Americans were moved to a 3599: 400:

with increased caries rates, and because of pregnancy-associated physiological changes, such as suppression of the immune system and a possible concomitant decrease in antimicrobial activity in the oral cavity.

573:. Carbon and nitrogen stable isotope analyses are complementary in paleodiet studies. Nitrogen isotopes in bone collagen are ultimately derived from dietary protein, while carbon can be contributed by protein, 292:

activity, is also implicated in Harris line formation. When matured cartilage cells reactivate, bone growth resumes, thickening the bony stratum. Therefore, complete recovery from periods of chronic illness or

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Buikstra, Jane E. "Introduction to Section III: On to the 21st Century." p. 354. Bioarchaeology: The Contextual Analysis of Human Remains. Eds. Jane E. Buikstra and Lane A Beck: Academic Press/Elsevier, 2006.

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grooves (horizontal growth lines), the duration of the stressor can be estimated, although Mays argued that the width of the hypoplasia bears only an indirect relationship to the duration of the stressor.

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Lovejoy, C.O.; Meindl, R.S.; Pryzbeck, T.R.; Mensforth R.P. (1985). "Chronological metamorphosis of the auricular surface of the ilium: a new method for the determination of adult skeletal age at death".

3026:"Paleopathology at the Origins of Agriculture. Mark Nathan Cohen and George J. Armelagos, editors. Academic Press, Inc., Orlando, 1984. xx + 615 pp., figures, tables, references, index. $ 59.00 (cloth)" 6657: 318:

Examining the effects that activities has upon the skeleton allows the archaeologist to examine who was doing what kinds of labor, and how activities were structured within society. Labor within the

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Villotte, Sébastien; Assis, Sandra; Cardoso, Francisca Alves; Henderson, Charlotte Yvette; Mariotti, Valentina; Milella, Marco; Pany-Kucera, Doris; Speith, Nivien; Wilczak, Cynthia A. (2016-06-01).

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Ethical issues with bioarchaeology revolve around the treatment and respect for the dead. Large-scale skeletal collections were first amassed in the US in the 19th century, largely the remains of

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radically different nutritional levels; Powell did not find evidence of great nutritional differences between elites and commoners, but did find lower rates of anemia among elites in Moundville.

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Jones, M. K.; Briggs, D. E. G.; Eglington, G.; Hagelberg, E.; Macko, Stephen A.; Engel, Michael H.; Andrusevich, Vladimir; Lubec, Gert; O'Connell, Tamsin C.; Hedges, Robert E. M. (1999-01-29).

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interpretation has been questioned due to contradictory views on the impact of nitrogen intake through protein consumption and nitrogen loss through waste release on N enrichment in the body.

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Touzeau, Alexandra; Amiot, Romain; Blichert-Toft, Janne; Flandrois, Jean-Pierre; Fourel, François; Grossi, Vincent; Martineau, François; Richardin, Pascale; Lécuyer, Christophe (2014-06-01).

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verses nonlegumes, as well as terrestrial versus marine resources. While other plants have δN values that range from 2 to 6‰, legumes have lower N/N ratios (close to 0‰, i.e. atmospheric N

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In 2012 archaeologists found skeletal remains of an adult male. He was buried under a car park in England. DNA evidence allowed the archaeologists to confirm that the remains belonged to

2471:"Evaluating the efficiency of different recording protocols for entheseal changes in regards to expressing activity patterns using archival data and cross-sectional geometric properties" 802:

Some bioarchaeologists view the discipline as a crucial interface between the science and the humanities; as the human body is made and re-made by both biological and cultural factors.

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Wilczak, C., R.C. Watkins, and M.L. Blakey. Skeletal Indicators of Work: Musculoskeletal, Arthritic, and Traumatic Events: US Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 2004.

1800:"Birth is but our death begun: a bioarchaeological assessment of skeletal emaciation in immature human skeletons in the context of environmental, social, and subsistence transition" 5150:

Blakey, Michael L. Introduction: Section 1: Background of the New York African Burial Ground Project. Philadelphia, PA: US Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 2004.

633:) and Standard Light Antarctic Precipitation (SLAP). This system is famous for its use in paleoclimatic studies but it also a prominent source of information in bioarchaeology. 375:

to bones during or after excavation appear relatively fresh, with broken surfaces appearing white and unweathered. Distinguishing between fractures around the time of death and

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Walker et al. 2009 "The Causes of Porotic Hyperostosis and Cribra Orbitalia: A Reappraisal of the Iron-Deficiency-Anemia Hypothesis" American Journal of Physical Anthropology.

95:) of a given age cohort within a population. It is often necessary to estimate the age and sex of individuals based on specific morphological characteristics of the skeleton. 2321:

Henderson, C. Y.; Nikita, E. (2015-06-30). "Accounting for multiple effects and the problem of small sample sizes in osteology: a case study focussing on entheseal changes".

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shattering. Archaeologists have attempted to use the microscopic parallel scratch marks on cut bones in order to estimate the trajectory of the blade that caused the injury.

36:) in Europe describes the study of biological remains from archaeological sites. In the United States it is the scientific study of human remains from archaeological sites. 557:. It argued that stable isotopic analysis of burials, combined with historical and archaeological data were an effective way of investigating the migrations forced by the 6570: 6094: 6020: 5644:

Milner, George R. "An Osteological Perspective on Prehistoric Warfare." Regional Approaches to Mortuary Analysis. Ed. Beck, Lane A. New York: Plenum Press, 1995. 221–44.

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concentrations are low. C3 plants are more common and numerous than C4 plants as C3 carbon fixation is more efficient in a wider range of temperatures and atmospheric CO

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attributed to other causes besides a dietary iron deficiency, such as nutrients lost to intestinal parasites. However, dietary deficiencies are the most probable cause.

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analysis of past populations is used to genetically determine sex, determine genetic relatedness, understand marriage patterns, and investigate prehistoric migration.

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Pérez, Ventura R. "From the Singing Tree to the Hanging Tree: Structural Violence and Death with the Yaqui Landscape." Landscapes of Violence 1.1 (2010): Article 4.

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Alves Cardoso, F.; Henderson, C. Y. (2010-04-01). "Enthesopathy formation in the humerus: Data from known age-at-death and known occupation skeletal collections".

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Michopoulou, E.; Nikita, E.; Henderson, C. Y. (2016-01-01). "A test of the effectiveness of the Coimbra method in capturing activity-induced entheseal changes".

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Andrushko, Valerie A.; Schwitalla, Al W.; Walker, Phillip L. (2010). "Trophy-Taking and Dismemberment as Warfare Strategies in Prehistoric Central California".

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were studied using oxygen isotopes. Results from tooth enamel identified statistically different individuals, interpreted to be individuals from Maya lowlands,

6722: 6611: 2375: 6647: 4443:"The distinction between freshwater- and terrestrial-based diets: methodological concerns and archaeological applications of sulphur stable isotope analysis" 4258:

Vaiglova, Petra; Halstead, Paul; Pappa, Maria; Triantaphyllou, Sevi; Valamoti, Soultana M.; Evans, Jane; Fraser, Rebecca; Karkanas, Panagiotis; Kay, Andrea;

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Humphrey, Louise T. Enamel Traces of Early Lifetime Events. Cambridge Studies in Biological and Evolutionary Anthropology: Cambridge University Press, 2008.

869:(Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act) allowed Native Americans to regain control over their ancestors' remains and associated artifacts. 142:

In general, the male skeleton is more robust than the female skeleton because of male's greater muscles mass. Male skeletons generally have more pronounced

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Tung, Tiffiny A.; Knudson, Kelly J. (2010). "Childhood Lost: Abductions, Sacrifice, and Trophy Heads of Children in the Wari Empire of the Ancient Andes".

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are some well-known C4 crops, while trees and shrubs use the C3 pathway. C4 carbon fixation is more efficient when temperatures are high and atmospheric CO

6827: 6807: 6757: 629:) ratio in a given material, which is enriched/depleted relative to a standard. The field typically normalizes to both Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water ( 5688:

Tiesler, Vera, and Andrea Cucina, eds. New Perspectives on Human Sacrifice and Ritual Body Treatments in Ancient Maya Society. New York: Springer, 2007.

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Blondiaux, Joel; et al. (2012). "Bilateral Fractures of the Scapula: Possible Archeological Examples of Beatings from Europe, Africa and America".

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Bioarchaeological sexing of skeletons is not error-proof. Recording errors and re-arranging of human remains may play a part in such misidentification.

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Martin, Debra L., Ryan P. Harrod, and Ventura R. Pérez. Bioarchaeology: An Integrated Approach to Working with Human Remains. New York: Springer, 2013.

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came up with the current US definition in 1977. Human remains can inform about health, lifestyle, diet, mortality and physique of the past. Although

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Sharpe, Ashley E.; Smith-Guzmán, Nicole; Curtis, Jason; Isaza-Aizpurúa, Ilean; Kamenov, George D.; Wake, Thomas A.; Cooke, Richard G. (2021-04-01).

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Walker, Phillip L.; Collins Cook, Della; Lambert, Patricia M. (1997). "Skeletal Evidence for Child Abuse: A Physical Anthropological Perspective".

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Lovejoy, C.O. (1985). "Dental wear in the Libben population: its functional pattern and role in the determination of adult skeletal age at death".

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Larsen, Clark Spencer. Skeletons in Our Closet: Revealing Our Past through Bioarchaeology. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2000.

7156: 7128: 6812: 6797: 6782: 6777: 6742: 6662: 6013: 1228: 463: 237:(27.8 percent of the total female population, 28.4 percent of the total male population, 75 percent of the total juvenile population) during the 4213:"Understanding the ecology of mammalian carnivorans and herbivores from Valdegoba cave (Burgos, northern Spain) through stable isotope analysis" 7092: 6832: 6616: 6249: 3495:<207::aid-ajpa7>3.0.co;2-k "Biomechanical beam analysis of long bones from a late 18th century slave cemetery in Cape Town, South Africa" 2675:

Wenham, S.J., and J. Wakely. Features of Blade-Injuries to Bone Surfaces in Six Anglo-Saxon Skeletons from Eccles, Kent: BAR 211 Oxford, 1989.

