Middle Ages - Knowledge

726: 4878: 842: 6086: 1812: 5181: 1891: 3310:: the eldest son's right to inherit the family domains undivided. Nobles were stratified in the land and people over whom they had authority; the lowest-ranking nobles did not hold land, and had no vassals. The nobility was never a closed group; kings could raise commoners to the aristocracy, wealthy commoners could marry into noble families, and impoverished aristocrats could lose their privileged status. Western aristocrats often moved to the peripheries of Latin Christendom with the support of local rulers who appreciated their military skills or as conquerors. French-speaking noblemen mainly settled in the British Isles, southern Italy or Iberia, and German aristocrats preferred Central and Eastern Europe. 2556: 55: 3058: 3861: 555: 4694: 3374: 1179: 1668: 3704: 5654: 2846: 1601: 2392: 2383: 2374: 3159: 19290: 4191: 5831: 2168: 5024: 19403: 1623:, and others on isolated farms. Since legislation made a clear distinction between free and unfree, there was no sharp difference between the legal status of the free peasant and the aristocrat; it was possible for a free peasant's family to rise to the aristocracy through military service. Demand for slaves was covered with warring and raids. After the Anglo-Saxons' conversion to Christianity, slave hunters mainly targeted the pagan Slav tribes; the English word "slave" derives from 1403: 19266: 19386: 3504: 16811: 16801: 19352: 19369: 19335: 3077:-type soldiers as cavalry was an important feature of the later Roman military, although the deployment of highly-specialised troops continued. The invading tribes had different emphases on types of soldiers, ranging from the primarily-infantry Anglo-Saxon invaders of Britain to the Vandals and Visigoths, who had a high proportion of cavalry in their armies. The greatest change in military affairs was the adoption of the Hunnic 1194:, which allowed free male tribal members more say in political matters than had been common in the Roman state, developed into legislative and judicial bodies. Much of the scholarly and written culture of the new political entities was based on Roman intellectual traditions. Many no longer supported their armies through taxes, instead relying on granting them land or rent; with less need for large tax revenues, the 16821: 19318: 1878:. In addition, timber, fur and arms were delivered from Europe to the Mediterranean; Europe imported spices, medicine, incense, and silk. Large rivers, connecting distant regions, facilitated the expansion of transcontinental trade. Contemporaneous reports indicate that Anglo-Saxon merchants visited fairs at Paris, pirates preyed on tradesmen on the Danube, and Eastern Frankish merchants reached as far as 19278: 6114:, when scholars favourably contrasted their intellectual culture with the past. Renaissance scholars saw the Middle Ages as a period of decline from the high culture and civilisation of the classical world. Enlightenment scholars saw reason as superior to faith, and viewed the Middle Ages as a time of ignorance and superstition. One misconception is that all people in the Middle Ages believed that the 229: 5108:

abolished in many places, although in other regions (primarily central and eastern Europe) it was imposed on tenants who had been free. The rise of banking continued, fuelled partly by the cross-border movement of papal revenues with the mediation of large merchant houses. They also loaned money to warring royalty at great risk, and some were bankrupted when kings defaulted on loans.

189: 5421: 15321: 3266:. Commoners, about 98 per cent of the total population, were mainly rural peasants and artisans. The number of townspeople was growing, but never exceeded 10 per cent of the total population. Many peasants were no longer settled on isolated farms but had gathered into more-defensible small communities, usually known as manors or villages. In the system of 3357:

field-work at harvest time. Townswomen could engage in trade, but often only by right of their husband; unlike their male competitors, they were not always allowed to train apprentices. Noblewomen could inherit land in the absence of a male heir, but their potential to give birth was considered their principal virtue. Since women were not

