University - Knowledge

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of universities to relinquish the symmetry and comprehensiveness provided by the Aristotelian system, which was effective as a coherent system for understanding and interpreting the world. However, university professors still have some autonomy, at least in the sciences, to choose epistemological foundations and methods. For instance, Melanchthon and his disciples at University of Wittenberg were instrumental for integrating Copernican mathematical constructs into astronomical debate and instruction. Another example was the short-lived but fairly rapid adoption of Cartesian epistemology and methodology in European universities, and the debates surrounding that adoption, which led to more mechanistic approaches to scientific problems as well as demonstrated an openness to change. There are many examples which belie the commonly perceived intransigence of universities. Although universities may have been slow to accept new sciences and methodologies as they emerged, when they did accept new ideas it helped to convey legitimacy and respectability, and supported the scientific changes through providing a stable environment for instruction and material resources.

747:(approximately late 15th century to 1800), the universities of Europe would see a tremendous amount of growth, productivity and innovative research. At the end of the Middle Ages, about 400 years after the first European university was founded, there were 29 universities spread throughout Europe. In the 15th century, 28 new ones were created, with another 18 added between 1500 and 1625. This pace continued until by the end of the 18th century there were approximately 143 universities in Europe, with the highest concentrations in the German Empire (34), Italian countries (26), France (25), and Spain (23) – this was close to a 500% increase over the number of universities toward the end of the Middle Ages. This number does not include the numerous universities that disappeared, or institutions that merged with other universities during this time. The identification of a university was not necessarily obvious during the Early Modern period, as the term is applied to a burgeoning number of institutions. In fact, the term "university" was not always used to designate a higher education institution. In 894:

brought new ideas and led to a more creative university climate (as the notable list of scholars above attests to). A focus on knowledge coming from self, from the human, has a direct implication for new forms of scholarship and instruction, and was the foundation for what is commonly known as the humanities. This disposition toward knowledge manifested in not simply the translation and propagation of ancient texts, but also their adaptation and expansion. For instance, Vesalius was imperative for advocating the use of Galen, but he also invigorated this text with experimentation, disagreements and further research. The propagation of these texts, especially within the universities, was greatly aided by the emergence of the printing press and the beginning of the use of the vernacular, which allowed for the printing of relatively large texts at reasonable prices.

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knowledge construction, but also for the training of scholars within the higher education setting. The creation of new scientific constructs during the scientific revolution, and the epistemological challenges that were inherent within this creation, initiated the idea of both the autonomy of science and the hierarchy of the disciplines. Instead of entering higher education to become a "general scholar" immersed in becoming proficient in the entire curriculum, there emerged a type of scholar that put science first and viewed it as a vocation in itself. The divergence between those focused on science and those still entrenched in the idea of a general scholar exacerbated the epistemological tensions that were already beginning to emerge.

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study varied, depending on the university's focus. This led scholars to travel north or south based on their interests and means. The universities also awarded different types of degrees. English, French and German universities usually awarded bachelor's degrees, with the exception of degrees in theology, for which the doctorate was more common. Italian universities awarded primarily doctorates. The distinction can be attributed to the intent of the degree holder after graduation – in the north the focus tended to be on acquiring teaching positions, while in the south students often went on to professional positions. The structure of northern universities tended to be modeled after the system of faculty governance developed at the

657:'s works – more than 3000 pages of it would eventually be translated – fuelled a spirit of inquiry into natural processes that had already begun to emerge in the 12th century. Some scholars believe that these works represented one of the most important document discoveries in Western intellectual history. Richard Dales, for instance, calls the discovery of Aristotle's works "a turning point in the history of Western thought." After Aristotle re-emerged, a community of scholars, primarily communicating in Latin, accelerated the process and practice of attempting to reconcile the thoughts of Greek antiquity, and especially ideas related to understanding the natural world, with those of the church. The efforts of this " 1268: 1190: 951: 29: 555: 732: 1235: 1089: 799: 413: 782:, and changes in religious power and structure often adversely affected the societies that provided support for universities. Internal strife within the universities themselves, such as student brawling and absentee professors, acted to destabilize these institutions as well. Universities were also reluctant to give up older curricula, and the continued reliance on the works of Aristotle defied contemporary advancements in science and the arts. This era was also affected by the rise of the 340: 180: 7795: 6803: 5045: 786:. As universities increasingly came under state control, or formed under the auspices of the state, the faculty governance model (begun by the University of Paris) became more and more prominent. Although the older student-controlled universities still existed, they slowly started to move toward this structural organization. Control of universities still tended to be independent, although university leadership was increasingly appointed by the state. 6813: 6025: 883: 713:. Southern universities tended to be patterned after the student-controlled model begun at the University of Bologna. Among the southern universities, a further distinction has been noted between those of northern Italy, which followed the pattern of Bologna as a "self-regulating, independent corporation of scholars" and those of southern Italy and Iberia, which were "founded by royal and imperial charter to serve the needs of government." 924:

by private benefactors and designed to provide free education to the public, or established by local governments to provide a knowledge-hungry populace with an alternative to traditional universities. Even when universities supported new scientific endeavors, and the university provided foundational training and authority for the research and conclusions, they could not compete with the resources available through private benefactors.

826:. Humanist professors focused on the ability of students to write and speak with distinction, to translate and interpret classical texts, and to live honorable lives. Other scholars within the university were affected by the humanist approaches to learning and their linguistic expertise in relation to ancient texts, as well as the ideology that advocated the ultimate importance of those texts. Professors of medicine such as 260: 7805: 5055: 1061: 7783: 5034: 394:. Norman Daniel, however, views this argument as overstated. In 2013, Roy Lowe and Yoshihito claimed that the influences of scholarship from the Islamic world on the universities of Western Europe requires a reconsideration of the development of higher education, turning away from a concern with local institutional structures to a broader consideration within a global context. 2111:

original madaris and the creation of new institutions. This resulted in two different types of Islamic teaching institutions in al-Maghrib. The first type was derived from the fusion of old madaris with new universities. For example, Morocco transformed Al-Qarawiyin (859 A.D.) into a university under the supervision of the ministry of education in 1963.

822:. Aristotle was prevalent throughout the curriculum, while medicine also depended on Galen and Arabic scholarship. The importance of humanism for changing this state-of-affairs cannot be underestimated. Once humanist professors joined the university faculty, they began to transform the study of grammar and rhetoric through the 928:

orientation was emerging. The hierarchical place of theological knowledge had for the most part been displaced and the humanities had become a fixture, and a new openness was beginning to take hold in the construction and dissemination of knowledge that were to become imperative for the formation of the modern state.

2425:) that provided for at least one chair for one professor of law, income for other faculty or staff, scholarships for students, and funds for the maintenance of the building. Madrasas contained lodgings for the professor and some of his students. Subjects other than law were frequently taught in madrasas, and even 2582: 313:, in 1155 or 1158, which guaranteed the right of a traveling scholar to unhindered passage in the interests of education. Today, this is claimed as the origin of "academic freedom". This is now a widely accepted concept in international research. On 18 September 1988, 430 university rectors signed the 2454:

and the university. But in spite of the pitfalls inherent in such a study, albeit sketchy, the results which may be obtained are well worth the risks involved. In any case, one cannot avoid making comparisons when certain unwarranted statements have already been made and seem to be currently accepted

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In studying an institution which is foreign and remote in point of time, as is the case of the medieval madrasa, one runs the double risk of attributing to it characteristics borrowed from one's own institutions and one's own times. Thus gratuitous transfers may be made from one culture to the other,

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were university trained, of which approximately 45% held university posts. It was the case that the academic foundations remaining from the Middle Ages were stable, and they did provide for an environment that fostered considerable growth and development. There was considerable reluctance on the part

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Although the initial focus of the humanist scholars in the university was the discovery, exposition and insertion of ancient texts and languages into the university, and the ideas of those texts into society generally, their influence was ultimately quite progressive. The emergence of classical texts

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As for the nature of its curriculum, it was typical of other major madrasahs such as al-Azhar and Al Quaraouiyine, though many of the texts used at the institution came from Muslim Spain...Al Quaraouiyine began its life as a small mosque constructed in 859 C.E. by means of an endowment bequeathed by

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and EEA member states and citizens from Switzerland remain exempted from tuition fees, and the amounts of public grants granted to promising foreign students were increased to offset some of the impact. The situation in Germany is similar; public universities usually do not charge tuition fees apart

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The funding and organization of universities varies widely between different countries around the world. In some countries universities are predominantly funded by the state, while in others funding may come from donors or from fees which students attending the university must pay. In some countries

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The epistemological tensions between scientists and universities were also heightened by the economic realities of research during this time, as individual scientists, associations and universities were vying for limited resources. There was also competition from the formation of new colleges funded

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have argued that the overt traditionalism of universities inhibited attempts to re-conceptualize nature and knowledge and caused an indelible tension between universities and scientists. This resistance to changes in science may have been a significant factor in driving many scientists away from the

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Although the structural model provided by the University of Paris, where student members are controlled by faculty "masters", provided a standard for universities, the application of this model took at least three different forms. There were universities that had a system of faculties whose teaching

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There is no indication, however, that up until around 1180, the Bolognese law schools were anything other than private schools opened and run by each master after his own fashion, gathering together the students that had entered into an agreement with him and paid him fees (collectae) in return for

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The whole body of teachers and scholars engaged, at a particular place, in giving and receiving instruction in the higher branches of learning; such persons associated together as a society or corporate body, with definite organization and acknowledged powers and privileges (esp. that of conferring

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as an Institution (Deemed-to-be-university). Institutions that are 'deemed-to-be-university' enjoy the academic status and the privileges of a university. Through this provision many schools that are commercial in nature and have been established just to exploit the demand for higher education have

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Regardless of the way the tension between universities, individual scientists, and the scientific revolution itself is perceived, there was a discernible impact on the way that university education was constructed. Aristotelian epistemology provided a coherent framework not simply for knowledge and

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All over Europe, rulers and city governments began to create universities to satisfy a European thirst for knowledge, and the belief that society would benefit from the scholarly expertise generated from these institutions. Princes and leaders of city governments perceived the potential benefits of

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Feingold, M. (1991). Tradition vs novelty: universities and scientific societies in the early modern period. In P. Barker & R. Ariew (Eds.), Revolution and continuity: essays in the history and philosophy of early modern science, Studies in philosophy and the history of philosophy. Washington,

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the birth of the University of Paris can be interpreted as a kind of compromise between the parties involved. It allowed the masters, and the masters of arts in particular, certainly as early as 1208–10, to form themselves into an autonomous guild, to endow themselves with statues, to co-opt their

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In Germany, universities are institutions of higher education which have the power to confer bachelor, master and PhD degrees. They are explicitly recognised as such by law and cannot be founded without government approval. The term Universität (i.e. the German term for university) is protected by

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systems are ruled over by government-run higher education boards. They review financial requests and budget proposals and then allocate funds for each university in the system. They also approve new programs of instruction and cancel or make changes in existing programs. In addition, they plan for

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played a significant role in university curriculum; however, the role of religion in research universities decreased during that century. By the end of the 19th century, the German university model had spread around the world. Universities concentrated on science in the 19th and 20th centuries and

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were used for medicine. Outside of these commonalities, great differences separated north and south, primarily in subject matter. Italian universities focused on law and medicine, while the northern universities focused on the arts and theology. The quality of instruction in the different areas of

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with less research and the research undertaken being highly practical. Hochschule can refer to various kinds of institutions, often specialised in a certain field (e.g. music, fine arts, business). They might or might not have the power to award PhD degrees, depending on the respective government

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In the early 21st century, concerns were raised over the increasing managerialisation and standardisation of universities worldwide. Neo-liberal management models have in this sense been critiqued for creating "corporate universities (where) power is transferred from faculty to managers, economic

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Examining the influence of humanism on scholars in medicine, mathematics, astronomy and physics may suggest that humanism and universities were a strong impetus for the scientific revolution. Although the connection between humanism and the scientific discovery may very well have begun within the

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The Adjustments of Original Institutions of the Higher Learning: the Madrasah. Significantly, the institutional adjustments of the madrasahs affected both the structure and the content of these institutions. In terms of structure, the adjustments were twofold: the reorganization of the available

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In many countries, students are required to pay tuition fees. Many students look to get 'student grants' to cover the cost of university. In 2016, the average outstanding student loan balance per borrower in the United States was US$ 30,000. In many U.S. states, costs are anticipated to rise for

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on universities in the United Kingdom concluded that such institutions should have four main "objectives essential to any properly balanced system: instruction in skills; the promotion of the general powers of the mind so as to produce not mere specialists but rather cultivated men and women; to

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In modern usage, the word has come to mean "an institution of higher education offering tuition in mainly non-vocational subjects and typically having the power to confer degrees". The earlier emphasis on its corporate organization is no longer the primary feature by which a modern university is

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has been created for institutions of higher education that are not universities, but work at a very high standard in a specific area of study ("An Institution of Higher Education, other than universities, working at a very high standard in specific area of study, can be declared by the Central

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or quasi-guild system. This facet of the university system did not change due to its peripheral standing in an industrialized economy; as commerce developed between towns in Europe during the Middle Ages, though other guilds stood in the way of developing commerce and therefore were eventually

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having a scholarly expertise developed with the ability to address difficult problems and achieve desired ends. The emergence of humanism was essential to this understanding of the possible utility of universities as well as the revival of interest in knowledge gained from ancient Greek texts.

