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destination. When viewing this from an evolutionary standpoint, many theories and explanations come into consideration. If these are the result for every migration and breeding season, the expected results should be a shift towards a larger male population through sexual selection. Sexual selection is strong when the factor of environmental selection is also introduced. Environmental selection may support a smaller chick size if those chicks were born in an area that allowed them to grow to a larger size, even though under normal conditions they would not be able to reach this optimal size for migration. When the environment gives advantages and disadvantages of this sort, the strength of selection is weakened and the environmental forces are given greater morphological weight. The sexual dimorphism could also produce a change in timing of migration leading to differences in mating success within the bird population. When the dimorphism produces that large of a variation between the sexes and between the members of the sexes, multiple evolutionary effects can take place. This timing could even lead to a speciation phenomenon if the variation becomes strongly drastic and favorable towards two different outcomes. Sexual dimorphism is maintained by the counteracting pressures of natural selection and sexual selection. For example, sexual dimorphism in coloration increases the vulnerability of bird species to predation by
European sparrowhawks in Denmark. Presumably, increased sexual dimorphism means males are brighter and more conspicuous, leading to increased predation. Moreover, the production of more exaggerated ornaments in males may come at the cost of suppressed immune function. So long as the reproductive benefits of the trait due to sexual selection are greater than the costs imposed by natural selection, then the trait will propagate throughout the population. Reproductive benefits arise in the form of a larger number of offspring, while natural selection imposes costs in the form of reduced survival. This means that even if the trait causes males to die earlier, the trait is still beneficial so long as males with the trait produce more offspring than males lacking the trait. This balance keeps dimorphism alive in these species and ensures that the next generation of successful males will also display these traits that are attractive to females.
1050:, a type of cichlid fish. In this fish, the males are characterized as being up to 60 times larger than the females. The male's increased size is believed to be advantageous because males collect and defend empty snail shells in each of which a female breeds. Males must be larger and more powerful in order to collect the largest shells. The female's body size must remain small because in order for her to breed, she must lay her eggs inside the empty shells. If she grows too large, she will not fit in the shells and will be unable to breed. The female's small body size is also likely beneficial to her chances of finding an unoccupied shell. Larger shells, although preferred by females, are often limited in availability. Hence, the female is limited to the growth of the size of the shell and may actually change her growth rate according to shell size availability. In other words, the male's ability to collect large shells depends on his size. The larger the male, the larger the shells he is able to collect. This then allows for females to be larger in his brooding nest which makes the difference between the sizes of the sexes less substantial. Male–male competition in this fish species also selects for large size in males. There is aggressive competition by males over territory and access to larger shells. Large males win fights and steal shells from competitors. Another example is the
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hormones occur during puberty and adulthood and serve to 'activate' certain behaviors when appropriate, such as territoriality during breeding season. Organizational hormones occur only during a critical period early in development, either just before or just after hatching in most birds, and determine patterns of behavior for the rest of the bird's life. Such behavioral differences can cause disproportionate sensitivities to anthropogenic pressures. Females of the whinchat in
Switzerland breed in intensely managed grasslands. Earlier harvesting of the grasses during the breeding season lead to more female deaths. Populations of many birds are often male-skewed and when sexual differences in behavior increase this ratio, populations decline at a more rapid rate. Also not all male dimorphic traits are due to hormones like testosterone, instead they are a naturally occurring part of development, for example plumage. In addition, the strong hormonal influence on phenotypic differences suggests that the genetic mechanism and genetic basis of these sexually dimorphic traits may involve transcription factors or cofactors rather than regulatory sequences.
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1278:, and some species of flightless birds. Plumage dimorphism, in the form of ornamentation or coloration, also varies, though males are typically the more ornamented or brightly colored sex. Such differences have been attributed to the unequal reproductive contributions of the sexes. This difference produces a stronger female choice since they have more risk in producing offspring. In some species, the male's contribution to reproduction ends at copulation, while in other species the male becomes the main (or only) caregiver. Plumage polymorphisms have evolved to reflect these differences and other measures of reproductive fitness, such as body condition or survival. The male phenotype sends signals to females who then choose the 'fittest' available male.
1996:, (black myotis bat) where females are substantially larger than males in terms of body weight, skull measurement, and forearm length. The interaction between the sexes and the energy needed to produce viable offspring makes it favorable for females to be larger in this species. Females bear the energetic cost of producing eggs, which is much greater than the cost of making sperm by the males. The fecundity advantage hypothesis states that a larger female is able to produce more offspring and give them more favorable conditions to ensure their survival; this is true for most ectotherms. A larger female can provide parental care for a longer time while the offspring matures. The gestation and lactation periods are fairly long in
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1090:, known as two-spotted gobies. Traditional hypotheses suggest that male–male competition drives selection. However, selection for ornamentation within this species suggests that showy female traits can be selected through either female–female competition or male mate choice. Since carotenoid-based ornamentation suggests mate quality, female two-spotted guppies that develop colorful orange bellies during breeding season are considered favorable to males. The males invest heavily in offspring during incubation, which leads to the sexual preference in colorful females due to higher egg quality.
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1859: Females have a higher sensitivity to pain due to aforementioned nerve differences that increase the sensation, and females thus require higher levels of pain medication after injury. Hormonal changes in females affect pain sensitivity, and pregnant women have the same sensitivity as males. Acute pain tolerance is also more consistent over a lifetime in females than males, despite these hormonal changes. Despite differences in physical feeling, both sexes have similar psychological tolerance to (or ability to
485:, size, weight, color, markings, or behavioral or cognitive traits. Male-male reproductive competition has evolved a diverse array of sexually dimorphic traits. Aggressive utility traits such as "battle" teeth and blunt heads reinforced as battering rams are used as weapons in aggressive interactions between rivals. Passive displays such as ornamental feathering or song-calling have also evolved mainly through sexual selection. These differences may be subtle or exaggerated and may be subjected to
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583:. At first sight, one might mistake peacocks and peahens for completely different species because of the vibrant colours and the sheer size of the male's plumage; the peahen is of a subdued brown coloration. The plumage of the peacock increases its vulnerability to predators because it is a hindrance in flight, and it renders the bird conspicuous in general. Similar examples are manifold, such as in
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found in insects. In mammals this results in more frequent and severe infections in males and higher rates of autoimmune disorders in females. One potential cause may be differences in gene expression of immune cells between the sexes. Another explanation is that endocrinological differences between the sexes impact the immune system – for example, testosterone acts as an immunosuppressive agent.
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1916:), the structural connectome of women are significantly "better" connected than the connectome of men. It was shown that the graph-theoretical differences are due to the sex and not to the differences in the cerebral volume, by analyzing the data of 36 females and 36 males, where the brain volume of each man in the group was smaller than the brain volume of each woman in the group.
1601:. Pinnipeds are known for early differential growth and maternal investment since the only nutrients for newborn pups is the milk provided by the mother. For example, the males are significantly larger (about 10% heavier and 2% longer) than the females at birth in sea lion pups. The pattern of differential investment can be varied principally prenatally and post-natally.
2000:, the females suckling their offspring until they reach nearly adult size. They would not be able to fly and catch prey if they did not compensate for the additional mass of the offspring during this time. Smaller male size may be an adaptation to increase maneuverability and agility, allowing males to compete better with females for food and other resources.
915:. These structures are impressive because of the exaggerated sizes. There is a direct correlation between male horn lengths and body size and higher access to mates and fitness. In other beetle species, both males and females may have ornamentation such as horns. Generally, insect sexual size dimorphism (SSD) within species increases with body size.
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success. Males have a propensity to be larger than females of a comparable age but it is unclear whether the size increase is due to a growth spurt at the time of the sexual transition or due to the history of faster growth in sex changing individuals. Larger males are able to stifle the growth of females and control environmental resources.
1020:, use this method. Some males evolved ornamentation including binding the female with silk, having proportionally longer legs, modifying the female's web, mating while the female is feeding, or providing a nuptial gift in response to sexual cannibalism. Male body size is not under selection due to cannibalism in all spider species such as
668:, only the male fish develops an organ at the anal-urogenital region that produces antimicrobial substances. During parental care, males rub their anal-urogenital regions over their nests' internal surfaces, thereby protecting their eggs from microbial infections, one of the most common causes for mortality in young fish.
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discouraging further visits from pollinators. This is advantageous to both parties because it avoids damaging the developing fruit and wasting the pollinator's effort on unrewarding visits. In effect, the strategy ensures that pollinators can expect a reward every time they visit an appropriately advertising flower.
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also display extreme sexual dimorphism. Females are more typical in appearance to other fish, whereas males are tiny rudimentary creatures with stunted digestive systems. A male must find a female and fuse with her: he then lives parasitically, becoming little more than a sperm-producing body in what
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In theory, larger females are favored by competition for mates, especially in polygamous species. Larger females offer an advantage in fertility, since the physiological demands of reproduction are limiting in females. Hence there is a theoretical expectation that females tend to be larger in species
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Sexual dimorphism in immune function is a common pattern in vertebrates and also in a number of invertebrates. Most often, females are more 'immunocompetent' than males. This trait is not consistent among all animals, but differs depending on taxonomy, with the most female-biased immune systems being
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show a range of sexual dimorphism, with average body mass between the sexes differing by roughly 15%. Substantial discussion in academic literature considers potential evolutionary advantages associated with sexual competition (both intrasexual and intersexual), as well as short- and long-term sexual
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Social organization plays a large role in the changing of sex by the fish. It is often seen that a fish will change its sex when there is a lack of a dominant male within the social hierarchy. The females that change sex are often those who attain and preserve an initial size advantage early in life.
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often include the sex-change from female to male where there is a strong connection between growth, the sex of an individual, and the mating system within which it operates. In protogynous mating systems where males dominate mating with many females, size plays a significant role in male reproductive
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The handicap principle states that a male who survives despite possessing some sort of handicap thus proves that the rest of his genes are "good alleles". If males with "bad alleles" could not survive the handicap, females may evolve to choose males with this sort of handicap; the trait is acting as
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found in a 2004 study that "men and women apparently achieve similar IQ results with different brain regions, suggesting that there is no singular underlying neuroanatomical structure to general intelligence and that different types of brain designs may manifest equivalent intellectual performance".
1495:, which likely provided a function in sexual display. A biometric study of 36 skulls found sexual dimorphism was exhibited in the crest of 3 species of hadrosaurids. The crests could be categorized as full (male) or narrow (female) and may have given some advantage in intrasexual mating-competition.
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Such differences in form and reproductive roles often cause differences in behavior. As previously stated, males and females often have different roles in reproduction. The courtship and mating behavior of males and females are regulated largely by hormones throughout a bird's lifetime. Activational
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in the left hemisphere of the brain in comparison to males. Males on average have larger brains than females; however, when adjusted for total brain volume, the gray matter differences between sexes are almost nonexistent. Thus, the percentage of gray matter appears to be more related to brain size
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The difference in strength relative to body mass is less pronounced in trained individuals. In
Olympic weightlifting, male records vary from 5.5Ă— body mass in the lowest weight category to 4.2Ă— in the highest weight category, while female records vary from 4.4Ă— to 3.8Ă—, a weight-adjusted difference
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According to Scott D. Sampson, if ceratopsids were to exhibit sexual dimorphism, modern ecological analogues suggest it would be found in display structures, such as horns and frills. No convincing evidence for sexual dimorphism in body size or mating signals is known in ceratopsids, although there
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Possible mechanisms have been proposed to explain macroevolution of sexual size dimorphism in birds. These include sexual selection, selection for fecundity in females, niche divergence between the sexes, and allometry, but their relative importance is still not fully understood . Sexual dimorphism
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Ray-finned fish are an ancient and diverse class, with the widest degree of sexual dimorphism of any animal class. Fairbairn notes that "females are generally larger than males but males are often larger in species with male–male combat or male paternal care ... from dwarf males to males more than
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spectrum. Hence, the male birds, although appearing yellow to humans, actually have a violet-tinted plumage that is seen by females. This plumage is thought to be an indicator of male parental abilities. Perhaps this is a good indicator for females because it shows that they are good at obtaining a
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The sexy son hypothesis states that females may initially choose a trait because it improves the survival of their young, but once this preference has become widespread, females must continue to choose the trait, even if it becomes harmful. Those that do not will have sons that are unattractive to
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observed that "because it is easier to manipulate hormone levels than the expression of sex chromosome genes, the effects of hormones have been studied much more extensively, and are much better understood, than the direct actions in the brain of sex chromosome genes." It concluded that while "the
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in search of sexually dimorphic characteristics requires the supply of complete and articulated skeletal and tissue remains. As terrestrial organisms, dinosaur carcasses are subject to ecological and geographical influence that inevitably constitutes the degree of preservation. The availability of
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is an ontogenetic frog with dramatic differences in both color and pattern between the sexes. At sexual maturity, the males display a bright green with white dorsolateral lines. In contrast, the females are rusty red to silver with small spots. The bright coloration in the male population attracts
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groups where midsized animals tend to exhibit markedly more sexual dimorphism than larger ones. However, it has been proposed that these differences can be better explained by intraspecific and ontogenic variation rather than sexual dimorphism. In addition, many sexually dimorphic traits that may
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Sexual dimorphism may also only appear during mating season; some species of birds only show dimorphic traits in seasonal variation. The males of these species will molt into a less bright or less exaggerated color during the off-breeding season. This occurs because the species is more focused on
1222:, do not display sexual dimorphism through their plumage, and instead can be distinguished by other physiological or behavioural characteristics. Generally, male Mute swans, or cobs, are taller and larger than females, or pens, and have thicker necks and a more pronounced 'knob' above their bill.
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Sexual dimorphism was also described in the gene level and shown to extend from the sex chromosomes. Overall, about 6500 genes have been found to have sex-differential expression in at least one tissue. Many of these genes are not directly associated with reproduction, but rather linked to more
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leads to exaggerated dimorphic traits that are used predominantly in competition over mates. The increased fitness resulting from ornamentation offsets its cost to produce or maintain, suggesting complex evolutionary implications, but the costs and evolutionary implications vary from species to
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Migratory patterns and behaviors also influence sexual dimorphisms. This aspect also stems back to size dimorphism in species. It has been shown that the larger males are better at coping with the difficulties of migration and thus are more successful in reproducing when reaching the breeding
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was 53.4 mm vs. 40 mm in females. Different sizes of the heads in anoles have been explained by differences in the estrogen pathway. The sexual dimorphism in lizards is generally attributed to the effects of sexual selection, but other mechanisms including ecological divergence and
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matures; specialist pollinators are very much inclined to concentrate on the exact appearance of the flowers they serve, which saves their time and effort and serves the interests of the plant accordingly. Some such plants go even further and change their appearance once fertilized, thereby
1293:: black breeders, brown breeders, and brown auxiliaries. These differences arise in response to the bird's body condition: if they are healthy they will produce more androgens thus becoming black breeders, while less healthy birds produce less androgens and become brown auxiliaries. The
2174:" and give rise to healthy offspring. In some species, however, females seem to choose males with traits that do not improve offspring survival rates, and even traits that reduce it (potentially leading to traits like the peacock's tail). Two hypotheses for explaining this fact are the
1882:. Sexual differentiation in the human brain from the undifferentiated state is triggered by testosterone from the fetal testis. Testosterone is converted to estrogen in the brain through the action of the enzyme aromatase. Testosterone acts on many brain areas, including the
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general biological features. In addition, it has been shown that genes with sex-specific expression undergo reduced selection efficiency, which leads to higher population frequencies of deleterious mutations and contributes to the prevalence of several human diseases.
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In many non-monogamous species, the benefit to a male's reproductive fitness of mating with multiple females is large, whereas the benefit to a female's reproductive fitness of mating with multiple males is small or nonexistent. In these species, there is a
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argue that this difference in behaviour leads to radically different selection pressures on the two sexes, evidently favouring smaller males. Cases where the male is larger than the female have been studied as well, and require alternative explanations.
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have visibly different sexes, with the effect of eliciting the most efficient behavior from pollinators, who then use the most efficient strategy in visiting each gender of flower instead of searching, say, for pollen in a nectar-bearing female flower.
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differentiating effects of gonadal secretions seem to be dominant," the existing body of research "support the idea that sex differences in neural expression of X and Y genes significantly contribute to sex differences in brain functions and disease."
1474:. Crocodilian skeletons were examined to determine whether there is a skeletal component that is distinctive between both sexes, to help provide an insight on the physical disparities between male and female theropods. Findings revealed the caudal
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also displays male-biased sexual dimorphism. The selection for larger size in males rather than females in this species may have resulted due to their aggressive territorial behavior and subsequent differential mating success. Another example is
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Consequently, sexual dimorphism has important ramifications for conservation. However, sexual dimorphism is not only found in birds and is thus important to the conservation of many animals. Such differences in form and behavior can lead to
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had one of the most bizarre cases of sexual dimorphism in a bird; the larger female (right) had a long, curved bill adapted to probe into deep holes in living wood, while the smaller male (left) had a short, chisel-like bill to strip dead
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Frogs constitute another conspicuous illustration of the principle. There are two types of dichromatism for frog species: ontogenetic and dynamic. Ontogenetic frogs are more common and have permanent color changes in males or females.
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Insects display a wide variety of sexual dimorphism between taxa including size, ornamentation and coloration. The female-biased sexual size dimorphism observed in many taxa evolved despite intense male-male competition for mates. In
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where the female has a glandular area on her back that can serve to feed a male, which clings to her (although males can survive away from females, they generally are not free-living). This is taken to the logical extreme in the
1312:, the female chicks grow faster than the males, resulting in booby parents producing the smaller sex, the males, during times of food shortage. This then results in the maximization of parental lifetime reproductive success. In
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Donnellan, S. C., & Mahony, M. J. (2004). Allozyme, chromosomal, and morphological variability in the
Litoria lesueuri species group (Anura : Hylidae), including a description of a new species. Australian Journal of
1077:, males develop larger body size at maturity, including an increase in body depth, hump height, and snout length. Females experience minor changes in snout length, but the most noticeable difference is the huge increase in
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also displays sexual dichromatism; males have yellow and iridescent wings, while female wings are white and non-iridescent. Naturally selected deviation in protective female coloration is displayed in mimetic butterflies.
2059:, the southern yellowjacket. In this wasp species, the female workers are the smallest, the male workers are slightly larger, and the female queens are significantly larger than her female workers and male counterparts.
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of male crocodiles, used to anchor the penis muscles, were significantly larger than those of females. There have been criticisms of these findings, but it remains a subject of debate among advocates and adversaries.
1002:, food-limited females cannibalize more frequently. Therefore, there is a high risk of low fitness for males due to pre-copulatory cannibalism, which led to male selection of larger females for two reasons: higher
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834:). Each pollen grain accordingly may be seen as a male plant in its own right; it produces a sperm cell and is dramatically different from the female plant, the megagametophyte that produces the female gamete.
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Martin U, GrĂĽebler HS, MĂĽller M, Spaar R, Horch P, Naef-Daenzer B (2008). "Female biased mortality caused by anthropogenic nest loss contributes to population decline and adult sex ratio of a meadow bird".
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article for more on this subject.) Strict graph-theoretical analysis of the human brain connections revealed that in numerous graph-theoretical parameters (e.g., minimum bipartition width, edge number, the
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1854:
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Salogni E, Galimberti F, Sanvito S, Miller EH (March 2019). "Male and female pups of the highly sexually dimorphic northern elephant seal (Mirounga angustirostris) differ slightly in body size".
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in birds can be manifested in size or plumage differences between the sexes. Sexual size dimorphism varies among taxa, with males typically being larger, though this is not always the case, e.g.
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food supply from which the carotenoid is obtained. There is a positive correlation between the chromas of the tail and breast feathers and body condition. Carotenoids play an important role in
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Bell, R. C., & Zamudio, K. R. (2012). Sexual dichromatism in frogs: natural selection, sexual selection, and unexpected diversity. Proceedings of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences.
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and coloration, though not always apparent. A difference in the coloration of sexes within a given species is called sexual dichromatism, commonly seen in many species of birds and reptiles.
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In other cases with fish, males will go through noticeable changes in body size, and females will go through morphological changes that can only be seen inside of the body. For example, in
1357:- (two)) has been proposed for bird species in which "both sexes have basically the same plumage pattern, though the female is clearly distinguishable by reason of her paler or washed-out
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1117:. The sexual dimorphism in amphibians and reptiles may be reflected in any of the following: anatomy; relative length of tail; relative size of head; overall size as in many species of
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Owens, I. P. F., Short, R.V.,. (1995). Hormonal basis of sexual dimorphism in birds: Implications for new theories of sexual selection. Trends in
Ecology & Evolution., 10(REF), 44.
1744:), but males, on average, surpass them in height in later adolescence and adulthood. In the United States, adult males are on average 9% taller and 16.5% heavier than adult females.