4723:(tower castles) were preferred in central Europe and competing urban families built tall towers in Italian cities and towns. The great pilgrimages encouraged the construction of large churches along pilgrimage routes. This led to the development of stone architecture which resembled classical Roman building design and is known as 1549:) were typical of the age. Aristocratic culture focused on great feasts rather than literary pursuits. Family ties among the elites were important, as were the virtues of loyalty, courage, and honour; these ties led to the prevalence of feuds in aristocratic society. Most feuds seem to have ended quickly, with the payment of 2875:, the largest single-roofed structure in the Roman world. As the spacious basilicas became less useful with the decline of urban centres in the west, they gave way to smaller churches until the basilica form of architecture revived in the Carolingian Empire. A new standard feature of Carolingian basilicas is the use of a 5080:. Peasants who survived the pandemic paid lower rents to landlords, but demand for agricultural products declined and lower prices barely covered their costs. Urban workers received higher salaries, but were heavily taxed. Governments occasionally tried to raise rural rents or keep urban salaries low, provoking 2898:, columns, and sculptured discs. After the disintegration of the Carolingian Empire, the spread of aristocratic castles indicates a transition from communal fortifications to private defence. Most castles were wooden structures, but the wealthiest lords built stone fortresses. One or more towers (now known as 3735:. Taxation quickly developed, because revenues from the royal domains could no more cover state expenditures. Extraordinary taxes were initially levied for military purposes, but by the end of the period taxes were collected more regularly. Effective taxation depended on consent which reinforced the role of 725: 3427:

As local commercial centres developed into towns, economic growth caused a new wave of urbanisation. Kings and aristocrats primarily supported the process in the hope of increased tax revenues. Most urban communities received privileges acknowledging their autonomy, but few cities could eliminate all

1556:

Women participated in aristocratic society primarily as wives and mothers, with the mother of an underage ruler especially prominent in Francia. The lack of many child rulers in Anglo-Saxon society meant a lesser role for women as queen mothers, but this was countered by the increased role played by

4028:) established centralised rule of southern Iberia in the 1110s and 1170s respectively, their empires quickly disintegrated and allowed further expansion of the Christian kingdoms. The Catholic Scandinavian states also expanded; the Norwegian kings assumed control of the Norse colonies in Iceland and 2267:

the Avars, facilitating the development of small Slav principalities primarily ruled by ambitious warlords under Frankish suzerainty. The coronation of Charlemagne as emperor on Christmas Day 800 marked the return of the Western Roman Empire, although the Byzantines did not recognise him as a second

1792:

became rulers of Egypt. The Islamisation of the countryside in Al-Andalus was slow. Christians were regularly employed in state administration, but violent inter-religious conflicts could lead to their mass migration to the north. Except for Byzantium, Muslim Spain was the only place in Europe where

1116:

To deal with the migrations, the Eastern Roman elites combined the deployment of armed forces with gifts and grants of offices to the tribal leaders; the Western aristocrats failed to support the army and refused to pay tribute to prevent invasions by the tribes. These invasions led to the division

820:

are frequently exhibited in jurisdictions with liberal regulation such as England and Wales, but in other countries (such as Italy) finds from unofficial excavations are seldom published. Although medieval images and sculptures may provide useful information about everyday life, a critical approach

5107:

Labour services owed by peasants for their land tenure were often changed into cash rent, providing landlords with a stable source of income. Landlords joined to extort privileges from their governments, but royal administrations began to protect the interests of the poor. Serfdom was officially

1476:

Justinian's re-conquests and building program have been criticised by historians for bringing his realm to the brink of bankruptcy, but many of the difficulties faced by his successors were due to other factors (including the massive expansion of the Avars and their Slav allies). Eastern border

1636:

City life and culture were declining. Although the northern Italian cities remained inhabited, they decreased significantly in size. Cities also shrank in northern Europe, and civic monuments and other public buildings were raided for building materials. Jewish communities survived in Spain,

3356:

Women were officially required to be subordinate to some male: their father, husband, or other kinsman. Women's work generally consisted of household or other domestic tasks, such as child care. Peasant women could supplement the household income by spinning or brewing at home, and they did

1618:

patterns were not uniform; some areas had greatly fragmented holdings but large, contiguous blocks of land were the norm in other areas. These differences permitted a wide variety of peasant societies, some dominated by aristocratic landholders and others with a great deal of autonomy. Land

3478:

Economic growth provided opportunities for Jewish merchants to spread throughout Europe with the support of local rulers. Jews could not engage in prestigious trades outside their communities, and often took low-status jobs such as ragmen or tax collectors. They were especially active in