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Other historians find incongruity in the proposition that the very place where the vast number of the scholars that influenced the scientific revolution received their education should also be the place that inhibits their research and the advancement of science. In fact, more than 80% of the

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By the end of the early modern period, the structure and orientation of higher education had changed in ways that are eminently recognizable for the modern context. Aristotle was no longer a force providing the epistemological and methodological focus for universities and a more mechanistic

879:(as did Melanchthon), also had humanist training. The task of the humanists was to slowly permeate the university; to increase the humanist presence in professorships and chairs, syllabi and textbooks so that published works would demonstrate the humanistic ideal of science and scholarship. 1367:

law and any use without official approval is a criminal offense. Most of them are public institutions, though a few private universities exist. Such universities are always research universities. Apart from these universities, Germany has other institutions of higher education (Hochschule,

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and Arabic studies throughout the history of Morocco. There were also other religious schools like the madras of ibn yusuf and other schools in the sus. This system of basic education called al-ta'lim al-aSil was funded by the sultans of Morocco and many famous traditional families. After

623:, is widely recognized as the oldest university that is independent of any direct authority, such as kings, emperors, or religious organizations. Bologna's claim to being the oldest university is based on its unique characteristics, such as its autonomy and its ability to grant degrees. 2992:

There were schools in operation in Oxford from at least as early as the middle of the twelfth century; an embryonic university organization was in existence from 1200, even before the first papal statutes (1214), which were complemented by royal charters, had established its first

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Professor Makdisi argues that there is a missing link in the development of Western scholasticism, and that Arab influences explain the "dramatically abrupt" appearance of the "sic et non" method. Many medievalists will think the case overstated, and doubt that there is much to

539:, most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools, usually when these schools were deemed to have become primarily sites of higher education. Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by 1112:

is generally a university created or run by a national state but at the same time represents a state autonomic institution which functions as a completely independent body inside of the same state. Some national universities are closely associated with national

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and perhaps from cathedral schools. It is possible, however, that the development of cathedral schools into universities was quite rare, with the University of Paris being an exception. Later they were also founded by kings - but with prior papal approval.

661:" were focused on applying Aristotelian logic and thoughts about natural processes to biblical passages and attempting to prove the viability of those passages through reason. This became the primary mission of lecturers, and the expectation of students. 1080:

justifications dominate, and the familiar 'bottom line' eclipses pedagogical or intellectual concerns". Academics' understanding of time, pedagogical pleasure, vocation, and collegiality have been cited as possible ways of alleviating such problems.

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elsewhere. The students, on the other hand, began to group themselves in nations, according to their places of origin (we hear of the Lombard nation as early as 1191), and these were soon federated into 'universities' with elected rectors at their

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and William Cop were often trained in and taught from a humanist perspective as well as translated important ancient medical texts. The critical mindset imparted by humanism was imperative for changes in universities and scholarship. For instance,

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students as a result of decreased state funding given to public universities. Many universities in the United States offer students the opportunity to apply for financial scholarships to help pay for tuition based on academic achievement.

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Bylebyl, J. J. (2009). Disputation and description in the renaissance pulse controversy. In A. Wear, R. K. French, & I. M. Lonie (Eds.), The medical renaissance of the sixteenth century (1st ed., pp. 223-245). Cambridge University

375:. They date the transformation of the madrasa of al-Qarawiyyin into a university to its modern reorganization in 1963. In the wake of these reforms, al-Qarawiyyin was officially renamed "University of Al Quaraouiyine" two years later. 7756: 2910:

his teaching. The crucial change would seem to have taken place around the years 1180–90. ... The masters, who were themselves mainly Bolognese in origin, agreed from 1189 to swear an oath to the commune not to seek to transfer the

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abolished, the scholars guild did not. According to historian Elliot Krause, "The university and scholars' guilds held onto their power over membership, training, and workplace because early capitalism was not interested in it."

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the further coordinated growth and development of the various institutions of higher education in the state or country. However, many public universities in the world have a considerable degree of financial, research and

1425:. In Ghana, New Zealand, Bangladesh and in South Africa it is sometimes called "varsity" (although this has become uncommon in New Zealand in recent years). "Varsity" was also common usage in the UK in the 19th century. 794:

where teaching and organization was decentralized and knowledge was more of a generalist nature. There were also universities that combined these models, using the collegiate model but having a centralized organization.

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taught classes; evidence of these immediate forerunners of the later university at many places dates back to the 6th century. In Europe, young men proceeded to university when they had completed their study of the

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having independence from the ecclesiastic schools and issuing secular as well as non-secular degrees (with teaching conducted by both clergy and non-clergy): grammar, rhetoric, logic, theology, canon law, notarial

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maintain research in balance with teaching, since teaching should not be separated from the advancement of learning and the search for truth; and to transmit a common culture and common standards of citizenship."

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Europe established schools in association with their cathedrals to educate priests, and from these emerged eventually the first universities of Europe, which began forming in the eleventh and twelfth centuries.

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the vast majority of students attend university in their local town, while in other countries universities attract students from all over the world, and may provide university accommodation for their students.

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in the British education system, the English term used for these German institutions is usually 'university of applied sciences'. They can confer master's degrees but no PhDs. They are similar to the model of

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Gascoigne, J. (1990). A reappraisal of the role of the universities in the Scientific Revolution. In D. C. Lindberg & R. S. Westman (Eds.), Reappraisals of the Scientific Revolution, pp. 245-248.

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Gascoigne, J. (1990). A reappraisal of the role of the universities in the Scientific Revolution. In D. C. Lindberg & R. S. Westman (Eds.), Reappraisals of the Scientific Revolution, pp. 210-229.

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Gascoigne, J. (1990). A reappraisal of the role of the universities in the Scientific Revolution. In D. C. Lindberg & R. S. Westman (Eds.), Reappraisals of the Scientific Revolution, pp. 208-209.

1289:(TEQSA) is Australia's independent national regulator of the higher education sector. Students rights within university are also protected by the Education Services for Overseas Students Act (ESOS). 1021:

model and pioneered the adoption of that model by most American universities. When Johns Hopkins was founded in 1876, "nearly the entire faculty had studied in Germany." In Britain, the move from

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Frijhoff, W. (1996). Patterns. In H. D. Ridder-Symoens (Ed.), Universities in early modern Europe, 1500-1800, A history of the university in Europe. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, p. 65.

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Frijhoff, W. (1996). Patterns. In H. D. Ridder-Symoens (Ed.), Universities in early modern Europe, 1500-1800, A history of the university in Europe. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, p. 47.

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Frijhoff, W. (1996). Patterns. In H. D. Ridder-Symoens (Ed.), Universities in early modern Europe, 1500-1800, A history of the university in Europe. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, p. 75.

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Ruegg, W. (1996). Themes. In H. D. Ridder-Symoens (Ed.), Universities in Early Modern Europe, 1500-1800, A history of the university in Europe. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, pp. 33-39.

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are privately funded and generally have broader independence from state policies. However, they may have less independence from business corporations depending on the source of their finances.

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by Fatima al-Fihri in 859 CE, a university, although Jacques Verger writes that this is done out of scholarly convenience. Several scholars consider that al-Qarawiyyin was founded and run as a

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Ruegg, W. (1992). Epilogue: the rise of humanism. In H. D. Ridder-Symoens (Ed.), Universities in the Middle Ages, A history of the university in Europe. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.

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legislation. If they award PhD degrees, their rank is considered equivalent to that of universities proper (Universität), if not, their rank is equivalent to universities of applied sciences.

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The propagation of universities was not necessarily a steady progression, as the 17th century was rife with events that adversely affected university expansion. Many wars, and especially the

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Rubenstein, R. E. (2003). Aristotle's children: how Christians, Muslims, and Jews rediscovered ancient wisdom and illuminated the dark ages (1st ed.). Orlando, Florida: Harcourt, pp. 16-17.

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Rüegg, W. (2003), Mythologies and Historiography of the Beginnings, pp 4-34 in H. De Ridder-Symoens, editor, A History of the University in Europe; Vol 1, Cambridge University Press. p. 12

3203: 1823: 1977:...In the Middle Ages: a body of teachers and students engaged in giving and receiving instruction in the higher branches of study … and regarded as a scholastic guild or corporation. 1452:

from a small administrative fee. For degrees of a postgraduate professional level sometimes tuition fees are levied. Private universities, however, almost always charge tuition fees.

7406: 6384: 1209:; at least one vice president, vice-chancellor, or vice-rector; and deans of various divisions. Universities are generally divided into a number of academic departments, schools or 2450:

and the time factor may be ignored or dismissed as being without significance. One cannot therefore be too careful in attempting a comparative study of these two institutions: the

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Daun, H. and Arjmand, R. (2005), Islamic Education, pp 377-388 in J. Zajda, editor, International Handbook of Globalisation, Education and Policy Research. Netherlands: Springer.

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which was created almost immediately and specifically in answer to the non-denominational universities which had been set up in Ireland in 1850. In the years leading up to the

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Many of the medieval universities in Western Europe were born under the aegis of the Catholic Church, usually as cathedral schools or by papal bull as Studia Generali.

642:, recently discovered at Pisa. Lay students arrived in the city from many lands entering into a contract to gain this knowledge, eventually organising themselves into 839:

was educated in a humanist fashion before producing a translation of Galen, whose ideas he verified through his own dissections. In law, Andreas Alciatus infused the

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The definition of a university varies widely, even within some countries. Where there is clarification, it is usually set by a government agency. For example:

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Riché, Pierre (1978): "Education and Culture in the Barbarian West: From the Sixth through the Eighth Century", Columbia: University of South Carolina Press,

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Verger, Jacques. "The Universities and Scholasticism," in The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume V c. 1198–c. 1300. Cambridge University Press, 2007, 257.

2533:'s residence was kept in Fès, the new university initially had four colleges located in major regions of the country known for their religious influences and 3808: 941: 1447:

were entirely without tuition fees until around 2005. Denmark, Sweden and Finland then moved to put in place tuition fees for foreign students. Citizens of

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is often used instead: "When I was in college..."). In Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the United Kingdom, Nigeria, the Netherlands, Spain and the

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of peoples which was in demand across Europe for those defending the right of incipient nations against empire and church. The University of Bologna, or

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Maggie Berg & Barbara Seeber. The Slow Professor: Challenging the Culture of Speed in the Academy. Toronto: Toronto University Press. 2016. (passim)

684:) and southern universities (primarily Italy) did have many elements in common. Latin was the language of the university, used for all texts, lectures, 6128: 3930: 3648:

Maggie Berg & Barbara Seeber. The Slow Professor: Challenging the Culture of Speed in the Academy, p. x. Toronto: Toronto University Press. 2016.

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There are several major exceptions on tuition fees. In many European countries, it is possible to study without tuition fees. Public universities in

1177:, a post-graduate university specialized in the social sciences, is officially an intergovernmental organization, set up by the member states of the 1867: 3546: 1783: 2529:

for a modern country while maintaining an emphasis on Islamic studies. Hence, al-qarawiyin university was founded in February 1963 and, while the

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The university culture developed differently in northern Europe than it did in the south, although the northern (primarily Germany, France and

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addressed a very specific curriculum; this model tended to train specialists. There was a collegiate or tutorial model based on the system at

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Higher education has always been an integral part of Morocco, going back to the ninth century when the Karaouine Mosque was established. The

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as a highly influential guide for connecting theology back to original texts, which was important for the reform at Protestant universities.

