625:, was used to study Caracol, a Mayan city in Belize, dated to 550-900 AD. Archaeologists Arlen and Diane Chase, from the University of Central Florida, worked for 25 years in the dense tropical rainforest, managing to map 23 km (8.9 sq mi) of settlement. At the end of the dry season of 2009, they embarked on four continuous days of LIDAR flying, followed by three weeks of analysis by remote sensing experts. This allowed them to surpass the results of the prior 25 years, revealing over 177 km (68 sq mi) of city—a far larger area than expected. Furthermore, the landscape was modelled in 3D, leading to the discovery of possible new sites such as "ruins, agricultural terraces and stone causeways" (to be investigated further for a greater understanding). We can thus see the impressive effect aerial methods can have on streamlining archaeological survey, and pushing the limits of what is possible.
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636:, Syria provides an example of how different types of satellite imagery can be used in combination. The site is based in an area notorious for its difficulties surrounding archaeological survey, as the diversity of terrain makes the detection of archaeological sites difficult. As a result, Homs is a perfect candidate for aerial reconnaissance. Modern agriculture often obscures remains through practices such as deep ploughing (which removes many levees and low-lying sites from the archaeological record). Furthermore, vegetation of different types/densities frequently disguises sites, impeding site visibility.
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Brophy and Cowley argue that "recording techniques in anyone country or region are bound up in archaeological tradition that are heavily influenced by social and political contexts." Thus, aerial photography is recognised as a key part of archaeological survey in
Britain, partly because it has strong
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Digital data, for example, ALS, can be used effectively in "heavily automated workflows" (a process that uses rule-based logic to launch tasks that run without human intervention), e.g. a six-year project using supervised automated classification to survey 35,000 km (14,000 sq mi) of
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The advantages of gaining a good aerial view of the ground have been long appreciated by archaeologists: a high viewpoint permits a better appreciation of fine details and their relationships within the wider site context. Early investigators attempted to gain bird's eye views of sites using hot air
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series (satellite observations) are often used in aerial archaeology. Renfrew and Bahn describes the techniques used as scanners that "record the intensity of reflected light and the infrared radiation from the earth surface and convert these electronically into photographic images." LANDSAT images
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Vertical images are taken with no deviation from a perpendicular angle (the image looks straight down). These make up the majority of images in the vast public (and private) image catalogues used by archaeologists. Vertical images record entire landscapes and are often used for site discovery, as
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Despite aerial photography seeming methodologically objective and empirical, there is possible subjectivity that merits consideration, e.g. bias when interpreting images, and errors such as conflating interpretation with description. In 'From the Air: Understanding Aerial
Archaeology', Brophy and
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imagery to observe "long-term human and environmental interactions" and, more broadly, to assess the landscape, over an area of 630 quare kilometres that had no prior database of remains or aerial photography. Through fieldwork, the different applications and abilities of these satellite imagery
670:
Through interpretation archaeological sites were identified as tells with low-relief soil markings, "with remains ranging from small walls less than 1 m wide to large multi period settlements." The projects as a whole demonstrated how valuable aerial archaeology is to archaeological survey,
527:) involves radar images that are processed to create high-resolution data. This technique stands out, as weather conditions and nightfall do not affect its results. Renfrew and Bahn describe it as a "rapid non-destructive alternative to surface survey that does not involve the collection of
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Stereoscopic pairs are overlapping images used to examine features in 3D which can add accuracy to interpretations (eliminating effects of dusk or marks). The AARG recognise the ability to see in stereo as an 'essential qualification' for professional photo interpreters.
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Large sites could, for the first time, be viewed accurately, in their entirety, within their landscape context. This aided the production of drawn plans and inspired archaeologists to look beyond the discrete monument and to appreciate a site's role within its setting.
52:, and landscapes. It enables exploration and examination of context and large land areas, on a scale unparalleled by other archaeological methods. The AARG (Aerial Archaeology Research Group) boasts that "more archaeological features have been found worldwide through
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balloons, scaffolds or cameras attached to kites. Given the military importance placed on aerial photography during the First and Second World Wars, archaeologists were able to use the technique more effectively to discover and record archaeological sites.
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These are often taken intentionally to observe something of potential archaeological significance. The day and time of year are essential for the most revealing images. Furthermore, features must be recognised before being photographed.
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CORONA imagery successfully detected single-period sites, which could not be detected by IKONOS. Furthermore, CORONA imagery assisted in exposing ancient field systems, and crop marks within fields, revealing early watercourses.
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The LANDSAT imagery fell short when used for site detection and mapping, due to its lower resolution compared to
Quickbird and IKONOS, but was most successful at characterising the environment and visualising rates of change.
269:: buried ditches will hold more water and buried walls will hold less water than undisturbed ground, which causes crops to grow taller or shorter, and therefore define buried features, e.g. as tonal or colour differences.