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Beom, Jaewon; Woo, Eun Jin; Lee, In Sun; Kim, Myeung Ju; Kim, Yi-Suk; Oh, Chang Seok; Lee, Sang-Seob; Lim, Sang Beom; Shin, Dong Hoon (2014).

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is deposited in hair as it grows. This has been used successfully to detect fluctuating levels of stress in the later lifespan of mummies.

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clinical literature. One such marker has been found to be a reliable indicator of lifestyle: the external auditory exostosis also called

7133: 6006: 1725: 4264:"Of cattle and feasts: Multi-isotope investigation of animal husbandry and communal feasting at Neolithic Makriyalos, northern Greece" 2141: 779:

The study of human remains can illuminate the relationship between physical bodies and socio-cultural conditions and practices, via a

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Consumers yield isotopic signatures that reflect the sulfur reservoir(s) of the dietary protein source. Animal proteins sourced from

4172:"Reconstructing dietary and environmental history from enamel isotopic analysis: time resolution of intra-tooth sequential sampling" 494:. C4 plants are mainly grasses from tropical and subtropical regions, and are adapted to higher levels of radiation than C3 plants. 6852: 6702: 6677: 6642: 6104: 139:(the sub-pubic angle) is wider and more U-shaped, while the sub-pubic angle of the male is more V-shaped and less than 90 degrees. 7719: 6787: 6732: 6591: 2618: 356: 160:

Direct testing of bioarchaeological methods for sexing skeletons by comparing gendered names on coffin plates from the crypt at

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values help distinguish between dietary protein and plant sources while systematic increases in δN values as you move up in

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Jurmain, Robert; Cardoso, Francisca Alves; Henderson, Charlotte; Villotte, Sébastien (2011-01-01). Grauer, Anne L. (ed.).

3866:"Carbon and Nitrogen Isotopic Survey of Northern Peruvian Plants: Baselines for Paleodietary and Paleoecological Studies" 3864:

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museum. African American bioarchaeology grew after NAGPRA and its effect of ending the study of Native American remains.

83:

Paleodemography studies demographic characteristics of past populations. Bioarchaeologists use paleodemography to create

4603:) compared with that of other arctic marine biota as interpreted from carbon-, nitrogen-, and sulfur-isotope signatures" 6289: 1118: 862: 554: 4490:"Fingernails and diet: Stable isotope signatures of a marine hunting community from modern Uummannaq, North Greenland" 961: 711:

ecosystems tend to have δS values between +16 and +17‰, terrestrial plants range from -7‰ to +8‰, while proteins from

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and reported that agriculturalists from K2 and Mapungubwe were not subject to the lower nutritional levels expected.

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is based on small, mass-dependent fractionations of sulfur isotopes. These fractionations are reported relative to

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and age, or be based on other social structures. Human remains can allow archaeologists to uncover these patterns.

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Wilkinson, R G.; Wagenen, K M. Van (1993). "Violence against Women: Prehistoric Skeletal Evidence from Michigan".

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bone growth, the cessation of osteoblastic activity results in the deposition of a thin layer of bone beneath the

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used it to describe just human remains and animal remains, increasingly archaeologists include botanical remains.

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Lambert, Patricia M (2009). "Health Versus Fitness: Competing Themes in the Origins and Spread of Agriculture?".

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agriculture in North America documents the transition from a C3 to a C4 (native plants to corn) diet by 1300 CE.

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De la Cova, Carlina (2010). "Cultural Patterns of Trauma among 19th-Century-Born Males in Cadaver Collections".

1530:"Social "status" and biological "status": a comparison of grave goods and skeletal indicators from Pontecagnano" 7726: 7239: 6194: 1122: 669: 352:, which is a small bony protuberance in the ear canal that occurs in those working in proximity to cold water. 3598:

Müldner, Gundula; Montgomery, Janet; Cook, Gordon; Ellam, Rob; Gledhill, Andrew; Lowe, Chris (December 2009).

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Osterholtz, Anna J (2012). "The Social Role of Hobbling and Torture: Violence in the Prehistoric Southwest".

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The nitrogen stable isotope system is based on the relative enrichment/depletion of N in comparison to N in

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Blakey, Michael L (2001). "Bioarchaeology of the African Diaspora in the Americas: Its Origins and Scope".

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of malnutrition and disease. One study compared foragers from Oakhurst to agriculturalists from K2 and

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The ratio of carbon isotopes in humans varies according to the types of plants digested with different

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inferences. These chemical signatures reflect long-term dietary patterns, rather than a single meal or

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in New York. This provides evidence of the brutal working conditions under which the enslaved labored;

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Many archaeologists did not realize that many people perceive archaeologists as non-productive and/or

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European archaeology, biological remains began to be analyzed earlier than in classical archaeology.

826: 281: 7590: 7483: 7432: 7382: 7372: 6319: 5834:"Beyond Extractive Practice: Bioarchaeology, Geoarchaeology and Human Palaeoecology for the People" 5349:"Biological Anthropology: Status and Health in Prehistory: A Case Study of the Moundville Chiefdom" 3700:

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898: 865:. No permission was granted by surviving family for study and display. Federal laws such as 1990's 780: 5936: 5931: 1799: 462:). The C and C ratio is either depleted (more negative) or enriched (more positive) relative to a 7834: 7696: 7621: 7519: 7397: 7059: 7044: 6490: 6382: 6184: 6124: 6049: 3158:. John E. Staller, Robert H. Tykot, Bruce F. Benz. Walnut Creek, Calif.: Left Coast Press. 2010. 2048: 760: 546: 5787:

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cap, potentially forming Harris lines. Subsequent recovery, necessary for the restoration of

131:

are used by bioarchaeologists to determine the biological sex of human skeletons. Humans are

1616:"Transverse trabeculae and osteoporosis in bones in experimental protein-calorie deficiency" 7766: 7666: 7661: 7636: 7631: 7626: 7417: 7407: 7335: 7264: 7259: 7185: 6515: 6460: 6372: 6199: 5037: 4914: 4847: 4796: 4736:"Documenting the diet in ancient human populations through stable isotope analysis of hair" 4653: 4597:

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4563: 4501: 4454: 4342: 4331:"A preliminary multi-isotope assessment of human mobility and diet in pre-Columbian Panama" 4275: 4224: 4136: 4089: 3986: 3877: 3823: 3661: 3385: 2633: 2161: 1330: 222: 43:

who, in 1972, defined it as the study of animal and human bones from archaeological sites.

3757:"Stable Isotope Evidence for Maize Horticulture and Paleodiet in Southern Ontario, Canada" 3374:"13C Content of human collagen as a measure of prehistoric diet in woodland North America" 1990:"The Aging of Wolff's "Law:" Ontogeny and Response to Mechanical Loading in Cortical Bone" 703:

Illustration of different ecosystems with associated ranges of sulfur isotopic signatures.

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range in size from microscopic to visible to the naked eye. By examining the spacing of

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An area of increasing interest interested in understanding inequality is the study of

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Stenton, Douglas R.; Fratpietro, Stephen; Keenleyside, Anne; Park, Robert W. (2021).

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4575: 4125:"Oxygen and hydrogen isotopes in rodent tissues: Impact of diet, water and ontogeny" 3998: 3631: 3600:"Isotopes and individuals: diet and mobility among the medieval Bishops of Whithorn" 3584: 3479: 2779: 2736: 2420: 2360: 1834: 7676: 7611: 7578: 7289: 7274: 7004: 6914: 6596: 6234: 5841: 5767: 5707: 5663: 5619: 5584: 5549: 5514: 5449: 5429: 5360: 5348: 5321: 5278: 5243: 5177: 5133: 5088: 5045: 4971: 4922: 4873: 4855: 4804: 4755: 4747: 4700: 4661: 4614: 4571: 4509: 4462: 4406: 4350: 4301: 4283: 4232: 4183: 4144: 4097: 4002: 3994: 3944: 3903: 3885: 3831: 3768: 3713: 3669: 3611: 3556: 3506: 3493:

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Michopoulou, Efrossyni; Nikita, Efthymia; Valakos, Efstratios D. (2015-12-01).

2117: 2067: 1156: 1058: 918: 913: 479: 360: 341: 330: 128: 5711: 5247: 5049: 4927: 4902: 4836:"Stable isotope and DNA evidence for ritual sequences in Inca child sacrifice" 4808: 4642:"MC-ICP-MS measurement of δ34S and ∆33S in small amounts of dissolved sulfate" 4466: 4410: 4062: 3835: 3673: 3615: 2394: 2334: 1974: 1663:"Surrogate nutrition markers, malnutrition, and adequacy of nutrition support" 1070: 1023: 602:) because they can fix molecular nitrogen, rather than having to rely on soil 529:

Skeletons excavated from the Coburn Street Burial Ground (1750 to 1827 CE) in

409: 58:, which developed in the United States in the 1970s as a reaction to a mainly 7793: 7551: 6979: 6909: 6475: 6329: 6239: 5372: 5057: 4936: 4869: 4816: 4712: 4673: 4626: 4583: 4521: 4474: 4418: 4364: 4297: 4244: 4197: 4156: 4109: 4016: 3899: 3843: 3780: 3725: 3681: 3623: 3568: 3518: 3463: 3405: 3358: 3244: 3226: 3173: 3131: 3049: 3010: 2941: 2918: 2852: 2795:"Fertility and Agriculture Accentuate Sex Differences in Dental Caries Rates" 2720: 2595: 2496: 2455: 2412: 2352: 2299: 2263: 2203: 2157: 1733: 1686: 1639: 1592: 1553: 1466: 1458: 1033: 903: 873: 690: 582: 392: 372: 48: 44: 40: 4860: 4704: 3949: 3932: 3256: 3079: 2951: 2763: 2587: 1861: 1662: 1615: 1576: 1529: 1290: 1206: 1171: 7402: 7249: 6989: 6944: 6520: 6480: 5910:

Biological Anthropology Section of the American Anthropological Association

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One example of how these changes have been used to study activities is the

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Sillen, Andrew; Sealy, Judith C.; Merwe, Nikolaas J. van der (July 1989).