241:) became denominated by this general term. Like other guilds, they were self-regulating and determined the qualifications of their members. 2864:

Johnson, P. (2000). The Renaissance : a short history. Modern Library chronicles (Modern Library ed.). New York: Modern Library, p. 9.

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confines of the university, the connection has been commonly perceived as having been severed by the changing nature of science during the

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engages in efforts to resolve the pressing global problems that are of concern to the United Nations, its peoples and member states. The

722: 646:, divided between that of the Cismontanes and that of the Ultramontanes. The students "had all the power ... and dominated the masters". 49:, meaning "nourishing mother" in Latin, is one of the most enduring symbols of the university. The phrase was first used to describe the 4067: 1605: 1664:

All the great European universities-Oxford, to Paris, to Cologne, to Prague, to Bologna—were established with close ties to the Church.

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as Royal Offices: Mediterranean Universities of Medieval Europe", in Courtenay, William J.; Miethke, Jürgen; Priest, David B. (eds.),

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Lowe, Roy; Yasuhara, Yoshihito (2013), "The origins of higher learning: time for a new historiography?", in Feingold, Mordecai (ed.),

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Westfall, R. S. (1977). The construction of modern science: mechanisms and mechanics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 105.

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and by the 19th century, the German and the French university models had arisen. The German, or Humboldtian model, was conceived by

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independence, al-qarawiyin maintained its reputation, but it seemed important to transform it into a university that would prepare

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The Quaraouiyine Mosque, founded in 859, is the most famous mosque of Morocco and attracted continuous investment by Muslim rulers.

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Thomas Oestreich (1913). "Pope St. Gregory VII". In Herbermann, Charles. Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.

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university and toward private benefactors, usually in princely courts, and associations with newly forming scientific societies.

4019:. Vol. 3: Universities in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries (1800–1945). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2954:

new colleagues, and to elude the direct control and exactations of the chancellor of Notre-Dame – in short, to form a university

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Although there are antecedents, the modern university is generally regarded as a formal institution that has its origin in the

6692: 4540: 4043: 4024: 4014: 4003: 3993: 3982: 3972: 3961: 3942: 3920: 3901: 3729: 2972: 2933: 2889: 2674:

Daniel, Norman (1984). "Review of "The Rise of Colleges. Institutions of Learning in Islam and the West by George Makdisi"".

2658: 2562: 2499: 2478: 2383: 2304: 2272: 2246: 2187: 2162: 2014: 1817: 1320: 3004:

Makdisi, G. (1981), Rise of Colleges: Institutions of Learning in Islam and the West. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

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is chartered as a university and umbrella organization dedicated to sustainable development in signatory countries, and the

6950: 4903: 3377:

Ornstein, M. (1928). The role of scientific societies in the seventeenth century. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

1472: 1332: 1262: 1137:, and in no small part a result of the Gaelic Romantic revivalists, the NUI collected a large amount of information on the 551:

ordered the regulated establishment of cathedral schools that transformed themselves into the first European universities.

334: 275: 3913:

Universities and the Capitalist State: Corporate Liberalism and the Reconstruction of American Higher Education, 1894–1928

1991:

degrees), and forming an institution for the promotion of education in the higher or more important branches of learning….

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of 1918 and its posterior reforms by incorporating values that sought for a more equal and laic higher education system.

1005:

in universities. The French university model involved strict discipline and control over every aspect of the university.

378:

Some scholars, including George Makdisi, have argued that early medieval universities were influenced by the madrasas in

3830: 2077: 1075:

is well known for its highly modern look. The buildings (part of central campus of university) in picture are from 2003.

7844: 7306: 3396:

Westman, R. S. (1975). "The Melanchthon circle:, rheticus, and the Wittenberg interpretation of the Copernicantheory".

3322:

Grendler, P. F. (2002). The universities of the Italian renaissance. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, p. 197.

3313:

Grendler, P. F. (2002). The universities of the Italian renaissance. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, p. 223.

3041: 2777: 1517: 1348: 912: 1954: 1923: 7746: 7629: 7488: 4123: 3588: 3540: 2985: 2946: 2902: 2827: 2801: 2752: 2724: 2576: 2265:

A History Of African Higher Education From Antiquity To The Present: A Critical Synthesis Studies in Higher Education

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A History of the University in Europe. Vol. I: Universities in the Middle Ages. Cambridge University Press, 2003, 35

1165:, which offers training in European law to lawyers, judges, barristers, solicitors, in-house counsel and academics. 664: 347:, founded in 859 A.D., was transformed into a university under the supervision of the Ministry of Education in 1963. 7321: 7216: 5058: 4967: 3804: 2841:

Paris and Oxford Universities in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries. An Institutional and Intellectual History

1201:

Although each institution is organized differently, nearly all universities have a board of trustees; a president,

937: 516: 421: 417: 3763: 3359:

Füssel, S. (2005). Gutenberg and the Impact of Printing (English ed.). Aldershot, Hampshire: Ashgate Pub., p. 145.

3340:

Grendler, P. F. (2004). The universities of the Renaissance and Reformation. Renaissance Quarterly, 57, pp. 12-13.

3092:

Grendler, P. F. (2004). "The universities of the Renaissance and Reformation". Renaissance Quarterly, 57, pp. 2-8.

2455:

without question. The most unwarranted of these statements is the one which makes of the "madrasa" a "university".

7808: 7371: 7189: 7087: 6900: 5387: 5153: 2295: 1487: 352: 32: 3694:"Massachusetts Board of Education: Degree-granting regulations for independent institutions of higher education" 3224:

Grendler, P. F. (2004). The universities of the Renaissance and Reformation. Renaissance Quarterly, 57, pp. 1-3.

3065:

Grendler, P. F. (2004). "The universities of the Renaissance and Reformation". Renaissance Quarterly, 57, pp. 2.

1409:

may be used to describe a phase in one's life: "When I was at university..." (in the United States and Ireland,

7326: 7148: 6925: 6527: 6148: 4550: 3869: 3150: 1158: 1130: 1126: 3251:

Grendler, P. F. (2004). The universities of the Renaissance and Reformation. Renaissance Quarterly, 57, p. 23.

256:, where this form of legal organisation was prevalent and from where the institution spread around the world. 7599: 7551: 7508: 6431: 4962: 2358:

in which the other Islamic sciences, including literary and philosophical ones, were ancillary subjects only.

1360: 1174: 407: 3778: 626:

The conventional date for the start of teaching at Bologna of 1088, or 1087 according to some, records when

7163: 7115: 7012: 7007: 6732: 6637: 5294: 4309: 2596:

Makdisi, George (April–June 1989). "Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West".

1542: 1512: 1382: 520: 210:

refers in general to "a number of persons associated into one body, a society, company, community, guild,

7829: 7574: 5578: 5132: 5127: 3145:, Education and Society in the Middle Ages and Renaissance, vol. 10, Leiden: Brill, pp. 84–85, 1272: 360: 344: 20: 3831:"Students at Public Universities, Colleges Will Bear the Burden of Reduced Funding for Higher Education" 3083:

Dales, R. C. (1990). Medieval discussions of the eternity of the world (Vol. 18). Brill Archive, p. 144.

2852:

Univerzita Karlova získala dva unikátní dokumenty z historie české a evropské vzdělanosti, 29. 6. 2018.

2029:

Malagola, C. (1888), Statuti delle Università e dei Collegi dello Studio Bolognese. Bologna: Zanichelli.

7751: 6972: 6188: 5711: 5327: 5195: 5185: 4843: 4238: 2977: 2938: 2894: 2650: 2350:

are taught, i.e. a college for higher studies, as opposed to an elementary school of traditional type (

315: 3667: 3165: 2429:

seances were held in them, but there could be no madrasa without law as technically the major subject.

2103:

Belhachmi, Zakia: "Gender, Education, and Feminist Knowledge in al-Maghrib (North Africa) – 1950–70",

7834: 6687: 6652: 6607: 6423: 6298: 6288: 6093: 5763: 5673: 5658: 5407: 4248: 4151: 2626: 1983: 1414: 1351:) into large research universities with many PhD-granting programs and medical schools (for example, 1170: 1042: 1037:, a movement initiated in 1960 by Sir Keith Murray (chairman of the University Grants Committee) and 4092: 3693: 950: 7660: 7498: 7401: 7311: 7261: 7221: 7072: 6577: 6572: 6467: 6459: 6303: 6193: 6123: 5623: 5212: 5158: 4570: 4486: 4258: 1497: 1267: 1014: 990: 954: 876: 736: 1189: 7396: 7386: 7241: 7042: 7002: 6982: 6962: 6865: 6697: 6672: 6587: 6567: 6517: 6487: 6477: 6363: 6283: 6248: 6233: 6218: 6173: 6108: 5978: 5618: 5352: 5237: 5084: 5018: 4638: 4605: 4384: 1347:

connotes a four-year, degree-granting institution. Universities may be sub-classified (as in the

1239: 1162: 887: 524: 429: 116: 74: 3935:

Compromised Campus: The Collaboration of Universities with the Intelligence Community, 1945–1955

2314:, known today as Al Qayrawaniyan University, became part of the state university system in 1947. 1355:); "comprehensive" universities that have some PhDs but are not geared toward research (such as 554: 319:, marking the 900th anniversary of Bologna's foundation. The number of universities signing the 7723: 7668: 7468: 7381: 7296: 7271: 7153: 6977: 6783: 6662: 6657: 6537: 6238: 5985: 5668: 5663: 5302: 5272: 5267: 5252: 5227: 5168: 5163: 4848: 4426: 4379: 2336: 1706:

Sciences in the Universities of Europe, Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries: Academic Landscapes

1462: 1356: 1276: 1202: 673: 120: 3859: 3619: 3261:

Scott, J. C. (2006). "The mission of the university: Medieval to Postmodern transformations".

3102:

Scott, J. C. (2006). "The mission of the university: Medieval to Postmodern transformations".

814:

Early Modern universities initially continued the curriculum and research of the Middle Ages:

115:, which roughly means "community of teachers and scholars". Universities typically offer both 7713: 7703: 7688: 7483: 7346: 7281: 7251: 7226: 7158: 7057: 7052: 7027: 6885: 6677: 6632: 6612: 6602: 6502: 6338: 6313: 6163: 6158: 6138: 6103: 6088: 5653: 5633: 5472: 5377: 5347: 5247: 5222: 5048: 4685: 4522: 4431: 4419: 4116: 3894:

The Knowledge Factory: Dismantling the Corporate University and Creating True Higher Learning

2967: 2928: 2884: 1522: 1502: 1146: 1022: 899: 654: 567: 528: 304: 184: 134: 98: 50: 38: 7143: 4061: 3528: 1599: 28: 7718: 7693: 7673: 7634: 7533: 7356: 7286: 7266: 7082: 7032: 6992: 6945: 6940: 6930: 6915: 6910: 6905: 6890: 6875: 6870: 6860: 6855: 6850: 6845: 6702: 6617: 6597: 6482: 6472: 6323: 6293: 6278: 6263: 6253: 6243: 6208: 6203: 6153: 6098: 6073: 5961: 5951: 5678: 5490: 5462: 5452: 5412: 5282: 5277: 5257: 5217: 5137: 4858: 4853: 4712: 4697: 4665: 4650: 4633: 4512: 4499: 4394: 4253: 4243: 2520:

in the middle of the ninth century. It has been a destination for students and scholars of

1507: 1492: 1297: 1194: 986: 966: 807: 791: 763: 669: 637: 618: 593: 532: 283: 271: 5701: 3954:

The First Universities: Studium Generale and the Origins of University Education in Europe

827: 8: 7734: 7698: 7678: 7609: 7528: 7301: 7291: 7236: 7231: 7168: 7110: 7077: 7067: 7047: 7037: 7022: 7017: 6997: 6967: 6935: 6920: 6895: 6831: 6757: 6747: 6682: 6647: 6582: 6562: 6552: 6512: 6497: 6492: 6333: 6328: 6268: 6223: 6183: 6078: 6059: 5773: 5685: 5638: 5588: 5536: 5531: 5510: 5432: 5342: 5322: 5312: 5202: 4930: 4873: 4404: 4399: 4336: 4220: 2471:

A History Of African Higher Education From Antiquity To The Present: A Critical Synthesis

1527: 1482: 1300:

and was once reserved for doctorate-granting research institutions. Some states, such as

1109: 1093: 1018: 945: 903: 868: 852: 803: 744: 710: 589: 578: 559: 456: 403: 229:

with collective legal rights (these rights were usually guaranteed by charters issued by

42: 3514:

Death of Guilds:Professions, States, and The Advance of Capitalism, 1930 to The Present}

7798: 7683: 7523: 7513: 7503: 7493: 7351: 7276: 7062: 6987: 6957: 6788: 6707: 6667: 6642: 6622: 6557: 6532: 6522: 6507: 6308: 6258: 6213: 6198: 6178: 6168: 6143: 6083: 5778: 5721: 5566: 5417: 5367: 5317: 5262: 5207: 5119: 5077: 4943: 4913: 4878: 4812: 4628: 4560: 4451: 4324: 4299: 4268: 4036:

Higher Education and the Growth of Knowledge: A Historical Outline of Aims and Tensions

3494: 3413: 3278: 3119: 2691: 2613: 2204:

Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures: Economics, education, mobility, and space

2124: 2105:

Journal of Middle Eastern and North African Intellectual and Cultural Studies, Vol. 2–3

1234: 1223: 1210: 1064: 962: 864: 823: 815: 689: 82: 3469:

See; Baldwin, M (1995). "The snakestone experiments: an early modern medical debate".