374:) and survey by taking "scores of pictures that produce an overlapping set, recording a site, feature or excavation from all angles." These are then used alongside structures from motion software (SFM) to create
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Geometric or perspective distortions in the resulting images are often rectified using computer programmes. Additionally, these images can be geo-referenced by computer programmes. Images can be layered a GIS
81:, mapping individual sites, and monitoring sites. Aerial images form the foundation of archaeological landscape mapping and the ability to study large areas is often the only possible using aerial resources.
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Low-level, near infrared kite aerial photo of the site of
Ogilface Castle, West Lothian. This image shows features not visible to the naked eye, including tyre tracks on this short, grazed grass.
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For data analysis, aerial images must be analysed and interpreted using specialised skill-sets. This includes an understanding of formation processes as well as contemporary history and
110:, subjective decisions include deciding where and when to fly, what targets to examine, what to photograph and how to photograph it, what to catalogue, and how to interpret the data.
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satellite photographs have been used extensively for base maps and provisional interpretation. In contrast to other imagery, CORONA uses two images of the same feature to create a
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A key concept behind interpretation in aerial archaeology is that formation processes affect site features differently after abandonment. For a site to be detected by a
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by aircraft or satellite (not necessarily for archaeological reasons). Each year a small number of aerial images are taken by archaeologists during prospective surveys.
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Aerial archaeological survey combines data collection and data analysis. The umbrella term "aerial images'" includes traditional aerial photographs, satellite images,
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is the study of archaeological remains by examining them from a higher altitude. In present day, this is usually achieved by satellite images or through the use of
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Water pooling: differences in levels and buried features will also affect the way surface water behaves across a site, producing striking effects after heavy rain.
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from an aircraft. Richard Adams used SLAR to identify a matrix of possible Mayan water irrigation systems underneath the dense rainforest from a NASA aircraft.
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Cowley argue that "the individual plays a major role in creating the archaeological record" in aerial archaeology, more than in other fields. For example, in
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Furthermore, large areas can be surveyed using overlapping images which can be translated into an accurate base map of all visible archaeological evidence.
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Through the aid of vast data banks of satellite and other aerial imagery, archaeologists have access to resources that allow them to carry out these tasks.
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Due to the high-resolution nature of many of these aerial image types, the precise location of sites and excavation trenches can be planned and mapped.
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Effects of sub-soil features on the growth of crops. This allows for diagnosis of sub-soil features by visual inspection of crops using aerial images. (
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Kite aerial thermogram revealing features on/under a grassed playing field. Thermal inertia and differential transpiration/evaporation are involved. (
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Mapping from aerial images involves the interpretation of features. This can be done from any type of image, often from different images combined.
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Aerial archaeology is used for a wide range of archaeological purposes including the discovery of new sites, site recording, determining where to
430:. This allows archaeologists to penetrate dense foliage, such as tree canopies, that could not easily be surveyed at such a large scale on land.
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A vast bank of aerial images exists, with parts freely available online or at specialist libraries. These are often vertical images taken for
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method, one would expect alterations to the soil or subsoil e.g. ditches, pits, banks, mounds, walls etc. which often are visible in relief.
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Frost marks: frost can also appear in winter on ploughed fields where water has naturally accumulated along the lines of buried features.
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pulses that are beamed to the ground, from an aeroplane, and bounce back recording the landscape features. This is used to document
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Tiny differences in ground conditions caused by buried features can be emphasised by a number of factors and viewed from the air:
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In places yet to be documented (or where maps are considered confidential), satellite imagery is vital to providing base maps for
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Renfrew, C. and Bahn, P. (2016). Archaeology: Theories, Methods and
Practice. High Holborn, London: Thames & Hudson Ltd. p.90
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For a three-dimensional effect, an overlapping pair of vertical photographs, taken from slightly offset positions, can be viewed
176:
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In this instance, visual detection and interpretation of satellite imagery proved more useful than processing LANDSAT imagery.
278:: slight differences in soil colour between natural deposits and archaeological ones can also often show in ploughed fields as.
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have helped in identifying large-scale features, such as an ancient riverbed running from the Saudi
Arabian desert to Kuwait.
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Diagram showing shadows and highlights from the sun, as would be seen from above, falling on a mild bank and a steep bank. (
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techniques were revealed, highlighting the importance of using multiple methods of archaeological investigation together.
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475:. This includes a range of different satellite and aerial images, such as the NASA LANDSAT series, IKONOS, QuickBird,
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459:. These images can be used similarly to aerial photographs, with high resolutions of 1m and 60 cm respectively.
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Oblique images are taken at an angle, allowing sunlight to highlight physical features on the ground through shadow.