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British Association of Biological Anthropologists and Osteoarchaeologists

5875: 4077: 3439: 3413: 2900: 2711: 1059:"Histomorphometry of Human Cortical Bone: Applications to Age Estimation" 893: 830: 796: 738: 726: 712: 542: 442:

allows bioarchaeologists to carry out dietary reconstruction and to make

3511:

10.1002/(sici)1096-8644(2000)112:2<207::aid-ajpa7>3.0.co;2-k

3438:

Cox, Glenda; Sealy, Judith; Schrire, Carmel; Morris, Alan (2001-01-01).

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Danforth, Marie Elaine (1999). "Nutrition and Politics in Prehistory".

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Human skeletal remains: excavation, analysis, interpretation (3rd ed.)

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Histories of maize in Mesoamerica : multidisciplinary approaches

2909: 653: 530: 503: 455: 451: 443: 376: 285: 280:, can result in the formation of Harris lines. During the process of 92: 28: 5951: 5325: 4785:"Diet of ancient Egyptians inferred from stable isotope systematics" 4687:

Aufderheide, Arthur C.; Muñoz, Ivan; Arriaza, Bernardo (June 1993).

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Feranec, R.; García, N.; DÍez, J.C.; Arsuaga, J.L. (November 2010).

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Bone Rooms: From Scientific Racism to Human Prehistory in Museums.

4782: 3809: 3650:"Nitrogen isotopes and the trophic level of humans in archaeology" 3107: 594:

isotopes have been used to estimate the relative contributions of

7350: 6387: 6069: 5456: 5406: 842: 838: 755:

In 2021, Canadian researchers analyzed skeletal remains found on

717: 595: 519: 273: 269: 246: 5415:"A Peaceful Realm? Trauma and social differentiation at Harappa" 5023: 2049:"In search of consensus: Terminology for entheseal changes (EC)" 1577:"Vitamin-A deficiency and excess in relation to skeletal growth" 783:

bioarchaeology model. Bioarchaeology is typically regarded as a

677: 626: 578: 570: 459: 6279: 6269: 6028: 5347:

Powell, Mary Lucas (September 1989). Turner, Kenneth R. (ed.).

4689:"Seven Chinchorro mummies and the prehistory of northern Chile" 3492: 2373: 2107: 866: 657: 541:, Yao, and Marav peoples. Four individuals were buried with no 499: 435: 323: 7177: 5983: 5826:

Bioarchaeology: interpreting behavior from the human skeleton.

1496: 1494: 261:

resulting in a line of increased mineral density visible in a

164:

to the associated remains achieved a 98 percent success rate.

6314: 6219: 5978: 5880:

Human skeletal remains: excavation, analysis, interpretation.

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The Use and Abuse of Trace Elements for Paleodietary Research

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Molleson, Theya (1994). "The Eloquent Bones of Abu Hureyra".

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Bioarchaeology and the Center for Bioarchaeological Research

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Conservation and restoration of immovable cultural property

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Osborne, Robin (2007). "Is Archaeology Equal to Equality".

4488:

Buchardt, Bjørn; Bunch, Vibeke; Helin, Pekka (2007-09-30).

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Van Der Merwe, Nikolaas J.; Vogel, J. C. (December 1978).

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Villotte, Sébastien; Knüsel, Christopher J. (2016-04-01).

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Conservation and restoration of movable cultural property

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Standards for data collection from human skeletal remains

466:. C and C occur in a ratio of approximately 98.9 to 1.1. 229:(termed cribra orbitalia). This bone is spongy and soft. 6486:

Digital repository audit method based on risk assessment

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Bioarchaeology: The Contextual Analysis of Human Remains

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Conservation-restoration of the Sistine Chapel frescoes

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Robbins, Gwen; Sciulli, Paul; Blatt, Samantha (2010).

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The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. American Volume

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The oxygen stable isotope system is based on the O/O (

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Bioarchaeology was largely born from the practices of

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Conservation and restoration of archaeological sites

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area. It also suggested that these individuals were