7708: 7604: 7556: 7478: 7246: 6812: 6627: 6592: 6547: 6542: 6451: 6318: 6228: 6118: 6024: 5956: 5768: 5750: 5628: 5598: 5571: 5561: 5551: 5546: 5515: 5447: 5437: 5422: 5382: 5190: 5173: 4883: 4863: 4717: 4707: 4670: 4565: 4374: 4346: 4228: 4179: 4142: 4039: 4020: 3999: 3978: 3957: 3938: 3916: 3897: 3889: 3536: 3486: 3417: 3282: 3146: 3123: 3037: 3022:

Huff, T. (2003), The Rise of Early Modern Science. Cambridge University Press, p. 122

2981: 2942: 2898: 2823: 2797: 2773: 2748: 2720: 2654: 2572: 2568: 2495: 2474: 2379: 2300: 2290: 2268: 2242: 2183: 2158: 2044: 2010: 1875: 1845: 1813: 1734: 1709: 1681: 1653: 1625: 1547: 1352: 1327: 1214: 1206: 1101: 806:– Switzerland's oldest university (1460). The university is among the birthplaces of 748: 536: 383: 309: 3733: 6028: 5944: 5885: 5648: 5643: 5613: 5500: 5495: 5457: 5362: 5337: 5242: 4993: 4925: 4908: 4868: 4822: 4768: 4753: 4731: 4702: 4577: 4356: 4341: 4293: 4164: 4109: 3580: 3498: 3478: 3405: 3270: 3111: 2683: 2605: 2530: 2521: 2347: 2318: 2175: 2136: 1906: 1552: 1444: 1434: 1046: 994: 982: 836: 771: 754: 731: 566:

The first universities in Europe with a form of corporate/guild structure were the

544: 509: 433: 300: 78: 3604: 5608: 5603: 5485: 5480: 5402: 5397: 5392: 5372: 5332: 4920: 4802: 4758: 4748: 4582: 4461: 4082: 3866: 2442: 2004: 1871: 1862: 1790: 1532: 1305: 1292:

In the United States there is no nationally standardized definition for the term

1088: 860: 818:, logic, medicine, theology, mathematics, astronomy, astrology, law, grammar and 759:

was still often used, while "Academy" was common in Northern European countries.

547:

was crucial in promoting and regulating the concept of modern university, as his

437: 127: 94: 3779:"'Deemed' status distributed freely during Arjun Singh's tenure - LearnHub News" 2006:

A History of the University in Europe: Volume 1, Universities in the Middle Ages

1864:

A History of the University in Europe: Volume 1, Universities in the Middle Ages

248:

The original Latin word referred to degree-awarding institutions of learning in

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in Italy is the world's oldest state-funded university in continuous operation.

253: 249: 66: 5706: 3569: 2794:

A History of the University in Europe. Vol. 1: Universities in the Middle Ages

2155:

A History of the University in Europe. Vol. I: Universities in the Middle Ages

1157:

Universities created by bilateral or multilateral treaties between states are

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Managing the University Campus: Information to Support Real Estate Decisions

5801: 5731: 5593: 4983: 4675: 4660: 4600: 4466: 4314: 4283: 4187: 4169: 1844:

Hunt Janin: "The university in medieval life, 1179–1499", McFarland, 2008,

842: 783: 766:, disrupted the university landscape throughout Europe at different times. 688:

and examinations. Professors lectured on the books of Aristotle for logic,

499: 372: 174: 5726: 3490: 3274: 3115: 2140: 1755:"The University from the 12th to the 20th century - University of Bologna" 179: 6816: 5583: 4587: 4273: 2792:

Rüegg, Walter: "Foreword. The University as a European Institution", in:

2394: 2322: 1304:, will only grant a school "university status" if it grants at least two 1034: 697: 693: 685: 631: 606: 540: 432:

tradition. European higher education took place for hundreds of years in

387: 356: 339: 267: 215: 211: 2537:. These colleges were kuliyat al-shari's in Fès, kuliyat uSul al-din in 1013:

became increasingly accessible to the masses. In the United States, the

5556: 4807: 3755: 2624:

Makdisi, John A. (June 1999). "The Islamic Origins of the Common Law".

2410: 2039:

Rüegg, W. (2003). "Chapter 1: Themes". In De Ridder-Symoens, H. (ed.).

1958: 1927: 1477: 1343:

generally refers to a two-year, non-degree-granting institution, while

1002: 503: 480: 476: 379: 263: 46: 2695: 2617: 2538: 147:, which was founded in 1088, is the first university in the sense of: 5794: 5357: 5100: 4530: 4159: 2542: 2526: 1911:

Medieval Foundations of the Western Intellectual Tradition, 400-1400,

1537: 1122: 1118: 1026: 882: 612: 492: 468: 299:

An important idea in the definition of a university is the notion of

86: 2346:, in modern usage, the name of an institution of learning where the 1381:

means a higher education institution which is similar to the former

5232: 5013: 4763: 4409: 4060: 3482: 3409: 2687: 2609: 2397:. The madrasa was an educational institution in which Islamic law ( 2063:

Watson, P. (2005), Ideas. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, page 373

1598: 1219: 1114: 1097: 1009: 819: 779: 705: 627: 484: 464: 391: 90: 2545:(all founded in 1963), and kuliyat al-shari'a in Ait Melloul near 5427: 4778: 4773: 4369: 4364: 3782: 2534: 2509: 2451: 2418: 2390: 2343: 2311: 2153:

Verger, Jacques: "Patterns", in: Ridder-Symoens, Hilde de (ed.):

1731:

First Peoples of the Americas and the European Age of Exploration

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humanist writings were paramount to his reputation as a jurist.

603:). The University of Bologna began as a law school teaching the 498:

The earliest universities were developed under the aegis of the

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Makdisi, George: "Madrasa and University in the Middle Ages",

2334:

Pedersen, J.; Rahman, Munibur; Hillenbrand, R.: "Madrasa", in

1359:); and smaller, primarily undergraduate universities (such as 1029:

saw the arrival of new civic universities with an emphasis on

2402: 2279:

a wealthy woman of much piety, Fatima bint Muhammed al-Fahri.

1296:, although the term has traditionally been used to designate 1060: 974: 701: 488: 472: 287: 218: 201: 144: 130: 106: 54: 5069: 2786: 2426: 2422: 2398: 2129:

The Pomegranate: The International Journal of Pagan Studies

1045:. The British also established universities worldwide, and 447: 238: 2043:. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. pp. 4–34. 911:

European scientists between 1450 and 1650 included in the

2747:. Vol. 4. Torino: UTET. 7 August 1981. p. 122. 2484: 2355: 767: 451: 2421:. It was supported by an endowment or charitable trust ( 351:

An early institution, often called a university, is the

325:

continues to grow, drawing from all parts of the world.

3670:. Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. 2560: 2325:

where other subjects were only of secondary importance.

1988:(2nd ed.), Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989, 1963:(3rd ed.), Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010, 1932:(3rd ed.), Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010, 1448: 290:, a Doctor and Bachelors of Arts and Medicine graduate. 3535:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 2–3. 3459:

D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, pp. 46-50.

3449:

D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, pp. 53-54.

2465: 2463: 2284: 2032: 1319:

in the name of an institution, under the terms of the

1167:

EUCLID (Pôle Universitaire Euclide, Euclid University)

981:

By the 18th century, universities published their own

957:, established by Royal Charter having been founded by 2099: 2097: 2095: 126:

The first universities in Europe were established by

3527:

Menand, Louis; Reitter, Paul; Wellmon, Chad (2017).

3526: 2317:

They consider institutions like al-Qarawiyyin to be

2970:. In Hilde de Ridder-Symoens; Walter Rüegg (eds.). 2931:. In Hilde de Ridder-Symoens; Walter Rüegg (eds.). 2887:. In Hilde de Ridder-Symoens; Walter Rüegg (eds.). 2460: 1855: 1049:became available to the masses not only in Europe. 739:, founded in 1410, is Scotland's oldest university. 3579:(online ed.). Oxford University Press. 2004. 3568: 2092: 1566: 3533:The Rise of the Research University: A Sourcebook 3036:. Harvard University Press. pp. 16 and 145. 2772:(in Italian). Mario Adda Editore. pp. 9–10. 2564:The heritage of European universities, Volume 548 1315:is responsible for approving the use of the word 1152: 993:'s liberal ideas pertaining to the importance of 942:List of modern universities in Europe (1801–1945) 189:world's oldest university in continuous operation 7821: 3805:"Students are graduating with $ 30,000 in loans" 3611: 2976:. Vol. 1, Universities in the Middle Ages. 2937:. Vol. 1, Universities in the Middle Ages. 2893:. Vol. 1, Universities in the Middle Ages. 965:in 1829, is one of the founding colleges of the 3915:. Madison, Wis: University of Wisconsin Press. 2354:); in medieval usage, essentially a college of 1838: 1287:Tertiary Education Quality and Standards Agency 7653: 7203: 3991: 3970: 3516:. Yale University Press, New Haven and London. 3143:Universities and Schooling in Medieval Society 2965: 2926: 2882: 2375:Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia 2257: 2002: 1805: 1145:. Reforms in Argentina were the result of the 727:List of colonial universities in Latin America 5085: 4117: 138: 7758:South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands 2712: 1892:Lewis, Charlton T.; Short, Charles (1966) , 1733:. Cavendish Square Publishing. p. 103. 1675: 1376: 1368: 1248:List of universities and colleges by country 716: 3776: 2770:Storia dello Studium di Napoli in età sveva 2767: 2446:, No. 32 (1970), pp. 255–264 (255f.): 2125:"Harran: Last Refuge of Classical Paganism" 840: 752: 723:List of early modern universities in Europe 635: 634:6th-century codification of Roman law, the 616: 604: 507: 441: 320: 205: 155: 110: 5092: 5078: 4124: 4110: 3468: 3196:"The best UK universities 2021 – rankings" 2561:Nuria Sanz, Sjur Bergan (1 January 2006). 1913:(New Haven: Yale Univ. Pr., 1997), p. 267. 1891: 1728: 1647: 1619: 16:Academic institution for further education 3888: 3570:"Oxford Dictionary of National Biography" 1652:. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 484. 343:The Moroccan higher-learning institution 307:, which adopted an academic charter, the 7455: 4086:) is being considered for deletion. See 3951: 3668:"Basic Classification Technical Details" 3617: 2676:Journal of the American Oriental Society 2667: 2598:Journal of the American Oriental Society 2182:. Oxford University Press. p. 328. 2174: 2168: 1703: 1266: 1233: 1188: 1087: 1083: 1059: 949: 881: 797: 730: 663: 553: 411: 338: 258: 178: 27: 6830: 6058: 6047: 3929: 3576:Oxford Dictionary of National Biography 3395: 2647:A History of Christian-Muslim Relations 2644: 2623: 2595: 2074:"Magna Charta delle Università Europee" 1242:in the Netherlands was founded in 1614. 221:developed, specialized associations of 151:being a high degree-awarding institute. 7822: 3992:Ridder-Symoens, Hilde de, ed. (1996). 3971:Ridder-Symoens, Hilde de, ed. (1992). 3910: 3811:from the original on 21 September 2017 3520: 3511: 2673: 2585:from the original on 5 September 2015. 2401:) was taught according to one or more 931: 286:in scarlet full dress. Behind them, a 7652: 7454: 7202: 6829: 6450: 6449: 6057: 6046: 5748: 5111: 5073: 4105: 4033: 4016:A History of the University in Europe 4012: 3995:A History of the University in Europe 3974:A History of the University in Europe 3766:from the original on 7 December 2015. 3718: 3630:from the original on 27 November 2010 3549:from the original on 15 February 2017 3260: 3136: 3101: 2973:A History of the University in Europe 2934:A History of the University in Europe 2890:A History of the University in Europe 2733:from the original on 5 September 2015 2209: 2080:from the original on 15 November 2010 2041:A History of the University in Europe 2038: 1321:Further and Higher Education Act 1992 160:(which was coined at its foundation). 112:universitas magistrorum et scholarium 5054: 4904:Ancient higher-learning institutions 3956:. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. 3937:. New York, NY: Oxford Univ. Press. 3170:www.thecompleteuniversityguide.co.uk 3031: 2796:, Cambridge University Press, 1992, 2473:, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2005, 2267:, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2005, 2196: 2157:, Cambridge University Press, 2003, 2122: 1874:, Cambridge University Press, 1992, 1678:Encyclopedia of the Developing World 1473:Ancient higher-learning institutions 1263:Category:Higher education by country 1017:was the first to adopt the (German) 863:, who taught at the Universities of 335:Ancient higher-learning institutions 7804: 1650:Encyclopedia of Christian Education 1394: 1229: 847:with a humanist perspective, while 363:(name given in 1963), founded as a 294: 13: 3882: 3620:"The 'Idea of a University' today" 2966:Jacques Verger (16 October 2003). 2927:Jacques Verger (16 October 2003). 2883:Jacques Verger (16 October 2003). 2541:, kuliyat al-lugha al-'arabiya in 2494:, 2nd ed., Scarecrow Press, 2006, 2299:, Vol. 2, Fitzroy Dearborn, 2005, 2239:Dictionary of Islamic Architecture 2116: 1967:from the original on 30 April 2021 1936:from the original on 30 April 2021 1826:from the original on 10 March 2021 1518:Lists of universities and colleges 1092:The Central House building of the 913:Dictionary of Scientific Biography 397: 187:in Italy, founded in 1088, is the 14: 7856: 4090:to help reach a consensus. › 4053: 3841:from the original on 9 March 2013 3674:from the original on 13 June 2007 3591:from the original on 6 March 2016 3176:from the original on 25 June 2011 2386:, p. 457 (entry "madrasa"): 2003:Ridder-Symoens, Hilde de (1992). 1765:from the original on 5 April 2021 1624:. Academische Uitgeverij Eburon. 1256: 1197:is Australia's oldest university. 973:Modern universities constitute a 525:Jagiellonian University in Kraków 359:. Scholars occasionally call the 7803: 7794: 7793: 7781: 7317:Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 6811: 6802: 6801: 6359:Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic 6129:Democratic Republic of the Congo 6023: 5053: 5044: 5043: 5032: 4131: 3853: 3823: 3797: 3706:from the original on 27 May 2010 2492:Historical Dictionary of Morocco 1331:Government on the advice of the 938:History of European universities 672:is the oldest university in the 527:) or municipal administrations ( 517:University of Naples Federico II 422:University of Naples Federico II 418:Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor 3770: 3748: 3686: 3660: 3651: 3642: 3618:Anderson, Robert (March 2010). 3561: 3505: 3462: 3452: 3442: 3433: 3424: 3389: 3380: 3371: 3362: 3353: 3343: 3334: 3325: 3316: 3307: 3298: 3289: 3254: 3245: 3236: 3227: 3218: 3206:from the original on 4 May 2021 3188: 3166:"University League Tables 2021" 3158: 3130: 3095: 3086: 3077: 3068: 3059: 3050: 3025: 3016: 3007: 2998: 2959: 2920: 2876: 2867: 2858: 2846: 2833: 2816: 2807: 2761: 2737: 2706: 2638: 2589: 2554: 2434: 2363: 2328: 2296:Encyclopedia of African History 2231: 2222: 2217:Encountering the World of Islam 2147: 2066: 2057: 2023: 1996: 1947: 1916: 1900: 1885: 1799: 1488:College and university rankings 1184: 1129:, which formed partly from the 214:, etc". As urban town life and 7840:Types of university or college 7474:Federated States of Micronesia 6769:British Indian Ocean Territory 3781:. Learnhub.com. Archived from 2490:Park, Thomas K.; Boum, Aomar: 2180:The Oxford Dictionary of Islam 2009:. Cambridge University Press. 1777: 1747: 1722: 1697: 1669: 1641: 1620:Den Heijer, Alexandra (2011). 1613: 1591: 1153:Intergovernmental universities 1131:Catholic University of Ireland 1127:National University of Ireland 1125:aspirations, for instance the 886:17th-century classroom at the 328: 1: 5099: 4075: 2202:Joseph, S, and Najmabadi, A. 2107:, 2003, pp. 55–82 (65): 1729:GA. Dawson, Patricia (2015). 1676:B M. Leonard, Thomas (2013). 1559: 1175:European University Institute 597: 582: 571: 562:. From a medieval manuscript. 408:List of medieval universities 274:. The Pro-Vice-Chancellor in 195: 7442:United States Virgin Islands 5112: 4310:University technical college 3860:"Studieavgifter i högskolan" 3605:UK public library membership 2854:https://cuni.cz/UK-9137.html 2768:Delle Donne, Fulvio (2010). 2549:, which was founded in 1979. 2508:is the oldest university in 2340:, 2nd edition, Brill, 2010: 2249:, p. 87 (entry "Fez"): 1543:University student retention 1513:List of academic disciplines 1333:University Grants Commission 1326:In India, a new designation 1041:, with the formation of the 588:, later associated with the 521:Charles University in Prague 7: 7204:Education in North America 4013:Rüegg, Walter, ed. (2004). 3263:Journal of Higher Education 3104:Journal of Higher Education 1680:. Routledge. p. 1369. 1455: 1311:In the United Kingdom, the 1273:National Library of Finland 361:University of al-Qarawiyyin 21:University (disambiguation) 10: 7861: 7654:Education in South America 5749: 4239:College-preparatory school 3034:The Uses of the University 2978:Cambridge University Press 2939:Cambridge University Press 2895:Cambridge University Press 2651:Edinburgh University Press 2378:, Vol. 1, A–K, Routledge, 1861:de Ridder-Symoens, Hilde: 1432: 1398: 1260: 1245: 935: 720: 558:Meeting of doctors at the 459:– the preparatory arts of 401: 332: 322:Magna Charta Universitatum 316:Magna Charta Universitatum 282:in official dress and new 172: 168: 18: 7845:Universities and colleges 7775: 7732: 7659: 7565: 7542: 7461: 7417:Saint Pierre and Miquelon 7335: 7209: 7182: 7134: 7096: 6838: 6797: 6756: 6716: 6458: 6372: 6347: 6066: 6053: 6042: 6018: 5972: 5938: 5897: 5879: 5840: 5822: 5788: 5764:Early childhood education 5757: 5744: 5694: 5524: 5471: 5293: 5146: 5118: 5107: 5027: 5006: 4976: 4939: 4899: 4892: 4836: 4795: 4739: 4730: 4693: 4684: 4624: 4617: 4479: 4444: 4355: 4332: 4323: 4249:Comprehensive high school 4219: 4178: 4150: 4140: 3911:Barrow, Clyde W. (1990). 