2035:, where the male injects itself into the female's body and becomes nothing more than sperm producing cells, to the point that the superorder used to be mistaken for hermaphroditic.
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The relationship between sex differences in the brain and human behavior is a subject of controversy in psychology and society at large. Many females tend to have a higher ratio of
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and lower rates of cannibalism. In addition, female fecundity is positively correlated with female body size and large female body size is selected for, which is seen in the family
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3766:
Emlen DJ, Marangelo J, Ball B, Cunningham CW (May 2005). "Diversity in the weapons of sexual selection: horn evolution in the beetle genus
Onthophagus (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)".
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1886:, to create the masculinized brain pattern. The brains of pregnant females carrying male fetuses may be shielded from the masculinizing effects of androgen through the action of
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Bravo CR, Bautista-Sopelana LM, Alonso JC (2024). "Revisiting niche divergence hypothesis in sexually dimorphic birds: Is diet overlap correlated with sexual size dimorphism?".
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fecundity selection provide alternative explanations. The development of color dimorphism in lizards is induced by hormonal changes at the onset of sexual maturity, as seen in
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found evidence of sexual dimorphism in the shape of the dermal plates. Two plate morphs were described: one was short, wide, and oval-shaped, the other taller and narrower.
4816:"A significant component of ageing (DNA damage) is reflected in fading breeding colors: an experimental test using innate antioxidant mimetics in painted dragon lizards"
888:, which is a species of sweat bee that shows drastic physical dimorphisms between male offspring. Not all dimorphism has to have a drastic difference between the sexes.
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have a better muscle regeneration efficiency than male ones. There are reports of several metabolic differences between male and female cells and they also respond to
1725:, females have, on average, 50–60% of the upper body strength of males, and 80-90% of the lower body strength of males, relative to body size, but females have higher
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of the male is thus determined by his success during each year's non-breeding season, causing reproductive success to vary with each year's environmental conditions.
1194:. Male breeding coloration is likely an indicator to females of the underlying level of oxidative DNA damage (a significant component of aging) in potential mates.
4801:
Pinto, A., Wiederhecker, H., & Colli, G. (2005). Sexual dimorphism in the
Neotropical lizard, Tropidurus torquatus (Squamata, Tropiduridae). Amphibia-Reptilia.
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strategies. According to Daly and Wilson, "The sexes differ more in human beings than in monogamous mammals, but much less than in extremely polygamous mammals."
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9409:
8481:
5844:"Evidence for Sexual Dimorphism in the Plated Dinosaur Stegosaurus mjosi (Ornithischia, Stegosauria) from the Morrison Formation (Upper Jurassic) of Western USA"
5487:"Experimental Manipulation of Maternal Effort Produces Differential Effects in Sons and Daughters: Implications for Adaptive Sex Ratios in the Blue-footed Booby"
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show some of the greatest sexual size differences of mammals, because of sexual selection and environmental factors like breeding location. The mating system of
5121:
Lindsay WR, Webster MS, Varian CW, Schwabl H (2009). "Plumage colour acquisition and behaviour are associated with androgens in a phenotypically plastic bird".
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Lopes AM, Ross N, Close J, Dagnall A, Amorim A, Crow TJ (April 2006). "Inactivation status of PCDH11X: sexual dimorphisms in gene expression levels in brain".
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Wiklund C, Lindfors V, Forsberg J (1996). "Early Male
Emergence and Reproductive Phenology of the Adult Overwintering Butterfly Gonepteryx rhamni in Sweden".
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females are similarly larger than males. The reason for the sexual dimorphism is due to provision size mass, in which females consume more pollen than males.
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Ono KA, Boness DJ (January 1996). "Sexual dimorphism in sea lion pups: differential maternal investment, or sex-specific differences in energy allocation?".
3094:
Progress in Botany / Fortschritte der
Botanik: Structural Botany Physiology Genetics Taxonomy Geobotany / Struktur Physiologie Genetik Systematik Geobotanik
7273:
Szalkai B, Varga B, Grolmusz V (June 2018). "Brain size bias compensated graph-theoretical parameters are also better in women's structural connectomes".
1737:). A study, carried out by analyzing annual world rankings from 1980 to 1996, found that males' running times were, on average, 10% faster than females'.
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is about 6 percent higher in adolescent males than females and increases to about 10 percent higher after puberty. Females tend to convert more food into
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1560:), and also behaviour of adult individuals. Hormones significantly affect human brain formation, and also brain development at puberty. A 2004 review in
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11252:
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Tarnawski BA, Cassini GH, Flores DA (2014). "Skull allometry and sexual dimorphism in the ontogeny of the southern elephant seal (Mirounga leonina)".
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Berns CM, Adams DC (11 November 2012). "Becoming Different But Staying Alike: Patterns of Sexual Size and Shape Dimorphism in Bills of Hummingbirds".
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that are fertilized if they contact one of the thousands of free-floating flowers released by a male. Sexual dimorphism is most often associated with
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6572:
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Prenter J, Elwood RW, Montgomery WI (December 1999). "Sexual Size Dimorphism and Reproductive Investment by Female Spiders: A Comparative Analysis".
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Paxton RJ, Giovanetti M, Andrietti F, Scamoni E, Scanni B (1 October 1999). "Mating in a communal bee, Andrena agilissima (Hymenoptera Andrenidae)".
800:, a type of hemp, which have higher photosynthesis rates in males while growing but higher rates in females once the plants become sexually mature.
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1331:, defined as sex differences in space and resource use. Most sexual segregation research has been done on ungulates, but such research extends to
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Coulson G, MacFarlane AM, Parsons SE, Cutter J (2006). "Evolution of sexual segregation in mammalian herbivores: kangaroos as marsupial models".
2324:
8359:
4272:
Ota K, Kohda M, Sato T (June 2010). "Unusual allometry for sexual size dimorphism in a cichlid where males are extremely larger than females".
2124:, because small sperm enable organisms to produce a large number of sperm, and make males (or male function of hermaphrodites) more redundant.
1734:
3350:"The genetic mating system of a sea spider with male-biased sexual size dimorphism: evidence for paternity skew despite random mating success"
862:, for example, the female is larger/broader than males, with males being 8–10 mm in size and females being 10–12 mm in size. In the
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7716:"Sex of the cell dictates its response: differential gene expression and sensitivity to cell death inducing stress in male and female cells"
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and lizards; the presence of specific sex-related behaviour is common to many lizards; and vocal qualities which are frequently observed in
803:
Every sexually reproducing extant species of the vascular plant has an alternation of generations; the plants we see about us generally are
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González-SolĂs J, Croxall JP, Wood AG (2000). "Sexual dimorphism and sexual segregation in foraging strategies of northern giant petrels,
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2050:. There is some evidence that, in these genera, the dimorphism may be tied to a sex chromosome, or to chemical signalling from females.
810:, but their offspring are not the seeds that people commonly recognize as the new generation. The seed actually is the offspring of the
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have colorful spots and ornamentations, while females are generally grey. Female guppies prefer brightly colored males to duller males.
9765:
4652:"Does female nuptial coloration reflect egg carotenoids and clutch quality in the Two-Spotted Goby (Gobiusculus flavescens, Gobiidae)?"
4140:
Wilder SM, Rypstra AL (2008). "Sexual size dimorphism mediates the occurrence of state-dependent sexual cannibalism in a wolf spider".
869:
In some species, there is evidence of male dimorphism, but it appears to be for distinctions of roles. This is seen in the bee species
654:
explains that females prefer more elaborate males and select against males that are dull in color, independent of the species' vision.
1026:, but is more prominently selected for in less dimorphic species of spiders, which often selects for larger male size. In the species
12096:
8846:
4869:
3145:
Romero GA, Nelson CE (June 1986). "Sexual dimorphism in Catasetum orchids: forcible pollen emplacement and male flower competition".
2257:
42:, male (left) and female (right), illustrating the dramatic difference in plumage between sexes, a manifestation of sexual dimorphism
6258:
6180:"Equality for the sexes in human evolution? Early hominid sexual dimorphism and implications for mating systems and social behavior"
5519:
3204:
1151:
lizards show prominent size dimorphism with males typically being significantly larger than females. For instance, the average male
12384:
11986:
11159:
10614:
9294:
2120:
and the usually large number of small male gametes relative to the larger female gametes usually lies in the development of strong
5610:
1721:
and expendable circulating energy reserves. According to Tim Hewett, director of research in the department of sports medicine at
9078:
8994:
7616:"A role for cell sex in stem cell-mediated skeletal muscle regeneration: female cells have higher muscle regeneration efficiency"
4558:
Hendry A, Berg OK (1999). "Secondary sexual characters, energy use, senescence, and the cost of reproduction in sockeye salmon".
1618:
1319:
females are also the larger sex, and the growth rates of female chicks are more susceptible to limited environmental conditions.
130:
6971:
Marner L, Nyengaard JR, Tang Y, Pakkenberg B (July 2003). "Marked loss of myelinated nerve fibers in the human brain with age".
4315:
Sato T (1994). "Active accumulation of spawning substrate: a determinant of extreme polygyny in a shell-brooding cichlid fish".
3119:
9965:
9654:
9395:
7901:
4517:
Adams S, Williams AJ (2001). "A preliminary test of the transitional growth spurt hypothesis using the protogynous coral trout
897:
Weaponry leads to increased fitness by increasing success in male–male competition in many insect species. The beetle horns in
2970:
2141:
for whatever traits enable a male to have more matings. The male may therefore come to have different traits from the female.
1898:
than it is to sex. Differences in brain physiology between sexes do not necessarily relate to differences in intellect. Haier
1838:
argue that females, interacting with other females and multiple offspring in social groups, have experienced such traits as a
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11851:
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6608:
6556:
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6308:
5767:
3288:
3129:
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2267:
2038:
Some plant species also exhibit dimorphism in which the females are significantly larger than the males, such as in the moss
907:
also has distinct sexual and male dimorphism in head horns. Another beetle with a distinct horn-related sexual dimorphism is
738:
bee pollinators. The bees will then avoid other male flowers but may visit the female, which looks different from the males.
445:
3092:
1733:
of only 10–20%, and an absolute difference of about 30% (i.e., 492 kg vs 348 kg for unlimited weight classes; see
12076:
11284:
10279:
6892:
3718:"Evolution of male dimorphic allometry in a population of the Japanese horned beetle Trypoxylus dichotomus septentrionalis"
1308:
Sexual dimorphism may also influence differences in parental investment during times of food scarcity. For example, in the
5010:"The effect of dietary carotenoid access on sexual dichromatism and plumage pigment composition in the American goldfinch"
1444:
that allowed them to keep their tails elevated to aid in copulation. Discovering that this fusion occurred in only 50% of
11856:
11781:
11708:
11684:
11632:
11005:
9925:
5294:
5236:
Kissner KJ, Weatherhead PJ, Francis CM (January 2003). "Sexual size dimorphism and timing of spring migration in birds".
3513:
Danforth B (1991). "The morphology and behavior of dimorphic males in Perdita portalis (Hymenoptera : Andrenidae)".
2216:
1849:
7187:
4200:"Female preference for multi-modal courtship: multiple signals are important for male mating success in peacock spiders"
4177:"Males under attack: Sexual cannibalism and its consequences for male morphology and behaviour in an orb-weaving spider"
2889:
Ryan MJ, Rand AS (April 1993). "Species Recognition and Sexual Selection as a Unitary Problem in Animal Communication".
1510:
possessed sexes that were distinguishable based on frill and nasal prominence size. This is consistent with other known
12516:
12468:
12101:
11487:
11240:
10667:
10327:
4256:
3575:
Kukuk PF (1 October 1996). "Male Dimorphism in Lasioglossum (Chilalictus) hemichalceum: The Role of Larval Nutrition".
1236:). The difference between the sexes is apparent in the casque on the top of their bill. This pair is on display at the
7522:
Grossman C (1989). "Possible underlying mechanisms of sexual dimorphism in the immune response, fact and hypothesis".
6345:"The gender difference in distance running performance has plateaued: an analysis of world rankings from 1980 to 1996"
5785:"Males Resemble Females: Re-Evaluating Sexual Dimorphism in Protoceratops andrewsi (Neoceratopsia, Protoceratopsidae)"
1339:, and birds. Sex-specific conservation plans have even been suggested for species with pronounced sexual segregation.
11896:
5622:
5389:
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2980:
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10734:
875:
in which there is a small-headed morph, capable of flight, and large-headed morph, incapable of flight, for males.
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10739:
10337:
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9349:
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2068:
647:
598:. Males are chromatically more yellow than females. It is believed that this is obtained by the ingestion of green
384:
219:
3818:
Teder, T., & Tammaru, T. (2005). "Sexual size dimorphism within species increases with body size in insects".
2127:
Volvocine algae have been useful in understanding the evolution of sexual dimorphism and species like the beetle
761:
on opening, then shed the exhausted anthers after a day or two and perhaps change their colours as well while the
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11277:
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11245:
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10974:
10898:
10173:
7112:
Lüders E, Steinmetz H, Jäncke L (December 2002). "Brain size and grey matter volume in the healthy human brain".
7016:"Sex differences in brain gray and white matter in healthy young adults: correlations with cognitive performance"
2547:
1070:
In either case, females which change sex to males are larger and often prove to be a good example of dimorphism.
985:, for example, adult females have a larger body size than adult males. Size dimorphism shows a correlation with
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9272:
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Hanschen, Erik R.; Herron, Matthew D.; Wiens, John J.; Nozaki, Hisayoshi; Michod, Richard E. (September 2018).
5977:
Cassini MH (January 2020). "A mixed model of the evolution of polygyny and sexual size dimorphism in mammals".
3482:"Late embryogenesis and immature development of Osmia rufa cornigera (Rossi) (Hymenoptera : Megachilidae)"
3230:"Wind of change: new insights on the ecology and evolution of pollination and mating in wind-pollinated plants"
2020:
amounts to an effectively hermaphrodite composite organism. A similar situation is found in the Zeus water bug
1982:. As an example, in some species, females are sedentary, and so males must search for them. Fritz Vollrath and
1394:
312:
8385:
Parker GA (May 1982). "Why are there so many tiny sperm? Sperm competition and the maintenance of two sexes".
7979:
Shaw AJ (2000). "Population ecology, population genetics, and microevolution". In Shaw AJ, Goffinet B (eds.).
4390:
12461:
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12126:
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11514:
11383:
11324:
11177:
10764:
10508:
10247:
9329:
8844:
Figuerola J (1999). "A comparative study on the evolution of reversed size dimorphism in monogamous waders".
5674:
2159:, such as large size or weapons; or they could be traits that females, for whatever reason, prefer in mates.
1741:
1633:
757:
have what amounts to serial sexual dimorphism. The flowers of such species might, for example, present their
364:
10709:
8202:"Evolutionary trajectories explain the diversified evolution of isogamy and anisogamy in marine green algae"
7815:"Sexual size dimorphism in Myotis nigricans (Schinz, 1821) (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae) from south Brazil"
7663:
Mittelstrass K, Ried JS, Yu Z, Krumsiek J, Gieger C, Prehn C, et al. (August 2011). McCarthy MI (ed.).
3882:"Female Bicyclus anynana butterflies choose males on the basis of their dorsal UV-reflective eyespot pupils"
12309:
12081:
11901:
11524:
11492:
11400:
11117:
10619:
9639:
9344:
9144:
9127:
6767:
6587:. Vol. 306. Baltimore: University Park Press (original from the University of Michigan). p. 511.
5563:
Main MB (March 2008). "Reconciling competing ecological explanations for sexual segregation in ungulates".
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482:
379:
189:
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groups exhibit sexual dimorphism, but it is most widely studied in the spiders. In the orb-weaving spider
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11356:
11187:
10781:
9073:
9068:
9063:
9058:
8987:
6683:
3209:
2932:
Rubolini D, Spina F, Saino N (2004). "Protandry and sexual dimorphism in trans-Saharan migratory birds".
2284:
1562:
125:
120:
115:
110:
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11886:
11866:
11645:
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10883:
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9846:
9282:
9122:
8935:
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5123:
4317:
2231:
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2102:
931:
912:
322:
184:
8150:
3406:
2332:
1032:, the males are known for their characteristic colorful fan which attracts the females during mating.
657:
Similar sexual dimorphism and mating choice are also observed in many fish species. For example, male
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12407:
12294:
12208:
12116:
12091:
11916:
11881:
11657:
10677:
10474:
10284:
10052:
9945:
9833:
9624:
9112:
8954:
6916:
5158:
Petrie M (1994). "Improved growth and survival of offspring of peacocks with more elaborate trains".
4900:
4703:"The relationship between sexual size dimorphism and habitat use in Greater Antillean Anolis lizards"
2819:
2763:"Plumage colour in nestling blue tits: sexual dichromatism, condition dependence and genetic effects"
2211:
2160:
2133:, where the females are larger than the males, are used to study its underlying genetic mechanisms.
1800:
1629:
1416:
have looked for sexual dimorphism among dinosaurs using statistics and comparison to ecologically or
1058:
884:
438:
174:
20:
10806:
6638:
5250:
4752:"The oestrogen pathway underlies the evolution of exaggerated male cranial shapes in Anolis lizards"
3780:
2946:
2439:
12329:
12213:
12086:
11906:
11839:
11701:
11674:
11529:
11304:
11267:
11100:
10964:
10936:
10911:
10868:
10771:
10704:
10579:
10452:
10420:
10393:
10383:
9841:
9053:
8966:
7369:"Reduced selection and accumulation of deleterious mutations in genes exclusively expressed in men"
6947:
6249:
5611:"Sex differences in population genetics, home range size and habitat use of the parti-colored bat (
4073:
2129:
2022:
1226:
794:
Sexual dimorphism in plants can also be dependent on reproductive development. This can be seen in
665:
167:
105:
10584:
7859:"Allometry of litter mass in bats: comparisons with maternal size, wing morphology, and phylogeny"
6835:
Lombardo MV, Ashwin E, Auyeung B, Chakrabarti B, Taylor K, Hackett G, et al. (January 2012).
632:
is an example of a dynamic frog with temporary color changes in males during the breeding season.
12582:
12493:
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12006:
11996:
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11791:
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9918:
9334:
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These traits could be ones that allow him to fight off other males for control of territory or a
1046:
546:
369:
6742:"Acute Pain Tolerance Is More Consistent Over Time in Women Than Men, According to New Research"
6020:
Cappozzo HL, Campagna C, Monserrat J (1991). "Sexual Dimorphism in Newborn Southern Sea Lions".
4417:"Differing mechanisms underlie sexual size-dimorphism in two populations of a sex-changing fish"
12451:
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12369:
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7063:
Leonard CM, Towler S, Welcome S, Halderman LK, Otto R, Eckert MA, Chiarello C (December 2008).
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1606:
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290:
285:
93:
88:
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7318:"The landscape of sex-differential transcriptome and its consequent selection in human adults"
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9723:
9552:
9354:
6681:
McLaughlin M, Shryer T (8 August 1988). "Men vs women: the new debate over sex differences".
5292:
Møller AP, Nielsen JT (2006). "Prey vulnerability in relation to sexual coloration of prey".
2003:
771:
389:
6580:
6288:
2657:"Visual pigments and oil droplets from six classes of photoreceptor in the retinas of birds"
2604:"Visual pigments and oil droplets from six classes of photoreceptor in the retinas of birds"
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Penaloza C, Estevez B, Orlanski S, Sikorska M, Walker R, Smith C, et al. (June 2009).
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6497:
6191:
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5855:
5759:
5716:
5631:
5572:
5398:
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5169:
5059:"Realized reproductive success of polygynous red-winged blackbirds revealed by DNA markers"
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4601:
4532:
4483:
4428:
3938:
3729:
3611:
3522:
3361:
3154:
2836:
2501:
2426:
2144:
1904:
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1492:
1294:
1286:
1190:. Male coloration appears to reflect innate anti-oxidation capacity that protects against
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634:
470:
431:
329:
10694:
10564:
9387:
8962:
7614:
Deasy BM, Lu A, Tebbets JC, Feduska JM, Schugar RC, Pollett JB, et al. (April 2007).
940:
is reflected by female selection on the basis of dorsal UV-reflective eyespot pupils. The
8:
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12048:
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11507:
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11378:
11122:
11080:
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10797:
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10699:
10645:
10489:
10242:
10185:
10047:
10030:
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9727:
9644:
9615:
9186:
9154:
8807:
Bonduriansky R (January 2007). "The evolution of condition-dependent sexual dimorphism".
8584:
4075:
Discovering the daily activity pattern of Zygiella x-notata and its relationship to light
3305:
Bonduriansky R (January 2007). "The evolution of condition-dependent sexual dimorphism".