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(2004). 1920:"Estimating Body Mass in Subadult Human Skeletons" 7810:Conservation and restoration of cultural heritage 7139:Conservation-restoration of the Statue of Liberty 6275:Mold control and prevention (library and archive) 6090:Conservation and restoration of cultural property 4217:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 4129:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 3287: 3106:Rounick, J. S.; Winterbourn, M. J. (1986-03-01). 693:shifts, sulfur shows only a small shift (~0.5‰). 265:. Absent removal of the stressor, no line forms. 175: 7791: 7162:Preservation Metadata: Implementation Strategies 7152:Conservation response to flood of Arno, Florence 7116:Conservation-restoration of Leonardo da Vinci's 5905:American Association of Physical Anthropologists 5475: 5386:Martin, Debra L.; Harrod, Ryan P. (2012-08-05). 5087:, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, pp. 427–451, 4957: 3972: 3542: 3288:Ehleringer, James R.; Cerling, Thure E. (2001), 2687:"The Role of Spirochetes in Periodontal Disease" 2518:Capasso, L; Kennedy, K.A.R.; Wilczak, C (1999). 1987: 1798:Robbins Schug, Gwen; Goldman, Haviva M. (2014). 1250: 482:pathways. The three photosynthesis pathways are 7157:Modern and Contemporary Art Research Initiative 7129:Conservation-restoration of the Shroud of Turin 4900: 4840:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 4123:Kirsanow, Karola; Tuross, Noreen (2011-09-15). 2320: 2225:Alves Cardoso, F.; Henderson, C. (2013-03-01). 1708:Hughes, C.; Heylings, D. J.; Power, C. (1996). 129:Differences in male and female skeletal anatomy 7093:Conservation issues of Pompeii and Herculaneum 6250:Integrated pest management (cultural property) 5920:Canadian Association for Physical Anthropology 5799:Biological anthropology of the human skeleton. 5789:Biocultural adaptation in prehistoric America, 5734:http://scholarworks.umass.edu/lov/vol1/iss1/9/ 5465:http://scholarworks.umass.edu/lov/vol1/iss1/3/ 4122: 3973:Pederzani, Sarah; Britton, Kate (2019-01-01). 2616: 2520:Atlas of occupational markers on human remains 1146:. Arkansas Archaeological Survey. p. 208. 545:, in accordance with Muslim tradition, facing 7193: 6014: 5079:Turner, Bethany L.; Klaus, Haagen D. (2016), 3647: 3333:Peterson, Bruce J.; Fry, Brian (1987-11-01). 1440: 1063:Biological Anthropology of the Human Skeleton 1057:Robling, Alexander G.; Stout, Sam D. (2008), 774: 748:, the former king of England who died in the 39:The term was minted by British archaeologist 5791:pp. 67–84. University of Georgia Press. 5385: 5081:"Biocultural perspectives in bioarchaeology" 4044:Isotope hydrology a study of the water cycle 2940:Burton, James H.; Price, T. Douglas (2002), 2837:. Jason B. West. Dordrecht: Springer. 2010. 1613: 1363: 1056: 617: 116:are commonly used to estimate skeletal age. 5797:M. Katzenberg and S. Saunders, eds., 2000. 5697: 5078: 4907:Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences 4075: 3332: 2939: 2323:Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences 2028: 1021: 962:"Human Osteoarchaeology | Historic England" 7200: 7186: 6658:Books, manuscripts, documents and ephemera 6021: 6007: 5942:HOMO: Journal of Comparative Human Biology 5574: 5539: 5085:New Directions in Biocultural Anthropology 4335:Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 2626:Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 1364:Arnold, Bettina; Wicker, Nancy L. (2001). 404: 6205:Disaster preparedness (cultural property) 5937:International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 5932:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 5845: 5757: 5656:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 5609: 5314:The South African Archaeological Bulletin 5001:"How Forensic Techniques Aid Archaeology" 4975: 4926: 4877: 4859: 4759: 4693:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 4354: 4305: 4287: 4187: 4176:International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 4040: 4006: 3948: 3937:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 3907: 3889: 3499:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 3242: 2984: 2908: 2710: 2576:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 2550: 2535:"Anatomy and Physiology of the Shoemaker" 2486: 2475:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 2436:International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 2402: 2342: 2280:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 2253: 2234:International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 2184:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 2005: 1927:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 1885:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 1850:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 1807:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 1714:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 1534:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 1474: 1279:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 1195:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 1160:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 387: 314:Mechanical stress and activity indicators 6105:Conservation science (cultural property) 5169: 3339:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 1500: 1320: 1098: 938:"Paleo osteology - definition - Encyclo" 468: 408: 74: 5947:International Journal of Paleopathology 5612:International Journal of Paleopathology 5577:International Journal of Paleopathology 5422:International Journal of Paleopathology 5268: 5233: 4549: 4169: 2882: 2684: 2573: 2056:International Journal of Paleopathology 1574: 1276: 1192: 207:Skeletal non-specific stress indicators 7792: 5346: 5311: 5123: 4828: 4826: 4545: 4543: 4541: 4539: 4537: 4535: 4533: 4531: 4436: 4434: 4432: 4430: 4428: 4399:Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 4392: 4388: 4386: 4384: 4382: 4082:Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry 4036: 4034: 3968: 3966: 3964: 3962: 3960: 3859: 3857: 3855: 3853: 3695: 3693: 3691: 3643: 3641: 3538: 3536: 3433: 3431: 3335:"Stable isotopes in ecosystem studies" 3328: 3326: 3200: 3101: 3099: 3023: 2980: 2978: 2976: 2878: 2876: 2792: 1142:Buikstra, J.E.; D.H. Ubelaker (1994). 367: 112:, the sternal end of the 4th rib, and 7181: 6002: 5478:Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 3290:"Photosynthetic Pathways and Climate" 3283: 3281: 3238: 3236: 2112:. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 531–552. 2103: 2101: 1847: 1778: 1660: 1614:Platt, B. S.; Stewart, R. J. (1962). 276:, which lead to delayed longitudinal 212:Porotic hyperostosis/cribra orbitalia 181:Dental non-specific stress indicators 5870:The archaeology of death and burial. 4998: 4599:"Trophic ecology of bowhead whales ( 3201:Larsen, Clark Spencer (1995-10-01). 2532: 1882: 1112: 1110: 1008: 1006: 1004: 1002: 590:in soil fertilized by animal waste. 185: 5831: 4823: 4528: 4425: 4379: 4031: 3957: 3850: 3688: 3638: 3533: 3428: 3351:10.1146/annurev.es.18.110187.001453 3323: 3219:10.1146/annurev.an.24.100195.001153 3096: 3003:10.1146/annurev.an.13.100184.000451 2973: 2873: 1367:Gender and the Archaeology of Death 1116: 162:Christ Church, Spitalfields, London 13: 6290:Preservation (library and archive) 5781: 3591: 3278: 3233: 2987:"Nutritional Assessment From Bone" 2098: 695: 79:A skeleton in a bioarchaeology lab 70: 14: 7851: 5893: 4964:Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 4789:Journal of Archaeological Science 4447:Journal of Archaeological Science 3816:Journal of Archaeological Science 3654:Journal of Archaeological Science 2539:Journal of Anatomy and Physiology 2533:Lane, W. Arbuthnot (1888-07-01). 1994:Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 1963:Journal of Archaeological Science 1343:10.1038/scientificamerican0894-70 1107: 999: 763:, an engineer serving aboard HMS 7772: 7762: 7761: 7144:Conservation-restoration of the 7020:Indigenous intellectual property 5738: 5726: 5691: 5682: 5647: 5638: 5603: 5568: 5554:10.1111/j.1548-1433.2010.01278.x 5533: 5498: 5488: 5469: 5379: 5340: 5305: 5262: 5227: 5217: 5208: 5198: 5163: 5153: 5144: 5072: 5017: 4992: 4951: 3302:10.1016/b978-012631260-7/50023-6 1620:The British Journal of Nutrition 7207: 6255:Inventory (library and archive) 6155:Cultural property documentation 5952:Bioarchaeology of the Near East 5872:Texas A&M University Press. 