2627:North Carolina Law Review 2219:. Authentic, 2005, p. 74. 1985:Oxford English Dictionary 1896:, Oxford: Clarendon Press 1794:World University Rankings 1708:. Springer. p. 302. 1704:Gavroglu, Kostas (2015). 1648:A. Lamport, Mark (2015). 1415:German-speaking countries 1171:United Nations University 1043:University of Strathclyde 802:Old main building of the 717:Early modern universities 7625:Northern Mariana Islands 7437:Turks and Caicos Islands 6518:East Timor (Timor-Leste) 6114:Central African Republic 4606:State-integrated school 4480:By funding / eligibility 4259:Continuation high school 4088:templates for discussion 3896:. Boston: Beacon Press. 3137:Pryds, Darleen (2000), " 1870:13 December 2021 at the 1809:The Challenge of Bologna 1796:Retrieved 6 January 2010 1498:International university 1015:Johns Hopkins University 1008:Until the 19th century, 991:Friedrich Schleiermacher 877:University of Wittenberg 737:University of St Andrews 7590:Cocos (Keeling) Islands 6779:Cocos (Keeling) Islands 5019:Educational institution 4639:Anarchistic free school 4385:Institute of technology 4068:Encyclopædia Britannica 4038:. New York: Routledge. 4034:Segre, Michael (2015). 3952:Pedersen, Olaf (1997). 3512:Krause, Elliot (1996). 2716:History of Universities 1806:Paul L. Gaston (2010). 1789:17 January 2009 at the 1606:Encyclopædia Britannica 1428: 1421:is often contracted to 1405:Colloquially, the term 1275:, which is part of the 1240:University of Groningen 1163:Academy of European Law 888:University of Salamanca 749:Mediterranean countries 416:Established in 1224 by 73: 'a whole') is an 7367:British Virgin Islands 6881:Bosnia and Herzegovina 4849:Compensatory education 4601:State or public school 4427:Upper division college 4071:(11th ed.). 1911. 3585:10.1093/ref:odnb/69524 3529:"General Introduction" 2645:Goddard, Hugh (2000). 2551: 2512:. It was founded as a 2457: 2431: 2360: 2337:Encyclopaedia of Islam 2316: 2281: 2254: 2206:. Brill, 2003, p. 314. 2113: 1812:. Stylus. p. 18. 1609:(11th ed.). 1911. 1463:Alternative university 1377: 1369: 1279: 1277:University of Helsinki 1243: 1198: 1105: 1076: 970: 890: 841: 811: 753: 740: 677: 674:English-speaking world 636: 617: 605: 563: 508: 442: 425: 355:, founded in the late 348: 321: 291: 206: 192: 156: 139: 111: 58: 7568:and other territories 7307:Saint Kitts and Nevis 6274:São Tomé and Príncipe 6134:Republic of the Congo 4505:Comprehensive school 4432:Vocational university 3275:10.1353/jhe.2006.0007 3116:10.1353/jhe.2006.0007 2503: 2447: 2387: 2341: 2308: 2276: 2250: 2165:, pp. 35–76 (35) 2141:10.1558/pome.v13i9.17 2123:Frew, Donald (1999). 2108: 1523:Pontifical university 1503:Land-grant university 1388:teaching universities 1298:research institutions 1270: 1261:Further information: 1237: 1192: 1147:University Revolution 1091: 1084:National universities 1063: 1023:Industrial Revolution 955:King's College London 953: 902:. Historians such as 900:Scientific Revolution 885: 801: 734: 667: 655:recovery of Aristotle 568:University of Bologna 557: 537:early medieval period 529:University of Cologne 415: 342: 305:University of Bologna 284:Doctors of Philosophy 262: 185:University of Bologna 182: 140:Università di Bologna 135:University of Bologna 51:University of Bologna 39:Daniel Chester French 31: 7456:Education in Oceania 6832:Education in Europe 6693:United Arab Emirates 6060:Education in Africa 5283:Instructional design 4968:in the United States 4859:Continuing education 4854:Compulsory education 4698:Free school movement 4666:Single-sex education 4651:International school 4634:Democratic education 4513:For-profit education 4500:Community day school 4395:Liberal arts college 4254:Comprehensive school 4244:Collegiate institute 4062:"Universities" 3730:Privy Council Office 3624:History & Policy 3032:Kerr, Clark (2001). 1600:"Universities" 1508:Liberal arts college 1493:Corporate university 1224:Private universities 1195:University of Sydney 1161:. An example is the 987:Wilhelm von Humboldt 967:University of London 875:, who taught at the 808:Renaissance humanism 792:University of Oxford 670:University of Oxford 638:Corpus Iuris Civilis 619:Alma Mater Studiorum 594:University of Oxford 533:University of Erfurt 272:University of Oxford 105:is derived from the 99:academic disciplines 19:For other uses, see 7322:Trinidad and Tobago 7217:Antigua and Barbuda 7097:States with limited 6720:limited recognition 6349:States with limited 6048:Education by region 5774:Secondary education 5686:Teaching philosophy 5589:Pedagogical pattern 5532:21st century skills 5511:Religious education 5154:Aims and objectives 4977:Informal or illegal 4931:Medieval university 4874:Inclusive education 4844:College preparatory 4405:Residential college 4400:Research university 4337:Professional school 4212:/ Elementary school 3865:15 May 2013 at the 3837:. 25 January 2012. 3807:. 18 October 2016. 3756:"Deemed University" 3736:on 23 February 2009 2830:, pp. 126-7, 282-98 2241:, Routledge, 1996, 1528:Research university 1483:Catholic university 1328:deemed universities 1110:national university 1104:established in 1842 1094:University of Chile 1019:research university 946:Research university 932:Modern universities 904:Richard S. Westfall 855:cited the works of 853:Philipp Melanchthon 804:University of Basel 745:Early Modern period 711:University of Paris 632:Emperor Justinian's 630:commenced teaching 579:University of Paris 560:University of Paris 404:Medieval university 264:Graduation ceremony 175:History of academia 43:Columbia University 7830:Educational stages 7788:Schools portal 7257:Dominican Republic 6452:Education in Asia 5779:Tertiary education 5717:Learning resources 5208:Education sciences 5039:Schools portal 4944:indigenous peoples 4941:Schools imposed on 4879:Remedial education 4813:Distance education 4629:Alternative school 4618:By style / purpose 4593:Specialist school 4452:All-through school 4300:Sixth form college 3890:Aronowitz, Stanley 3726:"Higher Education" 3626:. United Kingdom. 2980:. pp. 52–53. 2481:, pp. 154–157 2291:Shillington, Kevin 2237:Petersen, Andrew: 1894:A Latin Dictionary 1361:St. Francis Xavier 1285:In Australia, the 1280: 1244: 1199: 1106: 1077: 1065:Tampere University 971: 963:Duke of Wellington 891: 824:studia humanitatis 816:natural philosophy 812: 741: 690:natural philosophy 678: 564: 443:scholae monasticae 430:Medieval Christian 426: 349: 310:Constitutio Habita 292: 193: 59: 57:, founded in 1088. 7817: 7816: 7771: 7770: 7767: 7766: 7739:other territories 7648: 7647: 7640:Wallis and Futuna 7585:Clipperton Island 7543:Associated states 7450: 7449: 7339:other territories 7198: 7197: 6825: 6824: 6762:other territories 6445: 6444: 6376:other territories 6149:Equatorial Guinea 6038: 6037: 6013: 6012: 6009: 6008: 6004: 6003: 6000: 5999: 5995: 5994: 5932: 5931: 5927: 5926: 5923: 5922: 5918: 5917: 5873: 5872: 5868: 5867: 5864: 5863: 5859: 5858: 5816: 5815: 5811: 5810: 5769:Primary education 5740: 5739: 5629:Dialogic learning 5599:Teacher retention 5552:Critical thinking 5547:Class arrangement 5516:Special education 5191:Standardized test 5174:Course evaluation 5067: 5066: 5002: 5001: 4884:Special education 4864:Further education 4791: 4790: 4787: 4786: 4726: 4725: 4713:Montessori school 4708:Laboratory school 4671:Specialist school 4609: 4596: 4541:UK private school 4526: 4508: 4490: 4475: 4474: 4440: 4439: 4375:Community college 4347:Vocational school 4229:Adult high school 4143:educational stage 4045:978-0-415-73566-7 4026:978-0-521-36107-1 4005:978-0-521-36106-4 3984:978-0-521-36105-7 3963:978-0-521-59431-8 3944:978-0-19-505382-1 3922:978-0-299-12400-7 3903:978-0-8070-3122-3 3777:— Peter Drucker. 3603:(Subscription or 2660:978-0-7486-1009-9 2569:Council of Europe 2500:978-0-8108-5341-6 2479:978-0-313-32061-3 2469:Lulat, Y. G.-M.: 2384:978-0-415-96691-7 2305:978-1-57958-245-6 2273:978-0-313-32061-3 2263:Lulat, Y. G.-M.: 2247:978-0-415-06084-4 2215:Swartley, Keith. 