3214:
3053:
2175:
2008:
1313:
1282:
1281:
Sexual dimorphism is a product of both genetics and environmental factors. An example of
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877:
651:
560:
525:
210:
10400:
8600:
8494:
8449:
8398:
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8011:. Vol. 2. Nichinan, Miyazaki, Japan: The Hattori botanical Laboratory. p. 891.
7920:
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7574:
7482:
7465:
Gal-Oz ST, Maier B, Yoshida H, Seddu K, Elbaz N, Czysz C, et al. (September 2019).
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5859:
5720:
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5173:
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Sanger TJ, Seav SM, Tokita M, Langerhans RB, Ross LM, Losos JB, Abzhanov A (June 2014).
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3942:
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3615:
3526:
3365:
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2505:
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2112:
The first step towards sexual dimorphism is the size differentiation of sperm and eggs (
918:
Sexual dimorphism within insects is also displayed by dichromatism. In butterfly genera
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8514:
8506:
8418:
8318:"Anisogamy Does Not Always Promote the Evolution of Mating Competition Traits in Males"
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8236:
8201:
8131:
8076:
8071:
8048:
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7882:
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7768:
Vollrath F, Parker GA (1992). "Sexual dimorphism and distorted sex ratios in spiders".
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is an example of a bird where the female (right) is more colorful than the male (left).
1186:. are brightly conspicuous in their breeding coloration, but male colour declines with
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890:
871:
863:
334:
317:
302:
196:
8886:
6214:
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5342:
Adkins-Regan E (2007). "Hormones and the development of sex differences in behavior".
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Females may choose males that appear strong and healthy, thus likely to possess "good
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5017:
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. Part B, Biochemistry & Molecular Biology
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490:
339:
147:
142:
8877:
8836:
8585:"Rapid evolution of sexual size dimorphism facilitated by Y-linked genetic variance"
8518:
8422:
7948:
7834:
7206:"Graph Theoretical Analysis Reveals: Women's Brains Are Better Connected than Men's"
7000:
6821:
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6127:
6084:
5546:
5471:
5365:
5323:
5275:
5144:
4386:
4338:
4301:
4161:
3702:
3542:
3441:
3334:
3190:
930:, dimorphic wing patterns evolved due to sex-limited expression, which mediates the
11748:
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10296:
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10082:
9448:
9257:
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7084:
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6856:
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6801:
6715:
6596:
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6505:
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6158:
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6115:
6064:
6037:
5986:
5963:
5943:
5881:
5863:
5814:
5796:
5783:
Maiorino, Leonardo; Farke, Andrew A.; Kotsakis, Tassos; Piras, Paolo (7 May 2015).
5724:
5683:
5639:
5580:
5534:
5498:
5449:
5406:
5353:
5311:
5255:
5216:
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4149:
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4034:
3993:
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3737:
3680:
3619:
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3530:
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3421:
3377:
3369:
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3249:
3241:
3162:
3065:
3024:
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2615:
2584:
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2509:
2444:
2367:
2296:
2236:
2106:
2074:
2055:
1992:
1946:
1815:
1740:
In early adolescence, females are on average taller than males (as females tend to
1441:
1114:
967:
963:, displaying typical sexual differences in spiders, with dramatically smaller males
936:
894:
is a mining bee where the females only have a slightly larger head than the males.
743:
699:
species generally look similar to one another because plants provide rewards (e.g.
627:
584:
564:
486:
297:
11620:
10574:
5136:
5057:
Gibbs HL, Weatherhead PJ, Boag PT, White BN, Tabak LM, Hoysak DJ (December 1990).
4994:
4153:
3623:
3166:
1515:
have existed in ceratopsians include soft tissue variations such as coloration or
12488:
12379:
12344:
12253:
12141:
12035:
11991:
11971:
11844:
11560:
11539:
11294:
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10484:
10427:
10376:
10156:
9960:
9476:
9430:
9339:
9321:
9267:
9211:
8731:
8550:
8355:
8127:
8057:
7681:
7240:
6941:
6837:"Fetal testosterone influences sexually dimorphic gray matter in the human brain"
6384:
5868:
5801:
5707:
5643:
5410:
4883:
4864:
4441:
2827:
2156:
1598:
1413:
1290:
1249:
1207:
1057:
Sexual dimorphism also occurs in hermaphroditic fish. These species are known as
1044:
There are cases where males are substantially larger than females. An example is
1022:
959:
796:
677:
619:
534:
374:
355:
307:
251:
8756:
3005:"A male sexually dimorphic trait provides antimicrobials to eggs in blenny fish"
1664:
1113:
In amphibians and reptiles, the degree of sexual dimorphism varies widely among
481:
species, which consist of most animals and some plants. Differences may include
11981:
11961:
11871:
11564:
11456:
11331:
10930:
10802:
10744:
10104:
10099:
10037:
10015:
9560:
9481:
9095:
8608:
8457:
8206:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
8174:
7490:
6510:
6485:
6449:
6184:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
4594:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2494:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2098:
1909:
1768:
1680:
1642:
1590:
1378:
1343:
1074:
1054:, in which males are considerably larger than females and possess longer fins.
1028:
998:
990:
971:
Hammock Spiders (Pityohyphantes sp.) courting. Female left and male right.
776:
681:
613:. This diet also affects the sexually dimorphic colours in the human-invisible
551:
152:
8094:
Dies Alvarez ME, Rushton AW, Gozalo R, Pillola GL, Linan E, Ahlberg P (2010).
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6805:
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3741:
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3373:
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Slagsvold T, Lifjeld JT (1985). "Variation in plumage colour of the Great tit
2186:
most females (since the preference is widespread) and so receive few matings.
1654:
12571:
12483:
12426:
12416:
11976:
11796:
11756:
11752:
11743:
11586:
11555:
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11461:
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11257:
11132:
11010:
10969:
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10569:
10237:
10232:
9823:
9518:
9468:
9309:
9240:
9206:
9117:
9083:
8284:
8197:
8182:
6906:
6657:
6542:
6417:
6284:
6237:
6076:
5998:
5877:
5810:
5520:"Sex-specific growth in chicks of the sexually dimorphic Black-tailed Godwit"
4986:
3749:
3631:
3498:
3481:
3433:
2652:
2046:
1975:
1845:
1557:
1544:
In a large proportion of mammal species, males are larger than females. Both
1528:
1417:
1405:
1370:
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1191:
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953:
847:
419:
400:
344:
280:
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179:
135:
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8226:
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7080:
6719:
6283:
Daly M, Wilson M (1996). "Evolutionary psychology and marital conflict". In
6204:
5221:
5204:
4921:
3717:
3669:"Sexual and male horn dimorphism in Copris ochus (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)"
2955:
2514:
1775:, hence greater oxygen-carrying capacity. They also have higher circulating
1289:. Red-backed fairywren males can be classified into three categories during
1244:
12273:
11574:
11551:
11127:
11075:
11020:
10853:
10848:
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10200:
9696:
9679:
9610:
9570:
9486:
9458:
9443:
9376:
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9100:
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8888:
Sex, Size, and Gender Roles: Evolutionary Studies of Sexual Size Dimorphism
8828:
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8341:
8302:
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7936:
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7402:
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7294:
7259:
7175:
7133:
7098:
7049:
6992:
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6813:
6519:
6467:
6418:"United States National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1999–2002"
6223:
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5100:
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3020:
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2747:
2729:
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2619:
2533:
2407:
2381:
2028:
1983:
1938:
1913:
1756:
1701:
1454:
1362:
1202:
842:
588:
474:
268:
162:
157:
98:
50:
11198:
8938:
was created from a revision of this article dated 30 August 2019
8414:
7631:
7543:
7065:"Size matters: cerebral volume influences sex differences in neuroanatomy"
6727:
6370:
6154:
6119:
6068:
5040:
2698:
2637:
2456:
1323:
survival than on reproduction, causing a shift into a less ornate state.
934:
and leads to increased fitness in males. The sexual dichromatic nature of
509:
12412:
12324:
12268:
12106:
11891:
11590:
11409:
11154:
11025:
10754:
10289:
10119:
10025:
9983:
9872:
9867:
9598:
8885:
Székely T, Lislevand T, Figuerola J, Fairbairn D, Blanckenhorn W (2007).
7732:
6548:
3245:
2164:
2078:
1894:
1867:
1819:
1776:
1488:
1475:
1430:
1275:
994:
823:
815:
712:
704:
640:
622:
for many animals, so carotenoid dependent signals might indicate health.
614:
599:
414:
201:
35:
27:
10594:
8534:"Evolution of sexes from an ancestral mating-type specification pathway"
5615:, Linnaeus 1758) in Switzerland and their consequences for conservation"
4930:
4415:
McCormick MI, Ryen CA, Munday PL, Walker SP (May 2010). Briffa M (ed.).
3685:
3668:
3588:
1210:, showing that the male is much larger and more colorful than the female
903:
are enlarged growths of the head or thorax expressed only in the males.
12359:
12354:
12071:
11806:
11346:
11015:
10916:
10838:
10825:
10459:
10259:
10146:
10124:
10077:
10072:
10020:
9988:
9903:
9892:
9862:
9755:
9716:
9711:
9691:
9418:
8868:
8080:
7886:
7393:
7368:
6163:
4113:
4039:
3958:
3534:
3174:
3077:
2910:
2856:
2786:
2372:
2355:
2016:
1979:
1942:
1823:
1772:
1519:, which would be unlikely to have been preserved in the fossil record.
1471:
1436:
1126:
858:
827:
807:
735:
610:
603:
68:
19:"Sex differences" redirects here. For sexual dimorphism in humans, see
7442:
7417:
6984:
5990:
5584:
5538:
12021:
11149:
11000:
10609:
10227:
9975:
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9732:
9629:
9619:
9530:
9503:
9491:
9453:
9216:
9191:
9181:
9169:
8510:
7791:
7665:"Discovery of sexual dimorphisms in metabolic and genetic biomarkers"
7467:"ImmGen report: sexual dimorphism in the immune system transcriptome"
6600:
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Behnke H, LĂĽttge U, Esser K, Kadereit JW, Runge M (6 December 2012).
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1780:
1760:
1726:
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1467:
1404:
well-preserved remains is not a probable outcome as a consequence of
1230:
Skeletons of female (left) and Male (right) black-casqued hornbills (
1219:
1118:
1003:
989:, which is prominent in spiders (it is also found in insects such as
723:
717:
498:
256:
236:
224:
7928:
7877:
7858:
7583:
7558:
5947:
5687:
4354:"Mate choice and sexual conflict in the size dimorphic water spider
4105:
3950:
3069:
2902:
2848:
473:
characteristics, including characteristics not directly involved in
12473:
12233:
11938:
11052:
10254:
9750:
9706:
9701:
9578:
9535:
9523:
9508:
9438:
9233:
9134:
8820:
8333:
8276:
7222:
3318:
2088:
2040:
1835:
1827:
1788:
1784:
1752:
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273:
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Warner RR (June 1988). "Sex change and the size-advantage model".
3974:"Mimetic butterflies support Wallace's model of sexual dimorphism"
3456:"hackberry emperor – Asterocampa celtis (Boisduval & Leconte)"
3407:"On managing the red mason bee (Osmia bicornis) in apple orchards"
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Zi J, Yu X, Li Y, Hu X, Xu C, Wang X, et al. (October 2003).
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constitute conspicuous illustrations of the principle. The ornate
533:. The male mallard has an unmistakable bottle-green head when his
12374:
10437:
10151:
9790:
9686:
9201:
9174:
8026:. Vol. 1. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 196.
1875:
1549:
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1134:
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but approximately 6% of species have separate males and females (
576:
572:
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8761:(1st ed.). Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates.
8151:"Darwin's sexual selection: Understanding his ideas in context"
7713:
7418:"Sexual dimorphism in immunity across animals: a meta-analysis"
2171:
1963:
1959:
1883:
1860:
1808:
1718:
1689:
1470:
possessed a retractable penis, a feature similar to modern day
1409:
1187:
1130:
831:
819:
811:
804:
784:
762:
708:
700:
689:
685:
606:
580:
518:
478:
409:
263:
8195:
6446:
Sexual Dimorphism in Human and Mammalian Biology and Pathology
6054:
5671:
1990:
One example of this type of sexual size dimorphism is the bat
1170:. Sexual dimorphism in size is also seen in frog species like
10358:
9496:
8783:(3rd ed.). Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing.
7062:
6970:
1792:
1764:
1553:
1545:
1458:
skeletons indicated that this is a sexually dimorphic trait.
1148:
1142:
1138:
1078:
658:
8315:
7902:"Insect behaviour: reversal of sex roles in nuptial feeding"
6291:
Sex, Power, Conflict: Evolutionary and Feminist Perspectives
4897:
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Johnsen A, Delhey K, Andersson S, Kempenaers B (June 2003).
559:
Common and easily identified types of dimorphism consist of
9417:
9024:
7983:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 379–380.
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5910:"Stegosaurus plates may have differed between male, female"
5120:
2262:. Vol. 2. Academic Press. 21 January 2019. p. 7.
1967:
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that are monogamous. Females are larger in many species of
1796:
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Another example of sexual dichromatism is that of nestling
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6698:
McEwen BS (March 1981). "Neural gonadal steroid actions".
5782:
4749:
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4590:"Male mate choice selects for female coloration in a fish"
3405:
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3404:
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Sexual selection was observed for female ornamentation in
9742:
9003:
8583:
Kaufmann P, Wolak ME, Husby A, Immonen E (October 2021).
8582:
8258:
6342:
6019:
5700:
5385:
5235:
5056:
5008:
McGraw KJ, Hill GE, Stradi R, Parker RS (February 2002).
4414:
3221:
3090:
3002:
2602:
Bowmaker JK, Heath LA, Wilkie SE, Hunt DM (August 1997).
1971:
1937:
Phenotypic differences between sexes are evident even in
1714:
1332:
721:
orchids are one interesting exception to this rule. Male
462:
59:
8261:"Multicellularity Drives the Evolution of Sexual Traits"
8049:"Experimental taxonomy of some British species of genus
6943:
Brain Storm: The Flaws in the Science of Sex Differences
5517:
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7149:"The neuroanatomy of general intelligence: sex matters"
4865:"The macroevolution of sexual size dimorphism in birds"
4091:
3928:
3117:
3003:
Giacomello E, Marchini D, Rasotto MB (September 2006).
2650:
2601:
2053:
Another complicated example of sexual dimorphism is in
1811:(except in pregnant women, who follow a male pattern).
688:). Sexual dimorphism is common in dioecious plants and
579:
of peacocks, as used in the courting display, attracts
8972:
6140:
5007:
3666:
3138:
3118:
Ramawat KG, Merillon JM, Shivanna KR (19 April 2016).
2353:
1830:
at a faster rate than males, hence they develop fewer
851:
mating. The male is a brighter yellow than the female.
787:
dispersal in males vs pollen capture in females, e.g.
7813:
Bornholdt R, Oliveira LR, Fabián ME (November 2008).
7613:
7111:
6791:
5442:
Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution
4820:
Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution
4707:
Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution
4094:
Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution
3768:
Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution
3197:
2891:
Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution
2711:
2011:, an anglerfish, with male attached near vent (arrow)
1285:
determined by environmental conditions exists in the
646:
Females often show a preference for exaggerated male
8015:
7415:
7366:
7315:
7272:
7203:
7013:
6540:
6343:
Sparling PB, O'Donnell EM, Snow TK (December 1998).
5435:
4197:
4020:
3833:"On the origins of sexual dimorphism in butterflies"
3761:
3759:
2148:
Male (left), offspring (center), and female (right)
1093:
4700:
4198:Girard MB, Elias DO, Kasumovic MM (December 2015).
3662:
3660:
3054:"Dioecy and its correlates in the flowering plants"
2354:Armenta JK, Dunn PO, Whittingham LA (August 2008).
2206:
List of homologues of the human reproductive system
1799:after injury. In males, pain-causing injury to the
1552:
affect the formation of many animal brains before "
7899:
7763:
7761:
5202:
4701:Butler MA, Schoener TW, Losos JB (February 2000).
3667:Sugiura S, Yamaura Y, Makihara H (November 2007).
3479:
2931:
2712:Senar JC, Figuerola J, Pascual J (February 2002).
1688:Comparison between male (left) and female (right)
16:Evolved difference in sex-specific characteristics
8002:
8000:
7656:
6479:
6477:
5438:"The genetic basis of sexual dimorphism in birds"
5436:Coyne JA, Kay EH, Pruett-Jones S (January 2008).
4174:
4014:
3879:
3756:
1941:from tissues. For example, female muscle-derived
1870:, a difference between sexes was observed in the
1081:size, which accounts for about 25% of body mass.
948:
12569:
7146:
6680:
4587:
3657:
3280:Gender and sexual dimorphism in flowering plants
2568:
1974:, birds of prey and certain mammals such as the
1504:is evidence that the more primitive ceratopsian
8531:
8196:Togashi T, Bartelt JL, Yoshimura J, Tainaka K,
7758:
4809:
4807:
3227:
2714:"Brighter yellow blue tits make better parents"
1791:). These differences lead to faster healing of
1683:, showing both male (left) and female (right).
541:
7997:
7767:
7550:
6474:
5608:
4351:
3830:
3051:
2820:"Carotenoids, parasites, and sexual selection"
2550:. National Geographic Society. 19 October 2023
2388:
1952:
1699:According to Clark Spencer Larsen, modern day
11214:
9919:
9403:
8988:
8672:
8670:
8479:Bell G (1985). "On the function of flowers".
7707:
7197:
6933:
6439:
6437:
5748:
5518:Loonstra AJ, Verhoeven MA, Piersma T (2018).
5431:
5429:
5291:
4516:
4139:
3555:
1349:- means one-and-one-half, so halfway between
439:
8806:
8148:
8104:Pompeckj, 1901: a problematic determination"
8021:
7966:Mechanism of Fertilization: Plants to Humans
7900:Arnqvist G, Jones TM, Elgar MA (July 2003).
7316:Gershoni M, Pietrokovski S (February 2017).
7266:
6939:
6486:"Why the sexes don't feel pain the same way"
5776:
5341:
4804:
4271:
3347:
3304:
3144:
2968:
2282:
1109:) adult female (left) and adult male (right)
741:Various other dioecious exceptions, such as
11228:
8682:
8655:
8643:
8631:
7856:
6349:Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise
4645:
4643:
4583:
4581:
3577:Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society
3558:Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society
2490:"Coloration strategies in peacock feathers"
2412:"Mate selection-a selection for a handicap"
2325:"Dictionary of Human Evolution and Biology"
1723:Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center
1491:have generally centered on the distinctive
602:larvae, which contain large amounts of the
11221:
11207:
9926:
9912:
9410:
9396:
8995:
8981:
8706:
8694:
8667:
7607:
6571:
6434:
6282:
5426:
5381:
5379:
5377:
5375:
5116:
5114:
5112:
5110:
4964:
4557:
4023:"Sexual dimorphism in the Arachnid orders"
4021:McLean CJ, Garwood RJ, Brassey CA (2018).
2573:in relation to habitat, season and food".
1834:diseases and succumb for shorter periods.
1818:(stored and circulating), as well as more
446:
432:
8965:at the U.S. National Library of Medicine
8867:
8847:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
8843:
8729:
8559:
8549:
8354:
8292:
8235:
8225:
8070:
7876:
7833:
7741:
7731:
7690:
7680:
7639:
7582:
7556:
7498:
7441:
7392:
7343:
7333:
7249:
7239:
7221:
7088:
7039:
6860:
6509:
6443:
6360:
6213:
6203:
6162:
6097:
5885:
5867:
5818:
5800:
5502:
5453:
5337:
5335:
5333:
5287:
5285:
5249:
5220:
5090:
4952:
4929:
4891:
4882:
4870:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
4856:
4831:
4775:
4718:
4685:
4675:
4623:
4613:
4551:
4450:
4440:
4246:
4223:
4135:
4133:
4131:
4048:
4038:
3997:
3905:
3856:
3779:
3684:
3497:
3381:
3253:
3205:"Eel Grass (aka wild celery, tape grass)"
3097:. Springer Science & Business Media.
3028:
2945:
2794:
2754:
2737:
2688:
2627:
2523:
2513:
2438:
2394:
2371:
1807:, while in females it occurs through the
783:in plants due to selection for efficient
775:have floating flowers attached by a long
12385:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
11160:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
9933:
8946:, and does not reflect subsequent edits.
8929:
8532:Geng S, De Hoff P, Umen JG (July 2014).
8006:
7521:
7367:Gershoni M, Pietrokovski S (July 2014).
4862:
4797:
4795:
4640:
4588:Amundsen T, Forsgren E (November 2001).
4578:
3880:Robertson KA, Monteiro A (August 2005).
3644:
3512:
3506:
2925:
2888:
2487:
2163:poses no deep theoretical questions but
2143:
2082:
2002:
1609:, is one of the most dimorphic mammals.