5856:The archaeology of human bones. 5772:10.1146/annurev.anthro.28.1.155 5392:. University Press of Florida. 5176:. Routledge. pp. 347–258. 5138:10.1146/annurev.anthro.30.1.387 4894: 4776: 4727: 4680: 4633: 4590: 4576:10.1016/j.earscirev.2014.12.002 4481: 4322: 4251: 4204: 4163: 4116: 4069: 3999:10.1016/j.earscirev.2018.11.005 3924: 3803: 3748: 3486: 3365: 3194: 3146: 3072: 3017: 2933: 2825: 2786: 2743: 2685:Loesche, W.J. (November 1988). 2678: 2669: 2660: 2610: 2567: 2526: 2511: 2462: 2427: 2367: 2314: 2270: 2218: 2175: 2134: 2040: 2022: 1981: 1953: 1911: 1876: 1841: 1791: 1772: 1748: 1701: 1654: 1607: 1568: 1521: 1434: 1424: 1402: 1393: 1384: 1357: 1305: 1270: 1233:Canadian Orthopaedic Foundation 1221: 1186: 1150: 424: 252: 108:, the auricular surface of the 6653:Bone, horn, and antler objects 6195:Digital photograph restoration 5389:The Bioarchaeology of Violence 4393:Wright, Lori E. (2012-09-01). 3296:, Elsevier, pp. 267–277, 1667:Nutrition in Clinical Practice 1135: 1123:Natural History Museum, London 1092: 1050: 1015: 986:"The Origin of Bioarchaeology" 978: 954: 930: 357:New York African Burial Ground 268:Particularly, deficiencies in 176:Non-specific stress indicators 1: 7830:Art and cultural repatriation 6838:South Asian household shrines 6536:Reconstruction (architecture) 6466:Cultural property radiography 6423:Registrar (cultural property) 6175:Cultural resources management 6135:Collections management system 5760:Annual Review of Anthropology 5365:10.1525/aa.1989.91.3.02a00510 5126:Annual Review of Anthropology 4960:"Ancient DNA in Anthropology" 4666:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2013.02.022 4514:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2007.06.022 4262:; Bogaard, Amy (2018-06-07). 3207:Annual Review of Anthropology 3024:Storey, Rebecca (July 1986). 2991:Annual Review of Anthropology 2985:Klepinger, L L (1984-10-01). 2883:Britton, Kate (August 2017). 2110:A Companion to Paleopathology 1515:10.1146/annurev.anthro.28.1.1 1503:Annual Review of Anthropology 924: 245:, to 15.5 percent during the 16:Sub-discipline of archaeology 7346:electrical resistance survey 7107:Conservation-restoration of 7098:Conservation-restoration of 6471:Detachment of wall paintings 6245:Intangible cultural heritage 6160:Cultural property exhibition 6145:Cultural heritage management 5507:Journal of Forensic Sciences 4550:Nehlich, Olaf (2015-03-01). 4356:10.1016/j.jasrep.2021.102876 4289:10.1371/journal.pone.0194474 4237:10.1016/j.palaeo.2010.08.006 4149:10.1016/j.palaeo.2011.03.022 3891:10.1371/journal.pone.0053763 2703:10.1177/08959374880020021201 2646:10.1016/j.jasrep.2015.05.013 1103:. Washington, DC: Taraxacum. 670:sulfur stable isotope system 492:Crassulacean acid metabolism 329:Living bones are subject to 322:may be divided according to 7: 6551:Transfer of panel paintings 5828:Cambridge University Press. 4607:Canadian Journal of Zoology 2691:Advances in Dental Research 1781:The British Medical Journal 1679:10.1177/0115426505020003308 887: 564: 434:Stable isotope analysis of 10: 7856: 7235:Johann Joachim Winckelmann 7015:Heritage language learning 6285:Optical media preservation 5624:10.1016/j.ijpp.2012.10.002 5589:10.1016/j.ijpp.2012.09.011 5434:10.1016/j.ijpp.2012.09.012 5093:10.1002/9781118962954.ch21 4999:Valk, Diana (2015-05-06). 4047:. Imperial College Press. 2118:10.1002/9781444345940.ch29 2068:10.1016/j.ijpp.2016.01.003 1447:Anatomy & Cell Biology 775:Biocultural bioarchaeology 7757: 7709: 7604: 7497: 7441: 7390: 7381: 7316:Philosophy of archaeology 7303: 7215: 7083: 7055:Oral history preservation 6896: 6625: 6569: 6436: 6338: 6170:Cultural property storage 6165:Cultural property imaging 6040: 5969:The African Burial Ground 5868:M. Parker Pearson, 2001. 5865:Harvard University Press. 5712:10.7183/1045-6635.21.1.44 5248:10.1080/00438240701249447 5050:10.1017/s0032247421000061 4928:10.1007/s12520-009-0003-6 4809:10.1016/j.jas.2014.03.005 4467:10.1016/j.jas.2006.10.008 4411:10.1016/j.jaa.2012.02.001 3836:10.1016/j.jas.2003.08.008 3674:10.1016/j.jas.2006.10.015 3616:10.1017/S0003598X00099403 3243:Bocherens, Hervé (2002), 2395:10.1007/s13219-017-0185-x 2335:10.1007/s12520-015-0256-1 2029:Jurmain, R; Villotte, S. 1975:10.1016/j.jas.2013.02.025 1071:10.1002/9780470245842.ch5 856: 827:intimate partner violence 663: 613: 429: 336:Muscle attachment sites ( 216:It was long assumed that 7102:by Elías García Martínez 6320:Sustainable preservation 5979:National NAGPRA homepage 5861:Samuel J. Redman, 2016. 5700:Latin American Antiquity 3706:Latin American Antiquity 1661:Seres, David S. (2005). 1459:10.5115/acb.2014.47.1.66 1034:10.1017/cbo9780511542428 899:Biocultural anthropology 769:1845 Franklin Expedition 7060:Preservation of meaning 7045:Language revitalization 6713:Illuminated manuscripts 6491:Historic paint analysis 6383:Conservation technician 6185:Deaccessioning (museum) 6125:Collections maintenance 6050:Agents of deterioration 5989:Powered by Osteons Blog 5542:American Anthropologist 5353:American Anthropologist 4861:10.1073/pnas.0704276104 4705:10.1002/ajpa.1330910205 4170:Balasse, Marie (2002). 3950:10.1002/ajpa.1330340613 3257:10.1007/0-306-47194-9_4 2952:10.1007/0-306-47194-9_8 2793:Lukacs, John R (2008). 2764:10.1080/004382400409899 2588:10.1002/ajpa.1330710403 2146:Antropologia Portuguesa 1862:10.1002/ajpa.1330150210 1575:Wolbach, S. B. (1947). 1291:10.1002/ajpa.1330300214 1207:10.1002/ajpa.1330680105 1172:10.1002/ajpa.1330680103 1099:Ubelaker, D.H. (1999). 405:Stable isotope analysis 301: 7825:Archaeological science 7070:Tradition preservation 6723:Iron and steel objects 6612:Outdoor bronze objects 6556:UVC-based preservation 6413:Photograph conservator 6378:Conservation scientist 6130:Collections management 6060:Archaeological science 4752:10.1098/rstb.1999.0360 4102:10.2138/rmg.2002.48.12 3456:10.1080/00438240126647 3186:: CS1 maint: others ( 2865:: CS1 maint: others ( 966:historicengland.org.uk 733: 704: 674:Canyon Diablo Troilite 622: 518:dietary plants, while 475: 413: 388:Diet and dental health 218:iron deficiency anemia 123: 98: 80: 7326:Archaeological ethics 7321:Archaeological diving 7311:Archaeological theory 7075:Traditional knowledge 7040:Language preservation 6648:Ancient Greek pottery 6546:Textile stabilization 6408:Paintings conservator 6295:Preservation metadata 6180:Database preservation 6034:historic preservation 5182:10.4324/9781315432939 4556:Earth-Science Reviews 3979:Earth-Science Reviews 699: 621: 472: 412: 78: 7265:Augustus Pitt Rivers 7260:William Henry Holmes 7225:Archaeological sites 6863:Time-based media art 6673:Copper-based objects 6587:Archaeological sites 6516:Mass deacidification 6461:Cradling (paintings) 6373:Conservator-restorer 6200:Digital preservation 5984:Bones Don't Lie Blog 5838:Internet Archaeology 5271:Current Anthropology 2901:10.15184/aqy.2017.98 2799:Current Anthropology 223:porotic hyperostosis 7255:John Lloyd Stephens 7245:Heinrich Schliemann 7167:World Heritage Site 7030:Indigenous language 6930:Endangered language 6828:Shipwreck artifacts 6808:Photographic plates 6758:Musical instruments 6511:Lining of paintings 6428:Textile conservator 6403:Objects conservator 6393:Exhibition designer 6300:Preservation survey 6225:Found in collection 6115:Collection (museum) 6085:Calendar (archives) 6055:Archival processing 5824:C.S. Larsen, 1997. 5042:2021PoRec..57E..14S 4919:2009ArAnS...1...59N 4852:2007PNAS..10416456W 4846:(42): 16456–16461. 4801:2014JArSc..46..114T 4658:2013ChGeo.345...50P 4568:2015ESRv..142....1N 4506:2007ChGeo.244..316B 4459:2007JArSc..34.1197P 4347:2021JArSR..36j2876S 4280:2018PLoSO..1394474V 4229:2010PPP...297..263F 4141:2011PPP...310....9K 4094:2002RvMG...48..455K 3991:2019ESRv..188...77P 3882:2013PLoSO...853763S 3828:2004JArSc..31..259P 3666:2007JArSc..34.1240H 3390:1978Natur.276..815V 2638:2016JArSR...6..633V 2545:(Pt 4): 592.1–628. 1632:10.1079/bjn19620047 1370:. Rowman Altamira. 1335:1994SciAm.271b..70M 1323:Scientific American 1229:"How Bones Develop" 851:structural violence 835:institutional abuse 757:King William Island 559:African Slave Trade 368:Injury and workload 306:The stress hormone 60:cultural-historical 7779:History portal 7341:geophysical survey 7025:Indigenous culture 6368:Collection manager 6265:Media preservation 6260:Inventory (museum) 6120:Collection catalog 5832:Law, Matt (2019). 