2189:978-0-1951-2559-7 2163:978-0-521-54113-8 2016:978-0-521-54113-8 1819:978-1-57922-366-3 1548:University system 1353:McGill University 1349:Macleans rankings 1215:Public university 1159:intergovernmental 1102:public university 1039:Sir Samuel Curran 983:research journals 828:Niccolò Leoniceno 764:Thirty Years' War 549:1079 Papal Decree 434:cathedral schools 384:Emirate of Sicily 353:Harran University 7852: 7835:Higher education 7807: 7806: 7797: 7796: 7786: 7785: 7784: 7759: 7747:Falkland Islands 7661:Sovereign states 7650: 7649: 7630:Pitcairn Islands 7600:French Polynesia 7580:Christmas Island 7509:Papua New Guinea 7489:Marshall Islands 7462:Sovereign states 7452: 7451: 7407:Saint Barthélemy 7337:Dependencies and 7210:Sovereign states 7200: 7199: 7135:Dependencies and 6839:Sovereign states 6827: 6826: 6815: 6805: 6804: 6774:Christmas Island 6460:Sovereign states 6447: 6446: 6437: 6436:(United Kingdom) 6432:Tristan da Cunha 6428:Ascension Island 6420: 6407: 6398: 6374:Dependencies and 6067:Sovereign states 6055: 6054: 6044: 6043: 6027: 5975: 5974: 5970: 5969: 5945:Higher education 5941: 5940: 5936: 5935: 5900: 5899: 5895: 5894: 5886:Secondary school 5882: 5881: 5877: 5876: 5843: 5842: 5838: 5837: 5825: 5824: 5820: 5819: 5791: 5790: 5786: 5785: 5760: 5759: 5746: 5745: 5674:Student-centered 5659:Phenomenon-based 5649:Peer instruction 5614:Blended learning 5537:Bloom's taxonomy 5501:Gifted education 5496:Education reform 5328:Computer science 5109: 5108: 5094: 5087: 5080: 5071: 5070: 5057: 5056: 5047: 5046: 5037: 5036: 5035: 4926:Cathedral school 4909:Platonic Academy 4897: 4896: 4869:Gifted education 4823:Prison education 4769:Parochial school 4754:Christian school 4737: 4736: 4703:Folk high school 4691: 4690: 4622: 4621: 4607: 4595:(United Kingdom) 4594: 4578:Selective school 4524: 4506: 4488: 4342:Technical school 4330: 4329: 4294:Secondary school 4198:Global influence 4165:Pre-kindergarten 4148: 4147: 4126: 4119: 4112: 4103: 4102: 4072: 4064: 4049: 4030: 4009: 3988: 3967: 3948: 3931:Diamond, Sigmund 3926: 3907: 3876: 3875: 3857: 3851: 3850: 3848: 3846: 3827: 3821: 3820: 3818: 3816: 3801: 3795: 3794: 3792: 3790: 3774: 3768: 3767: 3752: 3746: 3745: 3743: 3741: 3732:. Archived from 3722: 3716: 3715: 3713: 3711: 3705: 3698: 3690: 3684: 3683: 3681: 3679: 3664: 3658: 3655: 3649: 3646: 3640: 3639: 3637: 3635: 3615: 3609: 3608: 3600: 3598: 3596: 3572: 3565: 3559: 3558: 3556: 3554: 3524: 3518: 3517: 3509: 3503: 3502: 3466: 3460: 3456: 3450: 3446: 3440: 3437: 3431: 3428: 3422: 3421: 3393: 3387: 3384: 3378: 3375: 3369: 3366: 3360: 3357: 3351: 3347: 3341: 3338: 3332: 3329: 3323: 3320: 3314: 3311: 3305: 3302: 3296: 3293: 3287: 3286: 3258: 3252: 3249: 3243: 3240: 3234: 3231: 3225: 3222: 3216: 3215: 3213: 3211: 3192: 3186: 3185: 3183: 3181: 3162: 3156: 3155: 3134: 3128: 3127: 3099: 3093: 3090: 3084: 3081: 3075: 3072: 3066: 3063: 3057: 3054: 3048: 3047: 3029: 3023: 3020: 3014: 3011: 3005: 3002: 2996: 2995: 2963: 2957: 2956: 2924: 2918: 2917: 2880: 2874: 2871: 2865: 2862: 2856: 2850: 2844: 2837: 2831: 2820: 2814: 2811: 2805: 2790: 2784: 2783: 2765: 2759: 2758: 2741: 2735: 2734: 2710: 2704: 2703: 2671: 2665: 2664: 2642: 2636: 2635: 2621: 2593: 2587: 2586: 2558: 2552: 2522:Islamic sciences 2488: 2482: 2467: 2458: 2438: 2432: 2393:is a college of 2367: 2361: 2348:Islamic sciences 2332: 2326: 2319:higher education 2307:, p. 1025: 2288: 2282: 2261: 2255: 2235: 2229: 2226: 2220: 2213: 2207: 2200: 2194: 2193: 2172: 2166: 2151: 2145: 2144: 2120: 2114: 2101: 2090: 2089: 2087: 2085: 2070: 2064: 2061: 2055: 2054: 2036: 2030: 2027: 2021: 2020: 2000: 1994: 1993: 1979: 1974: 1972: 1955:"university, n." 1951: 1945: 1944: 1943: 1941: 1924:"university, n." 1920: 1914: 1907:Marcia L. Colish 1904: 1898: 1897: 1889: 1883: 1859: 1853: 1842: 1836: 1835: 1833: 1831: 1803: 1797: 1784:Top Universities 1781: 1775: 1774: 1772: 1770: 1751: 1745: 1744: 1726: 1720: 1719: 1701: 1695: 1694: 1673: 1667: 1666: 1645: 1639: 1638: 1617: 1611: 1610: 1602: 1595: 1589: 1588: 1586: 1584: 1570: 1553:Urban university 1445:Nordic countries 1435:Tuition payments 1395:Colloquial usage 1380: 1374: 1306:doctoral degrees 1271:Interior of the 1230:Around the world 1047:higher education 846: 837:Andreas Vesalius 758: 755:studium generale 641: 622: 610: 602: 601: 1200–1214 599: 587: 586: 1208–1210 584: 576: 575: 1180–1190 573: 545:Pope Gregory VII 513: 510:studia generalia 445: 438:monastic schools 324: 301:academic freedom 295:Academic freedom 209: 159: 142: 114: 95:academic degrees 7860: 7859: 7855: 7854: 7853: 7851: 7850: 7849: 7820: 7819: 7818: 7813: 7782: 7780: 7763: 7757: 7740: 7738: 7728: 7655: 7644: 7567: 7561: 7544: 7538: 7519:Solomon Islands 7457: 7446: 7340: 7338: 7331: 7205: 7194: 7178: 7136: 7130: 7116:Northern Cyprus 7098: 7092: 7013:North Macedonia 6834: 6821: 6793: 6761: 6752: 6733:Northern Cyprus 6719: 6712: 6454: 6441: 6440: 6435: 6418: 6405: 6396: 6377: 6375: 6368: 6352: 6350: 6343: 6062: 6049: 6034: 6033: 6014: 6005: 5996: 5988: 5981: 5959: 5947: 5928: 5919: 5911: 5906: 5888: 5869: 5860: 5852: 5847: 5831: 5812: 5804: 5797: 5753: 5736: 5690: 5609:Active learning 5604:Teaching method 5579:Learning theory 5520: 5486:Autodidacticism 5481:Adult education 5467: 5408:Performing arts 5289: 5196:Teacher quality 5186:Standards-based 5142: 5114: 5103: 5098: 5068: 5063: 5033: 5031: 5023: 4998: 4972: 4963:in South Africa 4946: 4942: 4935: 4921:Monastic school 4888: 4832: 4803:Boarding school 4783: 4759:Female seminary 4749:Catholic school 4722: 4680: 4613: 4583:Separate school 4471: 4462:One-room school 4436: 4380:Graduate school 4351: 4319: 4215: 4174: 4152:Early childhood 4136: 4130: 4091: 4059: 4056: 4046: 4027: 4006: 3985: 3964: 3945: 3923: 3904: 3885: 3883:Further 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2766: 2762: 2755: 2745:Storia d'Italia 2743: 2742: 2738: 2727: 2711: 2707: 2672: 2668: 2661: 2643: 2639: 2634:(5): 1635–1739. 2604:(2): 175–182 . 2594: 2590: 2579: 2559: 2555: 2502:, p. 348 2489: 2485: 2468: 2461: 2443:Studia Islamica 2439: 2435: 2368: 2364: 2333: 2329: 2289: 2285: 2262: 2258: 2236: 2232: 2227: 2223: 2214: 2210: 2201: 2197: 2190: 2173: 2169: 2152: 2148: 2121: 2117: 2102: 2093: 2083: 2081: 2072: 2071: 2067: 2062: 2058: 2051: 2037: 2033: 2028: 2024: 2017: 2001: 1997: 1981: 1970: 1968: 1953: 1952: 1948: 1939: 1937: 1922: 1921: 1917: 1905: 1901: 1890: 1886: 1872:Wayback Machine 1860: 1856: 1843: 1839: 1829: 1827: 1820: 1804: 1800: 1791:Wayback Machine 1782: 1778: 1768: 1766: 1753: 1752: 1748: 1741: 1727: 1723: 1716: 1702: 1698: 1688: 1674: 1670: 1660: 1646: 1642: 1632: 1618: 1614: 1597: 1596: 1592: 1582: 1580: 1572: 1571: 1567: 1562: 1557: 1533:Science tourism 1458: 1437: 1431: 1403: 1397: 1265: 1259: 1250: 1232: 1187: 1155: 1086: 1067:in the city of 948: 936:Main articles: 934: 861:Galileo Galilei 729: 719: 600: 585: 574: 410: 402:Main articles: 400: 398:Medieval Europe 337: 331: 297: 278:gown and hood, 198: 177: 171: 154:using the word 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 7858: 7848: 7847: 7842: 7837: 7832: 7815: 7814: 7812: 7811: 7801: 7791: 7776: 7773: 7772: 7769: 7768: 7765: 7764: 7762: 7761: 7754: 7749: 7743: 7741: 7733: 7730: 7729: 7727: 7726: 7721: 7716: 7711: 7706: 7701: 7696: 7691: 7686: 7681: 7676: 7671: 7665: 7663: 7657: 7656: 7646: 7645: 7643: 7642: 7637: 7632: 7627: 7622: 7620:Norfolk Island 7617: 7612: 7607: 7602: 7597: 7592: 7587: 7582: 7577: 7575:American Samoa 7571: 7569: 7563: 7562: 7560: 7559: 7554: 7548: 7546: 7545:of New Zealand 7540: 7539: 7537: 7536: 7531: 7526: 7521: 7516: 7511: 7506: 7501: 7496: 7491: 7486: 7481: 7476: 7471: 7465: 7463: 7459: 7458: 7448: 7447: 7445: 7444: 7439: 7434: 7429: 7427:Sint Eustatius 7424: 7419: 7414: 7409: 7404: 7399: 7394: 7389: 7384: 7379: 7374: 7372:Cayman Islands 7369: 7364: 7359: 7354: 7349: 7343: 7341: 7336: 7333: 7332: 7330: 7329: 7324: 7319: 7314: 7309: 7304: 7299: 7294: 7289: 7284: 7279: 7274: 7269: 7264: 7259: 7254: 7249: 7244: 7239: 7234: 7229: 7224: 7219: 7213: 7211: 7207: 7206: 7196: 7195: 7193: 7192: 7190:European Union 7186: 7184: 7183:Other entities 7180: 7179: 7177: 7176: 7171: 7166: 7161: 7156: 7151: 7146: 7140: 7138: 7137:other entities 7132: 7131: 7129: 7128: 7123: 7118: 7113: 7108: 7102: 7100: 7094: 7093: 7091: 7090: 7088:United Kingdom 7085: 7080: 7075: 7070: 7065: 7060: 7055: 7050: 7045: 7040: 7035: 7030: 7025: 7020: 7015: 7010: 7005: 7000: 6995: 6990: 6985: 6980: 6975: 6970: 6965: 6960: 6955: 6953: 6948: 6943: 6938: 6933: 6928: 6923: 6918: 6913: 6908: 6903: 6901:Czech Republic 6898: 6893: 6888: 6883: 6878: 6873: 6868: 6863: 6858: 6853: 6848: 6842: 6840: 6836: 6835: 6823: 6822: 6820: 6819: 6809: 6798: 6795: 6794: 6792: 6791: 6786: 6781: 6776: 6771: 6765: 6763: 6754: 6753: 6751: 6750: 6745: 6740: 6735: 6730: 6724: 6722: 6714: 6713: 6711: 6710: 6705: 6700: 6695: 6690: 6685: 6680: 6675: 6670: 6665: 6660: 6655: 6650: 6645: 6640: 6635: 6630: 6625: 6620: 6615: 6610: 6605: 6600: 6595: 6590: 6585: 6580: 6575: 6570: 6565: 6560: 6555: 6550: 6545: 6540: 6535: 6530: 6525: 6520: 6515: 6510: 6505: 6500: 6495: 6490: 6485: 6480: 6475: 6470: 6464: 6462: 6456: 6455: 6443: 6442: 6439: 6438: 6421: 6408: 6399: 6385:Canary Islands 6381: 6380: 6378: 6373: 6370: 6369: 6367: 6366: 6361: 6355: 6353: 6348: 6345: 6344: 6342: 6341: 6336: 6331: 6326: 6321: 6316: 6311: 6306: 6301: 6296: 6291: 6286: 6281: 6276: 6271: 6266: 6261: 6256: 6251: 6246: 6241: 6236: 6231: 6226: 6221: 6216: 6211: 6206: 6201: 6196: 6191: 6186: 6181: 6176: 6171: 6166: 6161: 6156: 6151: 6146: 6141: 6136: 6131: 6126: 6121: 6116: 6111: 6106: 6101: 6096: 6091: 6086: 6081: 6076: 6070: 6068: 6064: 6063: 6051: 6050: 6040: 6039: 6036: 6035: 6032: 6031: 6020: 6019: 6016: 6015: 6011: 6010: 6007: 6006: 6002: 6001: 5998: 5997: 5993: 5991: 5990: 5983: 5973: 5966: 5965: 5954: 5949: 5939: 5933: 5930: 5929: 5925: 5924: 5921: 5920: 5916: 5914: 5913: 5908: 5898: 5891: 5890: 5880: 5874: 5871: 5870: 5866: 5865: 5862: 5861: 5857: 5855: 5854: 5849: 5841: 5834: 5833: 5829:Primary school 5823: 5817: 5814: 5813: 5809: 5807: 5806: 5799: 5789: 5782: 5781: 5776: 5771: 5766: 5758: 5755: 5754: 5742: 5741: 5738: 5737: 5735: 5734: 5729: 5724: 5719: 5714: 5709: 5704: 5698: 5696: 5692: 5691: 5689: 5688: 5683: 5682: 5681: 5676: 5671: 5666: 5661: 5656: 5651: 5646: 5641: 5636: 5631: 5626: 5621: 5616: 5611: 5601: 5596: 5591: 5586: 5581: 5576: 5575: 5574: 5569: 5564: 5554: 5549: 5544: 5542:Cognitive load 5539: 5534: 5528: 5526: 5522: 5521: 5519: 5518: 5513: 5508: 5503: 5498: 5493: 5488: 5483: 5477: 5475: 5469: 5468: 5466: 5465: 5460: 5455: 5450: 5445: 5440: 5435: 5430: 5425: 5420: 5415: 5410: 5405: 5400: 5395: 5390: 5385: 5380: 5375: 5370: 5365: 5360: 5355: 5350: 5345: 5340: 5335: 5330: 5325: 5320: 5315: 5310: 5305: 5299: 5297: 5291: 5290: 5288: 5287: 5286: 5285: 5275: 5270: 5265: 5260: 5255: 5250: 5245: 5240: 5235: 5230: 5225: 5220: 5215: 5213:Evidence-based 5210: 5205: 5200: 5199: 5198: 5193: 5188: 5183: 5178: 5177: 5176: 5161: 5156: 5150: 5148: 5147:By perspective 5144: 5143: 5141: 5140: 5135: 5130: 5124: 5122: 5116: 5115: 5105: 5104: 5097: 5096: 5089: 5082: 5074: 5065: 5064: 5062: 5061: 