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1285:, remote-control powered parachutes, balloons, and model airplanes and helicopters. *** Off-line April 20, 2010 ***
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Aerial archaeology involves interpretation and image analysis of photographic (and other kinds of images), in
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data (which captures image data within specific wavelength ranges across the electromagnetic spectrum) and
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Interpreting
Archaeological Topography : Lasers, 3d Data, Observation, Visualisation and Applications
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Interpreting
Archaeological Topography : Lasers, 3d Data, Observation, Visualisation and Applications
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Certain archaeological features are more visible from the air than on the ground due to their nature.
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263:: slight differences in ground levels will cast shadows when the sun is low and are best from above.
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well as landscape survey, placing sites in their wider context, and mapping larger areas.
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511:(sideways looking airborne radar) is a remote sensing technique that records pulses of
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Aerial archaeology is a well-established discipline dates back to over 80 years ago .
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1281:. AerialArchaeology.com focuses heavily on near-earth imaging technologies such as
98:. Often aerial archaeology will be carried out using computer programmes (such as
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A useful way to access many of the satellite images (mentioned above) is through
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view, which can allow for more accurate examination and interpretation in 3D.
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Aerial photographs can be categorised by oblique images and vertical images.
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Baden-Wurttemberg in
Germany, identified as many as 600,000 possible sites.
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418:(light detection and ranging) aka ALS (airborne laser scanning) uses
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especially across terrains where other techniques are not possible.
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Archaeological
Reports Ghent University 4. Ghent: Academia Press.
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Aerial Photography and Archaeology 2003. A Century of Information.
586:) or graphics software through which interpretations can be made.
136:, showing the archaeological traces of a neolithic and later, the
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933:. Stroud, Gloucestershire: Tempus publishing limited. p. 14.
531:." It can be faster and less time-consuming than surface survey.
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Advanced spaceborne thermal emission and reflection radiometer (
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Aerial and Remote Sensing Archaeology Link and Reference Site
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Flights into Yesterday : the story of aerial archaeology
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Flights into Yesterday : the story of aerial archaeology
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415:
833:. High Holborn, London: Thames & Hudson Ltd. p. 84.
804:. High Holborn, London: Thames & Hudson Ltd. p. 81.
750:. High Holborn, London: Thames & Hudson Ltd. p. 80.
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961:. Stroud, Gloucestershire: Tempus publishing limited. p.13
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Digital elevation model showing intricacies of topography.
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Other methods of photographic aerial archaeology include:
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data (similar to multi-spectral data, but more detailed).
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Satellites whose images are publicly available, include
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1134:. Stroud, Gloucestershire: Tempus publishing limited.
1103:. High Holborn, London: Thames & Hudson Ltd. p.89
1090:. High Holborn, London: Thames & Hudson Ltd. p.92
1017:. High Holborn, London: Thames & Hudson Ltd. p.85
919:. Stroud, Gloucestershire: Tempus publishing limited.
1462:
Conservation and restoration of archaeological sites
543:) used to create maps of "land surface temperature,
463:offers worldwide cover, at the cost of resolution.
1922:
874:. High Holborn, London: Thames & Hudson Ltd.
1216:. High Holborn, London: Thames & Hudson Ltd
1139:From the air: understanding aerial archaeology
1132:From the air: Understanding aerial archaeology
959:From the air: Understanding aerial archaeology
931:From the air: Understanding aerial archaeology
917:From the air: Understanding aerial archaeology
426:, creating visualisations of the data such as
242:Identifying archaeological features from above
1324:
1116:Bourgeois, J. and Meganck, M. (eds.) (2005).
569:
499:Non-visible wavelengths (airborne/spaceborne)
1269:Emporia State University: Aerial Archaeology
943:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
843:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
814:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
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1242:Air photo interpretation for archaeologists
1214:Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice
1101:Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice
1088:Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice
1015:Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice
872:Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice
831:Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice
802:Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice
748:Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice
551:." It is attached to the side of satellite
1331:
1317:
411:. LIDAR technology used to map topography.
1244:, London: The History Press. (2nd edn.).
1137:Brophy, K. and Cowley, D. (eds.) (2005).
1191:Satellite remote sensing for archaeology
1052:Satellite Remote Sensing for Archaeology
639:The Homs projects combined the usage of
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168:Pioneers of aerial archaeology include:
165:. However, this is not true everywhere.
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117:Aerial archaeological photograph of the
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1294:Kite Aerial Photographers - Archaeology
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1923:
1254:"Introduction to Aerial Archaeology".
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590:, 3D models and more, can be created.
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1304:Aerial Archaeology in Northern France
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723:"Introduction to Aerial Archaeology"
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394:Visible wavelength satellite imagery
387:https://www.facebook.com/KARSensing/
161:local roots, especially through the
56:than by any other means of survey".
407:Lynchet system near Bishopstone in
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1233:Suguayani. "Multispectral image".