5148:

existed at the end of the period. Successful dynasties reigned over several states (primarily in close cooperation with local elites), but could not freely redistribute resources throughout their realms. Fiscal and military matters were regularly discussed with representatives of elite

5816:(d. 1524) reached India in 1498. After visiting the African slave markets, the Portuguese became deeply involved in the slave trade with Europe and the Muslim world. Christopher Columbus proposed a westward, alternative route to India. He gained Isabella of Castile's support for 2414:(r. 814–40) – was still alive by 813. Louis's reign was marked by divisions of the empire among his sons and civil wars between various alliances of father and sons. Three years after his death, his three surviving sons divided the empire among themselves in the 1851:

nearly ceased but bronze Roman coins remained in circulation. Although gold coins were struck, they were mainly used for extraordinary expenditures such as the purchase of land or luxury goods. A shift from gold coinage to the mint of silver pennies began in the late

5278:

Succession trouble was not uncommon in the Iberian kingdoms; intermarriages between royal houses created conflicting claims to thrones, and royal bastards could successfully claim their paternal inheritance. Portugal opened a new theater of anti-Muslim warfare in

3294:(labour services). Peasants left their homelands in return for economic and legal privileges, typically lower taxes, and the right to administer justice in their communities. Cross-border peasant movement had radical demographic consequences, such as the eastward 5104:. Conflict polarised ethnic groups, and local statutes prohibited intermarriage and limited guild membership along ethnic lines. Private feuds were almost permanent in politically-fragmented regions, and local skirmishes often escalated into full-scale warfare. 15239: 1430:. Political life was marked by closer relations between the political state and the Christian Church, with theological matters assuming an importance in Eastern politics that they did not have in Western Europe. Legal developments included the codification of 2648:

in Rome in 962 demonstrated his claim to Charlemagne's legacy. Otto's successors remained keenly interested in Italian affairs, but the absentee German kings were unable to assert permanent authority over the local aristocracy. In the Iberian Peninsula, the

788:

and other narrative sources focusing on the deeds of powerful men. Professional historians treat medieval narratives cautiously, since they are often filled with distorted facts or unrealistic information. Documents of state or church administration such as

1831:

As migrations and conquests disrupted trade networks throughout the old Roman lands, goods from long-range trade were replaced with local products. Non-local goods in the archaeological record are usually luxury goods or metal works. In the 7th and

3389:

in the 11th century. People with surplus cash began investing in commodities such as salt, pepper, silk, wine and honey in faraway markets. Rising trade brought new methods of dealing with money and gold coinage was again minted in Europe, first

5795:

Several factors, primarily a growing demand for gold and European merchants' eagerness to avoid customs payments, prompted the search for a direct maritime route to India along the African coasts. Initially, the Portuguese led the explorations;

4130:: a virtually-autonomous Mongol state. The Mongols extracted heavy tribute from the Rus' principalities, and the Rus' princes had to ingratiate themselves with the Mongol khans for economic and political concessions. Under Mongol pressure, the 6550:

These two groups—Germans and Italians—took different approaches to their trading arrangements. Most German cities co-operated when dealing with the northern rulers; the Italian city-states engaged in internecine strife, culminating in the

4998:. In contrast, the Mongols remained lightly-armoured steppe horsemen even after they adopted Chinese military devices. The extensive use of spies for reconnoitering enemy land was a prominent factor in their successful military campaigns. 442:

in regions where central authority was weak, but state power was on the rise by the end of the period. The settlement of Western European peasants and aristocrats towards the eastern and southern peripheries of Europe, often spurred by

1906:

The idea of Christian unity endured, although differences in ideology and practice between the Eastern and Western Churches were increasing. Native Roman aversion to Arian conquerors reinforced the traditional Christian concept of the

6760:

Those who decided to participate in a crusade took an oath and placed the mark of the cross on their clothes. The crusaders enjoyed privileges (including a moratorium on debts), but those who failed to fulfil the crusader oath faced

6186:. Monographs on the medieval history of certain groups such as women, Jews, slaves, heretics and homosexuals have been regularly published since the 1970s, with the influx of people from diverse social backgrounds into universities. 6122:

said, "If revolutionary rational thoughts were expressed in the Age of Reason, they were only made possible because of the long medieval tradition that established the use of reason as one of the most important of human activities".

