Cultural anthropology

3301:", a movement that argued kinship studies could not examine the gender relations of developing countries in isolation and must pay respect to racial and economic nuance as well. This critique became relevant, for instance, in the anthropological study of Jamaica: race and class were seen as the primary obstacles to Jamaican liberation from economic imperialism, and gender as an identity was largely ignored. Third World feminism aimed to combat this in the early twenty-first century by promoting these categories as coexisting factors. In Jamaica, marriage as an institution is often substituted for a series of partners, as poor women cannot rely on regular financial contributions in a climate of economic instability. In addition, there is a common practice of Jamaican women artificially lightening their skin tones in order to secure economic survival. These anthropological findings, according to Third World feminism, cannot see gender, racial, or class differences as separate entities, and instead must acknowledge that they interact together to produce unique individual experiences. 3322:

biological and genetic relatedness, as gestational surrogates can provide a biological environment for the embryo while the genetic ties remain with a third party. If genetic, surrogate, and adoptive maternities are involved, anthropologists have acknowledged that there can be the possibility for three "biological" mothers to a single child. With ARTs, there are also anthropological questions concerning the intersections between wealth and fertility: ARTs are generally only available to those in the highest income bracket, meaning the infertile poor are inherently devalued in the system. There have also been issues of reproductive tourism and bodily commodification, as individuals seek economic security through hormonal stimulation and egg harvesting, which are potentially harmful procedures. With IVF, specifically, there have been many questions of embryotic value and the status of life, particularly as it relates to the manufacturing of stem cells, testing, and research.

3293:, and others. Instead of relying on narrow ideas of Western normalcy, kinship studies increasingly catered to "more ethnographic voices, human agency, intersecting power structures, and historical context". The study of kinship evolved to accommodate for the fact that it cannot be separated from its institutional roots and must pay respect to the society in which it lives, including that society's contradictions, hierarchies, and individual experiences of those within it. This shift was progressed further by the emergence of second-wave feminism in the early 1970s, which introduced ideas of marital oppression, sexual autonomy, and domestic subordination. Other themes that emerged during this time included the frequent comparisons between Eastern and Western kinship systems and the increasing amount of attention paid to anthropologists' own societies, a swift turn from the focus that had traditionally been paid to largely "foreign", non-Western communities. 1928:

methods. In some cases, ethnographers also turn to structured observation, in which an anthropologist's observations are directed by a specific set of questions they are trying to answer. In the case of structured observation, an observer might be required to record the order of a series of events, or describe a certain part of the surrounding environment. While the anthropologist still makes an effort to become integrated into the group they are studying, and still participates in the events as they observe, structured observation is more directed and specific than participant observation in general. This helps to standardize the method of study when ethnographic data is being compared across several groups or is needed to fulfill a specific purpose, such as research for a governmental policy decision.

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anthropologist to spend time researching background information on their topic. It can also be helpful to know what previous research has been conducted in one's chosen location or on similar topics, and if the participant observation takes place in a location where the spoken language is not one the anthropologist is familiar with, they will usually also learn that language. This allows the anthropologist to become better established in the community. The lack of need for a translator makes communication more direct, and allows the anthropologist to give a richer, more contextualized representation of what they witness. In addition, participant observation often requires permits from governments and research institutions in the area of study, and always needs some form of funding.

1904:. Historically, the group of people being studied was a small, non-Western society. However, today it may be a specific corporation, a church group, a sports team, or a small town. There are no restrictions as to what the subject of participant observation can be, as long as the group of people is studied intimately by the observing anthropologist over a long period of time. This allows the anthropologist to develop trusting relationships with the subjects of study and receive an inside perspective on the culture, which helps him or her to give a richer description when writing about the culture later. Observable details (like daily time allotment) and more hidden details (like 1156:. This method advocates living with people of another culture for an extended period of time to learn the local language and be enculturated, at least partially, into that culture. In this context, cultural relativism is of fundamental methodological importance, because it calls attention to the importance of the local context in understanding the meaning of particular human beliefs and activities. Thus, in 1948 Virginia Heyer wrote, "Cultural relativity, to phrase it in starkest abstraction, states the relativity of the part to the whole. The part gains its cultural significance by its place in the whole, and cannot retain its integrity in a different situation." 1932:

write about a culture, because each researcher is influenced by their own perspective. This is considered a problem especially when anthropologists write in the ethnographic present, a present tense which makes a culture seem stuck in time, and ignores the fact that it may have interacted with other cultures or gradually evolved since the anthropologist made observations. To avoid this, past ethnographers have advocated for strict training, or for anthropologists working in teams. However, these approaches have not generally been successful, and modern ethnographers often choose to include their personal experiences and possible biases in their writing instead.

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institutions, on the other hand, are constructs that regulate individuals' day-to-day lives, such as kinship, religion, and economics. Anthropology of institutions may analyze labor unions, businesses ranging from small enterprises to corporations, government, medical organizations, education, prisons, and financial institutions. Nongovernmental organizations have garnered particular interest in the field of institutional anthropology because they are capable of fulfilling roles previously ignored by governments, or previously realized by families or local groups, in an attempt to mitigate social problems.

1673:. Geertz applied his method in a number of areas, creating programs of study that were very productive. His analysis of "religion as a cultural system" was particularly influential outside of anthropology. David Schnieder's cultural analysis of American kinship has proven equally influential. Schneider demonstrated that the American folk-cultural emphasis on "blood connections" had an undue influence on anthropological kinship theories, and that kinship is not a biological characteristic, but a cultural relationship established on very different terms in different societies. 1669:". The cultural symbols of rituals, political and economic action, and of kinship, are "read" by the anthropologist as if they are a document in a foreign language. The interpretation of those symbols must be re-framed for their anthropological audience, i.e. transformed from the "experience-near" but foreign concepts of the other culture, into the "experience-distant" theoretical concepts of the anthropologist. These interpretations must then be reflected back to its originators, and its adequacy as a translation fine-tuned in a repeated way, a process called the 3372:

workings of an institution, such as the relationships, hierarchies and cultures formed, and the ways that these elements are transmitted and maintained, transformed, or abandoned over time. Additionally, some anthropology of institutions examines the specific design of institutions and their corresponding strength. More specifically, anthropologists may analyze specific events within an institution, perform semiotic investigations, or analyze the mechanisms by which knowledge and culture are organized and dispersed.

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anthropologist must be open to becoming part of the group, and willing to develop meaningful relationships with its members. One way to do this is to find a small area of common experience between an anthropologist and their subjects, and then to expand from this common ground into the larger area of difference. Once a single connection has been established, it becomes easier to integrate into the community, and it is more likely that accurate and complete information is being shared with the anthropologist.

1340: 1027:). Morgan, in particular, acknowledged that certain forms of society and culture could not possibly have arisen before others. For example, industrial farming could not have been invented before simple farming, and metallurgy could not have developed without previous non-smelting processes involving metals (such as simple ground collection or mining). Morgan, like other 19th century social evolutionists, believed there was a more or less orderly progression from the primitive to the civilized. 1148:, argued that one's culture may mediate and thus limit one's perceptions in less obvious ways. This understanding of culture confronts anthropologists with two problems: first, how to escape the unconscious bonds of one's own culture, which inevitably bias our perceptions of and reactions to the world, and second, how to make sense of an unfamiliar culture. The principle of cultural relativism thus forced anthropologists to develop innovative methods and heuristic strategies. 3380:

have much idle time to discuss the details of their everyday endeavors. The ability of individuals to present the workings of an institution in a particular light or frame must additionally be taken into account when using interviews and document analysis to understand an institution, as the involvement of an anthropologist may be met with distrust when information being released to the public is not directly controlled by the institution and could potentially be damaging.

6899: 3272:, it is believed that a child can have partible maternity and partible paternity. In this case, a child would have multiple biological mothers in the case that it is born of one woman and then breastfed by another. A child would have multiple biological fathers in the case that the mother had sex with multiple men, following the commonplace belief in Nuyoo culture that pregnancy must be preceded by sex with multiple men in order have the necessary accumulation of semen. 6863: 6173: 6888: 4908: 6197: 1351: 1320:(1858–1942) established academic anthropology in the United States in opposition to Morgan's evolutionary perspective. His approach was empirical, skeptical of overgeneralizations, and eschewed attempts to establish universal laws. For example, Boas studied immigrant children to demonstrate that biological race was not immutable, and that human conduct and behavior resulted from nurture, rather than nature. 6875: 6185: 874: 1307: 50: 3256:, where one woman is married to one man. Anthropologists also study different marital taboos across cultures, most commonly the incest taboo of marriage within sibling and parent-child relationships. It has been found that all cultures have an incest taboo to some degree, but the taboo shifts between cultures when the marriage extends beyond the nuclear family unit. 3326:

parent experiences "greater levels of scrutiny and routinely seen as the 'other' of the nuclear, patriarchal family". The power dynamics in reproduction, when explored through a comparative analysis of "conventional" and "unconventional" families, have been used to dissect the Western assumptions of child bearing and child rearing in contemporary kinship studies.

3165:, stories or rumours that appear in multiple locations and in multiple time periods, metaphors that appear in multiple ethnographic locations, or the biographies of individual people or groups as they move through space and time. It may also follow conflicts that transcend boundaries. An example of multi-sited ethnography is 1912:) and what actually does happen, or between different aspects of the formal system; in contrast, a one-time survey of people's answers to a set of questions might be quite consistent, but is less likely to show conflicts between different aspects of the social system or between conscious representations and behavior. 1336:

origins in Boasian Anthropology, dividing the discipline in the four crucial and interrelated fields of sociocultural, biological, linguistic, and archaic anthropology (e.g. archaeology). Anthropology in the United States continues to be deeply influenced by the Boasian tradition, especially its emphasis on culture.

3169:' work on the international black market for the trade of human organs. In this research, she follows organs as they are transferred through various legal and illegal networks of capitalism, as well as the rumours and urban legends that circulate in impoverished communities about child kidnapping and organ theft. 1936:

Additionally, anthropologists have struggled with the effect their presence has on a culture. Simply by being present, a researcher causes changes in a culture, and anthropologists continue to question whether or not it is appropriate to influence the cultures they study, or possible to avoid having influence.

3355:, social psychologists Elizabeth Peel and Damien Riggs argue for a move beyond this human-centered framework, opting instead to explore kinship through a "posthumanist" vantage point where anthropologists focus on the intersecting relationships of human animals, non-human animals, technologies and practices. 3122:, but they often argue that one cannot understand these particular ways of life solely from a local perspective; they instead combine a focus on the local with an effort to grasp larger political, economic, and cultural frameworks that impact local lived realities. Notable proponents of this approach include 1962:

ethnography will also include information about physical geography, climate and habitat. It is meant to be a holistic piece of writing about the people in question, and today often includes the longest possible timeline of past events that the ethnographer can obtain through primary and secondary research.

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Common considerations taken by anthropologists in studying institutions include the physical location at which a researcher places themselves, as important interactions often take place in private, and the fact that the members of an institution are often being examined in their workplace and may not

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anthropology is a term applied to ethnographic works that attempt to isolate a particular system of social relations such as those that comprise domestic life, economy, law, politics, or religion, give analytical priority to the organizational bases of social life, and attend to cultural phenomena as

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Modern anthropology emerged in the 19th century alongside developments in the Western world. With these developments came a renewed interest in humankind, such as its origins, unity, and plurality. It is, however, in the 20th century that cultural anthropology shifts to having a more pluralistic view

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pondered ethnographic authority, in particular how and why anthropological knowledge was possible and authoritative. They were reflecting trends in research and discourse initiated by feminists in the academy, although they excused themselves from commenting specifically on those pioneering critics.