5815:2019-06-26 at the 5668:10.1002/ajpa.21117 4977:10.1002/ajpa.10179 4601:Balaena mysticetus 4041:Gat, Joel (2010). 3761:American Antiquity 3610:(322): 1119–1133. 3549:American Antiquity 3030:American Antiquity 2488:10.1002/ajpa.22822 2292:10.1002/ajpa.22060 2196:10.1002/ajpa.21171 2007:10.1002/ajpa.20155 1939:10.1002/ajpa.21320 1897:10.1002/ajpa.20568 1819:10.1002/ajpa.22536 988:. 17 December 2010 750:Battle of Bosworth 705: 656:, and potentially 623: 488:C4 carbon fixation 484:C3 carbon fixation 476: 414: 133:sexually dimorphic 81: 7840:Bioarchaeologists 7820:Cultural heritage 7787: 7786: 7705: 7704: 7687:Pseudoarchaeology 7304:Method and theory 7175: 7174: 7124:Pompeian frescoes 7010:Heritage language 6900:cultural heritage 6688:Flags and banners 6633:cultural property 6597:Heritage railways 6577:cultural property 6526:Paleo-inspiration 6210:Film preservation 6150:Cultural property 6140:Cultural heritage 6030:Cultural heritage 5519:10.1520/JFS14098J 5399:978-0-8130-4363-0 5236:World Archaeology 5191:978-1-315-43293-9 5102:978-1-118-96295-4 4054:978-1-84816-474-1 3444:World Archaeology 3384:(5690): 815–816. 3165:978-1-59874-496-5 2844:978-90-481-3354-3 2752:World Archaeology 1546:10.1002/ajpa.1076 1377:978-0-7591-0137-1 1080:978-0-470-24584-2 942:www.encyclo.co.uk 767:in the ill-fated 377:post-depositional 191:Enamel hypoplasia 186:Enamel hypoplasia 152:mastoid processes 7847: 7805:Collections care 7800:1970s neologisms 7777: 7776: 7775: 7765: 7764: 7612:Archaeoastronomy 7579:Paleoethnobotany 7388: 7387: 7290:Alfred V. Kidder 7275:Mortimer Wheeler 7202: 7195: 7188: 7179: 7178: 7111:by Thomas Eakins 7109:The Gross Clinic 7005:Folklore studies 6915:Applied folklore 6888:Wooden furniture 6883:Wooden artifacts 6878:Woodblock prints 6858:Tibetan thangkas 6718:Insect specimens 6607:Outdoor artworks 6602:Historic gardens 6235:Heritage science 6023: 6016: 6009: 6000: 5999: 5887:Human osteology. 5885:T. White, 1991. 5851: 5849: 5847:10.11141/ia.53.6 5776: 5775: 5755: 5746: 5742: 5736: 5730: 5724: 5723: 5695: 5689: 5686: 5680: 5679: 5651: 5645: 5642: 5636: 5635: 5607: 5601: 5600: 5583:(2–3): 148–155. 5572: 5566: 5565: 5537: 5531: 5530: 5502: 5496: 5492: 5486: 5485: 5473: 5467: 5460: 5454: 5453: 5428:(2–3): 136–147. 5419: 5410: 5404: 5403: 5383: 5377: 5376: 5344: 5338: 5337: 5309: 5303: 5302: 5266: 5260: 5259: 5231: 5225: 5221: 5215: 5212: 5206: 5202: 5196: 5195: 5167: 5161: 5157: 5151: 5148: 5142: 5141: 5121: 5112: 5111: 5110: 5109: 5076: 5070: 5069: 5021: 5015: 5014: 5012: 5011: 4996: 4990: 4989: 4979: 4955: 4949: 4948: 4930: 4898: 4892: 4891: 4881: 4863: 4830: 4821: 4820: 4780: 4774: 4773: 4763: 4731: 4725: 4724: 4684: 4678: 4677: 4646:Chemical Geology 4637: 4631: 4630: 4594: 4588: 4587: 4547: 4526: 4525: 4494:Chemical Geology 4485: 4479: 4478: 4453:(8): 1197–1204. 4438: 4423: 4422: 4390: 4377: 4376: 4358: 4326: 4320: 4319: 4309: 4291: 4260:Lee-Thorp, Julia 4255: 4249: 4248: 4208: 4202: 4201: 4191: 4167: 4161: 4160: 4120: 4114: 4113: 4073: 4067: 4066: 4038: 4029: 4028: 4010: 3970: 3955: 3954: 3952: 3943:(S13): 283–321. 3928: 3922: 3921: 3911: 3893: 3861: 3848: 3847: 3807: 3801: 3800: 3752: 3746: 3745: 3697: 3686: 3685: 3660:(8): 1240–1251. 3645: 3636: 3635: 3595: 3589: 3588: 3540: 3531: 3530: 3490: 3484: 3483: 3435: 3426: 3425: 3398:10.1038/276815a0 3369: 3363: 3362: 3330: 3321: 3320: 3319: 3318: 3285: 3276: 3275: 3274: 3273: 3240: 3231: 3230: 3198: 3192: 3191: 3185: 3177: 3150: 3144: 3143: 3103: 3094: 3093: 3091: 3090: 3084:luna.cas.usf.edu 3080:"Bone Chemistry" 3076: 3070: 3069: 3021: 3015: 3014: 2982: 2971: 2970: 2969: 2968: 2937: 2931: 2930: 2912: 2895:(358): 853–864. 2880: 2871: 2870: 2864: 2856: 2829: 2823: 2822: 2790: 2784: 2783: 2747: 2741: 2740: 2714: 2682: 2676: 2673: 2667: 2664: 2658: 2657: 2623: 2614: 2608: 2607: 2571: 2565: 2564: 2554: 2530: 2524: 2523: 2515: 2509: 2508: 2490: 2466: 2460: 2459: 2431: 2425: 2424: 2406: 2389:(3–4): 140–149. 2380: 2371: 2365: 2364: 2346: 2318: 2312: 2311: 2274: 2268: 2267: 2257: 2231: 2222: 2216: 2215: 2179: 2173: 2172: 2170: 2169: 2160:. Archived from 2138: 2132: 2131: 2105: 2096: 2095: 2053: 2044: 2038: 2037: 2035: 2026: 2020: 2019: 2009: 1985: 1979: 1978: 1969:(7): 3076–3086. 1957: 1951: 1950: 1924: 1915: 1909: 1908: 1880: 1874: 1873: 1845: 1839: 1838: 1804: 1795: 1789: 1788: 1776: 1770: 1769: 1767: 1766: 1760: 1752: 1746: 1745: 1705: 1699: 1698: 1658: 1652: 1651: 1611: 1605: 1604: 1572: 1566: 1565: 1525: 1519: 1518: 1498: 1489: 1488: 1478: 1438: 1432: 1428: 1422: 1418: 1409: 1406: 1400: 1397: 1391: 1388: 1382: 1381: 1361: 1355: 1354: 1318: 1312: 1309: 1303: 1302: 1274: 1268: 1265: 1248: 1247: 1245: 1244: 1235:. Archived from 1225: 1219: 1218: 1190: 1184: 1183: 1154: 1148: 1147: 1139: 1133: 1132: 1130: 1129: 1117:Dunning, Haley. 1114: 1105: 1104: 1096: 1090: 1089: 1088: 1087: 1054: 1048: 1047: 1019: 1013: 1010: 997: 996: 994: 993: 982: 976: 975: 973: 972: 958: 952: 951: 949: 948: 934: 909:Osteoarchaeology 863:Native Americans 514:concentrations. 114:dental attrition 34:palaeo-osteology 24:osteoarchaeology 7855: 7854: 7850: 7849: 7848: 7846: 7845: 7844: 7790: 7789: 7788: 7783: 7773: 7771: 7753: 7701: 7600: 7515:Archaeogenetics 7493: 7437: 7383:Sub-disciplines 7377: 7373:Post-excavation 7368:Lithic analysis 7299: 7270:Flinders Petrie 7211: 7206: 7176: 7171: 7118:The Last Supper 7085: 7079: 7065:Primitive music 6975:Folk instrument 6950:Family folklore 6940:Ethnomusicology 6935:Ethnochoreology 6902: 6899: 6892: 6813:Plastic objects 6798:Performance art 6783:Panel paintings 6778:Painting frames 6743:Leather objects 6663:Ceramic objects 6635: 6632: 6630: 6629:and restoration 6628: 6621: 6579: 6576: 6574: 6573:and restoration 6572: 6565: 6531:Paper splitting 6446:Aging (artwork) 6438: 6432: 6418:Preservationist 6340: 6334: 6190:Digital library 6042: 6036: 6027: 5896: 5889:Academic Press. 5854:S. Mays, 1998. 5817:Wayback Machine 5784: 5782:Further reading 5779: 5756: 5749: 5743: 5739: 5731: 5727: 5696: 5692: 5687: 5683: 5652: 5648: 5643: 5639: 5608: 5604: 5573: 5569: 5538: 5534: 5503: 5499: 5493: 5489: 5474: 5470: 5461: 5457: 5417: 5411: 5407: 5400: 5384: 5380: 5345: 5341: 5326:10.2307/3888972 5310: 5306: 5267: 5263: 5232: 5228: 5222: 5218: 5213: 5209: 5203: 5199: 5192: 5168: 5164: 5158: 5154: 5149: 5145: 5122: 5115: 5107: 5105: 5103: 5077: 5073: 5022: 5018: 5009: 5007: 4997: 4993: 4956: 4952: 4899: 4895: 4831: 4824: 4781: 4777: 4746:(1379): 65–76. 4732: 4728: 4685: 4681: 4638: 4634: 4619:10.1139/z01-229 4595: 4591: 4548: 4529: 4486: 4482: 4439: 4426: 4391: 4380: 4327: 4323: 4274:(6): e0194474. 4256: 4252: 4209: 4205: 4168: 4164: 4121: 4117: 4074: 4070: 4055: 4039: 4032: 3971: 3958: 3929: 3925: 3862: 3851: 3808: 3804: 3753: 3749: 3698: 3689: 3646: 3639: 3596: 3592: 3541: 3534: 3491: 3487: 3436: 3429: 3370: 3366: 3331: 3324: 3316: 3314: 3312: 3286: 3279: 3271: 3269: 3267: 3241: 3234: 3199: 3195: 3179: 3178: 3166: 3152: 3151: 3147: 3124:10.2307/1310304 3104: 3097: 3088: 3086: 3078: 3077: 3073: 3022: 3018: 2983: 2974: 2966: 2964: 2962: 2938: 2934: 2881: 2874: 2858: 2857: 2845: 2831: 2830: 2826: 2791: 2787: 2748: 2744: 2683: 2679: 2674: 2670: 2665: 2661: 2621: 2615: 2611: 2572: 2568: 2531: 2527: 2516: 2512: 2467: 2463: 2448:10.1002/oa.2564 2432: 2428: 2378: 2372: 2368: 2319: 2315: 2275: 2271: 2246:10.1002/oa.2285 2229: 2223: 2219: 2180: 2176: 2167: 2165: 2140: 2139: 2135: 2128: 2106: 2099: 2051: 2045: 2041: 2033: 2027: 2023: 1986: 1982: 1958: 1954: 1922: 1916: 1912: 1881: 1877: 1846: 1842: 1802: 1796: 1792: 1777: 1773: 1764: 1762: 1758: 1754: 1753: 1749: 1706: 1702: 1659: 1655: 1612: 1608: 1573: 1569: 1526: 1522: 1499: 1492: 1439: 1435: 1429: 1425: 1419: 1412: 1407: 1403: 1398: 1394: 1389: 1385: 1378: 1362: 1358: 1319: 1315: 1310: 1306: 1275: 1271: 1266: 1251: 1242: 1240: 1227: 1226: 1222: 1191: 1187: 1155: 1151: 1140: 1136: 1127: 1125: 1115: 1108: 1097: 1093: 1085: 1083: 1081: 1055: 1051: 1044: 1025:Paleodemography 1020: 1016: 1011: 1000: 991: 989: 984: 983: 979: 970: 968: 960: 959: 955: 946: 944: 936: 935: 931: 927: 890: 878:natural history 859: 847:human sacrifice 777: 736: 666: 616: 601: 567: 513: 509: 432: 427: 418:biogeochemistry 416:Stable isotope 407: 390: 370: 316: 304: 255: 214: 209: 188: 183: 178: 126: 106:pubic symphysis 101: 89:cohort analysis 73: 71:Paleodemography 65:critical theory 56:New Archaeology 17: 12: 11: 5: 7853: 7843: 7842: 7837: 7835:Zooarchaeology 