5922:

reached much of Europe around 1400, producing masterpieces in sculpture and miniature. Throughout Europe, secular art increase in quantity and quality; the mercantile classes of Italy and Flanders became important patrons during the

1911:

in the west; this concept was alien to eastern clergymen, however, who regarded the Roman state as an instrument of divine providence. After the Muslim conquests, Byzantine emperors could less effectively intervene in the west. When

2449:

in 884, although its units retained separate administrations. By his death, early in 888, the Carolingians were close to extinction; non-dynastic claimants assumed power in most of the successor states, such as the Parisian count

1457:, a popular revolt that destroyed half of Constantinople in 532. After crushing the revolt, he reinforced the autocratic elements of the imperial government and mobilised his troops against the western Arian kingdoms. The general 3032:

freely enriched their Insular heritage with Carolingian motifs such as sprigs of foliage. In post-Carolingian Germany, manuscripts illustrated with lively pictorial cycles indicate the impact of contemporary Byzantine art on

6581:

Most compromises were based on a distinction between a prelate's spiritual and temporal responsibilities, allowing bishops and abbots to swear an oath of fealty to the emperor (or king) in return for their investment in the

2442:(r. 843–77) received the western Frankish lands making up most of modern-day France. Charlemagne's grandsons and great-grandsons divided their kingdoms among their descendants, eventually destroying all internal cohesion. 14199: 5308:

The idea of elective kingship revived in the central European and Scandinavian monarchies for a variety of reasons, including aristocratic aversion to foreign influence. Royal power was restored in Poland early in the

5111:

The Jewish communities were permanently expelled from France and, provisionally, from most German cities and principalities. In contrast, Hungarian and Polish rulers encouraged the immigration of Jewish moneylenders.

3832:

efforts to dominate Italy eventually led to the fall of his dynasty. In Germany, a period of interregnum civil war began during which Sicily—Frederick's maternal inheritance—was seized by the ambitious French prince

3585:, also involving other powers because kings did not relinquish control of appointments to bishoprics or abbeys voluntarily. All conflicts ended with a compromise—in the case of the Holy Roman Emperors, with the 1122 14005: 6106:, the medieval period has frequently been described as a "time of barbarism, ignorance, and superstition" which placed "religious authority above personal experience and rational activity". This is a legacy of the 5585:(d. 1327), a critic of Aquinas, urged the faithful to focus on perfecting their inner divine core. Although his works were censured for heresy, copies of his sermons survived which were read by Protestant reformer 3116:

The importance of infantry and light cavalry began to decline during the early Carolingian period with the increasing dominance of elite heavy cavalry, although a large proportion of the armies appear to have been

3000:. The more naturalistic Mediterranean style was an important inspiration for western artists under Charlemagne, who considered the visual arts a powerful instrument of education and propaganda. After a long pause, 4466:

literature, but references to them could no longer override rational arguments. Scholastic academics summarised their (and other authors') views on specific subjects in comprehensive sentence collections known as

2466:(r. 911–18) as king. The dynasty was restored in West Francia in 898 and 936, but the last Carolingians could not control the aristocracy. In 987, the dynasty was replaced with the crowning of powerful aristocrat 6603:, Hildegard endorsed the traditional view of female fragility in her early works but later she emphasised that men and women were dependent on each other. Although a nun, she provided the first description of a 4114:(r. 1206–27), a new expansionist power reached Europe. The Mongols conquered Volga Bulgaria, shattered the Rus' principalities, and laid waste to large regions in Poland, Hungary, Croatia, Serbia and Bulgaria 2473:

Frankish culture and the Carolingian methods of state administration had a significant impact on neighboring peoples. Frankish threat triggered the formation of new states along the empire's eastern frontier:

4491: 1050:. The settlement did not go smoothly and, when Roman officials mishandled the situation, the Goths began to raid and plunder. Valens, attempting to put down the disorder, was killed fighting the Goths at the 1259:

marked by its co-operation between the natives and the conquerors. Power struggles between Romanised and traditionalist Ostrogothic groups followed his death, providing the opportunity for the Byzantines to