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and its processes increasingly brought European thinkers into direct or indirect contact with "primitive others". The first generation of cultural anthropologists were interested in the relative status of various humans, some of whom had modern advanced technologies, while others lacked anything but

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Anthropologists have pointed out that through culture, people can adapt to their environment in non-genetic ways, so people living in different environments will often have different cultures. Much of anthropological theory has originated in an appreciation of and interest in the tension between the

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The types and methods of scholarship performed in the anthropology of institutions can take a number of forms. Institutional anthropologists may study the relationship between organizations or between an organization and other parts of society. Institutional anthropology may also focus on the inner

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Current issues in kinship studies, such as adoption, have revealed and challenged the Western cultural disposition towards the genetic, "blood" tie. Western biases against single parent homes have also been explored through similar anthropological research, uncovering that a household with a single

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There are similar foundational differences where the act of procreation is concerned. Although anthropologists have found that biology is acknowledged in every cultural relationship to procreation, there are differences in the ways in which cultures assess the constructs of parenthood. For example,

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Kinship is the bedrock of all human societies that we know. All humans recognize fathers and mothers, sons and daughters, brothers and sisters, uncles and aunts, husbands and wives, grandparents, cousins, and often many more complex types of relationships in the terminologies that they use. That is

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One means by which anthropologists combat ethnocentrism is to engage in the process of cross-cultural comparison. It is important to test so-called "human universals" against the ethnographic record. Monogamy, for example, is frequently touted as a universal human trait, yet comparative study shows

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One common criticism of participant observation is its lack of objectivity. Because each anthropologist has their own background and set of experiences, each individual is likely to interpret the same culture in a different way. Who the ethnographer is has a lot to do with what they will eventually

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In the twenty-first century, Western ideas of kinship have evolved beyond the traditional assumptions of the nuclear family, raising anthropological questions of consanguinity, lineage, and normative marital expectation. The shift can be traced back to the 1960s, with the reassessment of kinship's

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Kinship, as an anthropological field of inquiry, has been heavily criticized across the discipline. One critique is that, as its inception, the framework of kinship studies was far too structured and formulaic, relying on dense language and stringent rules. Another critique, explored at length by

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and Daphna Birenbaum-Carmeli, "ARTs have pluralized notions of relatedness and led to a more dynamic notion of "kinning" namely, kinship as a process, as something under construction, rather than a natural given". With this technology, questions of kinship have emerged over the difference between

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In doing so, he fought discrimination against immigrants, blacks, and indigenous peoples of the Americas. Many American anthropologists adopted his agenda for social reform, and theories of race continue to be popular subjects for anthropologists today. The so-called "Four Field Approach" has its

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Accordingly, most of these anthropologists showed less interest in comparing cultures, generalizing about human nature, or discovering universal laws of cultural development, than in understanding particular cultures in those cultures' own terms. Such ethnographers and their students promoted the

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According to Kay Milton, former director of anthropology research at Queens University Belfast, culture can be general or specific. This means culture can be something applied to all human beings or it can be specific to a certain group of people such as African American culture or Irish American

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In all manifestations of institutional anthropology, participant observation is critical to understanding the intricacies of the way an institution works and the consequences of actions taken by individuals within it. Simultaneously, anthropology of institutions extends beyond examination of the

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Throughout history, kinship studies have primarily focused on the topics of marriage, descent, and procreation. Anthropologists have written extensively on the variations within marriage across cultures and its legitimacy as a human institution. There are stark differences between communities in

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The two types of institutions defined in the field of anthropology are total institutions and social institutions. Total institutions are places that comprehensively coordinate the actions of people within them, and examples of total institutions include prisons, convents, and hospitals. Social

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Also emerging in multi-sited ethnography are greater interdisciplinary approaches to fieldwork, bringing in methods from cultural studies, media studies, science and technology studies, and others. In multi-sited ethnography, research tracks a subject across spatial and temporal boundaries. For

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Ethnography dominates socio-cultural anthropology. Nevertheless, many contemporary socio-cultural anthropologists have rejected earlier models of ethnography as treating local cultures as bounded and isolated. These anthropologists continue to concern themselves with the distinct ways people in

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Participant observation has also raised ethical questions, since an anthropologist is in control of what they report about a culture. In terms of representation, an anthropologist has greater power than their subjects of study, and this has drawn criticism of participant observation in general.

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The majority of participant observation is based on conversation. This can take the form of casual, friendly dialogue, or can also be a series of more structured interviews. A combination of the two is often used, sometimes along with photography, mapping, artifact collection, and various other

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and a cultural informant must go both ways. Just as an ethnographer may be naive or curious about a culture, the members of that culture may be curious about the ethnographer. To establish connections that will eventually lead to a better understanding of the cultural context of a situation, an

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quickly reached a consensus that both processes occur, and that both can plausibly account for cross-cultural similarities. But these ethnographers also pointed out the superficiality of many such similarities. They noted that even traits that spread through diffusion often were given different

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Within anthropology's "two cultures"—the positivist/objectivist style of comparative anthropology versus a reflexive/interpretative anthropology—Mead has been characterized as a "humanist" heir to Franz Boas's historical particularism—hence, associated with the practices of interpretation and

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that "inship has been defined by European social scientists, and European social scientists use their own folk culture as the source of many, if not all of their ways of formulating and understanding the world about them". However, this critique has been challenged by the argument that it is

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A growing trend in anthropological research and analysis is the use of multi-sited ethnography, discussed in George Marcus' article, "Ethnography In/Of the World System: the Emergence of Multi-Sited Ethnography". Looking at culture as embedded in macro-constructions of a global social order,

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Numerous other ethnographic techniques have resulted in ethnographic writing or details being preserved, as cultural anthropologists also curate materials, spend long hours in libraries, churches and schools poring over records, investigate graveyards, and decipher ancient scripts. A typical

964:: "Culture, or civilization, taken in its broad, ethnographic sense, is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society." The term "civilization" later gave way to definitions given by 1701:

as part of the 'post-modern moment' in anthropology: Ethnographies became more interpretative and reflexive, explicitly addressing the author's methodology; cultural, gendered, and racial positioning; and their influence on the ethnographic analysis. This was part of a more general trend of

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The role of anthropology in institutions has expanded significantly since the end of the 20th century. Much of this development can be attributed to the rise in anthropologists working outside of academia and the increasing importance of globalization in both institutions and the field of

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Before participant observation can begin, an anthropologist must choose both a location and a focus of study. This focus may change once the anthropologist is actively observing the chosen group of people, but having an idea of what one wants to study before beginning fieldwork allows an

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and later popularized by his students. Boas first articulated the idea in 1887: "...civilization is not something absolute, but ... is relative, and ... our ideas and conceptions are true only so far as our civilization goes." Although Boas did not coin the term, it became common among

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anthropologists after Boas' death in 1942, to express their synthesis of a number of ideas Boas had developed. Boas believed that the sweep of cultures, to be found in connection with any sub-species, is so vast and pervasive that there cannot be a relationship between culture and

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Kinship studies began to gain mainstream recognition in the late 1990s with the surging popularity of feminist anthropology, particularly with its work related to biological anthropology and the intersectional critique of gender relations. At this time, there was the arrival of

1440:(1946) remain popular with the American public, Mead and Benedict never had the impact on the discipline of anthropology that some expected. Boas had planned for Ruth Benedict to succeed him as chair of Columbia's anthropology department, but she was sidelined in favor of 1891:

Participant observation is one of the principal research methods of cultural anthropology. It relies on the assumption that the best way to understand a group of people is to interact with them closely over a long period of time. The method originated in the

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Believing, with Max Weber, that man is an animal suspended in webs of significance he himself has spun, I take culture to be those webs, and the analysis of it to be therefore not an experimental science in search of law but an interpretive one in search of

3636:"In his earlier work, like many anthropologists of this generation, Levi-Strauss draws attention to the necessary and urgent task of maintaining and extending the empirical foundations of anthropology in the practice of fieldwork.": In Christopher Johnson, 1390:, who each produced richly detailed studies of indigenous North American cultures. They provided a wealth of details used to attack the theory of a single evolutionary process. Kroeber and Sapir's focus on Native American languages helped establish 2077:

of human culture, society, and behavior in the past and present. The name came from the Institute of Human Relations, an interdisciplinary program/building at Yale at the time. The Institute of Human Relations had sponsored HRAF's precursor, the

1409:(1923) marked a turning point in American anthropology. After three decades of amassing material, Boasians felt a growing urge to generalize. This was most obvious in the 'Culture and Personality' studies carried out by younger Boasians such as 4061: 1327:

rather than societies whose evolution could be measured by the extent of "civilization" they had. He believed that each culture has to be studied in its particularity, and argued that cross-cultural generalizations, like those made in the

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20th-century anthropologists largely reject the notion that all human societies must pass through the same stages in the same order, on the grounds that such a notion does not fit the empirical facts. Some 20th-century ethnologists, like

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multi-sited ethnography uses traditional methodology in various locations both spatially and temporally. Through this methodology, greater insight can be gained when examining the impact of world-systems on local and global communities.

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anthropology. Anthropologists can be employed by institutions such as for-profit business, nonprofit organizations, and governments. For instance, cultural anthropologists are commonly employed by the United States federal government.

1035:, have instead argued that such similarities reflected similar adaptations to similar environments. Although 19th-century ethnologists saw "diffusion" and "independent invention" as mutually exclusive and competing theories, most 1151:

Boas and his students realized that if they were to conduct scientific research in other cultures, they would need to employ methods that would help them escape the limits of their own ethnocentrism. One such method is that of

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function both as symbolic systems and as social institutions. Today almost all socio-cultural anthropologists refer to the work of both sets of predecessors and have an equal interest in what people do and in what people say.

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in the United Kingdom. Whereas cultural anthropology focused on symbols and values, social anthropology focused on social groups and institutions. Today socio-cultural anthropologists attend to all these elements.

4666: 3317:(IVF). These advancements have led to new dimensions of anthropological research, as they challenge the Western standard of biogenetically based kinship, relatedness, and parenthood. According to anthropologists 1276:. His comparative analyses of religion, government, material culture, and especially kinship patterns proved to be influential contributions to the field of anthropology. Like other scholars of his day (such as 1128:. Ethnocentrism may take obvious forms, in which one consciously believes that one's people's arts are the most beautiful, values the most virtuous, and beliefs the most truthful. Boas, originally trained in 933:

The rise of cultural anthropology took place within the context of the late 19th century, when questions regarding which cultures were "primitive" and which were "civilized" occupied the mind of not only

3339:. Schneider proposes that kinship is not a field that can be applied cross-culturally, as the theory itself relies on European assumptions of normalcy. He states in the widely circulated 1984 book 4058: 3215:

Kinship refers to the anthropological study of the ways in which humans form and maintain relationships with one another and how those relationships operate within and define social organization.

1954:. An ethnography is a piece of writing about a people, at a particular place and time. Typically, the anthropologist lives among people in another society for a period of time, simultaneously 1908:

behavior) are more easily observed and interpreted over a longer period of time, and researchers can discover discrepancies between what participants say—and often believe—should happen (the

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linguistics, not cultural divergence, that has allowed for a European bias, and that the bias can be lifted by centering the methodology on fundamental human concepts. Polish anthropologist

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Many anthropologists reacted against the renewed emphasis on materialism and scientific modelling derived from Marx by emphasizing the importance of the concept of culture. Authors such as

4372: 4744: 1044:, show how new methods may be applied to the understanding of man living in a global world and how it was caused by the action of extra-European nations, so highlighting the role of 1015:

Other ethnologists argued that different groups had the capability of creating similar beliefs and practices independently. Some of those who advocated "independent invention", like

992:, argued that different groups must have learned from one another somehow, however indirectly; in other words, they argued that cultural traits spread from one place to another, or " 3348:

argues that "mother" and "father" are examples of such fundamental human concepts and can only be Westernized when conflated with English concepts such as "parent" and "sibling".