7832: 7827: 7822: 7817: 7812: 7807: 7802: 7785: 7784: 7782: 7781: 7769: 7758: 7755: 7754: 7752: 7751: 7746: 7745: 7744: 7742:Assyriologists 7739: 7732:Archaeologists 7729: 7724: 7723: 7722: 7713: 7711: 7707: 7706: 7703: 7702: 7700: 7699: 7694: 7689: 7684: 7679: 7674: 7669: 7664: 7659: 7654: 7649: 7644: 7639: 7634: 7629: 7624: 7619: 7614: 7608: 7606: 7602: 7601: 7599: 7598: 7593: 7588: 7587: 7586: 7584:Zooarchaeology 7581: 7576: 7574:Geoarchaeology 7566: 7565: 7564: 7559: 7554: 7544: 7539: 7538: 7537: 7535:Paleopathology 7532: 7527: 7522: 7517: 7510:Bioarchaeology 7507: 7501: 7499: 7498:Methodological 7495: 7494: 7492: 7491: 7486: 7481: 7476: 7471: 7466: 7461: 7456: 7451: 7445: 7443: 7439: 7438: 7436: 7435: 7430: 7425: 7420: 7415: 7410: 7405: 7400: 7394: 7392: 7385: 7379: 7378: 7376: 7375: 7370: 7365: 7360: 7355: 7354: 7353: 7348: 7343: 7333: 7328: 7323: 7318: 7313: 7307: 7305: 7301: 7300: 7298: 7297: 7292: 7287: 7282: 7280:Dorothy Garrod 7277: 7272: 7267: 7262: 7257: 7252: 7247: 7242: 7237: 7232: 7230:Antiquarianism 7227: 7221: 7219: 7213: 7212: 7205: 7204: 7197: 7190: 7182: 7173: 7172: 7170: 7169: 7164: 7159: 7154: 7149: 7141: 7136: 7131: 7126: 7121: 7113: 7104: 7095: 7089: 7087: 7081: 7080: 7078: 7077: 7072: 7067: 7062: 7057: 7052: 7050:Living history 7047: 7042: 7037: 7035:Language death 7032: 7027: 7022: 7017: 7012: 7007: 7002: 6997: 6992: 6987: 6982: 6977: 6972: 6970:Folk etymology 6967: 6962: 6957: 6952: 6947: 6942: 6937: 6932: 6927: 6922: 6920:Dance notation 6917: 6912: 6906: 6904: 6894: 6893: 6891: 6890: 6885: 6880: 6875: 6870: 6865: 6860: 6855: 6850: 6845: 6840: 6835: 6833:Silver objects 6830: 6825: 6820: 6815: 6810: 6805: 6800: 6795: 6790: 6785: 6780: 6775: 6770: 6765: 6760: 6755: 6750: 6745: 6740: 6735: 6730: 6725: 6720: 6715: 6710: 6705: 6700: 6695: 6690: 6685: 6680: 6675: 6670: 6665: 6660: 6655: 6650: 6645: 6639: 6637: 6623: 6622: 6620: 6619: 6617:Outdoor murals 6614: 6609: 6604: 6599: 6594: 6589: 6583: 6581: 6567: 6566: 6564: 6563: 6558: 6553: 6548: 6543: 6541:Rissverklebung 6538: 6533: 6528: 6523: 6518: 6513: 6508: 6503: 6498: 6493: 6488: 6483: 6478: 6473: 6468: 6463: 6458: 6456:Arrested decay 6453: 6448: 6442: 6440: 6439:and techniques 6434: 6433: 6431: 6430: 6425: 6420: 6415: 6410: 6405: 6400: 6395: 6390: 6385: 6380: 6375: 6370: 6365: 6360: 6355: 6350: 6344: 6342: 6336: 6335: 6333: 6332: 6327: 6322: 6317: 6312: 6307: 6302: 6297: 6292: 6287: 6282: 6277: 6272: 6267: 6262: 6257: 6252: 6247: 6242: 6237: 6232: 6230:Heritage asset 6227: 6222: 6217: 6212: 6207: 6202: 6197: 6192: 6187: 6182: 6177: 6172: 6167: 6162: 6157: 6152: 6147: 6142: 6137: 6132: 6127: 6122: 6117: 6112: 6107: 6102: 6097: 6092: 6087: 6082: 6077: 6075:Bioarchaeology 6072: 6067: 6062: 6057: 6052: 6046: 6044: 6038: 6037: 6026: 6025: 6018: 6011: 6003: 5997: 5996: 5991: 5986: 5981: 5976: 5971: 5966: 5964:Paleopathology 5955: 5954: 5949: 5944: 5939: 5934: 5923: 5922: 5917: 5912: 5907: 5895: 5894:External links 5892: 5891: 5890: 5883: 5873: 5866: 5859: 5852: 5829: 5822: 5810:Bioarchaeology 5802: 5795: 5792: 5783: 5780: 5778: 5777: 5747: 5737: 5725: 5690: 5681: 5646: 5637: 5618:(4): 223–230. 5602: 5567: 5548:(4): 589–606. 5532: 5513:(2): 196–207. 5497: 5487: 5468: 5455: 5405: 5398: 5378: 5359:(3): 794–795. 5339: 5320:(165): 14–20. 5304: 5283:10.1086/605354 5261: 5226: 5216: 5207: 5197: 5190: 5162: 5152: 5143: 5113: 5101: 5071: 5016: 4991: 4950: 4893: 4822: 4775: 4726: 4699:(2): 189–201. 4679: 4632: 4613:(2): 223–231. 4589: 4527: 4500:(1): 316–329. 4480: 4424: 4405:(3): 334–352. 4378: 4321: 4250: 4223:(2): 263–272. 4203: 4189:10.1002/oa.601 4182:(3): 155–165. 4162: 4115: 4088:(1): 455–488. 4068: 4053: 4030: 3956: 3923: 3849: 3822:(3): 259–272. 3802: 3773:10.2307/282144 3767:(2): 335–350. 3747: 3718:10.2307/972085 3712:(4): 371–393. 3687: 3637: 3590: 3561:10.2307/280778 3555:(3): 504–512. 3532: 3505:(2): 207–216. 3485: 3427: 3364: 3345:(1): 293–320. 3322: 3310: 3277: 3265: 3232: 3213:(1): 185–213. 3193: 3164: 3145: 3118:(3): 171–177. 3095: 3071: 3042:10.2307/281762 3036:(3): 661–662. 3016: 2972: 2960: 2932: 2872: 2843: 2824: 2811:10.1086/592111 2785: 2742: 2697:(2): 275–283. 2677: 2668: 2659: 2609: 2582:(4): 401–415. 2566: 2525: 2522:. Edigrafital. 2510: 2481:(4): 557–568. 2461: 2442:(3): 409–417. 2426: 2366: 2329:(4): 805–817. 2313: 2286:(3): 379–388. 2269: 2240:(2): 186–196. 2217: 2190:(4): 550–560. 2174: 2133: 2126: 2097: 2039: 2021: 1980: 1952: 1933:(1): 146–150. 1910: 1891:(1): 698–716. 1875: 1856:(2): 197–234. 1840: 1813:(2): 243–259. 1790: 1771: 1747: 1720:(1): 115–131. 1700: 1673:(3): 308–313. 1653: 1606: 1587:(1): 171–192. 1567: 1540:(3): 213–222. 1520: 1490: 1433: 1423: 1410: 1401: 1392: 1383: 1376: 1356: 1313: 1304: 1285:(2): 297–302. 1269: 1249: 1220: 1185: 1149: 1134: 1106: 1091: 1079: 1049: 1042: 1014: 998: 977: 953: 928: 926: 923: 922: 921: 919:Zooarchaeology 916: 914:Paleopathology 911: 906: 901: 896: 889: 886: 858: 855: 789:constructivist 776: 773: 735: 732: 665: 662: 615: 612: 599: 566: 563: 511: 507: 480:photosynthesis 438:in human bone 431: 428: 426: 423: 406: 403: 389: 386: 369: 366: 361:osteoarthritis 342:osteoarthritis 315: 312: 303: 300: 254: 251: 213: 210: 208: 205: 187: 184: 182: 179: 177: 174: 125: 122: 100: 97: 72: 69: 20:Bioarchaeology 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7852: 7841: 7838: 7836: 7833: 7831: 7828: 7826: 7823: 7821: 7818: 7816: 7813: 7811: 7808: 7806: 7803: 7801: 7798: 7797: 7795: 7780: 7770: 7768: 7760: 7759: 7756: 7750: 7747: 7743: 7740: 7738: 7737:Egyptologists 7735: 7734: 7733: 7730: 7728: 7725: 7721: 7718: 7717: 7715: 7714: 7712: 7708: 7698: 7695: 7693: 7690: 7688: 7685: 7683: 7682:Phenomenology 7680: 7678: 7675: 7673: 7670: 7668: 7665: 7663: 7660: 7658: 7655: 7653: 7650: 7648: 7645: 7643: 7640: 7638: 7635: 7633: 7630: 7628: 7625: 7623: 7620: 7618: 7615: 7613: 7610: 7609: 7607: 7603: 7597: 7594: 7592: 7589: 7585: 7582: 7580: 7577: 7575: 7572: 7571: 7570: 7569:Environmental 7567: 7563: 7560: 7558: 7557:Computational 7555: 7553: 7552:Archaeogaming 7550: 7549: 7548: 7545: 7543: 7540: 7536: 7533: 7531: 7528: 7526: 7523: 7521: 7518: 7516: 7513: 7512: 7511: 7508: 7506: 7503: 7502: 7500: 7496: 7490: 7487: 7485: 7482: 7480: 7477: 7475: 7472: 7470: 7467: 7465: 7462: 7460: 7457: 7455: 7452: 7450: 7447: 7446: 7444: 7440: 7434: 7431: 7429: 7426: 7424: 7423:Post-Medieval 7421: 7419: 7416: 7414: 7411: 7409: 7406: 7404: 7403:Protohistoric 7401: 7399: 7396: 7395: 7393: 7391:Chronological 7389: 7386: 7384: 7380: 7374: 7371: 7369: 7366: 7364: 7361: 7359: 7356: 7352: 7349: 7347: 7344: 7342: 7339: 7338: 7337: 7334: 7332: 7329: 7327: 7324: 7322: 7319: 7317: 7314: 7312: 7309: 7308: 7306: 7302: 7296: 7293: 7291: 7288: 7286: 7283: 7281: 7278: 7276: 7273: 7271: 7268: 7266: 7263: 7261: 7258: 7256: 7253: 7251: 7248: 7246: 7243: 7241: 7240:Richard Hoare 7238: 7236: 7233: 7231: 7228: 7226: 7223: 7222: 7220: 7218: 7214: 7210: 7203: 7198: 7196: 7191: 7189: 7184: 7183: 7180: 7168: 7165: 7163: 7160: 7158: 7155: 7153: 7150: 7148: 7147: 7142: 7140: 7137: 7135: 7132: 7130: 7127: 7125: 7122: 7120: 7119: 7114: 7112: 7110: 7105: 7103: 7101: 7096: 7094: 7091: 7090: 7088: 7082: 7076: 7073: 7071: 7068: 7066: 7063: 7061: 7058: 7056: 7053: 7051: 7048: 7046: 7043: 7041: 7038: 7036: 7033: 7031: 7028: 7026: 7023: 7021: 7018: 7016: 7013: 7011: 7008: 7006: 7003: 7001: 6998: 6996: 6993: 6991: 6988: 6986: 6983: 6981: 6980:Folk medicine 6978: 6976: 6973: 6971: 6968: 6966: 6963: 6961: 6958: 6956: 6953: 6951: 6948: 6946: 6943: 6941: 6938: 6936: 6933: 6931: 6928: 6926: 6923: 6921: 6918: 6916: 6913: 6911: 6910:Ancient music 6908: 6907: 6905: 6901: 6895: 6889: 6886: 6884: 6881: 6879: 6876: 6874: 6871: 6869: 6866: 6864: 6861: 6859: 6856: 6854: 6851: 6849: 6846: 6844: 6843:Stained glass 6841: 6839: 6836: 6834: 6831: 6829: 6826: 6824: 6823:Road vehicles 6821: 6819: 6818:Rail vehicles 6816: 6814: 6811: 6809: 6806: 6804: 6801: 6799: 6796: 6794: 6791: 6789: 6786: 6784: 6781: 6779: 6776: 6774: 6771: 6769: 6768:New media art 6766: 6764: 6761: 6759: 6756: 6754: 6751: 6749: 6746: 6744: 6741: 6739: 6736: 6734: 6731: 6729: 6728:Ivory objects 6726: 6724: 6721: 6719: 6716: 6714: 6711: 6709: 6708:Human remains 6706: 6704: 6701: 6699: 6698:Glass objects 6696: 6694: 6691: 6689: 6686: 6684: 6681: 6679: 6676: 6674: 6671: 6669: 6666: 6664: 6661: 6659: 6656: 6654: 6651: 6649: 6646: 6644: 6641: 6640: 6638: 6634: 6624: 6618: 6615: 6613: 6610: 6608: 6605: 6603: 6600: 