1574:
1255:
1243:
1225:
1213:
1201:
1097:
966:
952:
841:
545:
524:
508:
34:
8754:
8688:
8661:
8649:
8637:
8149:Padian K, Horner JR (1 November 2014).
7204:Szalkai B, Varga B, Grolmusz V (2015).
6964:
6323:
5976:
5744:
5742:
5740:
5738:
5604:
5602:
5558:
5556:
5484:
5372:
5107:
4085:
3111:
1679:Stylised illustration of humans on the
1619:Sexual dimorphism in non-human primates
12570:
8775:
8712:
8700:
8676:
8384:
8046:
7140:
6697:
6177:
5933:
5841:
5330:
5282:
5157:
4473:
4128:
3270:
2817:
2406:
1388:
11877:Psychological effects of Internet use
11202:
10923:Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion
9907:
9781:Hypothalamic–pituitary–prolactin axis
9391:
8976:
6899:
6651:
6483:
5842:Saitta, Evan Thomas (22 April 2015).
5203:Rubolini D, Spina F, Saino N (2004).
4792:
3971:
3715:
3574:
3480:Rust R, Torchio P, Trostle G (1989).
3276:
2969:Short RV, Balaban E (4 August 1994).
2105:, which related sexual dimorphism to
751:Some plants, such as some species of
8478:
8435:
7978:
7007:
6973:The Journal of Comparative Neurology
6905:
6765:
6385:"National Health Statistics Reports"
6236:
5735:
5599:
5562:
5553:
4314:
3716:Hongo, Yoshihito (1 December 2007).
3348:Barreto FS, Avise JC (August 2011).
3228:Friedman J, Barrett SC (June 2009).
2483:
2481:
11857:Digital media use and mental health
9776:Hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis
9091:Heterogametic sex / Homogametic sex
6541:Durden-Smith J, deSimone D (1983).
6326:"Why Pull-Ups Are Harder for Women"
6100:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
5295:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
3831:Oliver JC, Monteiro A (July 2011).
3722:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
3515:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
3354:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
2360:The Journal of Experimental Biology
2217:Sex differences in human psychology
1583:, the male being larger with a big
1466:It has been hypothesized that male
1342:The term sesquimorphism (the Latin
501:indistinguishable from each other.
13:
11488:Automatic and controlled processes
10328:Evolutionary developmental biology
8916:
8860:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1999.tb01926.x
8799:
8072:10.1111/j.1469-8137.1965.tb07546.x
7032:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.19-10-04065.1999
6392:National Health Statistics Reports
6324:Rettner, Rachel (3 January 2014).
6042:10.1111/j.1748-7692.1991.tb00113.x
4720:10.1111/j.0014-3820.2000.tb00026.x
4545:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2001.tb02350.x
4175:Foellmer MW, Fairbairn DJ (2004).
3790:10.1111/j.0014-3820.2005.tb01044.x
2589:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1985.tb05661.x
2301:10.1016/B978-0-12-373553-9.00233-9
2190:a hard-to-fake signal of fitness.
1923:
1826:. Additionally, they produce more
1663:
1653:
1641:
1133:, and lizards, as well as in some
14:
12609:
11897:Smartphones and pedestrian safety
8897:
8358:; Cardé, Ring T. (22 July 2009).
6940:Jordan-Young R (September 2010).
5729:10.1034/j.1600-0706.2000.900220.x
5609:Safi K, König B, Kerth G (2007).
4476:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
4071:
2972:The Differences Between the Sexes
2548:"Birds-of-Paradise: Beauty Kings"
2478:
1107:Graptemys pseudogeographica kohni
1094:Amphibians and non-avian reptiles
497:, when both biological sexes are
12548:
12535:
12523:
12522:
11922:Mobile phones and driving safety
11182:
11173:
11172:
9372:
9371:
9165:Evolution of sexual reproduction
8928:
8576:
8525:
8472:
8429:
8378:
8348:
8309:
8252:
8189:
8142:
8087:
8040:
7972:
7958:
7893:
7850:
7806:
7515:
7458:
7409:
7360:
7309:
7168:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.11.019
7126:10.1097/00001756-200212030-00040
7105:
7056:
6877:
6828:
6785:
6759:
6734:
6691:
6674:
6645:
6565:
6534:
6410:
6377:
6362:10.1097/00005768-199812000-00011
6336:
6317:
5455:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2007.00254.x
5260:10.1046/j.1420-9101.2003.00479.x
4833:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2012.01617.x
4756:Proceedings. Biological Sciences
4677:10.1111/j.1365-2435.2006.01151.x
4204:Proceedings. Biological Sciences
3978:Proceedings. Biological Sciences
3886:Proceedings. Biological Sciences
3837:Proceedings. Biological Sciences
3604:Ethology Ecology & Evolution
2767:Proceedings. Biological Sciences
2718:Proceedings. Biological Sciences
2259:Encyclopedia of Animal Behaviour
2069:Evolution of sexual reproduction
1763:. On average, males have larger
1755:, with about 30 percent greater
1717:, while males convert more into
1487:Studies of sexual dimorphism in
1218:Some bird species, such as this
1041:12 times heavier than females."
648:secondary sexual characteristics
517:, on the right, is courting the
493:. The opposite of dimorphism is
220:Evolution of sexual reproduction
67:
11825:Computer-mediated communication
10985:Extended evolutionary synthesis
10174:Gene-centered view of evolution
8024:Mosses of Eastern North America
7835:10.1590/S1519-69842008000400028
7524:Journal of Steroid Biochemistry
6276:
6242:"The evolution of human mating"
6230:
6171:
6134:
6091:
6048:
6013:
5970:
5927:
5902:
5835:
5694:
5665:
5511:
5478:
5417:
5238:Journal of Evolutionary Biology
5229:
5196:
5151:
5050:
5001:
4958:
4946:
4743:
4694:
4510:
4467:
4408:
4345:
4308:
4265:
4240:
4191:
4168:
4065:
3965:
3922:
3873:
3824:
3812:
3709:
3638:
3595:
3568:
3549:
3473:
3448:
3398:
3341:
3298:
3084:
3052:Renner SS, Ricklefs RE (1995).
2996:
2962:
2882:
2873:
2863:
2811:
2705:
2644:
2595:
1795:and lower sensitivity to nerve
1206:Female (left) and male (right)
957:Female (left) and male (right)
477:. The condition occurs in most
12102:Empathising–systemising theory
11405:female intrasexual competition
11342:Evolutionarily stable strategy
11113:Hologenome theory of evolution
10980:History of molecular evolution
10206:Evolutionarily stable strategy
10095:Last universal common ancestor
9273:Sexual reproduction in animals
8589:Nature Ecology & Evolution
8438:Journal of Theoretical Biology
8387:Journal of Theoretical Biology
6853:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4389-11.2012
3647:Chinese Bulletin of Entomology
3121:Reproductive Biology of Plants
2975:. Cambridge University Press.
2562:
2540:
2419:Journal of Theoretical Biology
2400:
2347:
2317:
2276:
2250:
2208:
1395:Sexual dimorphism in dinosaurs
949:Spiders and sexual cannibalism
555:male (left) and female (right)
313:Sexual reproduction in animals
1:
12462:Standard social science model
11515:Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis
10907:Renaissance and Enlightenment
8022:Crum HA, Anderson LE (1980).
5758:. Calton, Staffordshire, UK:
5675:Australian Journal of Zoology
5137:10.1016/j.anbehav.2009.02.027
5029:10.1016/S1096-4959(01)00500-0
4352:SchĂĽtz D, Taborsky M (2005).
4247:Fairbairn D (28 April 2013).
4181:Evolutionary Ecology Research
4154:10.1016/j.anbehav.2007.12.023
3624:10.1080/08927014.1999.9522820
3167:10.1126/science.232.4757.1538
2243:
1735:Olympic weightlifting records
1634:Sex differences in psychology
1527:A 2015 study on specimens of
1375:P. motinensis motinensis
1180:Male painted dragon lizards,
769:Females of the aquatic plant
643:sign to potential predators.
483:secondary sex characteristics
12310:Missing heritability problem
11902:Social aspects of television
11525:Evolution of nervous systems
11493:Computational theory of mind
11118:Missing heritability problem
10745:Gamete differentiation/sexes
9145:Sex as a biological variable
9128:Simultaneous hermaphroditism
8551:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001904
8407:10.1016/0022-5193(82)90225-9
8128:10.1080/11035897.2010.481363
7822:Brazilian Journal of Biology
7682:10.1371/journal.pgen.1002215
7536:10.1016/0022-4731(89)90088-5
7241:10.1371/journal.pone.0130045
6684:U.S. News & World Report
6257:(3): 502–512. Archived from
5936:Nature Reviews. Neuroscience
5869:10.1371/journal.pone.0123503
5802:10.1371/journal.pone.0126464
5644:10.1016/j.biocon.2007.01.011
5411:10.1016/j.biocon.2008.09.008
4496:10.1016/0169-5347(88)90176-0
4442:10.1371/journal.pone.0010616
2449:10.1016/0022-5193(75)90111-3
2062:
1978:, and baleen whales such as
1888:sex hormone-binding globulin
1814:Females typically have more
1747:Males typically have larger
1570:
542:Ornamentation and coloration
190:Simultaneous hermaphroditism
7:
12556:Evolutionary biology portal
7857:Hayssen V, Kunz TH (1996).
7620:The Journal of Cell Biology
7559:"Biology: Cell sex matters"
7557:Pollitzer E (August 2013).
7020:The Journal of Neuroscience
6841:The Journal of Neuroscience
6143:Canadian Journal of Zoology
6057:Canadian Journal of Zoology
4560:Canadian Journal of Zoology
3210:University of Massachusetts
2283:Ralls K, Mesnick S (2009).
2193:
1953:Reproductively advantageous
1612:
1563:Nature Reviews Neuroscience
1168:S. undulates erythrocheilus
504:
10:
12614:
12517:Evolutionary psychologists
12390:Trivers–Willard hypothesis
12305:Human–animal communication
12017:Ovulatory shift hypothesis
11867:Imprinted brain hypothesis
11835:Human–computer interaction
10750:Life cycles/nuclear phases
10302:Trivers–Willard hypothesis
9766:Reproductive endocrinology
9283:Penile-vaginal intercourse
9123:Sequential hermaphroditism
8738:Princeton University Press
8722:
8609:10.1038/s41559-021-01530-z
8458:10.1016/j.jtbi.2010.01.019
8175:10.1016/j.crpv.2014.09.001
7491:10.1038/s41467-019-12348-6
7275:Brain Imaging and Behavior
6917:W. W. Norton & Company
6511:10.1038/d41586-019-00895-3
4884:10.1093/biolinnean/blad168
3058:American Journal of Botany
2232:Sexually dimorphic nucleus
2227:Sexual dimorphism measures
2103:theory of sexual selection
2072:
2066:
1850:Excessive citations inline
1742:go through puberty earlier
1627:
1616:
1539:
1424:Apatosaurus and Diplodocus
1392:
932:intralocus sexual conflict
913:Japanese rhinoceros beetle
837:
323:Penile-vaginal intercourse
185:Sequential hermaphroditism
25:
18:
12511:
12437:Environmental determinism
12408:Cultural selection theory
12400:
12295:Evolutionary epistemology
12282:
12209:evolutionary neuroscience
12171:
12164:
12062:
11937:
11882:Rank theory of depression
11805:
11729:
11631:
11437:
11430:
11384:Parent–offspring conflict
11293:
11236:
11168:
11068:
10993:
10897:
10824:
10780:
10635:
10539:
10356:
10315:
10248:Parent–offspring conflict
10184:
10053:Earliest known life forms
9974:
9941:
9855:
9834:Human reproductive system
9832:
9799:
9764:
9741:
9653:
9551:
9467:
9429:
9367:
9320:
9153:
9113:Testis-determining factor
9010:
8102:Paradoxides mediterraneus
8098:Paradoxides brachyrhachis
7335:10.1186/s12915-017-0352-z
7287:10.1007/s11682-017-9720-0
6806:10.1007/s00439-006-0134-0
6484:Dance A (27 March 2019).
6178:Larsen CS (August 2003).
5358:10.1007/s10336-007-0188-3
5352:(Supplement 1): S17–S26.
5316:10.1007/s00265-006-0160-x
4979:10.1007/s11692-012-9206-3
4901:Journal of Animal Ecology
4863:Caron FS, Pie MR (2024).
4358:(Araneae: Argyronetidae)"
4286:10.1007/s12038-010-0030-6
3742:10.1007/s00265-007-0459-2
3426:10.1007/s13592-011-0059-z
3374:10.1007/s00265-011-1170-x
2992:– via Google Books.
2655:, Hunt DM (August 1997).
2329:Human-biology.key-spot.ru
2212:Sex differences in humans
1674:
1640:
1630:Sex differences in humans
1623:
1137:; an ornament as in many
1059:sequential hermaphrodites
993:). In the size dimorphic
885:Lasioglossum hemichalceum
707:to visit another similar
671:
529:Male (bottom) and female
175:Testis-determining factor
21:Sex differences in humans
12330:Cultural group selection
12214:Biocultural anthropology
11907:Societal impacts of cars
11840:Media naturalness theory
11530:Fight-or-flight response
11101:Cultural group selection
10965:The eclipse of Darwinism
10937:On the Origin of Species
10912:Transmutation of species
9054:Sex-determination system
8967:Medical Subject Headings
8100:Linnarsson, 1883 versus
6948:Harvard University Press
6656:(2nd ed.). Boston:
6250:Acta Psychologica Sinica
2023:Phoreticovelia disparata
1932:
1597:varies from polygamy to
1420:related modern animals.
1197:
1125:; coloration as in many
168:Sex chromosome anomalies
106:Sex-determination system
26:Not to be confused with
12530:Evolutionary psychology
12494:Sociocultural evolution
12335:Dual inheritance theory
11792:Personality development
11253:Theoretical foundations
11230:Evolutionary psychology
11106:Dual inheritance theory
10945:History of paleontology
9002:
8809:The American Naturalist
8361:Encyclopedia of Insects
8322:The American Naturalist
8265:The American Naturalist
8227:10.1073/pnas.1203495109
6720:10.1126/science.6259728
6297:Oxford University Press
6205:10.1073/pnas.1633678100
5623:Biological Conservation
5504:10.1093/beheco/13.4.443
5390:Biological Conservation
4922:10.1111/1365-2656.14058
4524:Journal of Fish Biology
3307:The American Naturalist
2651:Bowmaker JK, Heath LA,
2515:10.1073/pnas.2133313100
1878:/Y gene pair unique to
1863:with and ignore) pain.
1855:considered for deletion
1103:Mississippi map turtles
1047:Lamprologus callipterus
1035:
650:in mate selection. The
461:is the condition where
12593:Polymorphism (biology)
12452:Social constructionism
12447:Psychological nativism
12422:Biological determinism
12370:Recent human evolution
12365:Punctuated equilibrium
12188:Behavioral epigenetics
12183:evolutionary economics
12152:Variability hypothesis
12097:Emotional intelligence
11830:Engineering psychology
11520:Evolution of the brain
10794:Punctuated equilibrium
10115:Non-adaptive radiation
10063:Evolutionary arms race
9856:Diseases and disorders
9665:Sexual differentiation
9037:Sexual differentiation
8924:
8904:Listen to this article
8503:10.1098/rspb.1985.0031
8155:Comptes Rendus Palevol
8009:New Manual of Bryology
7969:, edited by Brian Dale
6287:, Malamuth NM (eds.).
5705:, during incubation".
5345:Journal of Ornithology
5075:10.1098/rspb.1998.0308
4768:10.1098/rspb.2014.0329
4615:10.1073/pnas.211439298
4572:10.1139/cjz-77-11-1663
4519:Plectropomus maculatus
4366:Journal of Arachnology
4331:10.1006/anbe.1994.1286
4274:Journal of Biosciences
4216:10.1098/rspb.2015.2222
3990:10.1098/rspb.2008.0171
3898:10.1098/rspb.2005.3142
3849:10.1098/rspb.2010.2220
3499:10.1051/apido:19890408
3021:10.1098/rsbl.2006.0492
2779:10.1098/rspb.2003.2375
2730:10.1098/rspb.2001.1882
2673:10.1098/rspb.1998.0316
2620:10.1098/rspb.1998.0315
2222:Sexual differentiation
2152:
2094:
2031:crustaceans, like the
2012:
1669:
1659:
1647:
1607:southern elephant seal
1587:
1581:northern elephant seal
1507:Protoceratops andrewsi
1266:
1253:
1241:
1223:
1211:
1110:
1087:Gobiusculus flavescens
1063:reproductive histories
972:
964:
852:
556:
538:
522:
291:Internal fertilization
286:External fertilization
89:Sexual differentiation
43:
12479:Multilineal evolution
12442:Nature versus nurture
12401:Theoretical positions
12249:Functional psychology
12244:Evolutionary medicine
12219:Biological psychiatry
11927:Texting while driving
11917:Lead–crime hypothesis
11777:Cognitive development
11762:Caregiver deprivation
11273:Gene selection theory
11086:Evolutionary medicine
10960:Mendelian inheritance
10668:Biological complexity
10656:Programmed cell death
10348:Phenotypic plasticity
10068:Evolutionary pressure
10058:Evidence of evolution
9956:Timeline of evolution
9888:Premature ejaculation
9883:Hard flaccid syndrome
9553:Human sexual activity
9079:Temperature-dependent
8923:
8730:Andersson MB (1994).
7954:on 15 September 2004.
7632:10.1083/jcb.200612094
7471:Nature Communications
7373:Nature Communications
7081:10.1093/cercor/bhn052
6895:on 23 September 2015.
6155:10.1139/cjz-2013-0106
6120:10.1007/s002650050214
6069:10.1139/cjz-2018-0220
6022:Marine Mammal Science
5760:T. & A. D. Poyser
5222:10.1093/beheco/arh048
4687:10536/DRO/DU:30038904
3972:Kunte K (July 2008).
2956:10.1093/beheco/arh048
2161:Male–male competition
2147:
2087:Sexual dimorphism in
2086:
2006:
1667:
1657:
1645:
1578:
1452:skeletons and 25% of
1399:Examining fossils of
1259:
1247:
1229:
1217:
1205:
1101:
970:
956:
909:Allomyrina dichotoma,
845:
772:Vallisneria americana
695:Males and females in
549:
528:
512:
131:Temperature-dependent
38:
12432:Cultural determinism
12239:Evolutionary biology
12224:Cognitive psychology
12172:Academic disciplines
11820:Cognitive ergonomics
11787:Language acquisition
11767:Childhood attachment
11580:Wason selection task
11474:Behavioral modernity
11263:Cognitive revolution
11246:Evolutionary thought
11060:Teleology in biology
10955:Blending inheritance
10333:Genetic assimilation
10196:Artificial selection
9935:Evolutionary biology
9878:Erectile dysfunction
8955:More spoken articles
7864:Journal of Mammalogy
7733:10.1096/fj.08-119388
6444:Glucksman A (1981).
5653:on 25 September 2017
4967:Evolutionary Biology
3283:. Berlin: Springer.
1905:sex and intelligence
1767:, 10 percent higher
1711:basal metabolic rate
1317:Limosa limosa limosa
1314:Black-tailed Godwits
1295:reproductive success
1287:red-backed fairywren
1192:oxidative DNA damage
635:Hyperolius ocellatus
12499:Unilineal evolution
12264:Population genetics
12049:Sexy son hypothesis
11987:Hormonal motivation
11967:Concealed ovulation
11508:Dual process theory
11379:Parental investment
11123:Molecular evolution
11081:Ecological genetics
10950:Transitional fossil
10740:Sexual reproduction
10580:endomembrane system
10509:pollinator-mediated
10465:dolphins and whales
10243:Parental investment
9657:reproductive system
9645:Vaginal lubrication
9423:sexual reproduction
9295:Hormonal motivation
9268:Fungal reproduction
9187:Reproductive system
8601:2021NatEE...5.1394K
8495:1985RSPSB.224..223B
8450:2010JThBi.264...24Y
8399:1982JThBi..96..281P
8218:2012PNAS..10913692T
8167:2014CRPal..13..709P
8120:2010GFF...132...95D
7921:2003Natur.424..387A
7784:1992Natur.360..156V
7575:2013Natur.500...23P
7483:2019NatCo..10.4295G
7434:2018EcolL..21.1885K
7385:2014NatCo...5.4438G
7232:2015PLoSO..1030045S
6712:1981Sci...211.1303M
6593:1983Natur.306..511.