1130:Brophy, K. and Cowley, D. (2005).
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957:Brophy, K. and Cowley, D. (2005).
929:Brophy, K. and Cowley, D. (2005).
915:Brophy, K. and Cowley, D. (2005).
345:
14:
1952:
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1256:Aerial Archaeology Research Group
1212:Renfrew, C. and Bahn, P. (2016).
1174:Opitz, S. and Cowley, D. (2012).
1099:Renfrew, C. and Bahn, P. (2016).
1086:Renfrew, C. and Bahn, P. (2016).
1013:Renfrew, C. and Bahn, P. (2016).
877:
870:Renfrew, C. and Bahn, P. (2016).
851:
829:Renfrew, C. and Bahn, P. (2016).
746:Renfrew, C. and Bahn, P. (2016).
727:Aerial Archaeology Research Group
708:
621:Aerial archaeology, specifically
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800:Renfrew, C. and Bahn, P (2016).
584:Geographical Information Systems
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1221:Air photography and archaeology
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1931:Archaeological sub-disciplines
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1141:. London: The History Press.
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100:Geographic Information System
1477:electrical resistance survey
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681:Archaeological field survey
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1957:
1366:Johann Joachim Winckelmann
570:Interpretation and Mapping
555:and can be used to create
317:Diagram prepared by author
289:Diagram prepared by author
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1447:Philosophy of archaeology
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1049:Parcak, Sarah H. (2009).
557:digital elevation models.
513:electromagnetic radiation
482:
102:) aiding interpretation.
1223:. Univ of Pennsylvania.
534:
525:synthetic aperture radar
428:digital elevation models
398:
361:
18:Not to be confused with
1283:kite aerial photography
1258:. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
1240:Wilson, D. R . (2000).
1237:. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
503:
46:archaeological features
1936:Methods in archaeology
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1457:Archaeological ethics
1452:Archaeological diving
1442:Archaeological theory
1219:Riley, D. N. (1987).
891:Cowley, Dave (2012).
777:"Multispectral image"
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132:Aerial photograph of
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1396:Augustus Pitt Rivers
1391:William Henry Holmes
1356:Archaeological sites
447:IKONOS and QuickBird
227:Dache McClain Reeves
108:aviation archaeology
20:Aviation archaeology
1386:John Lloyd Stephens
1376:Heinrich Schliemann
1189:Parcak, S. (2009).
1178:. Oxbow Books Ltd.
974:Deuel, Leo (1973).
897:. Oxbow Books Ltd.
617:Caracol, Mayan City
434:NASA LANDSAT series
1941:Aerial photography
1910:History portal
1472:geophysical survey
1299:Sir Henry Wellcome
1279:Aerial Archaeology
1151:Deuel, L. (1973).
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140:city of Novioregum
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1818:Pseudoarchaeology
1435:Method and theory
1199:978-0-415-44878-9
1155:. Penguin Books.
1062:978-0-415-44878-9
980:. Penguin Books.
200:O. G. S. Crawford
182:Antoine Poidebard
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1426:George Bass
1340:Archaeology
775:Suguayani.
629:Homs, Syria
588:Orthophotos
545:reflectance
191:Lionel Rees
138:Gallo-Roman
1925:Categories
1851:by country
1783:Industrial
1778:Indigenous
1727:Underwater
1673:Calceology
1595:Australian
1573:Geographic
1559:Historical
1494:Excavation
1207:1291927464
1071:1291927464
786:2022-05-13
732:2022-05-13
702:References
424:topography
276:Soil marks
145:Background
89:excavation
1788:Landscape
1661:Osteology
1544:Classical
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1169:963497702
996:963497702
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810:cite book
756:cite book
653:Quickbird
549:elevation
529:artefacts
457:QuickBird
438:The NASA
409:Wiltshire
376:3D models
267:Cropmarks
1898:Category
1880:Journals
1798:Mortuary
1793:Maritime
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1763:Feminist
1758:Conflict
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1600:Oceanian
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1416:Max Uhle
686:Cropmark
675:See also
307:, France
303:site at
79:excavate
1858:Periods
1693:Virtual
1678:Digital
1580:African
1482:Sondage
1348:History
645:LANDSAT
440:LANDSAT
237:Methods
229:in the
211:in the
204:England
36:Details
1847:Sites
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1636:Aerial
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1467:Survey
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483:CORONA
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453:IKONOS
368:drones
305:Grézac
195:Jordan
134:Barzan
30:drones
1841:Lists
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1803:Music
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623:LIDAR
553:Terra
541:ASTER
535:ASTER
523:SAR (
416:LIDAR
399:LIDAR
362:Other
222:Italy
213:Sudan
186:Syria
50:sites
1808:Nazi
1246:ISBN
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634:Homs
509:SLAR
504:SLAR
455:and
123:Peru
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220:in
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