4896:

Technology developed primarily in minor innovations and the adoption of advanced technologies from Asia with Muslim mediation. Major technological advances included the first mechanical clocks and convex

3193:

experienced anomalous cold. The ensuing famines led to riots and military coups in the Byzantine Empire, the Abbasid Caliphate, and Egypt, and forced masses of nomadic Turks to seek new pasture lands in

1284:, the Frankish kingdom expanded and converted to Christianity. Unlike other Germanic peoples, the Franks preferred mainstream Christianity to Arianism; this facilitated their cooperation with the native 3305:

were integrated into the traditional aristocracy, and the others were assimilated into the peasantry. The new elite's position was stabilised through the adoption of strict inheritance customs, such as

1708:

Religious beliefs were in flux along the Eastern Roman and Persian frontiers, as state-sponsored Roman missionaries proselytised among the pagan steppe peoples and the Persians made attempts to enforce

4644:, which led to the recording and standardisation of legal codes throughout Western Europe. Around 1140, the monk Gratian (fl. 12th century)—a teacher at Bologna—wrote what became the standard text of 671:

countries tend to divide the Middle Ages into two parts: early ("high") and late ("low"). English-speaking historians, following their German counterparts, generally subdivide the period into thirds:

14392: 5684:

could not prove God's existence. Under his influence, most scholars who researched subjects yielding verifiable conclusions (such as mathematics or physics) no longer analysed theological issues.

2925:

metal works, was introduced into Roman territory by the invading peoples. Artisans working for post-Roman elites developed a distinct, abstract design characterised by ribbons and highly-stylised

6508:—in effect, unfree knights. They descended from serfs who had been warriors or government officials, allowing their descendants to hold fiefs and become knights while technically remaining serfs. 3752:(pope 1198–1216). As rulers of much of central Italy and feudal overlords of some of the Catholic rulers, the popes became deeply involved in secular politics. Sicily and southern Italy had been 2867:

were built in the major Roman cities and post-Roman kingdoms from the 4th to the 6th centuries. Byzantine church architecture adopted an alternative model imitating the rectangular plan and the

5570:, survived as an officially-recognised denomination in Bohemia. In the hope of western support against the Ottomans, Byzantine church leaders submitted themselves to the papacy at the 1438–39 3286:

and their hereditary status was regulated by agreements with their lords. Restrictions on their activities varied, but their freedom of movement was customarily limited and they usually owed

5191:

In Germany, elected emperors were no more than supreme arbiters even if they had a significant power base in their hereditary lands. Imperial authority was even more limited in Italy, where

6997:

Crossbows are slow to reload, which limits their use on open battlefields. Slowness is less of a disadvantage in a siege, since a crossbowman can hide behind fortifications while reloading.

5856:

long-fibred wool allowed a stronger thread to be spun and the use of buttons to close garments enabled a better fit. Popular tailoring designs were quickly spread by pedlars, and trends in

4493: 1561:

of monasteries. Women's influence on politics was fragile, and early medieval authors tended to depict powerful women in a bad light. Women were more respected in Scandinavian societies; a

4743:, but they have a number of regional variants. Traditional Byzantine religious architecture remained dominant in the Balkans, although some Serbian churches have a Romanesque influence. 2063:

for powerful families and centres of political authority; they were the main (and sometimes only) outposts of education and literacy in a region. Many surviving manuscripts of the Latin

652:

began in different regions at different times. Scholarly consensus characterises the period by the economic predominance of agriculture, exploitation of the peasantry, the importance of

5875:

in growing numbers, wars began to be primarily fought by professional soldiers throughout nearly all of Europe in the mid-14th century. Mercenaries were initially hired for wars, but a

1633:

term for Slavs. Christian ethics brought about significant changes in the position of slaves during the 7th and 8th centuries, since their right to a more humane treatment was enacted.