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to take account of cultural and social factors and employed Marxian analysis into anthropological study. In England, British Social Anthropology's paradigm began to fragment as

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A more recent critique of kinship studies is its solipsistic focus on privileged, Western human relations and its promotion of normative ideals of human exceptionalism. In

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worked mostly with materials collected by others—usually missionaries, traders, explorers, or colonial officials—earning them the moniker of "arm-chair anthropologists".

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culture. Specific cultures are structured systems which means they are organized very specifically and adding or taking away any element from that system may disrupt it.

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developed a more fleshed-out concept of culture as a web of meaning or signification, which proved very popular within and beyond the discipline. Geertz was to state:

3922: 3512: 3188:, a study of the entrepreneurs in a Harlem crack-den. Also growing more popular are ethnographies of professional communities, such as laboratory researchers, 2086:), as part of an effort to develop an integrated science of human behavior and culture. The two eHRAF databases on the Web are expanded and updated annually. 3158:

example, a multi-sited ethnography may follow a "thing", such as a particular commodity, as it is transported through the networks of global capitalism.

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that was popular contemporaneously. Currently anthropologists pay attention to a wide variety of issues pertaining to the contemporary world, including

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Parallel with the rise of cultural anthropology in the United States, social anthropology developed as an academic discipline in Britain and in France.

3620: 1425:, these authors sought to understand the way that individual personalities were shaped by the wider cultural and social forces in which they grew up. 1592:

to examine the relationship between symbolic meaning, sociocultural structure, and individual agency in the processes of historical transformation.

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incorporated Lévi-Strauss's structuralism into their work. Structuralism also influenced a number of developments in the 1960s and 1970s, including

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commonplace involvement of individuals in institutions to discover how and why the organizational principles evolved in the manner that they did.

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local (particular cultures) and the global (a universal human nature, or the web of connections between people in distinct places/circumstances).

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produced a whole generation of anthropologists at the University of Chicago that focused on these themes. Also influential in these issues were

4352: 3500: 4736: 6208: 3659: 1280:), Morgan argued that human societies could be classified into categories of cultural evolution on a scale of progression that ranged from 1056:", the view that one can only understand another person's beliefs and behaviors in the context of the culture in which they live or lived. 4197: 4141:"Balinese Cockfights and the Seduction of Anthropology" in Anthropologies and Histories: essays in culture, history and political economy 1040:

meanings and function from one society to another. Analyses of large human concentrations in big cities, in multidisciplinary studies by

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and in the United States. European "social anthropologists" focused on observed social behaviors and on "social structure", that is, on

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into the spotlight. Gender and sexuality became popular topics, as did the relationship between history and anthropology, influenced by

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this currently is not a history of cultural anthropology, but of specific terms. It also does not explain the outdated terminology used.

3641: 1070:), have argued that apparently similar patterns of development reflect fundamental similarities in the structure of human thought (see 6242: 1078:

to post-industrial service occupations in one generation, were so numerous that 19th-century evolutionism was effectively disproved.

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American "cultural anthropologists" focused on the ways people expressed their view of themselves and their world, especially in

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Anthropology is concerned with the lives of people in different parts of the world, particularly in relation to the discourse of

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the matrix into which human children are born in the great majority of cases, and their first words are often kinship terms.

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affects individual experience or aim to provide a rounded view of the knowledge, customs, and institutions of a people.

1371: 4888: 4123: 3248:, where one man has several marriages to two or more women. The Nyar of India and Nyimba of Tibet and Nepal practice 2097:

Comparison across cultures includes the industrialized (or de-industrialized) West. Cultures in the more traditional

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became an increasingly popular theoretical approach in the discipline. By the 1970s the authors of volumes such as

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Kinship studies have also experienced a rise in the interest of reproductive anthropology with the advancement of

6815: 5996: 4083: 3230:. This is likely due to its fundamental concepts, as articulated by linguistic anthropologist Patrick McConvell: 1436: 1106: 20: 6903: 4626:"Back to 'Mother' and 'Father': Overcoming the Eurocentrism of Kinship Studies through Eight Lexical Universals" 3252:, where one woman is often married to two or more men. The marital practice found in most cultures, however, is 6925: 6772: 6426: 6267: 5435: 3785: 2098: 1216: 719: 502: 4303:

Swick Perry, Helen (1988). "Using Participant Observation to Construct a Life History". In Berg, David (ed.).

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DeWalt, K. M., DeWalt, B. R., & Wayland, C. B. (1998). "Participant observation." In H. R. Bernard (Ed.),

1292:. Generally, Morgan used technology (such as bowmaking or pottery) as an indicator of position on this scale. 6379: 6235: 4517:

Birenbaum-Carmeli, Daphna; Inhorn, Maria C. (2008). "Assisted Reproductive Technologies and Culture Change".

2495: 1024: 752: 742: 3587: 1019:, additionally supposed that similarities meant that different groups had passed through the same stages of 6720: 6630: 6001: 5240: 4986: 3506: 3402: 1536: 1313:(1858–1942), one of the pioneers of modern anthropology, often called the "Father of American Anthropology" 747: 340: 4047:

Fanon, Frantz. (1963) The Wretched of the Earth, transl. Constance Farrington. New York, Grove Weidenfeld.

6272: 6083: 1750: 1482:, focused on processes of modernization by which newly independent states could develop. Others, such as 602: 517: 430: 293: 4353:"Information systems and anthropology: and anthropological perspective on IT and organizational culture" 3240:

terms of marital practice and value, leaving much room for anthropological fieldwork. For instance, the

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includes materials on cultures, past and present, and covers nearly 400 cultures. The second database,

1374:(AMNH) to train and develop multiple generations of students. His first generation of students included 5526: 5343: 5193: 4839: 3127: 2066: 2009: 1901: 1821: 1693: 1568:

pondered anthropology's ties to colonial inequality, while the immense popularity of theorists such as

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American anthropologist David Schneider, argues that kinship has been limited by its inherent Western

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because it requires the anthropologist spending an extended period of time at the research location),

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Academic blog post explaining the similarities/differences between social and cultural anthropology.

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Environmentalism and Cultural Theory: Exploring the role of anthropology in environmental discourse

3660:"Cultural anthropology - Historical Development, Cross-Cultural Comparison, Fieldwork | Britannica" 3396: 3010: 2910: 2021: 1831: 1186: 1166: 993: 684: 674: 664: 639: 560: 390: 232: 207: 157: 4787:

Verlot, Marc (2001). "Are politics human? Problems and challenges of institutional anthropology".

3446: – Anthropological concept that requires one's behaviors to be understood in cultural context 3218:

Research in kinship studies often crosses over into different anthropological subfields including

2094:, covers major archaeological traditions and many more sub-traditions and sites around the world. 6898: 6677: 6565: 6460: 5909: 5169: 5139: 5073: 5058: 4219:

Gellner, Ernest (1992) Postmodernism, Reason, and Religion. London/New York: Routledge. pp. 26–50

4092: 2047:. These two approaches frequently converged and generally complemented one another. For example, 1955: 1886: 1796: 1780: 1760: 1755: 1395: 1206: 1141: 1074:). By the mid-20th century, the number of examples of people skipping stages, such as going from 845: 818:, which perceives cultural variation as a subset of a posited anthropological constant. The term 709: 575: 507: 423: 303: 195: 132: 97: 87: 65: 60: 1965: 968:, with culture forming an umbrella term and civilization becoming a particular kind of culture. 6787: 6507: 6335: 5844: 5591: 5460: 5308: 5301: 5266: 5053: 4981: 4321:

Price, Laurie J. (2007). "Carrying Out a Structured Observation". In Angrosino, Michael (ed.).

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The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, Volume 13, Number 2, June 2007, pp. 419–31

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Magolda, Peter M. (March 2000). "The Campus Tour: Ritual and Community in Higher Education".

3298: 3223: 2025: 1770: 1765: 1497: 1191: 1181: 1008: 776: 689: 669: 455: 395: 355: 325: 313: 217: 167: 33: 4530: 4460: 4155: 3725: 3638: 1861:

Modern cultural anthropology has its origins in, and developed in reaction to, 19th century

1490:, focused on how societies evolve and fit their ecological niche—an approach popularized by 6657: 6497: 6470: 6465: 6362: 6108: 6078: 5986: 5976: 5914: 5894: 5823: 5616: 5601: 5561: 5455: 5088: 5083: 4412:

McConvell, Patrick (2013). "Introduction: kinship change in anthropology and linguistics".

3720: 3523: 3461: 3219: 3166: 2941: 2674: 2525: 2083: 1866: 1806: 1301: 989: 961: 829: 679: 360: 330: 298: 273: 172: 162: 137: 127: 8: 6837: 6831: 6757: 6672: 6617: 6492: 6357: 6303: 5969: 5959: 5954: 5884: 5774: 5759: 5646: 5636: 5611: 5546: 5521: 5475: 5415: 5323: 5223: 5203: 5119: 5098: 5038: 3606: 3443: 3431: 3390: 3227: 3181: 3030: 2684: 1997: 1989: 1849: 1836: 1826: 1740: 1723: 1367: 1265: 1087: 1053: 1004: 815: 694: 527: 410: 385: 288: 278: 258: 102: 5536: 3035: 1950:

In the 20th century, most cultural and social anthropologists turned to the crafting of

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Tierney, Gerry (2007). "Becoming a Participant Observer". In Angrosino, Michael (ed.).

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In the early 20th century, socio-cultural anthropology developed in different forms in

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of social anthropologists, especially Bronislaw Malinowski in Britain, the students of

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to develop cultural anthropology in the United States. Simultaneously, Malinowski and

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In the 1950s and mid-1960s anthropology tended increasingly to model itself after the

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Peletz, Michael G. (1995). "Kinship Studies in Late Twentieth-Century Anthropology".

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Sociocultural anthropologists have increasingly turned their investigative eye on to

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Influenced by the German tradition, Boas argued that the world was full of distinct

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In keeping with the times, much of anthropology became politicized through the

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face-to-face communication techniques and still lived a Paleolithic lifestyle.

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One of the earliest articulations of the anthropological meaning of the term "

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Branch of anthropology focused on the study of cultural variation among humans

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and methodological claims. Whether or not these claims require a specific

1110: 1097: 807: 445: 335: 41: 6794: 6682: 6607: 6524: 6443: 6436: 6293: 6133: 6036: 6006: 5691: 5149: 5048: 4955: 3476: – Science of the study of plants in relation to their use by humans 3473: 3455: 3241: 3189: 3147: 3055: 2957: 2830: 2641: 2616: 2575: 2555: 2515: 2485: 2435: 2379: 2319: 2191: 2138: 2128: 2113: 2073:. Since 1949, its mission has been to encourage and facilitate worldwide 2017: 1951: 1945: 1916: 1540: 1391: 1153: 1117:

stance is a matter of debate. This principle should not be confused with

1063:(who was influenced both by American cultural anthropology and by French 1041: 1036: 939: 841: 617: 485: 242: 115: 82: 6848: 6687: 6529: 6487: 6431: 5198: 4976: 4653: 3419: 3040: 2895: 2530: 2284: 2231: 2196: 2186: 2052: 1969: 1897: 1893: 1317: 1310: 1236:

works that are holistic in approach, are oriented to the ways in which

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Reproducing Reproduction: Kinship, Power, and Technological Innovation

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Doing Cultural Anthropology: Projects for Ethnographic Data Collection

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Doing Cultural Anthropology: Projects for Ethnographic Data Collection

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model at left, all cultures progress through set stages, while in the

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Reading Benedict / Reading Mead: Feminism, Race, and Imperial Visions

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as a truly general science and free it from its historical focus on

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somewhat secondary to the main issues of social scientific inquiry.