6502:2019Natur.567..448D
6196:2003PNAS..100.9103L
6112:1996BEcoS..38...31O
6034:1991MMamS...7..385C
5860:2015PLoSO..1023503S
5721:2000Oikos..90..390G
5636:2007BCons.137...28S
5613:Vespertilio murinus
5577:2008Ecol...89..693M
5403:2008BCons.141.3040G
5308:2006BEcoS..60..227M
5174:1994Natur.371..598P
4914:2024JAnEc..93..460B
4668:2006FuEco..20..689S
4606:2001PNAS...9813155A
4537:2001JFBio..59..183A
4488:1988TEcoE...3..133W
4433:2010PLoSO...510616M
4356:Argyroneta aquatica
3984:(1643): 1617–1624.
3943:1996Oikos..75..227W
3892:(1572): 1541–1546.
3843:(1714): 1981–1988.
3734:2007BEcoS..62..245H
3686:10.2108/zsj.24.1082
3616:1999EtEcE..11..371P
3527:1991BEcoS..29..235D
3366:2011BEcoS..65.1595B
3159:1986Sci...232.1538R
2841:1994Oikos..70..309L
2506:2003PNAS..10012576Z
2431:1975JThBi..53..205Z
2285:"Sexual dimorphism"
2201:Bateman's principle
2176:sexy son hypothesis
2150:Sumatran orangutans
2009:triplewart seadevil
1803:occurs through the
1440:had interconnected
1401:non-avian dinosaurs
1389:Non-avian dinosaurs
1283:sexual polymorphism
1238:Museum of Osteology
1164:Sceloporus gadoviae
1160:Psamodromus algirus
1014:species, including
878:Anthidium manicatum
789:Leucadendron rubrum
652:sexy son hypothesis
308:Fungal reproduction
211:Sexual reproduction
12457:Social determinism
12340:Fisher's principle
12300:Great ape language
12290:Cultural evolution
12259:Philosophy of mind
12092:Division of labour
12054:Westermarck effect
12002:Mating preferences
11912:Distracted driving
11646:Literary criticism
11503:Domain specificity
11483:modularity of mind
11096:Cultural evolution
10211:Fisher's principle
10140:Handicap principle
10130:Parallel evolution
9994:Adaptive radiation
9655:Development of the
9566:Sexual intercourse
9300:Human reproduction
9278:Sexual intercourse
9263:Plant reproduction
8925:
8755:Futuyma D (2005).
8364:. Academic Press.
7394:10.1038/ncomms5438
6452:. pp. 66–75.
5491:Behavioral Ecology
5485:Velando A (2002).
5209:Behavioral Ecology
5046:on 28 August 2005.
4762:(1784): 20140329.
4656:Functional Ecology
4210:(1820): 20152222.
4040:10.7717/peerj.5751
3673:Zoological Science
3535:10.1007/bf00163980
3460:entnemdept.ufl.edu
3246:10.1093/aob/mcp035
2934:Behavioral Ecology
2818:Lozano GA (1994).
2576:Journal of Zoology
2410:(September 1975).
2373:10.1242/jeb.013094
2366:(Pt 15): 2423–30.
2335:on 7 November 2017
2180:handicap principle
2153:
2139:selection pressure
2095:
2044:and the liverwort
2013:
1912:property, minimum
1670:
1660:
1648:
1588:
1383:P. ammodendri
1329:sexual segregation
1267:
1254:
1242:
1233:Ceratogymna atrata
1224:
1212:
1183:Ctenophorus pictus
1111:
1017:Argiope bruennichi
987:sexual cannibalism
973:
965:
911:also known as the
900:Onthophagus taurus
891:Andrena agilissima
872:Macrotera portalis
853:
639:females and is an
557:
539:
523:
469:exhibit different
335:Human reproduction
318:Sexual intercourse
303:Plant reproduction
197:Intersex (biology)
44:
12578:Sexual dimorphism
12565:
12564:
12543:Psychology portal
12507:
12506:
12350:Hologenome theory
12320:Unit of selection
12315:Primate cognition
12229:Cognitive science
12160:
12159:
12031:Sexual attraction
12007:Mating strategies
11772:Cinderella effect
11702:Moral foundations
11606:Visual perception
11498:Domain generality
11467:Facial expression
11415:Sexual dimorphism
11374:Natural selection
11320:Hamiltonian spite
11196:
11195:
10812:Uniformitarianism
10765:Sex-determination
10270:Sexual dimorphism
10265:Natural selection
10169:Unit of selection
10135:Signalling theory
9901:
9900:
9670:Sexual dimorphism
9635:Postpartum period
9385:
9384:
9305:Lordosis behavior
9020:Sexual dimorphism
8921:
8891:. pp. 16–26.
8790:978-1-4051-0345-9
8768:978-0-87893-187-3
8747:978-0-691-00057-2
8595:(10): 1394–1402.
8489:(1235): 223–266.
8371:978-0-08-092090-0
8047:Briggs D (1965).
8033:978-0-231-04516-2
7990:978-0-521-66097-6
7981:Bryophyte Biology
7778:(6400): 156–159.
7443:10.1111/ele.13164
7428:(12): 1885–1894.
6985:10.1002/cne.10714
6957:978-0-674-05730-2
6926:978-0-393-06838-2
6706:(4488): 1303–11.
6667:978-0-316-81236-8
6654:Internal Medicine
6652:Stein JH (1987).
6610:978-0-8391-1622-6
6558:978-0-87795-484-2
6544:Sex and the Brain
6496:(7749): 448–450.
6459:978-0-12-286960-0
6398:. 22 October 2008
6310:978-0-19-510357-1
6264:on 12 August 2011
5991:10.1111/mam.12171
5769:978-0-85661-048-6
5703:Macronectes halli
5585:10.1890/07-0645.1
5539:10.1111/ibi.12541
5397:(12): 3040–3049.
5168:(6498): 598–599.
4566:(11): 1663–1675.
3679:(11): 1082–1085.
3290:978-3-540-64597-9
3277:Geber MA (1999).
3153:(4757): 1538–40.
3131:978-1-4822-0133-8
3104:978-3-642-79844-3
2773:(1521): 1263–70.
2466:on 10 August 2017
2269:978-0-12-813252-4
2122:sperm competition
1970:, many reptiles,
1816:white blood cells
1697:
1696:
1361:Examples include
1310:blue-footed booby
982:Zygiella x-notata
864:hackberry emperor
816:microgametophytes
730:violently attach
703:) that encourage
697:insect-pollinated
629:Ranoidea lesueuri
585:birds of paradise
491:natural selection
459:Sexual dimorphism
456:
455:
340:Lordosis behavior
143:Heterogametic sex
84:Sexual dimorphism
12605:
12588:Sexual selection
12552:
12539:
12526:
12525:
12169:
12168:
12165:Related subjects
11952:Adult attachment
11479:Cognitive module
11435:
11434:
11422:Social selection
11396:Costly signaling
11391:Sexual selection
11278:Modern synthesis
11223:
11216:
11209:
11200:
11199:
11186:
11176:
11175:
10975:Modern synthesis
10735:Multicellularity
10730:Mosaic evolution
10615:auditory ossicle
10297:Social selection
10280:Flowering plants
10275:Sexual selection
9928:
9921:
9914:
9905:
9904:
9640:Mechanics of sex
9449:Follicular phase
9419:Human physiology
9412:
9405:
9398:
9389:
9388:
9375:
9374:
9335:Animal sexuality
9258:Sexual selection
8997:
8990:
8983:
8974:
8973:
8945:
8943:
8932:
8931:
8922:
8912:
8910:
8905:
8892:
8881:
8871:
8840:
8794:
8772:
8751:
8733:Sexual Selection
8716:
8710:
8704:
8698:
8692:
8686:
8680:
8674:
8665:
8659:
8653:
8647:
8641:
8635:
8629:
8628:
8580:
8574:
8573:
8563:
8553:
8529:
8523:
8522:
8476:
8470:
8469:
8433:
8427:
8426:
8382:
8376:
8375:
8356:Resh, Vincent H.
8352:
8346:
8345:
8313:
8307:
8306:
8296:
8256:
8250:
8249:
8239:
8229:
8193:
8187:
8186:
8146:
8140:
8139:
8091:
8085:
8084:
8074:
8044:
8038:
8037:
8019:
8013:
8012:
8004:
7995:
7994:
7976:
7970:
7962:
7956:
7955:
7953:
7947:. Archived from
7906:
7897:
7891:
7890:
7880:
7854:
7848:
7847:
7837:
7819:
7810:
7804:
7803:
7792:10.1038/360156a0
7765:
7756:
7755:
7745:
7735:
7711:
7705:
7704:
7694:
7684:
7660:
7654:
7653:
7643:
7611:
7605:
7604:
7586:
7554:
7548:
7547:
7530:(1–6): 241–251.
7519:
7513:
7512:
7502:
7462:
7456:
7455:
7445:
7413:
7407:
7406:
7396:
7364:
7358:
7357:
7347:
7337:
7313:
7307:
7306:
7270:
7264:
7263:
7253:
7243:
7225:
7201:
7195:
7194:
7192:
7186:. Archived from
7153:
7144:
7138:
7137:
7109:
7103:
7102:
7092:
7060:
7054:
7053:
7043:
7011:
7005:
7004:
6968:
6962:
6961:
6937:
6931:
6930:
6915:(1st ed.).
6903:
6897:
6896:
6891:. Archived from
6881:
6875:
6874:
6864:
6832:
6826:
6825:
6789:
6783:
6782:
6780:
6778:
6763:
6757:
6756:
6754:
6752:
6738:
6732:
6731:
6695:
6689:
6688:
6678:
6672:
6671:
6649:
6643:
6642:
6636:
6632:
6630:
6622:
6601:10.1038/306511b0
6586:
6583:Biology of Women
6569:
6563:
6562:
6538:
6532:
6531:
6513:
6481:
6472:
6471:
6441:
6432:
6431:
6429:
6427:
6422:
6414:
6408:
6407:
6405:
6403:
6389:
6381:
6375:
6374:
6364:
6340:
6334:
6333:
6321:
6315:
6314:
6294:
6280:
6274:
6273:
6271:
6269:
6263:
6246:
6234:
6228:
6227:
6217:
6207:
6175:
6169:
6168:
6166:
6138:
6132:
6131:
6095:
6089:
6088:
6052:
6046:
6045:
6017:
6011:
6010:
5974:
5968:
5967:
5931:
5925:
5924:
5922:
5920:
5906:
5900:
5899:
5889:
5871:
5839:
5833:
5832:
5822:
5804:
5780:
5774:
5773:
5750:Summers-Smith JD
5746:
5733:
5732:
5698:
5692:
5691:
5669:
5663:
5662:
5660:
5658:
5652:
5646:. Archived from
5619:
5606:
5597:
5596:
5560:
5551:
5550:
5524:
5515:
5509:
5508:
5506:
5482:
5476:
5475:
5457:
5433:
5424:
5421:
5415:
5414:
5383:
5370:
5369:
5339:
5328:
5327:
5289:
5280:
5279:
5253:
5233:
5227:
5226:
5224:
5200:
5194:
5193:
5182:10.1038/371598a0
5155:
5149:
5148:
5131:(6): 1525–1532.
5124:Animal Behaviour
5118:
5105:
5104:
5094:
5069:(4986): 1394–7.
5054:
5048:
5047:
5045:
5039:. Archived from
5014:
5005:
4999:
4998:
4962:
4956:
4950:
4944:
4943:
4933:
4895:
4889:
4888:
4886:
4860:
4854:
4853:
4835:
4811:
4802:
4799:
4790:
4789:
4779:
4747:
4741:
4740:
4722:
4698:
4692:
4691:
4689:
4679:
4647:
4638:
4637:
4627:
4617:
4600:(23): 13155–60.
4585:
4576:
4575:
4555:
4549:
4548:
4514:
4508:
4507:
4471:
4465:
4464:
4454:
4444:
4412:
4406:
4405:
4403:
4401:
4396:on 20 March 2012
4395:
4389:. Archived from
4379:10.1636/S03-56.1
4362:
4349:
4343:
4342:
4318:Animal Behaviour
4312:
4306:
4305:
4269:
4263:
4262:
4244:
4238:
4237:
4227:
4195:
4189:
4188:
4172:
4166:
4165:
4142:Animal Behaviour
4137:
4126:
4125:
4100:(6): 1987–1994.
4089:
4083:
4082:
4080:
4069:
4063:
4062:
4052:
4042:
4018:
4012:
4011:
4001:
3969:
3963:
3962:
3926:
3920:
3919:
3909:
3877:
3871:
3870:
3860:
3828:
3822:
3816:
3810:
3809:
3783:
3774:(5): 1060–1084.
3763:
3754:
3753:
3713:
3707:
3706:
3688:
3664:
3655:
3654:
3642:
3636:
3635:
3599:
3593:
3592:
3572:
3566:
3565:
3553:
3547:
3546:
3510:
3504:
3503:
3501:
3477:
3471:
3470:
3468:
3466:
3452:
3446:
3445:
3411:
3402:
3396:
3395:
3385:
3360:(8): 1595–1604.
3345:
3339:
3338:
3302:
3296:
3294:
3274:
3268:
3267:
3257:
3234:Annals of Botany
3225:
3219:
3218:
3217:on 12 July 2011.
3213:. Archived from
3201:
3195:
3194:
3142:
3136:
3135:
3115:
3109:
3108:
3088:
3082:
3081:
3049:
3043:
3042:
3032:
3000:
2994:
2993:
2991:
2989:
2966:
2960:
2959:
2949:
2929:
2923:
2922:
2886:
2880:
2877:
2871:
2867:
2861:
2860:
2824:
2815:
2809:
2808:
2798:
2758:
2752:
2751:
2741:
2724:(1488): 257–61.
2709:
2703:
2702:
2692:
2648:
2642:
2641:
2631:
2599:
2593:
2592:
2566:
2560:
2559:
2557:
2555:
2544:
2538:
2537:
2527:
2517:
2485:
2476:
2475:
2473:
2471:
2465:
2459:. Archived from
2442:
2416:
2404:
2398:
2392:
2386:
2385:
2375:
2351:
2345:
2344:
2342:
2340:
2331:. Archived from
2321:
2315:
2314:
2295:(1): 1005–1011.
2280:
2274:
2273:
2254:
2237:Gynandromorphism
2107:sexual selection
2075:Sexual selection
2056:Vespula squamosa
2015:Some species of
1993:Myotis nigricans
1858:
1801:peripheral nerve
1777:clotting factors
1638:
1637:
1603:Mirounga leonina
1579:Male and female
1442:caudal vertebrae
1418:phylogenetically
1367:Passer melanurus
1360:
1115:taxonomic groups
991:praying mantises
942:common brimstone
937:Bicyclus anynana
824:megagametophytes
781:wind-pollination
744:Loxostylis alata
678:flowering plants
565:Sexual selection
535:breeding plumage
487:sexual selection
448:
441:
434:
370:Animal sexuality
298:Sexual selection
76:Biological terms
71:
46:
45:
12613:
12612:
12608:
12607:
12606:
12604:
12603:
12602:
12568:
12567:
12566:
12561:
12503:
12489:Neoevolutionism
12396:
12380:Species complex
12345:Group selection
12283:Research topics
12278:
12254:Neuropsychology
12156:
12142:Substance abuse
12064:Sex differences
12058:
11972:Coolidge effect
11933:
11845:Neuroergonomics
11810:
11801:
11725:
11627:
11561:Folk psychology
11442:
11426:
11296:
11289:
11232:
11227:
11197:
11192:
11164:
11091:Group selection
11064:
10989:
10893:
10820:
10782:Tempo and modes
10776:
10631:
10535:
10352:
10311:
10187:
10180:
10157:Species complex
9970:
9961:History of life
9937:
9932:
9902:
9897:
9851:
9828:
9795:
9768:and infertility
9767:
9760:
9737:
9656:
9649:
9547:
9477:Spermatogenesis
9463:
9431:Menstrual cycle
9425:
9416:
9386:
9381:
9363:
9350:Differentiation
9340:Human sexuality
9330:Plant sexuality
9316:
9212:Spermatogenesis
9156:
9149:
9012:
9006:
9001:
8959:
8958:
8947:
8941:
8939:
8936:This audio file
8933:
8926:
8917:
8914:
8908:
8907:
8903:
8900:
8895:
8802:
8800:Further reading
8797:
8791:
8769:
8748:
8725:
8720:
8719:
8711:
8707:
8699:
8695:
8687:
8683:
8675:
8668:
8660:
8656:
8648:
8644:
8636:
8632:
8581:
8577:
8544:(7): e1001904.
8530:
8526:
8477:
8473:
8434:
8430:
8383:
8379:
8372:
8353:
8349:
8314:
8310:
8271:(3): E93–E105.
8257:
8253:
8212:(34): 13692–7.
8200:(August 2012).
8194:
8190:
8147:
8143:
8092:
8088:
8058:New Phytologist
8045:
8041:
8034:
8020:
8016:
8005:
7998:
7991:
7977:
7973:
7963:
7959:
7951:
7929:10.1038/424387a
7904:
7898:
7894:
7878:10.2307/1382823
7855:
7851:
7817:
7811:
7807:
7766:
7759:
7712:
7708:
7675:(8): e1002215.
7661:
7657:
7612:
7608:
7584:10.1038/500023a
7555:
7551:
7520:
7516:
7463:
7459:
7422:Ecology Letters
7414:
7410:
7365:
7361:
7314:
7310:
7271:
7267:
7216:(7): e0130045.
7202:
7198:
7193:on 24 May 2010.
7190:
7151:
7145:
7141:
7110:
7106:
7075:(12): 2920–31.
7069:Cerebral Cortex
7061:
7057:
7026:(10): 4065–72.
7012:
7008:
6969:
6965:
6958:
6938:
6934:
6927:
6909:(August 2010).
6904:
6900:
6883:
6882:
6878:
6833:
6829:
6790:
6786:
6776:
6774:
6764:
6760:
6750:
6748:
6740:
6739:
6735:
6696:
6692:
6679:
6675:
6668:
6650:
6646:
6634:
6633:
6624:
6623:
6611:
6570:
6566:
6559:
6539:
6535:
6482:
6475:
6460:
6442:
6435:
6425:
6423:
6420:
6416:
6415:
6411:
6401:
6399:
6387:
6383:
6382:
6378:
6341:
6337:
6322:
6318:
6311:
6281:
6277:
6267:
6265:
6261:
6244:
6235:
6231:
6176:
6172:
6139:
6135:
6096:
6092:
6053:
6049:
6018:
6014:
5975:
5971:
5948:10.1038/nrn1494
5932:
5928:
5918:
5916:
5908:
5907:
5903:
5854:(4): e0123503.
5840:
5836:
5795:(5): e0126464.
5781:
5777:
5770:
5747:
5736:
5699:
5695:
5688:10.1071/ZO05062
5670:
5666:
5656:
5654:
5650:
5617:
5607:
5600:
5561:
5554:
5522:
5516:
5512:
5483:
5479:
5434:
5427:
5422:
5418:
5384:
5373:
5340:
5331:
5290:
5283:
5251:10.1.1.584.2867
5234:
5230:
5201:
5197:
5156:
5152:
5119:
5108:
5055:
5051:
5043:
5012:
5006:
5002:
4963:
4959:
4951:
4947:
4896:
4892:
4877:(5): in press.
4861:
4857:
4812:
4805:
4800:
4793:
4748:
4744:
4699:
4695:
4648:
4641:
4586:
4579:
4556:
4552:
4515:
4511:
4472:
4468:
4413:
4409:
4399:
4397:
4393:
4360:
4350:
4346:
4313:
4309:
4270:
4266:
4259:
4245:
4241:
4196:
4192:
4173:
4169:
4138:
4129:
4106:10.2307/2640458
4090:
4086:
4078:
4070:
4066:
4019:
4015:
3970:
3966:
3951:10.2307/3546246
3927:
3923:
3878:
3874:
3829:
3825:
3817:
3813:
3781:10.1.1.133.7557
3764:
3757:
3714:
3710:
3665:
3658:
3643:
3639:
3600:
3596:
3573:
3569:
3554:
3550:
3511:
3507:
3478:
3474:
3464:
3462:
3454:
3453:
3449:
3409:
3403:
3399:
3346:
3342:
3303:
3299:
3291:
3275:
3271:
3226:
3222:
3203:
3202:
3198:
3143:
3139:
3132:
3116:
3112:
3105:
3089:
3085:
3070:10.2307/2445418
3050:
3046:
3009:Biology Letters
3001:
2997:
2987:
2985:
2983:
2967:
2963:
2947:10.1.1.498.7541
2930:
2926:
2903:10.2307/2410076
2887:
2883:
2878:
2874:
2868:
2864:
2849:10.2307/3545643
2822:
2816:
2812:
2759:
2755:
2710:
2706:
2667:(16): 2183–94.
2661:Vision Research
2649:
2645:
2614:(16): 2183–94.