5051: 5041: 5028: 5025: 5024: 5022: 5021: 5016: 5010: 5008: 5007:Related topics 5004: 5003: 5000: 4999: 4997: 4996: 4994:in South Tyrol 4991: 4986: 4980: 4978: 4974: 4973: 4971: 4970: 4965: 4960: 4958:in New Zealand 4955: 4949: 4947: 4940: 4937: 4936: 4934: 4933: 4928: 4923: 4918: 4917: 4916: 4911: 4900: 4894: 4890: 4889: 4887: 4886: 4881: 4876: 4871: 4866: 4861: 4856: 4851: 4846: 4840: 4838: 4834: 4833: 4831: 4830: 4828:Virtual school 4825: 4820: 4815: 4810: 4805: 4799: 4797: 4793: 4792: 4789: 4788: 4785: 4784: 4782: 4781: 4776: 4771: 4766: 4761: 4756: 4751: 4746: 4740: 4734: 4728: 4727: 4724: 4723: 4721: 4720: 4718:Waldorf school 4715: 4710: 4705: 4700: 4694: 4688: 4682: 4681: 4679: 4678: 4673: 4668: 4663: 4658: 4653: 4648: 4647: 4646: 4644:Sudbury school 4641: 4631: 4625: 4619: 4615: 4614: 4612: 4611: 4603: 4598: 4590: 4585: 4580: 4575: 4574: 4573: 4568: 4563: 4555: 4554: 4553: 4548: 4538: 4536:Private school 4533: 4528: 4520: 4518:Free education 4515: 4510: 4502: 4497: 4495:Charter school 4492: 4483: 4481: 4477: 4476: 4473: 4472: 4470: 4469: 4464: 4459: 4454: 4448: 4446: 4442: 4441: 4438: 4437: 4435: 4434: 4429: 4424: 4423: 4422: 4412: 4407: 4402: 4397: 4392: 4390:Junior college 4387: 4382: 4377: 4372: 4367: 4361: 4359: 4353: 4352: 4350: 4349: 4344: 4339: 4333: 4327: 4321: 4320: 4318: 4317: 4312: 4307: 4302: 4297: 4291: 4289:Minor seminary 4286: 4281: 4276: 4271: 4266: 4264:Grammar school 4261: 4256: 4251: 4246: 4241: 4236: 4231: 4225: 4223: 4217: 4216: 4214: 4213: 4210:Primary school 4207: 4202: 4201: 4200: 4190: 4184: 4182: 4176: 4175: 4173: 4172: 4167: 4162: 4156: 4154: 4145: 4138: 4137: 4129: 4128: 4121: 4114: 4106: 4100: 4099: 4073: 4055: 4054:External links 4052: 4051: 4050: 4044: 4031: 4025: 4010: 4004: 3989: 3983: 3968: 3962: 3949: 3943: 3927: 3921: 3908: 3902: 3884: 3881: 3878: 3877: 3852: 3822: 3796: 3785:on 7 July 2010 3769: 3747: 3717: 3685: 3659: 3650: 3641: 3610: 3560: 3541: 3519: 3504: 3483:10.1086/357237 3477:(3): 394–418. 3461: 3451: 3441: 3432: 3423: 3410:10.1086/351431 3404:(2): 164–193. 3388: 3379: 3370: 3361: 3352: 3342: 3333: 3324: 3315: 3306: 3297: 3288: 3253: 3244: 3235: 3226: 3217: 3187: 3157: 3151: 3129: 3094: 3085: 3076: 3067: 3058: 3049: 3043:978-0674005327 3042: 3024: 3015: 3006: 2997: 2986: 2958: 2947: 2941:. p. 51. 2919: 2903: 2897:. p. 48. 2875: 2866: 2857: 2845: 2843:, Wiley, 1968. 2832: 2815: 2806: 2785: 2779:978-8880828419 2778: 2760: 2753: 2736: 2725: 2705: 2688:10.2307/601679 2666: 2659: 2653:. p. 99. 2637: 2610:10.2307/604423 2588: 2577: 2571:. p. 28. 2553: 2483: 2459: 2433: 2370:Meri, Josef W. 2362: 2327: 2283: 2275:, p. 70: 2256: 2230: 2221: 2208: 2195: 2188: 2176:Esposito, John 2167: 2146: 2115: 2091: 2065: 2056: 2049: 2031: 2022: 2015: 1995: 1982:"University", 1946: 1915: 1899: 1884: 1854: 1837: 1818: 1798: 1776: 1746: 1739: 1721: 1714: 1696: 1686: 1668: 1658: 1640: 1630: 1612: 1590: 1578:WordNet Search 1564: 1563: 1561: 1558: 1556: 1555: 1550: 1545: 1540: 1535: 1530: 1525: 1520: 1515: 1510: 1505: 1500: 1495: 1490: 1485: 1480: 1475: 1470: 1465: 1459: 1457: 1454: 1433:Main article: 1430: 1427: 1399:Main article: 1396: 1393: 1378:Fachhochschule 1371:Fachhochschule 1258: 1257:Classification 1255: 1231: 1228: 1186: 1183: 1179:European Union 1154: 1151: 1139:Irish language 1085: 1082: 1054:Robbins Report 959:King George IV 933: 930: 832:Thomas Linacre 718: 715: 399: 396: 330: 327: 296: 293: 254:Central Europe 197: 194: 170: 167: 166: 165: 161: 152: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7857: 7846: 7843: 7841: 7838: 7836: 7833: 7831: 7828: 7827: 7825: 7810: 7802: 7800: 7792: 7790: 7789: 7778: 7777: 7774: 7760: 7755: 7753: 7752:French Guiana 7750: 7748: 7745: 7744: 7742: 7736: 7731: 7725: 7722: 7720: 7717: 7715: 7712: 7710: 7707: 7705: 7702: 7700: 7697: 7695: 7692: 7690: 7687: 7685: 7682: 7680: 7677: 7675: 7672: 7670: 7667: 7666: 7664: 7662: 7658: 7651: 7641: 7638: 7636: 7633: 7631: 7628: 7626: 7623: 7621: 7618: 7616: 7615:New Caledonia 7613: 7611: 7608: 7606: 7603: 7601: 7598: 7596: 7595:Easter Island 7593: 7591: 7588: 7586: 7583: 7581: 7578: 7576: 7573: 7572: 7570: 7564: 7558: 7555: 7553: 7550: 7549: 7547: 7541: 7535: 7532: 7530: 7527: 7525: 7522: 7520: 7517: 7515: 7512: 7510: 7507: 7505: 7502: 7500: 7497: 7495: 7492: 7490: 7487: 7485: 7482: 7480: 7477: 7475: 7472: 7470: 7467: 7466: 7464: 7460: 7453: 7443: 7440: 7438: 7435: 7433: 7430: 7428: 7425: 7423: 7420: 7418: 7415: 7413: 7410: 7408: 7405: 7403: 7400: 7398: 7395: 7393: 7390: 7388: 7385: 7383: 7380: 7378: 7375: 7373: 7370: 7368: 7365: 7363: 7360: 7358: 7355: 7353: 7350: 7348: 7345: 7344: 7342: 7334: 7328: 7327:United States 7325: 7323: 7320: 7318: 7315: 7313: 7310: 7308: 7305: 7303: 7300: 7298: 7295: 7293: 7290: 7288: 7285: 7283: 7280: 7278: 7275: 7273: 7270: 7268: 7265: 7263: 7260: 7258: 7255: 7253: 7250: 7248: 7245: 7243: 7240: 7238: 7235: 7233: 7230: 7228: 7225: 7223: 7220: 7218: 7215: 7214: 7212: 7208: 7201: 7191: 7188: 7187: 7185: 7181: 7175: 7172: 7170: 7167: 7165: 7162: 7160: 7157: 7155: 7152: 7150: 7149:Faroe Islands 7147: 7145: 7142: 7141: 7139: 7133: 7127: 7124: 7122: 7121:South Ossetia 7119: 7117: 7114: 7112: 7109: 7107: 7104: 7103: 7101: 7095: 7089: 7086: 7084: 7081: 7079: 7076: 7074: 7071: 7069: 7066: 7064: 7061: 7059: 7056: 7054: 7051: 7049: 7046: 7044: 7041: 7039: 7036: 7034: 7031: 7029: 7026: 7024: 7021: 7019: 7016: 7014: 7011: 7009: 7006: 7004: 7001: 6999: 6996: 6994: 6991: 6989: 6986: 6984: 6981: 6979: 6976: 6974: 6973:Liechtenstein 6971: 6969: 6966: 6964: 6961: 6959: 6956: 6954: 6952: 6949: 6947: 6944: 6942: 6939: 6937: 6934: 6932: 6929: 6927: 6924: 6922: 6919: 6917: 6914: 6912: 6909: 6907: 6904: 6902: 6899: 6897: 6894: 6892: 6889: 6887: 6884: 6882: 6879: 6877: 6874: 6872: 6869: 6867: 6864: 6862: 6859: 6857: 6854: 6852: 6849: 6847: 6844: 6843: 6841: 6837: 6833: 6828: 6818: 6814: 6810: 6808: 6800: 6799: 6796: 6790: 6787: 6785: 6782: 6780: 6777: 6775: 6772: 6770: 6767: 6766: 6764: 6759: 6755: 6749: 6746: 6744: 6743:South Ossetia 6741: 6739: 6736: 6734: 6731: 6729: 6726: 6725: 6723: 6721: 6715: 6709: 6706: 6704: 6701: 6699: 6696: 6694: 6691: 6689: 6686: 6684: 6681: 6679: 6676: 6674: 6671: 6669: 6666: 6664: 6661: 6659: 6656: 6654: 6651: 6649: 6646: 6644: 6641: 6639: 6636: 6634: 6631: 6629: 6626: 6624: 6621: 6619: 6616: 6614: 6611: 6609: 6606: 6604: 6601: 6599: 6596: 6594: 6591: 6589: 6586: 6584: 6581: 6579: 6576: 6574: 6571: 6569: 6566: 6564: 6561: 6559: 6556: 6554: 6551: 6549: 6546: 6544: 6541: 6539: 6536: 6534: 6531: 6529: 6526: 6524: 6521: 6519: 6516: 6514: 6511: 6509: 6506: 6504: 6501: 6499: 6496: 6494: 6491: 6489: 6486: 6484: 6481: 6479: 6476: 6474: 6471: 6469: 6466: 6465: 6463: 6461: 6457: 6453: 6448: 6433: 6429: 6425: 6422: 6416: 6412: 6409: 6403: 6400: 6394: 6390: 6386: 6383: 6382: 6379: 6371: 6365: 6362: 6360: 6357: 6356: 6354: 6346: 6340: 6337: 6335: 6332: 6330: 6327: 6325: 6322: 6320: 6317: 6315: 6312: 6310: 6307: 6305: 6302: 6300: 6297: 6295: 6292: 6290: 6287: 6285: 6282: 6280: 6277: 6275: 6272: 6270: 6267: 6265: 6262: 6260: 6257: 6255: 6252: 6250: 6247: 6245: 6242: 6240: 6237: 6235: 6232: 6230: 6227: 6225: 6222: 6220: 6217: 6215: 6212: 6210: 6207: 6205: 6202: 6200: 6197: 6195: 6192: 6190: 6189:Guinea-Bissau 6187: 6185: 6182: 6180: 6177: 6175: 6172: 6170: 6167: 6165: 6162: 6160: 6157: 6155: 6152: 6150: 6147: 6145: 6142: 6140: 6137: 6135: 6132: 6130: 6127: 6125: 6122: 6120: 6117: 6115: 6112: 6110: 6107: 6105: 6102: 6100: 6097: 6095: 6092: 6090: 6087: 6085: 6082: 6080: 6077: 6075: 6072: 6071: 6069: 6065: 6061: 6056: 6052: 6045: 6041: 6030: 6026: 6022: 6021: 6017: 5992: 5987: 5984: 5980: 5979:Undergraduate 5977: 5976: 5971: 5968: 5967: 5963: 5958: 5955: 5953: 5950: 5946: 5943: 5942: 5937: 5934: 5915: 5909: 5905: 5904:Middle school 5902: 5901: 5896: 5893: 5892: 5887: 5884: 5883: 5878: 5875: 5856: 5850: 5845: 5844: 5839: 5836: 5835: 5830: 5827: 5826: 5821: 5818: 5808: 5803: 5800: 5796: 5793: 5792: 5787: 5784: 5783: 5780: 5777: 5775: 5772: 5770: 5767: 5765: 5762: 5761: 5756: 5752: 5747: 5743: 5733: 5730: 5728: 5725: 5723: 5720: 5718: 5715: 5713: 5710: 5708: 5705: 5703: 5700: 5699: 5697: 5693: 5687: 5684: 5680: 5677: 5675: 5672: 5670: 5669:Project-based 5667: 5665: 5664:Problem-based 5662: 5660: 5657: 5655: 5652: 5650: 5647: 5645: 5642: 5640: 5637: 5635: 5632: 5630: 5627: 5625: 5624:Demonstration 5622: 5620: 5619:Contemplative 5617: 5615: 5612: 5610: 5607: 5606: 5605: 5602: 5600: 5597: 5595: 5592: 5590: 5587: 5585: 5582: 5580: 5577: 5573: 5570: 5568: 5565: 5563: 5560: 5559: 5558: 5555: 5553: 5550: 5548: 5545: 5543: 5540: 5538: 5535: 5533: 5530: 5529: 5527: 5523: 5517: 5514: 5512: 5509: 5507: 5506:Homeschooling 5504: 5502: 5499: 5497: 5494: 5492: 5489: 5487: 5484: 5482: 5479: 5478: 5476: 5474: 5470: 5464: 5461: 5459: 5456: 5454: 5451: 5449: 5446: 5444: 5441: 5439: 5436: 5434: 5431: 5429: 5426: 5424: 5421: 5419: 5416: 5414: 5411: 5409: 5406: 5404: 5401: 5399: 5396: 5394: 5391: 5389: 5386: 5384: 5381: 5379: 5376: 5374: 5371: 5369: 5366: 5364: 5361: 5359: 5356: 5354: 5353:Environmental 5351: 5349: 5346: 5344: 5341: 5339: 5336: 5334: 5331: 5329: 5326: 5324: 5321: 5319: 5316: 5314: 5311: 5309: 5306: 5304: 5301: 5300: 5298: 5296: 5292: 5284: 5281: 5280: 5279: 5278:Instructional 5276: 5274: 5271: 5269: 5266: 5264: 5261: 5259: 5256: 5254: 5251: 5249: 5246: 5244: 5241: 5239: 5236: 5234: 5231: 5229: 5226: 5224: 5221: 5219: 5216: 5214: 5211: 5209: 5206: 5204: 5201: 5197: 5194: 5192: 5189: 5187: 5184: 5182: 5181:Psychometrics 5179: 5175: 5172: 5171: 5170: 5167: 5166: 5165: 5162: 5160: 5157: 5155: 5152: 5151: 5149: 5145: 5139: 5136: 5134: 5131: 5129: 5126: 5125: 5123: 5121: 5117: 5110: 5106: 5102: 5095: 5090: 5088: 5083: 5081: 5076: 5075: 5072: 5060: 5052: 5050: 5042: 5040: 5030: 5029: 5026: 5020: 5017: 5015: 5012: 5011: 5009: 5005: 4995: 4992: 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