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in the 19th century divided into two schools of thought. Some, like

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Conceiving the New World Order: The Global Politics of Reproduction

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Race, Culture, and Evolution: Essays in the history of anthropology

3253: 3245: 3162: 3060: 3020: 2994: 2972: 2925: 2890: 2744: 2585: 2384: 2216: 1711: 1623: 1577: 1273: 6887: 6220: 4501:. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 1–368. 3399: – Study of religion in relation to other social institutions 6369: 4897: 3210: 3091: 2860: 2850: 2719: 2699: 2689: 2565: 2460: 2455: 2440: 2420: 2349: 2339: 2314: 2274: 2168: 2048: 1874: 1785: 1613: 1544: 1237: 1129: 957: 607: 587: 555: 345: 2016:(for example, husband and wife, or parent and child) and social 1697:

Nevertheless, key aspects of feminist theory and methods became

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Ho, Karen (2009). "Liquidated: An Ethnography of Wall Street".

3269: 3265: 2626: 2621: 2580: 2560: 2520: 2334: 2226: 2036: 2005: 1564:, have been central to the discipline. In the 1980s books like 1295: 1114: 1045: 981: 582: 4556:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 129. 4143:. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. pp. 17–28. 3919:"Anthropology for beginners: Social and cultural anthropology" 3686:

Rhodes, Lorna A. (2001). "Toward an Anthropology of Prisons".

1447: 3517: 2962: 2920: 2800: 2775: 2490: 2359: 2173: 1905: 1900:

in the United States, and in the later urban research of the

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model at right, distinctive culture histories are emphasized.

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Social and Cultural Anthropology: A Very Short Introduction

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Social and Cultural Anthropology: A Very Short Introduction

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Since the 1980s issues of power, such as those examined in

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Cultural relativism is a principle that was established as

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includes both cultural and social anthropology traditions.

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The Misrepresentation of Anthropology and its Consequences

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Multi-sited ethnography may also follow ethnic groups in

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Logan, Janette (2013). "Contemporary Adoptive Kinship".

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Writing culture: the poetics and politics of ethnography

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Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

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Some reflections on anthropological structural Marxism

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Heyer, Virginia (1948). "In Reply to Elgin Williams".

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Geertz's interpretive method involved what he called "

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Cultural relativism was in part a response to Western

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Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck's values orientation theory