2608:Vision Research
2600:
2596:
2567:
2563:
2553:
2551:
2546:
2545:
2541:
2500:(22): 12576–8.
2486:
2479:
2469:
2467:
2463:
2440:10.1.1.586.3819
2414:
2405:
2401:
2393:
2389:
2352:
2348:
2338:
2336:
2323:
2322:
2318:
2311:
2281:
2277:
2270:
2256:
2255:
2251:
2246:
2241:
2196:
2081:
2071:
2065:
1955:
1935:
1926:
1924:Immune function
1843:
1684:
1636:
1628:Main articles:
1626:
1621:
1615:
1599:serial monogamy
1573:
1542:
1414:paleontologists
1397:
1391:
1358:
1291:breeding season
1250:eclectus parrot
1208:common pheasant
1200:
1096:
1038:
1023:Nephila pilipes
960:Argiope appensa
951:
840:
797:Cannabis sativa
674:
666:redlip blennies
620:immune function
589:argus pheasants
544:
507:
452:
385:Differentiation
375:Human sexuality
365:Plant sexuality
252:Spermatogenesis
148:Homogametic sex
31:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
12611:
12601:
12600:
12595:
12590:
12585:
12583:Animal anatomy
12580:
12563:
12562:
12560:
12559:
12546:
12533:
12520:
12512:
12509:
12508:
12505:
12504:
12502:
12501:
12496:
12491:
12486:
12481:
12476:
12471:
12466:
12465:
12464:
12459:
12454:
12449:
12444:
12439:
12434:
12429:
12424:
12410:
12404:
12402:
12398:
12397:
12395:
12394:
12393:
12392:
12387:
12382:
12377:
12372:
12367:
12362:
12357:
12352:
12347:
12342:
12337:
12332:
12327:
12317:
12312:
12307:
12302:
12297:
12292:
12286:
12284:
12280:
12279:
12277:
12276:
12271:
12266:
12261:
12256:
12251:
12246:
12241:
12236:
12231:
12226:
12221:
12216:
12211:
12194:
12185:
12175:
12173:
12166:
12162:
12161:
12158:
12157:
12155:
12154:
12149:
12144:
12139:
12134:
12129:
12124:
12119:
12114:
12109:
12104:
12099:
12094:
12089:
12084:
12079:
12074:
12068:
12066:
12060:
12059:
12057:
12056:
12051:
12046:
12033:
12024:
12019:
12014:
12009:
12004:
11999:
11994:
11989:
11984:
11979:
11974:
11969:
11964:
11959:
11954:
11949:
11943:
11941:
11935:
11934:
11932:
11931:
11930:
11929:
11924:
11919:
11914:
11904:
11899:
11894:
11889:
11884:
11879:
11874:
11872:Mind-blindness
11869:
11864:
11859:
11854:
11849:
11848:
11847:
11842:
11837:
11832:
11827:
11816:
11814:
11803:
11802:
11800:
11799:
11794:
11789:
11784:
11779:
11774:
11769:
11764:
11759:
11746:
11741:
11735:
11733:
11727:
11726:
11724:
11723:
11718:
11717:
11716:
11706:
11705:
11704:
11694:
11693:
11692:
11687:
11682:
11672:
11667:
11666:
11665:
11655:
11654:
11653:
11648:
11637:
11635:
11629:
11628:
11626:
11625:
11624:
11623:
11618:
11613:
11603:
11598:
11593:
11584:
11583:
11582:
11577:
11567:
11565:theory of mind
11558:
11549:
11548:
11547:
11542:
11537:
11527:
11522:
11517:
11512:
11511:
11510:
11505:
11500:
11495:
11490:
11476:
11471:
11470:
11469:
11464:
11459:
11448:
11446:
11432:
11428:
11427:
11425:
11424:
11419:
11418:
11417:
11412:
11407:
11398:
11388:
11387:
11386:
11376:
11371:
11366:
11361:
11360:
11359:
11349:
11344:
11339:
11334:
11332:Baldwin effect
11329:
11328:
11327:
11322:
11317:
11307:
11301:
11299:
11291:
11290:
11288:
11287:
11282:
11281:
11280:
11275:
11270:
11265:
11260:
11250:
11249:
11248:
11237:
11234:
11233:
11226:
11225:
11218:
11211:
11203:
11194:
11193:
11191:
11190:
11180:
11169:
11166:
11165:
11163:
11162:
11157:
11152:
11147:
11142:
11141:
11140:
11130:
11125:
11120:
11115:
11110:
11109:
11108:
11103:
11098:
11088:
11083:
11078:
11072:
11070:
11066:
11065:
11063:
11062:
11057:
11056:
11055:
11050:
11045:
11044:
11043:
11033:
11028:
11023:
11018:
11013:
11003:
10997:
10995:
10991:
10990:
10988:
10987:
10982:
10977:
10972:
10967:
10962:
10957:
10952:
10947:
10942:
10941:
10940:
10931:Charles Darwin
10928:
10927:
10926:
10914:
10909:
10903:
10901:
10895:
10894:
10892:
10891:
10886:
10881:
10876:
10871:
10869:Non-ecological
10866:
10861:
10856:
10851:
10846:
10841:
10836:
10830:
10828:
10822:
10821:
10819:
10818:
10809:
10800:
10786:
10784:
10778:
10777:
10775:
10774:
10769:
10768:
10767:
10762:
10757:
10752:
10747:
10737:
10732:
10727:
10722:
10717:
10712:
10707:
10702:
10697:
10692:
10687:
10686:
10685:
10675:
10670:
10665:
10660:
10659:
10658:
10653:
10642:
10640:
10633:
10632:
10630:
10629:
10628:
10627:
10622:
10620:nervous system
10617:
10612:
10607:
10599:
10598:
10597:
10592:
10587:
10582:
10577:
10572:
10562:
10557:
10552:
10546:
10544:
10537:
10536:
10534:
10533:
10528:
10523:
10518:
10513:
10512:
10511:
10501:
10500:
10499:
10494:
10493:
10492:
10487:
10477:
10472:
10467:
10462:
10457:
10456:
10455:
10450:
10440:
10430:
10425:
10424:
10423:
10413:
10408:
10403:
10398:
10397:
10396:
10386:
10381:
10380:
10379:
10369:
10363:
10361:
10354:
10353:
10351:
10350:
10345:
10340:
10335:
10330:
10325:
10319:
10317:
10313:
10312:
10310:
10309:
10304:
10299:
10294:
10293:
10292:
10287:
10282:
10272:
10267:
10262:
10257:
10252:
10251:
10250:
10245:
10235:
10230:
10225:
10224:
10223:
10213:
10208:
10203:
10198:
10192:
10190:
10182:
10181:
10179:
10178:
10177:
10176:
10166:
10161:
10160:
10159:
10154:
10144:
10143:
10142:
10132:
10127:
10122:
10120:Origin of life
10117:
10112:
10107:
10105:Microevolution
10102:
10100:Macroevolution
10097:
10092:
10087:
10086:
10085:
10075:
10070:
10065:
10060:
10055:
10050:
10045:
10040:
10038:Common descent
10035:
10034:
10033:
10023:
10018:
10016:Baldwin effect
10013:
10012:
10011:
10006:
9996:
9991:
9986:
9980:
9978:
9972:
9971:
9969:
9968:
9963:
9958:
9953:
9948:
9942:
9939:
9938:
9931:
9930:
9923:
9916:
9908:
9899:
9898:
9896:
9895:
9890:
9885:
9880:
9875:
9870:
9865:
9859:
9857:
9853:
9852:
9850:
9849:
9844:
9838:
9836:
9830:
9829:
9827:
9826:
9821:
9816:
9811:
9805:
9803:
9797:
9796:
9794:
9793:
9788:
9783:
9778:
9772:
9770:
9762:
9761:
9759:
9758:
9753:
9747:
9745:
9739:
9738:
9736:
9735:
9730:
9721:
9720:
9719:
9714:
9709:
9704:
9699:
9694:
9684:
9683:
9682:
9677:
9672:
9661:
9659:
9651:
9650:
9648:
9647:
9642:
9637:
9632:
9627:
9622:
9613:
9608:
9607:
9606:
9601:
9593:
9588:
9587:
9586:
9581:
9573:
9568:
9563:
9561:Sexual arousal
9557:
9555:
9549:
9548:
9546:
9545:
9544:
9543:
9538:
9528:
9527:
9526:
9521:
9516:
9511:
9501:
9500:
9499:
9494:
9489:
9484:
9482:spermatogonium
9473:
9471:
9465:
9464:
9462:
9461:
9456:
9451:
9446:
9441:
9435:
9433:
9427:
9426:
9415:
9414:
9407:
9400:
9392:
9383:
9382:
9380:
9379:
9368:
9365:
9364:
9362:
9361:
9360:
9359:
9358:
9357:
9352:
9347:
9332:
9326:
9324:
9318:
9317:
9315:
9314:
9313:
9312:
9307:
9302:
9297:
9292:
9287:
9286:
9285:
9270:
9265:
9260:
9255:
9254:
9253:
9248:
9238:
9237:
9236:
9231:
9221:
9220:
9219:
9214:
9204:
9199:
9194:
9189:
9184:
9179:
9178:
9177:
9172:
9161:
9159:
9151:
9150:
9148:
9147:
9142:
9137:
9132:
9131:
9130:
9125:
9115:
9110:
9109:
9108:
9103:
9096:Sex chromosome
9093:
9088:
9087:
9086:
9081:
9076:
9071:
9066:
9061:
9051:
9050:
9049:
9044:
9034:
9033:
9032:
9027:
9016:
9014:
9008:
9007:
9000:
8999:
8992:
8985:
8977:
8971:
8970:
8963:Sex+dimorphism
8948:
8934:
8927:
8915:
8902:
8901:
8899:
8898:External links
8896:
8894:
8893:
8882:
8841:
8821:10.1086/510214
8803:
8801:
8798:
8796:
8795:
8789:
8773:
8767:
8752:
8746:
8726:
8724:
8721:
8718:
8717:
8705:
8693:
8681:
8666:
8654:
8642:
8630:
8575:
8524:
8471:
8428:
8377:
8370:
8347:
8334:10.1086/727968
8328:(2): 230–253.
8308:
8277:10.1086/698301
8251:
8188:
8161:(8): 709–715.
8141:
8086:
8065:(3): 366–386.
8039:
8032:
8014:
7996:
7989:
7971:
7957:
7892:
7871:(2): 476–490.
7849:
7828:(4): 897–904.
7805:
7757:
7726:(6): 1869–79.
7706:
7655:
7606:
7569:(7460): 23–4.
7549:
7514:
7457:
7408:
7359:
7308:
7281:(3): 663–673.
7265:
7196:
7139:
7120:(17): 2371–4.
7104:
7055:
7006:
6963:
6956:
6932:
6925:
6898:
6889:biolreprod.org
6876:
6827:
6794:Human Genetics
6784:
6758:
6733:
6690:
6673:
6666:
6644:
6635:|journal=
6609:
6564:
6557:
6533:
6473:
6458:
6450:Academic Press
6433:
6409:
6376:
6355:(12): 1725–9.
6335:
6316:
6309:
6275:
6229:
6190:(16): 9103–4.
6170:
6133:
6090:
6063:(3): 241–250.
6047:
6028:(4): 385–394.
6012:
5985:(1): 112–120.
5969:
5926:
5901:
5834:
5775:
5768:
5734:
5715:(2): 390–398.
5693:
5682:(3): 217–224.
5664:
5598:
5571:(3): 693–704.
5552:
5510:
5497:(4): 443–449.
5477:
5425:
5416:
5371:
5329:
5302:(2): 227–233.
5281:
5228:
5215:(4): 592–601.
5195:
5150:
5106:
5049:
5000:
4973:(2): 246–260.
4957:
4953:Andersson 1994
4945:
4908:(4): 460–474.
4890:
4855:
4826:(8): 2475–83.
4803:
4791:
4742:
4693:
4662:(4): 689–698.
4639:
4577:
4550:
4531:(1): 183–185.
4509:
4466:
4407:
4373:(3): 767–775.
4344:
4325:(3): 669–678.
4307:
4264:
4258:978-0691141961
4257:
4239:
4190:
4167:
4148:(2): 447–454.
4127:
4084:
4064:
4013:
3964:
3937:(2): 227–240.
3921:
3872:
3823:
3811:
3755:
3728:(2): 245–253.
3708:
3656:
3637:
3610:(4): 371–382.
3594:
3583:(4): 147–157.
3567:
3548:
3521:(4): 235–247.
3505:
3492:(4): 359–367.
3472:
3447:
3420:(5): 564–576.
3397:
3340:
3319:10.1086/510214
3297:
3289:
3269:
3240:(9): 1515–27.
3220:
3196:
3137:
3130:
3110:
3103:
3083:
3064:(5): 596–606.
3044:
2995:
2981:
2961:
2940:(4): 592–601.
2924:
2897:(2): 647–657.
2881:
2872:
2862:
2835:(2): 309–311.
2810:
2753:
2704:
2643:
2594:
2583:(3): 321–328.
2561:
2539:
2477:
2399:
2395:Andersson 1994
2387:
2346:
2316:
2309:
2289:Academic Press
2275:
2268:
2248:
2247:
2245:
2242:
2240:
2239:
2234:
2229:
2224:
2219:
2214:
2209:
2203:
2197:
2195:
2192:
2099:Charles Darwin
2067:Main article:
2064:
2061:
1954:
1951:
1939:cultured cells
1934:
1931:
1925:
1922:
1910:expander graph
1771:count, higher
1769:red blood cell
1751:and branching
1695:
1694:
1681:Pioneer plaque
1672:
1671:
1661:
1650:
1649:
1646:Pioneer plaque
1625:
1622:
1617:Main article:
1614:
1611:
1591:Marine mammals
1572:
1569:
1541:
1538:
1493:cranial crests
1393:Main article:
1390:
1387:
1379:saxaul sparrow
1371:rufous sparrow
1344:numeral prefix
1199:
1196:
1095:
1092:
1075:sockeye salmon
1037:
1034:
1029:Maratus volans
999:Tigrosa helluo
950:
947:
839:
836:
814:generation of
682:hermaphroditic
673:
670:
552:Orgyia antiqua
543:
540:
521:, on the left.
506:
503:
499:phenotypically
454:
453:
451:
450:
443:
436:
428:
425:
424:
423:
422:
417:
412:
404:
403:
397:
396:
395:
394:
393:
392:
387:
382:
372:
367:
359:
358:
352:
351:
350:
349:
348:
347:
342:
337:
332:
327:
326:
325:
310:
305:
300:
295:
294:
293:
288:
278:
277:
276:
271:
261:
260:
259:
254:
244:
239:
234:
233:
232:
227:
214:
213:
207:
206:
205:
204:
199:
194:
193:
192:
187:
177:
172:
171:
170:
165:
160:
153:Sex chromosome
150:
145:
140:
139:
138:
133:
128:
123:
118:
113:
103:
102:
101:
96:
86:
78:
77:
73:
72:
64:
63:
55:
54:
40:Mandarin ducks
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
12610:
12599:
12596:
12594:
12591:
12589:
12586:
12584:
12581:
12579:
12576:
12575:
12573:
12558:
12557:
12551:
12547:
12545:
12544:
12538:
12534:
12532:
12531:
12521:
12519:
12518:
12514:
12513:
12510:
12500:
12497:
12495:
12492:
12490:
12487:
12485:
12484:Neo-Darwinism
12482:
12480:
12477:
12475:
12472:
12470:
12469:Functionalism
12467:
12463:
12460:
12458:
12455:
12453:
12450:
12448:
12445:
12443:
12440:
12438:
12435:
12433:
12430:
12428:
12427:Connectionism
12425:
12423:
12420:
12419:
12418:
12417:indeterminism
12414:
12411:
12409:
12406:
12405:
12403:
12399:
12391:
12388:
12386:
12383:
12381:
12378:
12376:
12373:
12371:
12368:
12366:
12363:
12361:
12358:
12356:
12353:
12351:
12348:
12346:
12343:
12341:
12338:
12336:
12333:
12331:
12328:
12326:
12323:
12322:
12321:
12318:
12316:
12313:
12311:
12308:
12306:
12303:
12301:
12298:
12296:
12293:
12291:
12288:
12287:
12285:
12281:
12275:
12272:
12270:
12267:
12265:
12262:
12260:
12257:
12255:
12252:
12250:
12247:
12245:
12242:
12240:
12237:
12235:
12232:
12230:
12227:
12225:
12222:
12220:
12217:
12215:
12212:
12210:
12206:
12202:
12198:
12195:
12193:
12189:
12186:
12184:
12180:
12177:
12176:
12174:
12170:
12167:
12163:
12153:
12150:
12148:
12145:
12143:
12140:
12138:
12137:Schizophrenia
12135:
12133:
12130:
12128:
12125:
12123:
12122:Mental health
12120:
12118:
12115:
12113:
12110:
12108:
12105:
12103:
12100:
12098:
12095:
12093:
12090:
12088:
12085:
12083:
12080:
12078:
12075:
12073:
12070:
12069:
12067:
12065:
12061:
12055:
12052:
12050:
12047:
12045:
12041:
12037:
12034:
12032:
12028:
12025:
12023:
12020:
12018:
12015:
12013:
12010:
12008:
12005:
12003:
12000:
11998:
11997:Mate guarding
11995:
11993:
11990:
11988:
11985:
11983:
11980:
11978:
11975:
11973:
11970:
11968:
11965:
11963:
11960:
11958:
11957:Age disparity
11955:
11953:
11950:
11948:
11945:
11944:
11942:
11940:
11936:
11928:
11925:
11923:
11920:
11918:
11915:
11913:
11910:
11909:
11908:
11905:
11903:
11900:
11898:
11895:
11893:
11890:
11888:
11887:Schizophrenia
11885:
11883:
11880:
11878:
11875:
11873:
11870:
11868:
11865:
11863:
11860:
11858:
11855:
11853:
11850:
11846:
11843:
11841:
11838:
11836:
11833:
11831:
11828:
11826:
11823:
11822:
11821:
11818:
11817:
11815:
11813:
11812:Mental health
11808:
11807:Human factors
11804:
11798:
11797:Socialization
11795:
11793:
11790:
11788:
11785:
11783:
11780:
11778:
11775:
11773:
11770:
11768:
11765:
11763:
11760:
11758:
11757:paternal bond
11754:
11750:
11747:
11745:
11742:
11740:
11737:
11736:
11734:
11732:
11728:
11722:
11719:
11715:
11712:
11711:
11710:
11707:
11703:
11700:
11699:
11698:
11695:
11691:
11688:
11686:
11683:
11681:
11678:
11677:
11676:
11673:
11671:
11668:
11664:
11661:
11660:
11659:
11656:
11652:
11649:
11647:
11644:
11643:
11642:
11639:
11638:
11636:
11634:
11630:
11622:
11621:NaĂŻve physics
11619:
11617:
11614:
11612:
11609:
11608:
11607:
11604:
11602:
11599:
11597:
11594:
11592:
11588:
11587:Motor control
11585:
11581:
11578:
11576:
11573:
11572:
11571:
11568:
11566:
11562:
11559:
11557:
11553:
11550:
11546:
11545:Ophidiophobia
11543:
11541:
11538:
11536:
11535:Arachnophobia
11533:
11532:
11531:
11528:
11526:
11523:
11521:
11518:
11516:
11513:
11509:
11506:
11504:
11501:
11499:
11496:
11494:
11491:
11489:
11486:
11485:
11484:
11480:
11477:
11475:
11472:
11468:
11465:
11463:
11462:Display rules
11460:
11458:
11455:
11454:
11453:
11450:
11449:
11447:
11445:
11440:
11436:
11433:
11429:
11423:
11420:
11416:
11413:
11411:
11408:
11406:
11402:
11399:
11397:
11394:
11393:
11392:
11389:
11385:
11382:
11381:
11380:
11377:
11375:
11372:
11370:
11367:
11365:
11364:Kin selection
11362:
11358:
11355:
11354:
11353:
11350:
11348:
11345:
11343:
11340:
11338:
11335:
11333:
11330:
11326:
11323:
11321:
11318:
11316:
11313:
11312:
11311:
11308:
11306:
11303:
11302:
11300:
11298:
11292:
11286:
11283:
11279:
11276:
11274:
11271:
11269:
11266:
11264:
11261:
11259:
11258:Adaptationism
11256:
11255:
11254:
11251:
11247:
11244:
11243:
11242:
11239:
11238:
11235:
11231:
11224:
11219:
11217:
11212:
11210:
11205:
11204:
11201:
11189:
11185:
11181:
11179:
11171:
11170:
11167:
11161:
11158:
11156:
11153:
11151:
11148:
11146:
11143:
11139:
11136:
11135:
11134:
11133:Phylogenetics
11131:
11129:
11126:
11124:
11121:
11119:
11116:
11114:
11111:
11107:
11104:
11102:
11099:
11097:
11094:
11093:
11092:
11089:
11087:
11084:
11082:
11079:
11077:
11074:
11073:
11071:
11067:
11061:
11058:
11054:
11051:
11049:
11046:
11042:
11039:
11038:
11037:
11036:Structuralism
11034:
11032:
11029:
11027:
11024:
11022:
11019:
11017:
11014:
11012:
11011:Catastrophism
11009:
11008:
11007:
11004:
11002:
10999:
10998:
10996:
10992:
10986:
10983:
10981:
10978:
10976:
10973:
10971:
10970:Neo-Darwinism
10968:
10966:
10963:
10961:
10958:
10956:
10953:
10951:
10948:
10946:
10943:
10939:
10938:
10934:
10933:
10932:
10929:
10925:
10924:
10920:
10919:
10918:
10915:
10913:
10910:
10908:
10905:
10904:
10902:
10900:
10896:
10890:
10887:
10885:
10884:Reinforcement
10882:
10880:
10877:
10875:
10872:
10870:
10867:
10865:
10862:
10860:
10857:
10855:
10852:
10850:
10847:
10845:
10842:
10840:
10837:
10835:
10832:
10831:
10829:
10827:
10823:
10817:
10816:Catastrophism
10813:
10810:
10808:
10807:Macromutation
10804:
10803:Micromutation
10801:
10799:
10795:
10791:
10788:
10787:
10785:
10783:
10779:
10773:
10770:
10766:
10763:
10761:
10758:
10756:
10753:
10751:
10748:
10746:
10743:
10742:
10741:
10738:
10736:
10733:
10731:
10728:
10726:
10723:
10721:
10718:
10716:
10713:
10711:
10710:Immune system
10708:
10706:
10703:
10701:
10698:
10696:
10693:
10691:
10688:
10684:
10681:
10680:
10679:
10676:
10674:
10671:
10669:
10666:
10664:
10661:
10657:
10654:
10652:
10649:
10648:
10647:
10644:
10643:
10641:
10639:
10634:
10626:
10623:
10621:
10618:
10616:
10613:
10611:
10608:
10606:
10603:
10602:
10600:
10596:
10593:
10591:
10588:
10586:
10583:
10581:
10578:
10576:
10573:
10571:
10570:symbiogenesis
10568:
10567:
10566:
10563:
10561:
10558:
10556:
10553:
10551:
10548:
10547:
10545:
10543:
10538:
10532:
10529:
10527:
10524:
10522:
10519:
10517:
10514:
10510:
10507:
10506:
10505:
10502:
10498:
10495:
10491:
10488:
10486:
10483:
10482:
10481:
10478:
10476:
10473:
10471:
10468:
10466:
10463:
10461:
10458:
10454:
10451:
10449:
10446:
10445:
10444:
10441:
10439:
10436:
10435:
10434:
10431:
10429:
10426:
10422:
10419:
10418:
10417:
10414:
10412:
10409:
10407:
10404:
10402:
10399:
10395:
10392:
10391:
10390:
10387:
10385:
10382:
10378:
10375:
10374:
10373:
10370:
10368:
10365:
10364:
10362:
10360:
10355:
10349:
10346:
10344:
10341:
10339:
10336:
10334:
10331:
10329:
10326:
10324:
10321:
10320:
10318:
10314:
10308:
10305:
10303:
10300:
10298:
10295:
10291:
10288:
10286:
10283:
10281:
10278:
10277:
10276:
10273:
10271:
10268:
10266:
10263:
10261:
10258:
10256:
10253:
10249:
10246:
10244:
10241:
10240:
10239:
10238:Kin selection
10236:
10234:
10233:Genetic drift
10231:
10229:
10226:
10222:
10219:
10218:
10217:
10214:
10212:
10209:
10207:
10204:
10202:
10199:
10197:
10194:
10193:
10191:
10189:
10183:
10175:
10172:
10171:
10170:
10167:
10165:
10162:
10158:
10155:
10153:
10150:
10149:
10148:
10145:
10141:
10138:
10137:
10136:
10133:
10131:
10128:
10126:
10123:
10121:
10118:
10116:
10113:
10111:
10108:
10106:
10103:
10101:
10098:
10096:
10093:
10091:
10088:
10084:
10081:
10080:
10079:
10076:
10074:
10071:
10069:
10066:
10064:
10061:
10059:
10056:
10054:
10051:
10049:
10046:
10044:
10041:
10039:
10036:
10032:
10029:
10028:
10027:
10024:
10022:
10019:
10017:
10014:
10010:
10007:
10005:
10002:
10001:
10000:
9997:
9995:
9992:
9990:
9987:
9985:
9982:
9981:
9979:
9977:
9973:
9967:
9964:
9962:
9959:
9957:
9954:
9952:
9949:
9947:
9944:
9943:
9940:
9936:
9929:
9924:
9922:
9917:
9915:
9910:
9909:
9906:
9894:
9891:
9889:
9886:
9884:
9881:
9879:
9876:
9874:
9871:
9869:
9866:
9864:
9861:
9860:
9858:
9854:
9848:
9845:
9843:
9840:
9839:
9837:
9835:
9831:
9825:
9824:Breastfeeding
9822:
9820:
9817:
9815:
9812:
9810:
9807:
9806:
9804:
9802:
9798:
9792:
9789:
9787:
9784:
9782:
9779:
9777:
9774:
9773:
9771:
9769:
9763:
9757:
9754:
9752:
9749:
9748:
9746:
9744:
9740:
9734:
9731:
9729:
9725:
9722:
9718:
9715:
9713:
9710:
9708:
9705:
9703:
9700:
9698:
9695:
9693:
9690:
9689:
9688:
9685:
9681:
9678:
9676:
9673:
9671:
9668:
9667:
9666:
9663:
9662:
9660:
9658:
9652:
9646:
9643:
9641:
9638:
9636:
9633:
9631:
9628:
9626:
9623:
9621:
9617:
9616:Fertilization
9614:
9612:
9609:
9605:
9602:
9600:
9597:
9596:
9594:
9592:
9589:
9585:
9582:
9580:
9577:
9576:
9574:
9572:
9569:
9567:
9564:
9562:
9559:
9558:
9556:
9554:
9550:
9542:
9539:
9537:
9534:
9533:
9532:
9529:
9525:
9522:
9520:
9517:
9515:
9512:
9510:
9507:
9506:
9505:
9502:
9498:
9495:
9493:
9490:
9488:
9485:
9483:
9480:
9479:
9478:
9475:
9474:
9472:
9470:
9469:Gametogenesis
9466:
9460:
9457:
9455:
9452:
9450:
9447:
9445:
9442:
9440:
9437:
9436:
9434:
9432:
9428:
9424:
9420:
9413:
9408:
9406:
9401:
9399:
9394:
9393:
9390:
9378:
9370:
9369:
9366:
9356:
9353:
9351:
9348:
9346:
9343:
9342:
9341:
9338:
9337:
9336:
9333:
9331:
9328:
9327:
9325:
9323:
9319:
9311:
9310:Pelvic thrust
9308:
9306:
9303:
9301:
9298:
9296:
9293:
9291:
9288:
9284:
9281:
9280:
9279:
9276:
9275:
9274:
9271:
9269:
9266:
9264:
9261:
9259:
9256:
9252:
9249:
9247:
9244:
9243:
9242:
9241:Fertilization
9239:
9235:
9232:
9230:
9227:
9226:
9225:
9222:
9218:
9215:
9213:
9210:
9209:
9208:
9207:Gametogenesis
9205:
9203:
9200:
9198:
9195:
9193:
9190:
9188:
9185:
9183:
9180:
9176:
9173:
9171:
9168:
9167:
9166:
9163:
9162:
9160:
9158:
9152:
9146:
9143:
9141:
9140:parasexuality
9138:
9136:
9133:
9129:
9126:
9124:
9121:
9120:
9119:
9118:Hermaphrodite
9116:
9114:
9111:
9107:
9104:
9102:
9099:
9098:
9097:
9094:
9092:
9089:
9085:
9084:Haplodiploidy
9082:
9080:
9077:
9075:
9072:
9070:
9067:
9065:
9062:
9060:
9057:
9056:
9055:
9052:
9048:
9045:
9043:
9040:
9039:
9038:
9035:
9031:
9028:
9026:
9023:
9022:
9021:
9018:
9017:
9015:
9009:
9005:
8998:
8993:
8991:
8986:
8984:
8979:
8978:
8975:
8968:
8964:
8961:
8960:
8956:
8952:
8937:
8890:
8889:
8883:
8879:
8875:
8870:
8865:
8861:
8857:
8853:
8849:
8848:
8842:
8838:
8834:
8830:
8826:
8822:
8818:
8814:
8810:
8805:
8804:
8792:
8786:
8782:
8778:
8774:
8770:
8764:
8760:
8759:
8753:
8749:
8743:
8739:
8735:
8734:
8728:
8727:
8715:, p. 332
8714:
8709:
8703:, p. 330
8702:
8697:
8691:, p. 335
8690:
8685:
8679:, p. 328
8678:
8673:
8671:
8664:, p. 332
8663:
8658:
8652:, p. 331
8651:
8646:
8640:, p. 330
8639:
8634:
8626:
8622:
8618:
8614:
8610:
8606:
8602:
8598:
8594:
8590:
8586:
8579:
8571:
8567:
8562:
8557:
8552:
8547:
8543:
8539:
8535:
8528:
8520:
8516:
8512:
8508:
8504:
8500:
8496:
8492:
8488:
8484:
8483:
8475:
8467:
8463:
8459:
8455:
8451:
8447:
8443:
8439:
8432:
8424:
8420:
8416:
8412:
8408:
8404:
8400:
8396:
8393:(2): 281–94.
8392:
8388:
8381:
8373:
8367:
8363:
8362:
8357:
8351:
8343:
8339:
8335:
8331:
8327:
8323:
8319:
8312:
8304:
8300:
8295:
8290:
8286:
8282:
8278:
8274:
8270:
8266:
8262:
8255:
8247:
8243:
8238:
8233:
8228:
8223:
8219:
8215:
8211:
8207:
8203:
8199:
8192:
8184:
8180:
8176:
8172:
8168:
8164:
8160:
8156:
8152:
8145:
8137:
8133:
8129:
8125:
8121:
8117:
8114:(2): 95–104.
8113:
8109:
8105:
8103:
8099:
8090:
8082:
8078:
8073:
8068:
8064:
8060:
8059:
8054:
8052:
8043:
8035:
8029:
8025:
8018:
8010:
8003:
8001:
7992:
7986:
7982:
7975:
7968:
7967:
7961:
7950:
7946:
7942:
7938:
7934:
7930:
7926:
7922:
7918:
7915:(6947): 387.
7914:
7910:
7903:
7896:
7888:
7884:
7879:
7874:
7870:
7866:
7865:
7860:
7853:
7845:
7841:
7836:
7831:
7827:
7823:
7816:
7809:
7801:
7797:
7793:
7789:
7785:
7781:
7777:
7773:
7772:
7764:
7762:
7753:
7749:
7744:
7739:
7734:
7729:
7725:
7721:
7720:FASEB Journal
7717:
7710:
7702:
7698:
7693:
7688:
7683:
7678:
7674:
7670:
7669:PLOS Genetics
7666:
7659:
7651:
7647:
7642:
7637:
7633:
7629:
7625:
7621:
7617:
7610:
7602:
7598:
7594:
7590:
7585:
7580:
7576:
7572:
7568:
7564:
7560:
7553:
7545:
7541:
7537:
7533:
7529:
7525:
7518:
7510:
7506:
7501:
7496:
7492:
7488:
7484:
7480:
7476:
7472:
7468:
7461:
7453:
7449:
7444:
7439:
7435:
7431:
7427:
7423:
7419:
7412:
7404:
7400:
7395:
7390:
7386:
7382:
7378:
7374:
7370:
7363:
7355:
7351:
7346:
7341:
7336:
7331:
7327:
7323:
7319:
7312:
7304:
7300:
7296:
7292:
7288:
7284:
7280:
7276:
7269:
7261:
7257:
7252:
7247:
7242:
7237:
7233:
7229:
7224:
7219:
7215:
7211:
7207:
7200:
7189:
7185:
7181:
7177:
7173:
7169:
7165:
7161:
7157:
7150:
7143:
7135:
7131:
7127:
7123:
7119:
7115:
7108:
7100:
7096:
7091:
7086:
7082:
7078:
7074:
7070:
7066:
7059:
7051:
7047:
7042:
7037:
7033:
7029:
7025:
7021:
7017:
7010:
7002:
6998:
6994:
6990:
6986:
6982:
6979:(2): 144–52.
6978:
6974:
6967:
6959:
6953:
6949:
6945:
6944:
6936:
6928:
6922:
6918:
6914:
6913:
6908:
6902:
6894:
6890:
6886:
6880:
6872:
6868:
6863:
6858:
6854:
6850:
6847:(2): 674–80.
6846:
6842:
6838:
6831:
6823:
6819:
6815:
6811:
6807:
6803:
6800:(3): 267–75.
6799:
6795:
6788:
6773:
6769:
6762:
6747:
6743:
6737:
6729:
6725:
6721:
6717:
6713:
6709:
6705:
6701:
6694:
6686:
6685:
6677:
6669:
6663:
6659:
6658:Little, Brown
6655:
6648:
6640:
6628:
6620:
6616:
6612:
6606:
6602:
6598:
6594:
6590:
6585:
6584:
6578:
6574:
6568:
6560:
6554:
6550:
6546:
6545:
6537:
6529:
6525:
6521:
6517:
6512:
6507:
6503:
6499:
6495:
6491:
6487:
6480:
6478:
6469:
6465:
6461:
6455:
6451:
6447:
6440:
6438:
6419:
6413:
6397:
6393:
6386:
6380:
6372:
6368:
6363:
6358:
6354:
6350:
6346:
6339:
6331:
6327:
6320:
6312:
6306:
6302:
6298:
6293:
6292:
6286:
6279:
6260:
6256:
6252:
6251:
6243:
6239:
6233:
6225:
6221:
6216:
6211:
6206:
6201:
6197:
6193:
6189:
6185:
6181:
6174:
6165:
6160:
6156:
6152:
6148:
6144:
6137:
6129:
6125:
6121:
6117:
6113:
6109:
6105:
6101:
6094:
6086:
6082:
6078:
6074:
6070:
6066:
6062:
6058:
6051:
6043:
6039:
6035:
6031:
6027:
6023:
6016:
6008:
6004:
6000:
5996:
5992:
5988:
5984:
5980:
5979:Mammal Review
5973:
5965:
5961:
5957:
5953:
5949:
5945:
5941:
5937:
5930:
5915:
5911:
5905:
5897:
5893:
5888:
5883:
5879:
5875:
5870:
5865:
5861:
5857:
5853:
5849:
5845:
5838:
5830:
5826:
5821:
5816:
5812:
5808:
5803:
5798:
5794:
5790:
5786:
5779:
5771:
5765:
5761:
5757:
5756:
5751:
5745:
5743:
5741:
5739:
5730:
5726:
5722:
5718:
5714:
5710:
5709:
5704:
5697:
5689:
5685:
5681:
5677:
5676:
5668:
5649:
5645:
5641:
5637:
5633:
5629:
5625:
5624:
5616:
5614:
5605:
5603:
5594:
5590:
5586:
5582:
5578:
5574:
5570:
5566:
5559:
5557:
5548:
5544:
5540:
5536:
5533:(1): 89–100.
5532:
5528:
5521:
5514:
5505:
5500:
5496:
5492:
5488:
5481:
5473:
5469:
5465:
5461:
5456:
5451:
5447:
5443:
5439:
5432:
5430:
5420:
5412:
5408:
5404:
5400:
5396:
5392:
5391:
5382:
5380:
5378:
5376:
5367:
5363:
5359:
5355:
5351:
5347:
5346:
5338:
5336:
5334:
5325:
5321:
5317:
5313:
5309:
5305:
5301:
5297:
5296:
5288:
5286:
5277:
5273:
5269:
5265:
5261:
5257:
5252:
5247:
5244:(1): 154–62.
5243:
5239:
5232:
5223:
5218:
5214:
5210:
5206:
5199:
5191:
5187:
5183:
5179:
5175:
5171:
5167:
5163:
5162:
5154:
5146:
5142:
5138:
5134:
5130:
5126:
5125:
5117:
5115:
5113:
5111:
5102:
5098:
5093:
5088:
5084:
5080:
5076:
5072:
5068:
5064:
5060:
5053:
5042:
5038:
5034:
5030:
5026:
5022:
5018:
5011:
5004:
4996:
4992:
4988:
4984:
4980:
4976:
4972:
4968:
4961:
4955:, p. 269
4954:
4949:
4941:
4937:
4932:
4927:
4923:
4919:
4915:
4911:
4907:
4903:
4902:
4894:
4885:
4880:
4876:
4872:
4871:
4866:
4859:
4851:
4847:
4843:
4839:
4834:
4829:
4825:
4821:
4817:
4810:
4808:
4798:
4796:
4787:
4783:
4778:
4773:
4769:
4765:
4761:
4757:
4753:
4746:
4738:
4734:
4730:
4726:
4721:
4716:
4713:(1): 259–72.
4712:
4708:
4704:
4697:
4688:
4683:
4678:
4673:
4669:
4665:
4661:
4657:
4653:
4646:
4644:
4635:
4631:
4626:
4621:
4616:
4611:
4607:
4603:
4599:
4595:
4591:
4584:
4582:
4573:
4569:
4565:
4561:
4554:
4546:
4542:
4538:
4534:
4530:
4526:
4525:
4520:
4513:
4505:
4501:
4497:
4493:
4489:
4485:
4481:
4477:
4470:
4462:
4458:
4453:
4448:
4443:
4438:
4434:
4430:
4427:(5): e10616.
4426:
4422:
4418:
4411:
4392:
4388:
4384:
4380:
4376:
4372:
4368:
4367:
4359:
4357:
4348:
4340:
4336:
4332:
4328:
4324:
4320:
4319:
4311:
4303:
4299:
4295:
4291:
4287:
4283:
4280:(2): 257–65.
4279:
4275:
4268:
4260:
4254:
4251:. Princeton.
4250:
4243:
4235:
4231:
4226:
4221:
4217:
4213:
4209:
4205:
4201:
4194:
4186:
4182:
4178:
4171:
4163:
4159:
4155:
4151:
4147:
4143:
4136:
4134:
4132:
4123:
4119:
4115:
4111:
4107:
4103:
4099:
4095:
4088:
4077:
4076:
4068:
4060:
4056:
4051:
4046:
4041:
4036:
4032:
4028:
4024:
4017:
4009:
4005:
4000:
3995:
3991:
3987:
3983:
3979:
3975:
3968:
3960:
3956:
3952:
3948:
3944:
3940:
3936:
3932:
3925:
3917:
3913:
3908:
3903:
3899:
3895:
3891:
3887:
3883:
3876:
3868:
3864:
3859:
3854:
3850:
3846:
3842:
3838:
3834:
3827:
3821:
3815:
3807:
3803:
3799:
3795:
3791:
3787:
3782:
3777:
3773:
3769:
3762:
3760:
3751:
3747:
3743:
3739:
3735:
3731:
3727:
3723:
3719:
3712:
3704:
3700:
3696:
3692:
3687:
3682:
3678:
3674:
3670:
3663:
3661:
3652:
3648:
3641:
3633:
3629:
3625:
3621:
3617:
3613:
3609:
3605:
3598:
3590:
3586:
3582:
3578:
3571:
3564:(4): 565–570.
3563:
3559:
3552:
3544:
3540:
3536:
3532:
3528:
3524:
3520:
3516:
3509:
3500:
3495:
3491:
3487:
3483:
3476:
3461:
3457:
3451:
3443:
3439:
3435:
3431:
3427:
3423:
3419:
3415:
3408:
3401:
3393:
3389:
3384:
3379:
3375:
3371:
3367:
3363:
3359:
3355:
3351:
3344:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3324:
3320:
3316:
3312:
3308:
3301:
3292:
3286:
3282:
3281:
3273:
3265:
3261:
3256:
3251:
3247:
3243:
3239:
3235:
3231:
3224:
3216:
3212:
3211:
3206:
3200:
3192:
3188:
3184:
3180:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3164:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3141:
3133:
3127:
3124:. CRC Press.