6598: 6595: 6593: 6590: 6588: 6585: 6584: 6582: 6578: 6575:of immovable 6568: 6562: 6559: 6557: 6554: 6552: 6549: 6547: 6544: 6542: 6539: 6537: 6534: 6532: 6529: 6527: 6524: 6522: 6519: 6517: 6514: 6512: 6509: 6507: 6504: 6502: 6499: 6497: 6494: 6492: 6489: 6487: 6484: 6482: 6479: 6477: 6476:Desmet method 6474: 6472: 6469: 6467: 6464: 6462: 6459: 6457: 6454: 6452: 6449: 6447: 6444: 6443: 6441: 6435: 6429: 6426: 6424: 6421: 6419: 6416: 6414: 6411: 6409: 6406: 6404: 6401: 6399: 6396: 6394: 6391: 6389: 6386: 6384: 6381: 6379: 6376: 6374: 6371: 6369: 6366: 6364: 6361: 6359: 6356: 6354: 6351: 6349: 6346: 6345: 6343: 6341:and expertise 6337: 6331: 6330:Web archiving 6328: 6326: 6323: 6321: 6318: 6316: 6313: 6311: 6308: 6306: 6303: 6301: 6298: 6296: 6293: 6291: 6288: 6286: 6283: 6281: 6278: 6276: 6273: 6271: 6268: 6266: 6263: 6261: 6258: 6256: 6253: 6251: 6248: 6246: 6243: 6241: 6240:Inherent vice 6238: 6236: 6233: 6231: 6228: 6226: 6223: 6221: 6218: 6216: 6213: 6211: 6208: 6206: 6203: 6201: 6198: 6196: 6193: 6191: 6188: 6186: 6183: 6181: 6178: 6176: 6173: 6171: 6168: 6166: 6163: 6161: 6158: 6156: 6153: 6151: 6148: 6146: 6143: 6141: 6138: 6136: 6133: 6131: 6128: 6126: 6123: 6121: 6118: 6116: 6113: 6111: 6108: 6106: 6103: 6101: 6098: 6096: 6093: 6091: 6088: 6086: 6083: 6081: 6078: 6076: 6073: 6071: 6068: 6066: 6063: 6061: 6058: 6056: 6053: 6051: 6048: 6047: 6045: 6039: 6035: 6031: 6024: 6019: 6017: 6012: 6010: 6005: 6004: 6001: 5995: 5992: 5990: 5987: 5985: 5982: 5980: 5977: 5975: 5972: 5970: 5967: 5965: 5962: 5961: 5960: 5959: 5953: 5950: 5948: 5945: 5943: 5940: 5938: 5935: 5933: 5930: 5929: 5928: 5927: 5921: 5918: 5916: 5913: 5911: 5908: 5906: 5903: 5902: 5901: 5900: 5899:Organizations 5888: 5884: 5881: 5877: 5874: 5871: 5867: 5864: 5860: 5857: 5853: 5848: 5843: 5839: 5835: 5830: 5827: 5823: 5820: 5818: 5814: 5811: 5806: 5803: 5800: 5796: 5793: 5790: 5786: 5785: 5773: 5769: 5765: 5761: 5754: 5752: 5741: 5735: 5729: 5721: 5717: 5713: 5709: 5705: 5701: 5694: 5685: 5677: 5673: 5669: 5665: 5661: 5657: 5650: 5641: 5633: 5629: 5625: 5621: 5617: 5613: 5606: 5598: 5594: 5590: 5586: 5582: 5578: 5571: 5563: 5559: 5555: 5551: 5547: 5543: 5536: 5528: 5524: 5520: 5516: 5512: 5508: 5501: 5491: 5483: 5479: 5472: 5466: 5459: 5451: 5447: 5443: 5439: 5435: 5431: 5427: 5423: 5416: 5409: 5401: 5395: 5391: 5390: 5382: 5374: 5370: 5366: 5362: 5358: 5354: 5350: 5343: 5335: 5331: 5327: 5323: 5319: 5315: 5308: 5300: 5296: 5292: 5288: 5284: 5280: 5277:(5): 603–08. 5276: 5272: 5265: 5257: 5253: 5249: 5245: 5242:(2): 143–50. 5241: 5237: 5230: 5220: 5211: 5201: 5193: 5187: 5183: 5179: 5175: 5174: 5166: 5156: 5147: 5139: 5135: 5131: 5127: 5120: 5118: 5104: 5098: 5094: 5090: 5086: 5082: 5075: 5067: 5063: 5059: 5055: 5051: 5047: 5043: 5039: 5035: 5031: 5027: 5020: 5006: 5002: 4995: 4987: 4983: 4978: 4973: 4969: 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2712:2027.42/68092 2708: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2692: 2688: 2681: 2672: 2663: 2655: 2651: 2647: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2631: 2627: 2620: 2613: 2605: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2589: 2585: 2581: 2577: 2570: 2562: 2558: 2553: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2536: 2529: 2521: 2514: 2506: 2502: 2498: 2494: 2489: 2484: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2465: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2441: 2437: 2430: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2405: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2384: 2377: 2370: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2345: 2340: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2324: 2317: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2297: 2293: 2289: 2285: 2281: 2273: 2265: 2261: 2256: 2251: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2228: 2221: 2213: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2197: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2178: 2164:on 2017-09-15 2163: 2159: 2155: 2151: 2147: 2143: 2137: 2129: 2127:9781444345940 2123: 2119: 2115: 2111: 2104: 2102: 2093: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2061: 2057: 2050: 2043: 2032: 2025: 2017: 2013: 2008: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1984: 1976: 1972: 1968: 1964: 1956: 1948: 1944: 1940: 1936: 1932: 1928: 1921: 1914: 1906: 1902: 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Killgrove 5798: 5788: 5763: 5759: 5740: 5728: 5706:(1): 44–66. 5703: 5699: 5693: 5684: 5662:(1): 83–96. 5659: 5655: 5649: 5640: 5615: 5611: 5605: 5580: 5576: 5570: 5545: 5541: 5535: 5510: 5506: 5500: 5490: 5481: 5477: 5471: 5458: 5425: 5421: 5408: 5388: 5381: 5356: 5352: 5342: 5317: 5313: 5307: 5274: 5270: 5264: 5239: 5235: 5229: 5219: 5210: 5200: 5172: 5165: 5155: 5146: 5129: 5125: 5106:, retrieved 5084: 5074: 5033: 5030:Polar Record 5029: 5019: 5008:. Retrieved 5004: 4994: 4967: 4963: 4953: 4913:(1): 59–75. 4910: 4906: 4896: 4843: 4839: 4792: 4788: 4778: 4743: 4739: 4729: 4696: 4692: 4682: 4649: 4645: 4635: 4610: 4606: 4600: 4592: 4559: 4555: 4497: 4493: 4483: 4450: 4446: 4402: 4398: 4338: 4334: 4324: 4271: 4267: 4253: 4220: 4216: 4206: 4179: 4175: 4165: 4132: 4128: 4118: 4085: 4081: 4071: 4043: 3982: 3978: 3940: 3936: 3926: 3873: 3869: 3819: 3815: 3805: 3764: 3760: 3750: 3709: 3705: 3657: 3653: 3607: 3603: 3593: 3552: 3548: 3502: 3498: 3488: 3450:(1): 73–97. 3447: 3443: 3381: 3377: 3367: 3342: 3338: 3315:, retrieved 3293: 3270:, retrieved 3248: 3210: 3206: 3196: 3154: 3148: 3115: 3111: 3087:. Retrieved 3083: 3074: 3033: 3029: 3019: 2997:(1): 75–96. 2994: 2990: 2965:, retrieved 2942: 2935: 2892: 2888: 2833: 2827: 2802: 2798: 2788: 2758:(1): 68–83. 2755: 2751: 2745: 2694: 2690: 2680: 2671: 2662: 2629: 2625: 2612: 2579: 2575: 2569: 2542: 2538: 2528: 2519: 2513: 2478: 2474: 2464: 2439: 2435: 2429: 2386: 2382: 2369: 2326: 2322: 2316: 2283: 2279: 2272: 2237: 2233: 2220: 2187: 2183: 2177: 2166:. Retrieved 2162:the original 2149: 2145: 2136: 2109: 2059: 2055: 2042: 2024: 1997: 1993: 1983: 1966: 1962: 1955: 1930: 1926: 1913: 1888: 1884: 1878: 1853: 1849: 1843: 1810: 1806: 1793: 1787:(1673): 124. 1784: 1780: 1774: 1763:. Retrieved 1761:. 2011-09-12 1750: 1717: 1713: 1703: 1670: 1666: 1656: 1623: 1619: 1609: 1584: 1580: 1570: 1537: 1533: 1523: 1506: 1502: 1453:(1): 66–72. 1450: 1446: 1436: 1426: 1404: 1395: 1386: 1366: 1359: 1329:(2): 70–75. 1326: 1322: 1316: 1307: 1282: 1278: 1272: 1241:. Retrieved 1237:the original 1232: 1223: 1201:(1): 47–56. 1198: 1194: 1188: 1166:(1): 15–28. 1163: 1159: 1152: 1143: 1137: 1126:. Retrieved 1100: 1094: 1084:, retrieved 1062: 1052: 1024: 1017: 990:. Retrieved 980: 969:. Retrieved 965: 956: 945:. Retrieved 941: 932: 882: 871: 860: 820: 816: 808: 804: 801: 793: 778: 764: 761:John Gregory 754: 743: 737: 723: 706: 700: 667: 642: 639: 635: 624: 588: 575:carbohydrate 568: 551:Indian Ocean 535: 528: 516: 477: 433: 425:Applications 415: 391: 382: 371: 354: 350:surfer's ear 346: 335: 328: 317: 305: 295:malnutrition 290:osteoblastic 282:endochondral 267: 258:Harris lines 256: 253:Harris lines 235: 231: 215: 201: 189: 166: 159: 156: 141: 127: 118: 102: 87:, a type of 82: 53: 38: 33: 27: 23: 19: 18: 7697:Transgender 7622:Battlefield 7398:Prehistoric 7358:Burnt layer 7295:George Bass 7209:Archaeology 7146:H.L. 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3585:95529499 3527:10813703 3480:12440830 3472:16475301 2780:43087099 2772:16475298 2737:13175233 2561:17231765 2505:26239396 2421:29420179 2361:83293108 2308:22460619 2212:19927279 2084:29539508 2016:15605390 1947:20734440 1905:17295297 1870:13470043 1835:39512115 1827:24839102 1695:16207668 1648:13943979 1601:20284696 1562:11424073 1509:: 1–25. 1485:24693484 888:See also 823:violence 701:Figure 3 686:cysteine 608:nitrites 604:nitrates 592:Nitrogen 565:Nitrogen 464:standard 440:collagen 398:estrogen 338:entheses 308:cortisol 274:vitamins 120:years). 7727:Periods 7562:Virtual 7547:Digital 7449:African 7351:Sondage 7217:History 7084:Notable 6788:Papyrus 6733:Judaica 6592:Frescos 6437:Methods 6388:Curator 6070:Archive 5527:9068177 5495:145–80. 5450:3933522 5334:3888972 5205:359–74. 5038:Bibcode 4915:Bibcode 4879:2034262 4848:Bibcode 4797:Bibcode 4761:1692445 4721:8317560 4654:Bibcode 4564:Bibcode 4502:Bibcode 4455:Bibcode 4343:Bibcode 4307:5991682 4276:Bibcode 4225:Bibcode 4137:Bibcode 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