3509: – Class of UNESCO designated cultural heritage 3304: 4351:Avison, David E; Myers, Michael D (March 1, 1995). 1676:Prominent British symbolic anthropologists include 1444:, and Mead was limited to her offices at the AMNH. 4162:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 4107: 4017: 3981: 3943: 3941: 3588:"The Ethnography of Prisons and Penal Confinement" 3118:different locales experience and understand their 4416:. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press: 1–18. 4399:Cultural Anthropology: A Toolkit for a Global Age 4183: 3576: 6917: 3422: – Latin noun for an unstructured community 3416: – Academic field in the study of community 1624:Geertz, Schneider, and interpretive anthropology 3938: 3816: 3744: 3742: 3329: 975: 4551: 3482: – Study of the cultural aspects of music 1520:experimented with Marxism and authors such as 1361: 6236: 4882: 4278:pp. 259–99. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press. 4276:Handbook of methods in cultural anthropology. 4020:Margaret Mead: The Making of an American Icon 3681: 3679: 3526: – Branch of the discipline of sociology 3488: – Study of human and animal interaction 3410: – Stake or post used in ritual practice 3358: 784: 4593: 4467:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 4458: 4249: 4176:Clifford, James and George E. Marcus (1986) 3950:Contemporary Sociology: A Journal of Reviews 3780:. New York: Routledge Press. pp. 8–37. 3739: 3503: – Main emotion used for social control 3440: – Evolutionary theory of social change 3244:of Sudan and the Brahmans of Nepal practice 2069:, Inc. (HRAF) is a research agency based at 2059: 1692:In the late 1980s and 1990s authors such as 1296:Franz Boas, founder of the modern discipline 984:and practices. In addressing this question, 4350: 4302: 4180:. Berkeley: University of California Press. 3428: – Scientific study of human behaviour 1958:the social and cultural life of the group. 1448:Wolf, Sahlins, Mintz, and political economy 1136:, and heavily influenced by the thought of 6243: 6229: 4889: 4875: 4735:Hejtmanek, Katie Rose (28 November 2016). 4717:A Companion to Organizational Anthropology 4683:Peel, Elizabeth; Riggs, Damien W. (2016). 4623: 4613:. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. 4414:Kinship Systems: Change and Reconstruction 3676: 3112: 1880: 946: 791: 777: 4734: 4682: 4652: 4608: 4499:New Directions in Anthropological Kinship 4411: 4189:Dolores Janiewski, Lois W. Banner (2005) 4138: 4015: 3984:Ruth Benedict: A Humanist in Anthropology 3834: 3817:Levitsky, Steven; Murillo, Maria (2009). 3649:, Cambridge University Press, 2003, p. 31 3614: 3276:Late twentieth-century shifts in interest 1159: 951: 917:Learn how and when to remove this message 4849:A Basic Guide to Cross-Cultural Research 4552:Franklin, Sarah; Ragoné, Helena (1998). 3836:10.1146/annurev.polisci.11.091106.121756 3639:Claude Levi-Strauss: the formative years 3393: – Concept in cultural anthropology 1773:and anthropology of gender and sexuality 1551:worried about anthropology's relevance. 1349: 1338: 1305: 1251: 1109:. Cultural relativism involves specific 998: 824: 4714: 4594:Ginsburg, Faye G.; Rapp, Rayna (1995). 4531:10.1146/annurev.anthro.37.081407.085230 4335: 4325:. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press. 4292:. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press. 4287: 4153: 3748: 1968:developed the ethnographic method, and 1687: 1566:Anthropology and the Colonial Encounter 6918: 4812: 4810: 4786: 4782: 4780: 4764: 4762: 4730: 4728: 4726: 4710: 4708: 4706: 4704: 4702: 4700: 4698: 4696: 4694: 4431: 4268: 4245: 4105: 3775: 3751:Anthropology & Education Quarterly 3736:. Vol 1. New York: J.P. Putnam's Sons. 3685: 3547: 3543: 3541: 1988:drew on his conception of culture and 1508:and George Dalton challenged standard 1192:Symbolic and interpretive anthropology 1081: 6224: 4870: 4816: 4771:Institutional Ethnography as Practice 4768: 4566: 4512: 4510: 4508: 4496: 4492: 4490: 4488: 4427: 4425: 4423: 4396: 4392: 4390: 4320: 4316: 4314: 4254:. New York: Oxford University Press. 4243: 4241: 4239: 4237: 4235: 4233: 4231: 4229: 4227: 4225: 4072: 3988:. Columbia University Press. p. 3882: 3819:"Variation in Institutional Strength" 3585: 3501:Guilt–shame–fear spectrum of cultures 3470: – Comprehensive critical theory 3464: – Subdiscipline of anthropology 3204: 1734:Socio-cultural anthropology subfields 1561:Europe and the People Without History 1256: 1232:anthropology is generally applied to 6874: 6184: 5785:Role of Christianity in civilization 4459:Just, Peter; Monaghan, John (2000). 4375:from the original on August 28, 2022 4250:Monaghan, John; Just, Peter (2000). 3979: 3607:10.1146/annurev-anthro-102313-030349 3520: – Person without fixed habitat 867: 6250: 6196: 4821:. The University of Michigan Press. 4807: 4777: 4759: 4723: 4691: 4357:Information Technology & People 3548:Fisher, William F. (1997). "1997". 3538: 1224:Comparison with social anthropology 814:among humans. It is in contrast to 13: 4801:10.1111/j.1469-8676.2001.tb00162.x 4747:from the original on 20 April 2017 4611:A critique of the study of kinship 4505: 4485: 4420: 4387: 4311: 4222: 3947: 3823:Annual Review of Political Science 3341:A critique of the study of kinship 3311:assisted reproductive technologies 1372:American Museum of Natural History 832:, founder of cultural anthropology 14: 6937: 4829: 3458: – Branch of social sciences 3305:Rise of reproductive anthropology 1817:Political economy in anthropology 1454:Political economy in anthropology 1197:Political economy in anthropology 840:Cultural anthropology has a rich 6897: 6886: 6873: 6862: 6861: 6195: 6183: 6172: 6171: 4906: 4672:from the original on 2022-10-09. 3925:from the original on 6 June 2021 3626:from the original on 2022-10-09. 1474:. Some anthropologists, such as 872: 48: 6816:List of social science journals 5997:Culture and positive psychology 4907: 4676: 4617: 4602: 4587: 4560: 4545: 4452: 4446:10.1146/annurev.anthro.24.1.343 4405: 4344: 4329: 4296: 4281: 4213: 4170: 4147: 4132: 4099: 4050: 4041: 4009: 3973: 3960: 3911: 3876: 3851: 3562:10.1146/annurev.anthro.26.1.439 1437:The Chrysanthemum and the Sword 6773:Science and technology studies 5436:High- and low-context cultures 4569:Child & Family Social Work 4110:The Interpretation of Cultures 4024:. Princeton University Press. 3794: 3769: 3714: 3700:10.1146/annurev.anthro.30.1.65 3652: 3630: 3494: – Branch of anthropology 2101:of small-scale societies are: 2099:standard cross-cultural sample 1956:participating in and observing 1939: 1217:Systems theory in anthropology 738:Anthropologists by nationality 1: 4519:Annual Review of Anthropology 4434:Annual Review of Anthropology 4004:Ruth Benedict Ralph Linton,. 3897:10.1525/aa.1948.50.1.02a00290 3688:Annual Review of Anthropology 3595:Annual Review of Anthropology 3550:Annual Review of Anthropology 3531: 3452: – Term in public policy 1608:, the critical theory of the 1025:classical social evolutionism 6002:Culture and social cognition 4987:Cross-cultural communication 4609:Schneider, David M. (1984). 3507:Intangible cultural heritage 3403:Bibliography of anthropology 3330:Critiques of kinship studies 3281:basic principles offered by 1996:'s students were developing 1537:Algerian War of Independence 1428:Though such works as Mead's 976:The critique of evolutionism 473: 7: 6084:Intercultural communication 4896: 4383:– via IngentaConnect. 4340:. Boston, MA: Beacon Press. 4139:Roseberry, William (1989). 3966:Stocking, George W. (1968) 3383: 1902:Chicago School of Sociology 1751:Anthropology of development 1532:and componential analysis. 1366:Boas used his positions at 1362:Kroeber, Mead, and Benedict 1264:(1818–1881), a lawyer from 930:of cultures and societies. 892:. The specific problem is: 10: 6942: 5527:Cross cultural sensitivity 5194:Resistance through culture 4840:Human Relations Area Files 4769:Smith, Dorothy E. (2006). 4715:Douglas, Caulkins (2012). 4397:Guest, Kenneth J. (2013). 4305:The Self in Social Inquiry 3359:Institutional anthropology 3208: 2067:Human Relations Area Files 1943: 1884: 1856: 1841:Transpersonal anthropology 1822:Psychological anthropology 1726:, and the anthropology of 1627: 1576:moved issues of power and 1451: 1299: 1085: 863: 820:sociocultural anthropology 758:List of indigenous peoples 18: 6857: 6824: 6808: 6555: 6281: 6258: 6167: 6139:Transformation of culture 5832: 5752: 5572:Cultural environmentalism 5509: 5249: 5112: 5002:Cross-cultural psychology 4997:Cross-cultural psychiatry 4992:Cross-cultural leadership 4969: 4918: 4904: 4624:Wierzbicka, Anna (2016). 4369:10.1108/09593849510098262 4106:Geertz, Clifford (1973). 4078:Lewis, Herbert S. (1998) 4016:Lutkehaus, Nancy (2008). 3970:. London: The Free Press. 3426:Cross-cultural psychology 3199: 3196:(IT) computer employees. 3192:investors, law firms, or 2060:Cross-cultural comparison 1976:. Boas' students such as 503:Cross-cultural comparison 19:For the publication, see 6099:Living things in culture 6089:Intercultural competence 5992:Culture and menstruation 5491:Trans-cultural diffusion 4817:Riles, Annelise (2000). 4685:Critical Kinship Studies 4336:Rosaldo, Renato (1989). 4114:. Basic Books. pp. 3763:10.1525/aeq.2000.31.1.24 3397:Anthropology of religion 3353:Critical Kinship Studies 1915:Interactions between an 1832:Anthropology of religion 1728:industrialized societies 1549:Reinventing Anthropology 1048:in modern anthropology. 810:focused on the study of 675:Historical particularism 6461:international relations 5910:Cultural homogenization 5140:Individualistic culture 5074:Popular culture studies 5059:Intercultural relations 4154:Carsten, Janet (2004). 4093:American Anthropologist 3980:Mead, Margaret (2005). 3885:American Anthropologist 3586:Cunha, Manuela (2014). 3113:Multi-sited ethnography 1887:Participant observation 1881:Participant observation 1797:Multimodal anthropology 1781:historical anthropology 1761:Ecological anthropology 1756:Disability anthropology 1396:Indo-European languages 947:Theoretical foundations 846:participant observation 508:Participant observation 6788:Quantum social science 5845:Archaeological culture 5592:Cultural globalization 5461:Organizational culture 5309:Cultural communication 5267:Cultural appropriation 5054:Intercultural learning 4982:Cross-cultural studies 4819:The Network Inside Out 4210: 3315:in vitro fertilization 3237: 3194:information technology 1812:Political anthropology 1746:Cognitive anthropology 1663: 1660:Clifford Geertz (1973) 1539:and opposition to the 1530:cognitive anthropology 1510:neoclassical economics 1434:(1928) and Benedict's 1431:Coming of Age in Samoa 1358: 1347: 1314: 1160:Theoretical approaches 1012: 952:The concept of culture 833: 650:Cross-cultural studies 6926:Cultural anthropology 6825:Other categorizations 6678:International studies 6663:History of technology 6598:Communication studies 6481:public administration 6114:Participatory culture 5905:Cultural evolutionism 5729:Multiracial democracy 5607:Cultural intelligence 5552:Cultural conservatism 5542:Cultural backwardness 5532:Cultural assimilation 5406:Cultural reproduction 5262:Cultural appreciation 5214:Far-right subcultures 5104:Transcultural nursing 5069:Philosophy of culture 4946:Cultural neuroscience 4926:Cultural anthropology 4741:Oxford Bibliographies 4719:. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. 4497:Stone, Linda (2001). 4205: 3859:"Cultural Relativism" 3802:Guns, Germs and Steel 3232: 2080:Cross-Cultural Survey 1771:Feminist anthropology 1766:Economic anthropology 1652: 1498:Economic anthropology 1353: 1342: 1332:, were not possible. 1309: 1252:Foundational thinkers 1182:Feminist anthropology 1009:multilineal evolution 1002: 828: 804:Cultural anthropology 22:Cultural Anthropology 6658:Historical sociology 6109:Oppositional culture 6079:Emotions and culture 5987:Cultural sensibility 5977:Cultural translation 5915:Cultural institution 5895:Cultural determinism 5617:Cultural nationalism 5602:Cultural imperialism 5562:Cultural deprivation 5456:Non-material culture 5089:Sociology of culture 5084:Semiotics of culture 4855:eHRAF World Cultures 4633:Current Anthropology 3776:Milton, Kay (1996). 3524:Sociology of culture 3462:Digital anthropology 3299:Third World feminism 3186:In Search of Respect 3167:Nancy Scheper-Hughes 2257:Circum-Mediterranean 2088:eHRAF World Cultures 2084:George Peter Murdock 2065:that it is not. The 1994:A.R. Radcliffe Brown 1966:Bronisław Malinowski 1807:Medical anthropology 1688:The post-modern turn 1302:Boasian anthropology 1172:Cultural materialism 1167:Actor–network theory 990:Grafton Elliot Smith 899:improve this section 888:to meet Knowledge's 830:Edward Burnett Tylor 743:Anthropology by year 680:Boasian anthropology 655:Cultural materialism 640:Actor–network theory 238:Paleoanthropological 6838:Geisteswissenschaft 6832:Behavioral sciences 6758:Political sociology 6673:Information science 6618:Development studies 5960:Culture speculation 5955:Cultural relativism 5885:Cultural competence 5775:Cultural Christians 5647:Cultural Revolution 5637:Cultural radicalism 5612:Cultural liberalism 5547:Cultural Bolshevism 5522:Consumer capitalism 5476:Relational mobility 5416:Cultural technology 5324:Cultural dissonance 5241:Culture by location 5204:Alternative culture 5120:Constructed culture 5099:Theology of culture 5039:Cultural psychology 5019:Cultural entomology 4789:Social Anthropology 3444:Cultural relativism 3432:Cultural psychology 3391:Age-area hypothesis 3228:public anthropology 3182:Margaret Mead Award 2075:comparative studies 1998:social anthropology 1990:cultural relativism 1850:Visual anthropology 1837:Cyborg anthropology 1827:Public anthropology 1741:Anthropology of art 1724:virtual communities 1401:The publication of 1368:Columbia University 1088:Cultural relativism 1082:Cultural relativism 1061:Claude Lévi-Strauss 1054:cultural relativism 1005:unilineal evolution 938:, but many others. 816:social anthropology 695:Performance studies 588:Kinship and descent 528:Cultural relativism 178:Paleoethnobotanical 153:Ethnoarchaeological 6893:Society portal 6380:auxiliary sciences 6119:Permission culture 6052:Disability culture 6032:Children's culture 5900:Cultural diversity 5860:Circuit of culture 5642:Cultural retention 5622:Cultural pessimism 5577:Cultural exception 5567:Cultural diplomacy 5557:Cultural contracts 5517:Colonial mentality 5446:Manuscript culture 5421:Cultural universal 5391:Cultural pluralism 5371:Cultural landscape 5366:Cultural invention 5334:Cultural framework 5236:Vernacular culture 5034:Cultural mediation 5014:Cultural economics 5009:Cultural analytics 4941:Cultural geography 4931:Cultural astronomy 4200:2022-12-15 at the 4086:2017-04-03 at the 4064:2007-10-01 at the 3731:2022-12-15 at the 3664:www.britannica.com 3644:2023-01-10 at the 3438:Cultural evolution 3313:(ARTs), including 3205:Kinship and family 2947:Miskito (Mosquito) 2791:Saulteaux (Ojibwa) 2335:Egyptians (Fellah) 1845:Urban anthropology 1802:Media anthropology 1792:Legal anthropology 1671:hermeneutic circle 1634:David M. Schneider 1359: 1348: 1315: 1262:Lewis Henry Morgan 1257:Lewis Henry Morgan 1212:Post-structuralism 1021:cultural evolution 1017:Lewis Henry Morgan 1013: 834: 812:cultural variation 715:Post-structuralism 474:Research framework 6913: 6912: 6753:Political economy 6748:Political ecology 6603:Community studies 6593:Cognitive science 6556:Interdisciplinary 6456:Political science 6218: 6217: 6047:Death and culture 5940:Cultural movement 5930:Cultural literacy 5790:Eastern Orthodoxy 5702:Dominator culture 5697:Deculturalization 5597:Cultural hegemony 5587:Cultural genocide 5582:Cultural feminism 5401:Cultural property 5396:Cultural practice 5381:Cultural leveling 5376:Cultural learning 5361:Cultural industry 5356:Cultural identity 5339:Cultural heritage 5329:Cultural emphasis 5314:Cultural conflict 5287:Cultural behavior 5277:Cultural artifact 5189:Primitive culture 5165:Political culture 4860:eHRAF Archaeology 4581:10.1111/cfs.12042 4478:978-0-19-285346-2 4338:Culture and Truth 4261:978-0-19-285346-2 4031:978-0-691-00941-4 3999:978-0-231-13491-0 3726:Primitive Culture 3414:Community studies 3178:Philippe Bourgois 3174:"Western" culture 3110: 3109: 2149:Nyakyusa (Ngonde) 2092:eHRAF Archaeology 1978:Alfred L. Kroeber 1972:taught it in the 1720:indigenous rights 1667:thick description 1504:and practiced by 1500:as influenced by 927: 926: 919: 890:quality standards 881:This section may 801: 800: 700:Political economy 523:Thick description 320:Political economy 183:Zooarchaeological 143:Bioarchaeological 6933: 6901: 6891: 6890: 6877: 6876: 6865: 6864: 6768:Regional science 6613:Cultural studies 6588:Business studies 6245: 6238: 6231: 6222: 6221: 6199: 6198: 6187: 6186: 6175: 6174: 6064:Drinking culture 6017:Culture industry 5965:Cultural tourism 5945:Cultural mulatto 5920:Cultural jet lag 5855:Cannabis culture 5812:Cultural Muslims 5734:Pluriculturalism 5717:Multiculturalism 5707:Interculturalism 5682:Culture minister 5672:Cultural Zionism 5667:Cultural subsidy 5662:Cultural silence 5537:Cultural attaché 5496:Transculturation 5451:Material culture 5441:Interculturality 5297:Cultural capital 5282:Cultural baggage 5219:Youth subculture 5160:Official culture 5125:Dominant culture 5064:Internet culture 5029:Cultural mapping 5024:Cultural history 4951:Cultural studies 4936:Cultural ecology 4910: 4909: 4891: 4884: 4877: 4868: 4867: 4842:(HRAF) based at 4836:Official website 4823: 4822: 4814: 4805: 4804: 4784: 4775: 4774: 4766: 4757: 4756: 4754: 4752: 4732: 4721: 4720: 4712: 4689: 4688: 4680: 4674: 4673: 4671: 4656: 4630: 4621: 4615: 4614: 4606: 4600: 4599: 4591: 4585: 4584: 4564: 4558: 4557: 4549: 4543: 4542: 4514: 4503: 4502: 4494: 4483: 4482: 4466: 4456: 4450: 4449: 4429: 4418: 4417: 4409: 4403: 4402: 4394: 4385: 4384: 4382: 4380: 4348: 4342: 4341: 4333: 4327: 4326: 4318: 4309: 4308: 4300: 4294: 4293: 4285: 4279: 4272: 4266: 4265: 4247: 4220: 4217: 4211: 4187: 4181: 4174: 4168: 4167: 4161: 4151: 4145: 4144: 4136: 4130: 4129: 4113: 4103: 4097: 4076: 4070: 4056:Nugent, Stephen 4054: 4048: 4045: 4039: 4038: 4023: 4013: 4007: 4006: 3987: 3977: 3971: 3964: 3958: 3957: 3945: 3936: 3934: 3932: 3930: 3921:. 11 June 2010. 3915: 3909: 3908: 3880: 3874: 3873: 3871: 3870: 3861:. Archived from 3855: 3849: 3848: 3838: 3814: 3805: 3800:Diamond, Jared. 3798: 3792: 3791: 3773: 3767: 3766: 3746: 3737: 3718: 3712: 3711: 3683: 3674: 3673: 3671: 3670: 3656: 3650: 3634: 3628: 3627: 3625: 3618: 3592: 3583: 3574: 3573: 3545: 3497: 3264:municipality of 2600:Insular Pacific 2360:Gheg (Albanians) 2258: 2114:Nama (Hottentot) 2104: 2103: 1661: 1648:Marshall Sahlins 1610:Frankfurt School 1582:Marshall Sahlins 1506:Marshall Sahlins 1472:natural sciences 1462:Marshall Sahlins 1330:natural sciences 1119:moral relativism 1076:hunter-gatherers 1059:Others, such as 966:V. Gordon Childe 960:" came from Sir 922: 915: 911: 908: 902: 876: 875: 868: 793: 786: 779: 321: 203:Anthrozoological 52: 29: 28: 6941: 6940: 6936: 6935: 6934: 6932: 6931: 6930: 6916: 6915: 6914: 6909: 6885: 6853: 6820: 6804: 6778:Science studies 6562:Administration 6551: 6277: 6254: 6252:Social sciences 6249: 6219: 6214: 6163: 6154:Western culture 6149:Welfare culture 6074:Eastern culture 5935:Cultural mosaic 5890:Cultural critic 5880:Cultural center 5828: 5802:Cultural Hindus 5748: 5739:Polyculturalism 5712:Monoculturalism 5687:Culture of fear 5657:Cultural safety 5652:Cultural rights 5632:Cultural racism 5627:Cultural policy 5505: 5411:Cultural system 5386:Cultural memory 5319:Cultural cringe 5245: 5177:Popular culture 5108: 5044:Cultural values 4965: 4914: 4900: 4895: 4844:Yale University 4832: 4827: 4826: 4815: 4808: 4785: 4778: 4767: 4760: 4750: 4748: 4733: 4724: 4713: 4692: 4681: 4677: 4669: 4628: 4622: 4618: 4607: 4603: 4592: 4588: 4565: 4561: 4550: 4546: 4515: 4506: 4495: 4486: 4479: 4457: 4453: 4430: 4421: 4410: 4406: 4395: 4388: 4378: 4376: 4349: 4345: 4334: 4330: 4319: 4312: 4301: 4297: 4286: 4282: 4273: 4269: 4262: 4248: 4223: 4218: 4214: 4202:Wayback Machine 4188: 4184: 4175: 4171: 4152: 4148: 4137: 4133: 4126: 4104: 4100: 4088:Wayback Machine 4077: 4073: 4066:Wayback Machine 4055: 4051: 4046: 4042: 4032: 4014: 4010: 4000: 3978: 3974: 3965: 3961: 3946: 3939: 3928: 3926: 3917: 3916: 3912: 3881: 3877: 3868: 3866: 3857: 3856: 3852: 3815: 3808: 3799: 3795: 3788: 3774: 3770: 3747: 3740: 3733:Wayback Machine 3719: 3715: 3684: 3677: 3668: 3666: 3658: 3657: 3653: 3646:Wayback Machine 3635: 3631: 3623: 3590: 3584: 3577: 3546: 3539: 3534: 3529: 3495: 3480:Ethnomusicology 3408:Ceremonial pole 3386: 3361: 3346:Anna Wierzbicka 3332: 3319:Maria C. Inhorn 3307: 3291:David Schneider 3278: 3213: 3207: 3202: 3176:. For example, 3140:Michael Taussig 3124:Arjun Appadurai 3115: 3106: 2930: 2871:Omaha (Dhegiha) 2841:Northern Paiute 2754: 2720:Western Samoans 2607:Javanese (Miao) 2595: 2546:Negeri Sembilan 2416:Yurak (Samoyed) 2404: 2256: 2251: 2174:Mbuti (Pygmies) 2071:Yale University 2062: 2039:forms, such as 1948: 1942: 1889: 1883: 1859: 1854: 1736: 1690: 1662: 1659: 1644:Clifford Geertz 1640:David Schneider 1636: 1630:Clifford Geertz 1628:Main articles: 1626: 1590:Fernand Braudel 1574:Michel Foucault 1570:Antonio Gramsci 1480:Clifford Geertz 1468: 1452:Main articles: 1450: 1364: 1304: 1298: 1259: 1254: 1226: 1221: 1202:Practice theory 1162: 1111:epistemological 1098:anthropological 1090: 1084: 978: 954: 949: 923: 912: 906: 903: 896: 877: 873: 866: 806:is a branch of 797: 768: 767: 733: 725: 724: 705:Practice theory 645:Alliance theory 635: 627: 626: 622:Postcolonialism 551: 543: 542: 476: 466: 465: 431:Anthropological 426: 416: 415: 319: 269: 268: 248: 247: 198: 