3123:
3122:
3114:
3106:
3100:
3096:
3095:
3087:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3055:
3048:
3040:
3036:
3031:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3014:
3010:
3006:
2999:
2984:
2982:9780521448789
2978:
2974:
2973:
2965:
2957:
2953:
2948:
2943:
2939:
2935:
2928:
2920:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2885:
2876:
2866:
2858:
2854:
2850:
2846:
2842:
2838:
2834:
2830:
2829:
2821:
2814:
2806:
2802:
2797:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2757:
2749:
2745:
2740:
2735:
2731:
2727:
2723:
2719:
2715:
2708:
2700:
2696:
2691:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2647:
2639:
2635:
2630:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2598:
2590:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2577:
2572:
2565:
2549:
2543:
2535:
2531:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2511:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2484:
2482:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2441:
2436:
2432:
2428:
2425:(1): 205–14.
2424:
2420:
2413:
2409:
2403:
2396:
2391:
2383:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2350:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2320:
2312:
2310:9780123735539
2306:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2279:
2271:
2265:
2261:
2260:
2253:
2249:
2238:
2235:
2233:
2230:
2228:
2225:
2223:
2220:
2218:
2215:
2213:
2210:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2198:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2168:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2151:
2146:
2142:
2140:
2134:
2132:
2131:
2125:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2110:
2108:
2104:
2101:advanced the
2100:
2093:
2090:
2085:
2080:
2076:
2070:
2060:
2058:
2057:
2051:
2049:
2048:
2047:Sphaerocarpos
2043:
2042:
2036:
2034:
2030:
2025:
2024:
2018:
2010:
2005:
2001:
1999:
1995:
1994:
1988:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1976:spotted hyena
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1950:
1949:differently.
1948:
1944:
1940:
1930:
1921:
1917:
1915:
1911:
1906:
1901:
1896:
1891:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1872:transcription
1869:
1864:
1862:
1856:
1852:
1851:
1847:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1812:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1745:
1743:
1738:
1736:
1730:
1729:than males.
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1707:
1704:
1703:
1693:
1691:
1687:
1682:
1678:
1673:
1668:Female pelvis
1666:
1662:
1656:
1652:
1651:
1644:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1620:
1610:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1586:
1582:
1577:
1568:
1565:
1564:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1537:
1535:
1534:
1531:
1530:Hesperosaurus
1525:
1524:
1523:Stegosaurians
1520:
1518:
1513:
1509:
1508:
1501:
1500:
1496:
1494:
1490:
1485:
1484:
1480:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1464:
1463:
1459:
1457:
1456:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1438:
1433:
1432:
1426:
1425:
1421:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1410:fossilization
1407:
1406:decomposition
1402:
1396:
1386:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1345:
1340:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1324:
1320:
1318:
1315:
1311:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1279:
1277:
1273:
1272:birds of prey
1263:
1258:
1251:
1246:
1239:
1235:
1234:
1228:
1221:
1216:
1209:
1204:
1195:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1184:
1178:
1176:
1174:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1156:
1155:
1154:Anolis sagrei
1150:
1146:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1091:
1089:
1088:
1082:
1080:
1076:
1071:
1067:
1064:
1060:
1055:
1053:
1049:
1048:
1042:
1033:
1031:
1030:
1025:
1024:
1019:
1018:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
1000:
996:
992:
988:
984:
983:
978:
969:
962:
961:
955:
946:
943:
939:
938:
933:
929:
928:
923:
922:
916:
914:
910:
906:
902:
901:
895:
893:
892:
887:
886:
880:
879:
874:
873:
867:
865:
861:
860:
850:
849:
848:Colias dimera
844:
835:
833:
829:
825:
821:
817:
813:
809:
806:
801:
799:
798:
792:
790:
786:
782:
778:
774:
773:
767:
764:
760:
756:
755:
749:
746:
745:
739:
737:
733:
729:
726:
725:
720:
719:
714:
711:, completing
710:
706:
702:
698:
693:
691:
687:
683:
679:
669:
667:
662:
660:
655:
653:
649:
644:
642:
637:
636:
631:
630:
623:
621:
616:
612:
608:
605:
601:
597:
592:
590:
586:
582:
578:
574:
569:
566:
562:
561:ornamentation
554:
553:
548:
536:
532:
527:
520:
516:
511:
502:
500:
496:
492:
488:
484:
480:
476:
472:
471:morphological
468:
464:
460:
449:
444:
442:
437:
435:
430:
429:
427:
426:
421:
420:Hermaphrodite
418:
416:
413:
411:
408:
407:
406:
405:
402:
401:Sexual system
399:
398:
391:
388:
386:
383:
381:
378:
377:
376:
373:
371:
368:
366:
363:
362:
361:
360:
357:
354:
353:
346:
345:Pelvic thrust
343:
341:
338:
336:
333:
331:
328:
324:
321:
320:
319:
316:
315:
314:
311:
309:
306:
304:
301:
299:
296:
292:
289:
287:
284:
283:
282:
281:Fertilization
279:
275:
272:
270:
267:
266:
265:
262:
258:
255:
253:
250:
249:
248:
247:Gametogenesis
245:
243:
240:
238:
235:
231:
228:
226:
223:
222:
221:
218:
217:
216:
215:
212:
209:
208:
203:
200:
198:
195:
191:
188:
186:
183:
182:
181:
180:Hermaphrodite
178:
176:
173:
169:
166:
164:
161:
159:
156:
155:
154:
151:
149:
146:
144:
141:
137:
136:Haplodiploidy
134:
132:
129:
127:
124:
122:
119:
117:
114:
112:
109:
108:
107:
104:
100:
97:
95:
92:
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90:
87:
85:
82:
81:
80:
79:
75:
74:
70:
66:
65:
62:
61:
57:
56:
52:
48:
47:
41:
37:
33:
29:
22:
12554:
12541:
12528:
12515:
12274:Sociobiology
12132:Neuroscience
12112:Intelligence
11658:Anthropology
11611:Color vision
11596:Multitasking
11575:Flynn effect
11570:Intelligence
11552:Folk biology
11414:
11295:Evolutionary
11145:Polymorphism
11128:Astrobiology
11076:Biogeography
11031:Saltationism
11021:Orthogenesis
11006:Alternatives
10935:
10921:
10854:Cospeciation
10849:Cladogenesis
10798:Saltationism
10755:Mating types
10678:Color vision
10663:Avian flight
10585:mitochondria
10323:Canalisation
10269:
10201:Biodiversity
9946:Introduction
9728:Paternal age
9724:Maternal age
9697:Tanner scale
9680:Virilization
9675:Feminization
9669:
9625:Implantation
9611:Insemination
9595:Ejaculation
9571:Masturbation
9487:spermatocyte
9459:Luteal phase
9444:Menstruation
9229:spermatozoon
9157:reproduction
9106:Y chromosome
9101:X chromosome
9047:Virilization
9042:Feminization
9019:
8887:
8851:
8845:
8812:
8808:
8780:
8757:
8732:
8708:
8696:
8689:Futuyma 2005
8684:
8662:Futuyma 2005
8657:
8650:Futuyma 2005
8645:
8638:Futuyma 2005
8633:
8592:
8588:
8578:
8541:
8538:PLOS Biology
8537:
8527:
8486:
8480:
8474:
8444:(1): 24–36.
8441:
8437:
8431:
8390:
8386:
8380:
8360:
8350:
8325:
8321:
8311:
8268:
8264:
8254:
8209:
8205:
8191:
8158:
8154:
8144:
8111:
8107:
8101:
8097:
8089:
8062:
8056:
8050:
8042:
8023:
8017:
8008:
7980:
7974:
7964:
7960:
7949:the original
7912:
7908:
7895:
7868:
7862:
7852:
7825:
7821:
7808:
7775:
7769:
7723:
7719:
7709:
7672:
7668:
7658:
7626:(1): 73–86.
7623:
7619:
7609:
7566:
7562:
7552:
7527:
7523:
7517:
7474:
7470:
7460:
7425:
7421:
7411:
7376:
7372:
7362:
7325:
7321:
7311:
7278:
7274:
7268:
7213:
7209:
7199:
7188:the original
7162:(1): 320–7.
7159:
7155:
7142:
7117:
7113:
7107:
7072:
7068:
7058:
7023:
7019:
7009:
6976:
6972:
6966:
6942:
6935:
6911:
6901:
6893:the original
6888:
6879:
6844:
6840:
6830:
6797:
6793:
6787:
6775:. Retrieved
6771:
6766:Woznicki K.
6761:
6749:. Retrieved
6745:
6736:
6703:
6699:
6693:
6682:
6676:
6653:
6647:
6582:
6567:
6547:. New York:
6543:
6536:
6493:
6489:
6445:
6424:. Retrieved
6412:
6400:. Retrieved
6395:
6391:
6379:
6352:
6348:
6338:
6329:
6319:
6290:
6278:
6266:. Retrieved
6259:the original
6254:
6248:
6232:
6187:
6183:
6173:
6146:
6142:
6136:
6106:(1): 31–41.
6103:
6099:
6093:
6060:
6056:
6050:
6025:
6021:
6015:
5982:
5978:
5972:
5942:(9): 701–8.
5939:
5935:
5929:
5917:. Retrieved
5914:ScienceDaily
5913:
5904:
5851:
5847:
5837:
5792:
5788:
5778:
5755:The Sparrows
5754:
5712:
5706:
5702:
5696:
5679:
5673:
5667:
5655:. Retrieved
5648:the original
5630:(1): 28–36.
5627:
5621:
5612:
5568:
5564:
5530:
5526:
5513:
5494:
5490:
5480:
5448:(1): 214–9.
5445:
5441:
5419:
5394:
5388:
5349:
5343:
5299:
5293:
5241:
5237:
5231:
5212:
5208:
5198:
5165:
5159:
5153:
5128:
5122:
5066:
5062:
5052:
5041:the original
5023:(2): 261–9.
5020:
5016:
5003:
4970:
4966:
4960:
4948:
4931:10261/360371
4905:
4899:
4893:
4874:
4868:
4858:
4823:
4819:
4759:
4755:
4745:
4710:
4706:
4696:
4659:
4655:
4597:
4593:
4563:
4559:
4553:
4528:
4522:
4518:
4512:
4482:(6): 133–6.
4479:
4475:
4469:
4424:
4420:
4410:
4398:. Retrieved
4391:the original
4370:
4364:
4355:
4347:
4322:
4316:
4310:
4277:
4273:
4267:
4248:
4242:
4207:
4203:
4193:
4184:
4180:
4170:
4145:
4141:
4097:
4093:
4087:
4081:(MS thesis).
4074:
4067:
4030:
4026:
4016:
3981:
3977:
3967:
3934:
3930:
3924:
3889:
3885:
3875:
3840:
3836:
3826:
3819:
3814:
3771:
3767:
3725:
3721:
3711:
3676:
3672:
3650:
3646:
3640:
3607:
3603:
3597:
3580:
3576:
3570:
3561:
3557:
3551:
3518:
3514:
3508:
3489:
3485:
3475:
3463:. Retrieved
3459:
3450:
3417:
3413:
3400:
3357:
3353:
3343:
3310:
3306:
3300:
3279:
3272:
3237:
3233:
3223:
3215:the original
3208:
3199:
3150:
3146:
3140:
3120:
3113:
3093:
3086:
3061:
3057:
3047:
3015:(3): 330–3.
3012:
3008:
2998:
2986:. Retrieved
2971:
2964:
2937:
2933:
2927:
2894:
2890:
2884:
2875:
2865:
2832:
2826:
2813:
2770:
2766:
2756:
2721:
2717:
2707:
2664:
2660:
2646:
2611:
2607:
2597:
2580:
2574:
2570:
2564:
2552:. Retrieved
2542:
2497:
2493:
2468:. Retrieved
2461:the original
2422:
2418:
2402:
2390:
2363:
2359:
2349:
2337:. Retrieved
2333:the original
2328:
2319:
2292:
2288:
2278:
2258:
2252:
2188:
2184:
2169:
2154:
2135:
2130:C. maculatus
2128:
2126:
2111:
2096:
2054:
2052:
2045:
2039:
2037:
2029:Rhizocephala
2021:
2014:
1998:M. nigricans
1997:
1991:
1989:
1984:Geoff Parker
1956:
1936:
1927:
1918:
1914:vertex cover
1899:
1892:
1880:Homo sapiens
1879:
1865:
1848:
1822:and B and T
1820:granulocytes
1813:
1746:
1739:
1731:
1709:The average
1708:
1702:Homo sapiens
1700:
1698:
1685:
1676:
1675:
1602:
1589:
1561:
1543:
1532:
1529:
1526:
1522:
1521:
1505:
1502:
1499:Ceratopsians
1498:
1497:
1486:
1482:
1481:
1472:crocodilians
1465:
1461:
1460:
1455:Camarasaurus
1453:
1449:
1445:
1435:
1429:
1427:
1423:
1422:
1398:
1382:
1374:
1373:(subspecies
1366:
1363:Cape sparrow
1354:
1353:- (one) and
1350:
1346:
1341:
1325:
1321:
1316:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1280:
1276:hummingbirds
1268:
1260:The extinct
1231:
1181:
1179:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1152:
1147:
1112:
1106:
1085:
1083:
1072:
1068:
1056:
1045:
1043:
1039:
1027:
1021:
1015:
1011:
997:
980:
974:
958:
935:
925:
919:
917:
908:
905:Copris ochus
904:
898:
896:
889:
883:
876:
870:
868:
857:
854:
846:
802:
795:
793:
788:
777:flower stalk
770:
768:
752:
750:
742:
740:
722:
716:
694:
675:
663:
656:
645:
633:
628:
624:
600:Lepidopteran
593:
570:
558:
550:
495:monomorphism
494:
475:reproduction
465:of the same
458:
457:
269:spermatozoon
163:Y chromosome
158:X chromosome
99:Virilization
94:Feminization
83:
58:
32:
12413:Determinism
12325:Coevolution
12269:Primatology
12107:Gender role
12012:Orientation
11892:Screen time
11749:Affectional
11731:Development
11410:Mate choice
11337:By-products
11305:Adaptations
11268:Cognitivism
11155:Systematics
11026:Mutationism
10844:Catagenesis
10772:Snake venom
10705:Eusociality
10683:in primates
10673:Cooperation
10601:In animals
10421:butterflies
10394:Cephalopods
10384:Brachiopods
10316:Development
10290:Mate choice
10043:Convergence
10026:Coevolution
9984:Abiogenesis
9873:Dyspareunia
9868:Dysorgasmia
9814:Development
8869:10261/44557
8854:(1): 1–18.
8815:(1): 9–19.
8713:Ridley 2004
8701:Ridley 2004
8677:Ridley 2004
7477:(1): 4295.
7322:BMC Biology
7114:NeuroReport
6549:Arbor House
6330:LiveScience
6164:11336/29893
3465:15 November
3313:(1): 9–19.
2571:Parus major
2554:22 November
2397:, p. 8
2165:mate choice
2079:Mate choice
1895:gray matter
1868:human brain
1836:Ethologists
1824:lymphocytes
1757:lung volume
1658:Male pelvis
1483:Ornithopoda
1446:Apatosaurus
1431:Apatosaurus
1061:. In fish,
995:wolf spider
828:embryo sacs
808:sporophytes
713:pollination
705:pollinators
615:ultraviolet
604:carotenoids
537:is present.
415:Gonochorism
202:Mating type
28:Gonochorism
12572:Categories
12360:Population
12355:Lamarckism
12201:behavioral
12179:Behavioral
12127:Narcissism
12072:Aggression
11862:Hypophobia
11852:Depression
11739:Attachment
11721:Universals
11685:Psychology
11663:Biological
11651:Musicology
11641:Aesthetics
11540:Basophobia
11347:Exaptation
11325:Reciprocal
11016:Lamarckism
10994:Philosophy
10917:David Hume
10879:Peripatric
10874:Parapatric
10859:Ecological
10839:Anagenesis
10834:Allopatric
10826:Speciation
10790:Gradualism
10715:Metabolism
10575:chromosome
10565:Eukaryotes
10343:Modularity
10260:Population
10186:Population
10147:Speciation
10125:Panspermia
10078:Extinction
10073:Exaptation
10048:Divergence
10021:Cladistics
10009:Reciprocal
9989:Adaptation
9893:Vaginismus
9863:Anorgasmia
9717:Adrenarche
9712:Spermarche
9692:Gonadarche
9290:Copulation
9011:Biological
8951:Audio help
8942:2019-08-30
7223:1501.00727
7156:NeuroImage
6299:. p.
5657:2 February
4187:: 163–181.
3653:: 721–725.
3486:Apidologie
3414:Apidologie
2988:3 November
2339:3 November
2244:References
2092:trilobites
2073:See also:
2017:anglerfish
1980:blue whale
1943:stem cells
1842:advantage.
1832:infectious
1828:antibodies
1773:hemoglobin
1489:hadrosaurs
1450:Diplodocus
1437:Diplodocus
1173:P. bibroni
1127:amphibians
859:Osmia rufa
736:euglossine
641:aposematic
611:zeaxanthin
330:Copulation
12598:Asymmetry
12205:cognitive
12197:Affective
12082:Cognition
12036:Sexuality
12022:Pair bond
11782:Education
11439:Cognition
11357:Inclusive
11297:processes
11285:Criticism
11150:Protocell
11001:Darwinism
10889:Sympatric
10638:processes
10526:Tetrapods
10475:Kangaroos
10401:Dinosaurs
10338:Inversion
10307:Variation
10228:Gene flow
10221:Inclusive
10031:Mutualism
9976:Evolution
9819:Lactation
9809:Thelarche
9786:Andrology
9733:Menopause
9630:Pregnancy
9620:Fertility
9575:Erection
9531:Germ cell
9504:Oogenesis
9492:spermatid
9454:Ovulation
9345:Mechanics
9322:Sexuality
9217:Oogenesis
9192:Sex organ
9182:Germ cell
9170:Anisogamy
8781:Evolution
8758:Evolution
8625:237242736
8285:0003-0147
8183:1631-0683
8136:129620469
6637:ignored (
6627:cite book
6149:: 19–31.
6077:0008-4301
6007:208557639
5999:0305-1838
5878:1932-6203
5811:1932-6203
5246:CiteSeerX
4987:0071-3260
4850:205783815
4072:Smith T.
4033:: e5751.
3806:221736269
3776:CiteSeerX
3750:1432-0762
3632:0394-9370
3434:0044-8435
2942:CiteSeerX
2653:Wilkie SE
2435:CiteSeerX
2118:Anisogamy
2114:anisogamy
2097:In 1871,
2063:Evolution
2033:Sacculina
1903:(See the
1853:is being
1840:selective
1805:microglia
1789:platelets
1781:vitamin K
1761:body mass
1727:endurance
1595:pinnipeds
1585:proboscis
1571:Pinnipeds
1468:theropods
1462:Theropoda
1359:colour".
1337:kangaroos
1220:mute swan
1008:Araneidae
1004:fecundity
724:Catasetum
718:Catasetum
692:species.
596:blue tits
568:species.
479:dioecious
380:Mechanics
356:Sexuality
257:Oogenesis
237:Germ cell
225:Anisogamy
12474:Memetics
12234:Ethology
12192:genetics
12027:Physical
11992:Jealousy
11947:Activity
11753:maternal
11709:Religion
11697:Morality
11675:Language
11556:taxonomy
11369:Mismatch
11315:Cheating
11310:Altruism
11178:Category
11053:Vitalism
11048:Theistic
11041:Spandrel
10725:Morality
10720:Monogamy
10595:plastids
10560:Flagella
10516:Reptiles
10497:sea cows
10480:primates
10389:Molluscs
10367:Bacteria
10255:Mutation
10188:genetics
10164:Taxonomy
10110:Mismatch
10090:Homology
10004:Cheating
9999:Altruism
9756:Vivipary
9726: /
9707:Menarche
9702:Pubarche
9584:Clitoral
9536:gonocyte
9509:oogonium
9439:Menarche
9377:Category
9355:Activity
9251:Internal
9246:External
9135:Intersex
8953: ·
8878:85330510
8837:17439073
8829:17206580
8779:(2004).
8777:Ridley M
8617:34413504
8570:25003332
8519:84275261
8466:20097207
8423:29879237
8342:38306281
8303:30125231
8246:22869736
8051:Dicranum
7937:12879056
7844:19197511
7752:19190082
7701:21852955
7650:17420291
7593:23903733
7509:31541153
7452:30288910
7403:25014762
7379:: 4438.
7354:28173793
7328:(1): 7.
7295:28447246
7260:26132764
7210:PLOS ONE
7176:15734366
7134:12488829
7099:18440950
7050:10234034
7001:35293796
6993:12794739
6871:22238103
6822:19323646
6814:16425037
6687:: 50–58.
6619:28060318
6579:(1981).
6573:Gersh ES
6528:85527866
6520:30918396
6402:21 April
6240:(2007).
6224:12886010
6128:25307359
6085:91796880
5956:15322528
5919:12 March
5896:25901727
5848:PLOS ONE
5829:25951329
5789:PLOS ONE
5752:(1988).
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