188: 187: 118: 108: 107: 78: 70: 27: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6939: 6929: 6928: 6911: 6910: 6908: 6907: 6895: 6883: 6871: 6858: 6855: 6854: 6852: 6851: 6846: 6841: 6834: 6828: 6826: 6822: 6821: 6819: 6818: 6812: 6810: 6806: 6805: 6803: 6802: 6797: 6792: 6791: 6790: 6785: 6775: 6770: 6765: 6760: 6755: 6750: 6745: 6744: 6743: 6738: 6733: 6725: 6724: 6723: 6721:social science 6718: 6713: 6708: 6703: 6695: 6690: 6685: 6680: 6675: 6670: 6665: 6660: 6655: 6653:Global studies 6650: 6648:Gender studies 6645: 6640: 6639: 6638: 6633: 6631:social science 6627:Environmental 6625: 6620: 6615: 6610: 6605: 6600: 6595: 6590: 6585: 6580: 6575: 6574: 6573: 6568: 6559: 6557: 6553: 6552: 6550: 6549: 6548: 6547: 6542: 6537: 6532: 6527: 6517: 6516: 6515: 6510: 6505: 6500: 6495: 6485: 6484: 6483: 6478: 6473: 6468: 6463: 6453: 6452: 6451: 6441: 6440: 6439: 6434: 6429: 6424: 6419: 6409: 6408: 6407: 6402: 6397: 6392: 6387: 6382: 6377: 6367: 6366: 6365: 6360: 6355: 6350: 6340: 6339: 6338: 6333: 6328: 6326:macroeconomics 6323: 6321:microeconomics 6313: 6312: 6311: 6306: 6301: 6296: 6285: 6283: 6279: 6278: 6276: 6275: 6270: 6265: 6259: 6256: 6255: 6248: 6247: 6240: 6233: 6225: 6216: 6215: 6213: 6212: 6205: 6193: 6181: 6168: 6165: 6164: 6162: 6161: 6156: 6151: 6146: 6141: 6136: 6131: 6126: 6121: 6116: 6111: 6106: 6101: 6096: 6091: 6086: 6081: 6076: 6071: 6066: 6061: 6060: 6059: 6049: 6044: 6039: 6034: 6029: 6024: 6019: 6014: 6009: 6004: 5999: 5994: 5989: 5984: 5979: 5974: 5973: 5972: 5962: 5957: 5952: 5950:Cultural probe 5947: 5942: 5937: 5932: 5927: 5922: 5917: 5912: 5907: 5902: 5897: 5892: 5887: 5882: 5877: 5875:Cross-cultural 5872: 5870:Coffee culture 5867: 5862: 5857: 5852: 5847: 5842: 5840:Animal culture 5836: 5834: 5830: 5829: 5827: 5826: 5821: 5816: 5815: 5814: 5804: 5799: 5798: 5797: 5792: 5787: 5782: 5777: 5772: 5762: 5756: 5754: 5750: 5749: 5747: 5746: 5744:Transculturism 5741: 5736: 5731: 5726: 5725: 5724: 5714: 5709: 5704: 5699: 5694: 5689: 5684: 5679: 5677:Culture change 5674: 5669: 5664: 5659: 5654: 5649: 5644: 5639: 5634: 5629: 5624: 5619: 5614: 5609: 5604: 5599: 5594: 5589: 5584: 5579: 5574: 5569: 5564: 5559: 5554: 5549: 5544: 5539: 5534: 5529: 5524: 5519: 5513: 5511: 5507: 5506: 5504: 5503: 5501:Visual culture 5498: 5493: 5488: 5483: 5481:Safety culture 5478: 5473: 5468: 5463: 5458: 5453: 5448: 5443: 5438: 5433: 5428: 5423: 5418: 5413: 5408: 5403: 5398: 5393: 5388: 5383: 5378: 5373: 5368: 5363: 5358: 5353: 5348: 5347: 5346: 5336: 5331: 5326: 5321: 5316: 5311: 5306: 5305: 5304: 5302:Cross-cultural 5294: 5289: 5284: 5279: 5274: 5269: 5264: 5259: 5253: 5251: 5247: 5246: 5244: 5243: 5238: 5233: 5228: 5227: 5226: 5221: 5216: 5211: 5206: 5196: 5191: 5186: 5185: 5184: 5174: 5173: 5172: 5162: 5157: 5152: 5147: 5142: 5137: 5132: 5127: 5122: 5116: 5114: 5110: 5109: 5107: 5106: 5101: 5096: 5091: 5086: 5081: 5076: 5071: 5066: 5061: 5056: 5051: 5046: 5041: 5036: 5031: 5026: 5021: 5016: 5011: 5006: 5005: 5004: 4999: 4994: 4989: 4979: 4973: 4971: 4967: 4966: 4964: 4963: 4961:Culture theory 4958: 4953: 4948: 4943: 4938: 4933: 4928: 4922: 4920: 4916: 4915: 4905: 4902: 4901: 4894: 4893: 4886: 4879: 4871: 4865: 4864: 4863: 4862: 4857: 4852: 4831: 4830:External links 4828: 4825: 4824: 4806: 4776: 4758: 4737:"Institutions" 4722: 4690: 4675: 4645:10.1086/687360 4616: 4601: 4586: 4559: 4544: 4504: 4484: 4477: 4451: 4419: 4404: 4386: 4343: 4328: 4310: 4295: 4280: 4267: 4260: 4221: 4212: 4182: 4169: 4146: 4131: 4124: 4098: 4071: 4049: 4040: 4036:margaret Mead. 4030: 4008: 3998: 3972: 3959: 3937: 3910: 3875: 3850: 3806: 3793: 3786: 3768: 3738: 3713: 3675: 3651: 3629: 3575: 3536: 3535: 3533: 3530: 3528: 3527: 3521: 3515: 3510: 3504: 3498: 3489: 3483: 3477: 3471: 3468:Engaged theory 3465: 3459: 3453: 3450:Culture change 3447: 3441: 3435: 3429: 3423: 3417: 3411: 3405: 3400: 3394: 3387: 3385: 3382: 3360: 3357: 3331: 3328: 3306: 3303: 3277: 3274: 3209:Main article: 3206: 3203: 3201: 3198: 3128:James Clifford 3114: 3111: 3108: 3107: 3105: 3104: 3099: 3094: 3089: 3084: 3079: 3073: 3068: 3063: 3058: 3053: 3048: 3043: 3038: 3033: 3028: 3023: 3018: 3013: 3008: 3002: 2997: 2992: 2986: 2981: 2975: 2970: 2965: 2960: 2955: 2949: 2944: 2938: 2936: 2935:South America 2932: 2931: 2929: 2928: 2923: 2918: 2913: 2911:Tohono O'odham 2908: 2903: 2898: 2893: 2888: 2883: 2878: 2873: 2868: 2863: 2858: 2853: 2848: 2843: 2838: 2833: 2828: 2823: 2818: 2813: 2808: 2803: 2801:Kaska (Nahane) 2798: 2793: 2788: 2783: 2778: 2773: 2768: 2762: 2760: 2759:North America 2756: 2755: 2753: 2752: 2747: 2742: 2737: 2732: 2727: 2722: 2717: 2712: 2707: 2702: 2697: 2692: 2687: 2682: 2677: 2672: 2667: 2662: 2657: 2654: 2649: 2644: 2639: 2634: 2629: 2624: 2619: 2614: 2609: 2603: 2601: 2597: 2596: 2594: 2593: 2588: 2583: 2578: 2573: 2568: 2563: 2558: 2553: 2548: 2543: 2538: 2533: 2528: 2523: 2518: 2513: 2508: 2503: 2498: 2493: 2488: 2483: 2478: 2473: 2468: 2463: 2461:Khalka Mongols 2458: 2453: 2448: 2443: 2438: 2433: 2428: 2423: 2418: 2412: 2410: 2406: 2405: 2403: 2402: 2397: 2392: 2387: 2382: 2377: 2372: 2367: 2362: 2357: 2352: 2347: 2342: 2337: 2332: 2327: 2322: 2317: 2312: 2307: 2302: 2297: 2292: 2287: 2282: 2277: 2275:Wodaabe Fulani 2272: 2267: 2261: 2259: 2253: 2252: 2250: 2249: 2244: 2239: 2234: 2229: 2224: 2219: 2214: 2209: 2204: 2199: 2194: 2189: 2184: 2181: 2179:Nkundo (Mongo) 2176: 2171: 2166: 2161: 2156: 2151: 2146: 2141: 2136: 2131: 2126: 2121: 2116: 2110: 2108: 2061: 2058: 2020:(for example, 1944:Main article: 1941: 1938: 1894:field research 1885:Main article: 1882: 1879: 1858: 1855: 1853: 1852: 1847: 1842: 1839: 1834: 1829: 1824: 1819: 1814: 1809: 1804: 1799: 1794: 1789: 1783: 1774: 1768: 1763: 1758: 1753: 1748: 1743: 1737: 1735: 1732: 1694:James Clifford 1689: 1686: 1657: 1625: 1622: 1584:, who drew on 1522:Rodney Needham 1484:Julian Steward 1449: 1446: 1403:Alfred Kroeber 1376:Alfred Kroeber 1363: 1360: 1300:Main article: 1297: 1294: 1258: 1255: 1253: 1250: 1225: 1222: 1220: 1219: 1214: 1209: 1204: 1199: 1194: 1189: 1184: 1179: 1177:Culture theory 1174: 1169: 1163: 1161: 1158: 1086:Main article: 1083: 1080: 1033:Julian Steward 977: 974: 953: 950: 948: 945: 925: 924: 880: 878: 871: 865: 862: 848:(often called 799: 798: 796: 795: 788: 781: 773: 770: 769: 766: 765: 760: 755: 750: 745: 740: 734: 731: 730: 727: 726: 723: 722: 720:Systems theory 717: 712: 707: 702: 697: 692: 687: 682: 677: 672: 667: 662: 660:Culture theory 657: 652: 647: 642: 636: 633: 632: 629: 628: 625: 624: 615: 610: 605: 600: 595: 590: 585: 580: 579: 578: 568: 563: 558: 552: 549: 548: 545: 544: 541: 540: 535: 530: 525: 520: 515: 510: 505: 500: 495: 494: 493: 483: 477: 472: 471: 468: 467: 464: 463: 458: 453: 448: 443: 438: 433: 427: 422: 421: 418: 417: 414: 413: 408: 403: 398: 393: 388: 383: 378: 373: 368: 363: 358: 353: 348: 343: 338: 333: 328: 323: 316: 311: 306: 301: 296: 291: 286: 281: 276: 270: 267: 266: 261: 255: 254: 253: 250: 249: 246: 245: 243:Primatological 240: 235: 230: 225: 220: 215: 210: 205: 199: 194: 193: 190: 189: 186: 185: 180: 175: 170: 165: 160: 155: 150: 145: 140: 135: 130: 125: 119: 116:Archaeological 114: 113: 110: 109: 106: 105: 100: 95: 90: 85: 83:Archaeological 79: 76: 75: 72: 71: 69: 68: 63: 57: 54: 53: 45: 44: 38: 37: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6938: 6927: 6924: 6923: 6921: 6906: 6905: 6900: 6896: 6894: 6889: 6884: 6882: 6881: 6872: 6870: 6869: 6860: 6859: 6856: 6850: 6847: 6845: 6844:Human science 6842: 6840: 6839: 6835: 6833: 6830: 6829: 6827: 6823: 6817: 6814: 6813: 6811: 6807: 6801: 6800:Vegan studies 6798: 6796: 6793: 6789: 6786: 6784: 6781: 6780: 6779: 6776: 6774: 6771: 6769: 6766: 6764: 6763:Public health 6761: 6759: 6756: 6754: 6751: 6749: 6746: 6742: 6739: 6737: 6734: 6732: 6729: 6728: 6726: 6722: 6719: 6717: 6714: 6712: 6709: 6707: 6704: 6702: 6699: 6698: 6697:Philosophies 6696: 6694: 6693:Media studies 6691: 6689: 6686: 6684: 6681: 6679: 6676: 6674: 6671: 6669: 6668:Human ecology 6666: 6664: 6661: 6659: 6656: 6654: 6651: 6649: 6646: 6644: 6641: 6637: 6634: 6632: 6629: 6628: 6626: 6624: 6621: 6619: 6616: 6614: 6611: 6609: 6606: 6604: 6601: 6599: 6596: 6594: 6591: 6589: 6586: 6584: 6581: 6579: 6578:Anthrozoology 6576: 6572: 6569: 6567: 6564: 6563: 6561: 6560: 6558: 6554: 6546: 6543: 6541: 6538: 6536: 6533: 6531: 6528: 6526: 6523: 6522: 6521: 6518: 6514: 6511: 6509: 6506: 6504: 6503:developmental 6501: 6499: 6496: 6494: 6491: 6490: 6489: 6486: 6482: 6479: 6477: 6476:public policy 6474: 6472: 6469: 6467: 6464: 6462: 6459: 6458: 6457: 6454: 6450: 6447: 6446: 6445: 6442: 6438: 6435: 6433: 6430: 6428: 6427:legal systems 6425: 6423: 6422:legal history 6420: 6418: 6417:jurisprudence 6415: 6414: 6413: 6410: 6406: 6403: 6401: 6398: 6396: 6393: 6391: 6388: 6386: 6383: 6381: 6378: 6376: 6373: 6372: 6371: 6368: 6364: 6361: 6359: 6356: 6354: 6351: 6349: 6346: 6345: 6344: 6341: 6337: 6334: 6332: 6329: 6327: 6324: 6322: 6319: 6318: 6317: 6314: 6310: 6307: 6305: 6302: 6300: 6297: 6295: 6292: 6291: 6290: 6287: 6286: 6284: 6280: 6274: 6271: 6269: 6266: 6264: 6261: 6260: 6257: 6253: 6246: 6241: 6239: 6234: 6232: 6227: 6226: 6223: 6211: 6210: 6206: 6204: 6203: 6194: 6192: 6191: 6182: 6180: 6179: 6170: 6169: 6166: 6160: 6159:Youth culture 6157: 6155: 6152: 6150: 6147: 6145: 6144:Urban culture 6142: 6140: 6137: 6135: 6132: 6130: 6129:Remix culture 6127: 6125: 6122: 6120: 6117: 6115: 6112: 6110: 6107: 6105: 6104:Media culture 6102: 6100: 6097: 6095: 6094:Languaculture 6092: 6090: 6087: 6085: 6082: 6080: 6077: 6075: 6072: 6070: 6067: 6065: 6062: 6058: 6055: 6054: 6053: 6050: 6048: 6045: 6043: 6040: 6038: 6035: 6033: 6030: 6028: 6025: 6023: 6022:Culture shock 6020: 6018: 6015: 6013: 6010: 6008: 6005: 6003: 6000: 5998: 5995: 5993: 5990: 5988: 5985: 5983: 5982:Cultural turn 5980: 5978: 5975: 5971: 5968: 5967: 5966: 5963: 5961: 5958: 5956: 5953: 5951: 5948: 5946: 5943: 5941: 5938: 5936: 5933: 5931: 5928: 5926: 5923: 5921: 5918: 5916: 5913: 5911: 5908: 5906: 5903: 5901: 5898: 5896: 5893: 5891: 5888: 5886: 5883: 5881: 5878: 5876: 5873: 5871: 5868: 5866: 5863: 5861: 5858: 5856: 5853: 5851: 5850:Bennett scale 5848: 5846: 5843: 5841: 5838: 5837: 5835: 5831: 5825: 5822: 5820: 5817: 5813: 5810: 5809: 5808: 5805: 5803: 5800: 5796: 5793: 5791: 5788: 5786: 5783: 5781: 5780:Protestantism 5778: 5776: 5773: 5771: 5768: 5767: 5766: 5763: 5761: 5758: 5757: 5755: 5751: 5745: 5742: 5740: 5737: 5735: 5732: 5730: 5727: 5723: 5722:Biculturalism 5720: 5719: 5718: 5715: 5713: 5710: 5708: 5705: 5703: 5700: 5698: 5695: 5693: 5690: 5688: 5685: 5683: 5680: 5678: 5675: 5673: 5670: 5668: 5665: 5663: 5660: 5658: 5655: 5653: 5650: 5648: 5645: 5643: 5640: 5638: 5635: 5633: 5630: 5628: 5625: 5623: 5620: 5618: 5615: 5613: 5610: 5608: 5605: 5603: 5600: 5598: 5595: 5593: 5590: 5588: 5585: 5583: 5580: 5578: 5575: 5573: 5570: 5568: 5565: 5563: 5560: 5558: 5555: 5553: 5550: 5548: 5545: 5543: 5540: 5538: 5535: 5533: 5530: 5528: 5525: 5523: 5520: 5518: 5515: 5514: 5512: 5508: 5502: 5499: 5497: 5494: 5492: 5489: 5487: 5486:Technoculture 5484: 5482: 5479: 5477: 5474: 5472: 5469: 5467: 5466:Print culture 5464: 5462: 5459: 5457: 5454: 5452: 5449: 5447: 5444: 5442: 5439: 5437: 5434: 5432: 5431:Enculturation 5429: 5427: 5424: 5422: 5419: 5417: 5414: 5412: 5409: 5407: 5404: 5402: 5399: 5397: 5394: 5392: 5389: 5387: 5384: 5382: 5379: 5377: 5374: 5372: 5369: 5367: 5364: 5362: 5359: 5357: 5354: 5352: 5351:Cultural icon 5349: 5345: 5342: 5341: 5340: 5337: 5335: 5332: 5330: 5327: 5325: 5322: 5320: 5317: 5315: 5312: 5310: 5307: 5303: 5300: 5299: 5298: 5295: 5293: 5292:Cultural bias 5290: 5288: 5285: 5283: 5280: 5278: 5275: 5273: 5272:Cultural area 5270: 5268: 5265: 5263: 5260: 5258: 5257:Acculturation 5255: 5254: 5252: 5248: 5242: 5239: 5237: 5234: 5232: 5231:Super culture 5229: 5225: 5222: 5220: 5217: 5215: 5212: 5210: 5207: 5205: 5202: 5201: 5200: 5197: 5195: 5192: 5190: 5187: 5183: 5180: 5179: 5178: 5175: 5171: 5168: 5167: 5166: 5163: 5161: 5158: 5156: 5153: 5151: 5148: 5146: 5145:Legal culture 5143: 5141: 5138: 5136: 5133: 5131: 5128: 5126: 5123: 5121: 5118: 5117: 5115: 5111: 5105: 5102: 5100: 5097: 5095: 5094:Sound culture 5092: 5090: 5087: 5085: 5082: 5080: 5077: 5075: 5072: 5070: 5067: 5065: 5062: 5060: 5057: 5055: 5052: 5050: 5047: 5045: 5042: 5040: 5037: 5035: 5032: 5030: 5027: 5025: 5022: 5020: 5017: 5015: 5012: 5010: 5007: 5003: 5000: 4998: 4995: 4993: 4990: 4988: 4985: 4984: 4983: 4980: 4978: 4975: 4974: 4972: 4968: 4962: 4959: 4957: 4954: 4952: 4949: 4947: 4944: 4942: 4939: 4937: 4934: 4932: 4929: 4927: 4924: 4923: 4921: 4917: 4913: 4903: 4899: 4892: 4887: 4885: 4880: 4878: 4873: 4872: 4869: 4861: 4858: 4856: 4853: 4850: 4847: 4846: 4845: 4841: 4837: 4834: 4833: 4820: 4813: 4811: 4802: 4798: 4795:(3): 345–53. 4794: 4790: 4783: 4781: 4772: 4765: 4763: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4731: 4729: 4727: 4718: 4711: 4709: 4707: 4705: 4703: 4701: 4699: 4697: 4695: 4686: 4679: 4668: 4664: 4660: 4655: 4650: 4646: 4642: 4639:(4): 408–28. 4638: 4634: 4627: 4620: 4612: 4605: 4597: 4590: 4582: 4578: 4574: 4570: 4563: 4555: 4548: 4540: 4536: 4532: 4528: 4524: 4520: 4513: 4511: 4509: 4500: 4493: 4491: 4489: 4480: 4474: 4470: 4465: 4464: 4455: 4447: 4443: 4439: 4435: 4428: 4426: 4424: 4415: 4408: 4400: 4393: 4391: 4374: 4370: 4366: 4362: 4358: 4354: 4347: 4339: 4332: 4324: 4317: 4315: 4306: 4299: 4291: 4284: 4277: 4271: 4263: 4257: 4253: 4246: 4244: 4242: 4240: 4238: 4236: 4234: 4232: 4230: 4228: 4226: 4216: 4209: 4203: 4199: 4196: 4192: 4186: 4179: 4173: 4165: 4160: 4159: 4158:After Kinship 4150: 4142: 4135: 4127: 4125:9780465097197 4121: 4117: 4112: 4111: 4102: 4095: 4094: 4090: 4089: 4085: 4082: 4075: 4068: 4067: 4063: 4060: 4053: 4044: 4037: 4033: 4027: 4022: 4021: 4012: 4005: 4001: 3995: 3991: 3986: 3985: 3976: 3969: 3963: 3955: 3951: 3944: 3942: 3924: 3920: 3914: 3906: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3891:(1): 163–66. 3890: 3886: 3879: 3865:on 2007-06-13 3864: 3860: 3854: 3846: 3842: 3837: 3832: 3828: 3824: 3820: 3813: 3811: 3803: 3797: 3789: 3783: 3779: 3772: 3764: 3760: 3756: 3752: 3745: 3743: 3735: 3734: 3730: 3727: 3722: 3721:Tylor, Edward 3717: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3697: 3693: 3689: 3682: 3680: 3665: 3661: 3655: 3648: 3647: 3643: 3640: 3633: 3622: 3617: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3589: 3582: 3580: 3571: 3567: 3563: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3544: 3542: 3537: 3525: 3522: 3519: 3516: 3514: 3511: 3508: 3505: 3502: 3499: 3493: 3492:Folkloristics 3490: 3487: 3484: 3481: 3478: 3475: 3472: 3469: 3466: 3463: 3460: 3457: 3454: 3451: 3448: 3445: 3442: 3439: 3436: 3433: 3430: 3427: 3424: 3421: 3418: 3415: 3412: 3409: 3406: 3404: 3401: 3398: 3395: 3392: 3389: 3388: 3381: 3377: 3373: 3369: 3365: 3356: 3354: 3349: 3347: 3342: 3338: 3337:ethnocentrism 3327: 3323: 3320: 3316: 3312: 3302: 3300: 3294: 3292: 3288: 3287:Rodney Neeham 3284: 3273: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3257: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3236: 3231: 3229: 3225: 3221: 3216: 3212: 3197: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3183: 3179: 3175: 3170: 3168: 3164: 3159: 3155: 3151: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3133: 3132:George Marcus 3129: 3125: 3121: 3103: 3100: 3098: 3095: 3093: 3090: 3088: 3085: 3083: 3080: 3077: 3074: 3072: 3069: 3067: 3064: 3062: 3059: 3057: 3054: 3052: 3049: 3047: 3044: 3042: 3039: 3037: 3034: 3032: 3029: 3027: 3024: 3022: 3019: 3017: 3014: 3012: 3009: 3006: 3003: 3001: 2998: 2996: 2993: 2990: 2987: 2985: 2982: 2979: 2976: 2974: 2971: 2969: 2966: 2964: 2961: 2959: 2956: 2953: 2950: 2948: 2945: 2943: 2940: 2939: 2937: 2934: 2933: 2927: 2924: 2922: 2919: 2917: 2914: 2912: 2909: 2907: 2904: 2902: 2899: 2897: 2894: 2892: 2889: 2887: 2884: 2882: 2879: 2877: 2874: 2872: 2869: 2867: 2864: 2862: 2859: 2857: 2854: 2852: 2849: 2847: 2844: 2842: 2839: 2837: 2834: 2832: 2829: 2827: 2824: 2822: 2819: 2817: 2814: 2812: 2809: 2807: 2804: 2802: 2799: 2797: 2794: 2792: 2789: 2787: 2784: 2782: 2779: 2777: 2776:Copper Eskimo 2774: 2772: 2769: 2767: 2764: 2763: 2761: 2758: 2757: 2751: 2748: 2746: 2743: 2741: 2738: 2736: 2733: 2731: 2728: 2726: 2723: 2721: 2718: 2716: 2713: 2711: 2708: 2706: 2703: 2701: 2698: 2696: 2693: 2691: 2688: 2686: 2683: 2681: 2678: 2676: 2673: 2671: 2668: 2666: 2663: 2661: 2658: 2655: 2653: 2650: 2648: 2645: 2643: 2640: 2638: 2635: 2633: 2630: 2628: 2625: 2623: 2620: 2618: 2615: 2613: 2610: 2608: 2605: 2604: 2602: 2599: 2598: 2592: 2589: 2587: 2584: 2582: 2579: 2577: 2574: 2572: 2569: 2567: 2564: 2562: 2559: 2557: 2554: 2552: 2549: 2547: 2544: 2542: 2539: 2537: 2534: 2532: 2529: 2527: 2524: 2522: 2519: 2517: 2514: 2512: 2509: 2507: 2504: 2502: 2499: 2497: 2494: 2492: 2489: 2487: 2484: 2482: 2479: 2477: 2474: 2472: 2469: 2467: 2464: 2462: 2459: 2457: 2454: 2452: 2449: 2447: 2446:Uttar Pradesh 2444: 2442: 2439: 2437: 2434: 2432: 2429: 2427: 2424: 2422: 2419: 2417: 2414: 2413: 2411: 2409:East Eurasia 2408: 2407: 2401: 2398: 2396: 2393: 2391: 2388: 2386: 2383: 2381: 2378: 2376: 2373: 2371: 2368: 2366: 2363: 2361: 2358: 2356: 2353: 2351: 2350:Rwala Bedouin 2348: 2346: 2343: 2341: 2338: 2336: 2333: 2331: 2328: 2326: 2323: 2321: 2318: 2316: 2315:Kenuzi Nubian 2313: 2311: 2308: 2306: 2303: 2301: 2298: 2296: 2293: 2291: 2288: 2286: 2283: 2281: 2278: 2276: 2273: 2271: 2268: 2266: 2263: 2262: 2260: 2255: 2254: 2248: 2245: 2243: 2240: 2238: 2235: 2233: 2230: 2228: 2225: 2223: 2220: 2218: 2215: 2213: 2210: 2208: 2205: 2203: 2202:Ashanti (Twi) 2200: 2198: 2195: 2193: 2190: 2188: 2185: 2182: 2180: 2177: 2175: 2172: 2170: 2167: 2165: 2162: 2160: 2157: 2155: 2152: 2150: 2147: 2145: 2142: 2140: 2137: 2135: 2132: 2130: 2127: 2125: 2122: 2120: 2117: 2115: 2112: 2111: 2109: 2106: 2105: 2102: 2100: 2095: 2093: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2076: 2072: 2068: 2057: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2038: 2033: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2012:among social 2011: 2010:relationships 2007: 2002: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1987: 1986:Margaret Mead 1983: 1982:Ruth Benedict 1979: 1975: 1974:United States 1971: 1967: 1963: 1959: 1957: 1953: 1952:ethnographies 1947: 1937: 1933: 1929: 1925: 1921: 1918: 1913: 1911: 1910:formal system 1907: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1888: 1878: 1876: 1872: 1868: 1864: 1851: 1848: 1846: 1843: 1840: 1838: 1835: 1833: 1830: 1828: 1825: 1823: 1820: 1818: 1815: 1813: 1810: 1808: 1805: 1803: 1800: 1798: 1795: 1793: 1790: 1787: 1784: 1782: 1778: 1775: 1772: 1769: 1767: 1764: 1762: 1759: 1757: 1754: 1752: 1749: 1747: 1744: 1742: 1739: 1738: 1731: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1716:biotechnology 1713: 1709: 1708:globalization 1705: 1704:postmodernism 1700: 1695: 1685: 1683: 1679: 1678:Victor Turner 1674: 1672: 1668: 1656: 1651: 1649: 1645: 1641: 1635: 1631: 1621: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1598:John Comaroff 1595: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1563: 1562: 1557: 1552: 1550: 1546: 1542: 1538: 1533: 1531: 1527: 1523: 1519: 1518:Peter Worsley 1515: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1495: 1493: 1492:Marvin Harris 1489: 1485: 1481: 1477: 1476:Lloyd Fallers 1473: 1467: 1463: 1459: 1455: 1445: 1443: 1439: 1438: 1433: 1432: 1426: 1424: 1420: 1419:Sigmund Freud 1416: 1415:Ruth Benedict 1412: 1411:Margaret Mead 1408: 1404: 1399: 1397: 1393: 1389: 1388:Ruth Benedict 1385: 1381: 1377: 1373: 1369: 1356: 1355:Ruth Benedict 1352: 1345: 1344:Margaret Mead 1341: 1337: 1333: 1331: 1326: 1321: 1319: 1312: 1308: 1303: 1293: 1291: 1287: 1283: 1279: 1275: 1271: 1267: 1263: 1249: 1246: 1243: 1239: 1235: 1231: 1218: 1215: 1213: 1210: 1208: 1207:Structuralism 1205: 1203: 1200: 1198: 1195: 1193: 1190: 1188: 1187:Functionalism 1185: 1183: 1180: 1178: 1175: 1173: 1170: 1168: 1165: 1164: 1157: 1155: 1149: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1126:ethnocentrism 1122: 1120: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1089: 1079: 1077: 1073: 1072:structuralism 1069: 1066: 1062: 1057: 1055: 1049: 1047: 1043: 1038: 1037:ethnographers 1034: 1028: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1010: 1006: 1001: 997: 995: 991: 987: 983: 973: 969: 967: 963: 959: 944: 941: 937: 931: 921: 918: 910: 900: 895: 891: 887: 886: 879: 870: 869: 861: 859: 855: 851: 847: 843: 838: 831: 827: 823: 821: 817: 813: 809: 805: 794: 789: 787: 782: 780: 775: 774: 772: 771: 764: 763:Organizations 761: 759: 756: 754: 751: 749: 746: 744: 741: 739: 736: 735: 729: 728: 721: 718: 716: 713: 711: 710:Structuralism 708: 706: 703: 701: 698: 696: 693: 691: 688: 686: 685:Functionalism 683: 681: 678: 676: 673: 671: 668: 666: 663: 661: 658: 656: 653: 651: 648: 646: 643: 641: 638: 637: 631: 630: 623: 619: 616: 614: 611: 609: 606: 604: 601: 599: 596: 594: 591: 589: 586: 584: 581: 577: 576:sociocultural 574: 573: 572: 569: 567: 564: 562: 559: 557: 554: 553: 547: 546: 539: 538:Emic and etic 536: 534: 533:Ethnocentrism 531: 529: 526: 524: 521: 519: 516: 514: 511: 509: 506: 504: 501: 499: 496: 492: 489: 488: 487: 484: 482: 481:Anthropometry 479: 478: 475: 470: 469: 462: 459: 457: 454: 452: 449: 447: 446:Ethnopoetical 444: 442: 439: 437: 434: 432: 429: 428: 425: 420: 419: 412: 409: 407: 404: 402: 401:Transpersonal 399: 397: 394: 392: 389: 387: 384: 382: 381:Psychological 379: 377: 374: 372: 369: 367: 364: 362: 359: 357: 354: 352: 349: 347: 344: 342: 341:Institutional 339: 337: 334: 332: 329: 327: 324: 322: 317: 315: 312: 310: 309:Environmental 307: 305: 302: 300: 297: 295: 292: 290: 287: 285: 282: 280: 277: 275: 272: 271: 265: 262: 260: 257: 256: 252: 251: 244: 241: 239: 236: 234: 231: 229: 226: 224: 221: 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