15695: 4877: 2486:. The breakup of the Carolingian Empire was accompanied by invasions, migrations, and raids by external foes. The Atlantic and northern shores were harassed by the Vikings, who also 16027: 13570: 1149:(r. 474–91). The Eastern Roman Empire (known as the Byzantine Empire after the fall of its western counterpart) had little ability to control the lost western territories, but its 4928:. Large scale construction projects advanced building technology, and increased demand for raw materials like timber, stone, and bricks. Shipbuilding improved with the use of the 2431: 6939:

The widespread dissemination of artistic motifs by copying and recopying sketches is indicated by the similarity between wall-paintings depicting the life of the Virgin Mary in

1856:, with the cessation of Byzantine subsidy payments to the Lombards and Franks. The elites' new emphasis on Christian charity also increased the demand for coins of lower value. 13772: 15557: 13683: 7149:

Initially a tiny principality, Muscovy gained strength against its more-powerful neighbors with support from the Mongol khans. During the 1320s, Moscow became the seat of the

5467:(r. 1451–81). Talented military commanders could repel individual Ottoman attacks but the Ottomans conquered almost all of the Balkans; Bulgaria was occupied in 1396, Serbia 2185:

The Merovingian kings customarily distributed Francia among their sons and destroyed their own power base with extensive land grants. In the northeastern Frankish kingdom of

1577:. The disparity in numbers between marriageable women and men led to the detailed regulation of legal institutions protecting women's interests, including their right to the 3424:

facilitated transactions between local and foreign merchants. Loans could be negotiated with them, which gave rise to the development of credit institutions known as banks.

15349: 1117:

of the western part of the empire into smaller political units, ruled by the invading tribes. The 5th-century emperors were often controlled by military strongmen such as

5784:. Literacy improved as new schools and universities were established throughout Europe, often sponsored by urban authorities or wealthy individuals. The invention of the 1493:(r. 610–41) launched an unexpected counterattack against the heart of the Sassanian Empire two years later, recovering the territories previously lost to the Persians. 2298:. Literacy increased with development of the arts, architecture and jurisprudence, and liturgical and scriptural studies under the auspices of the Anglo-Saxon scholar 15152: 17035: 19188: 5129: 4492: 5065:

that spread throughout Europe and killed about one-third of the population. As plague continued to strike Europe until 1400, its total population fell by about

2129:—the sale of church offices—was a common practice. Simony aroused a general fear, since many believed that irregularly-appointed priests could not confer valid 866:, and the following two centuries saw the slow decline of Roman control of its outlying territories. Runaway inflation, external pressure on the frontiers, and 16264: 4759: 3742:

The papacy, long attached to an ideology of independence from secular influence, first asserted its claim to temporal authority over the Christian world. The

16630: 1469:

decimated the empire. Justinian developed an extensive system of border forts to compensate for the lack of military personnel, but stopped maintaining the

1450:

for administrative tasks or as guardians or tutors of women and children, since they considered castrated men exceptionally intelligent and loyal servants.

19178: 14093: 5688:(d. 1342), however, was still inspired by Aristotle to argue in favor of a community's right to regulate its life and control the clergy. Scholars such as 269:. Major developments include the economic predominance of agriculture, exploitation of the peasantry, slow inter-regional communication, the importance of 15039: 4253:, but their security depended on external military assistance (which led to further crusades). Muslim resistance was raised by ambitious warlords such as 3534:

clerics on the papal throne. With popular support, they achieved the acknowledgement of their jurisdiction in church affairs in many parts of Europe. The

16766: 6162:(d. 1886). He emphasised primary sources and studied several aspects of history, but his students focused on political history. Historians of the French 5057:. Starving peasants slaughtered their draft animals, and survivors had to make extraordinary efforts to revive farming. This was followed in 1346 by the 16122: 4978:

In military affairs, the use of specialised infantry increased. Along with the still-dominant heavy cavalry, armies often included mounted and infantry

1519:, the principal means of religious instruction were music and art rather than books. Most intellectual efforts imitated classical scholarship, but some 19053: 14366: 7297:, estimations of literacy are uncertain because both terms are ambiguous; one estimate, in 1500, was ten per cent of males and one per cent of females. 4067:, but respected the liberties of the native aristocracy. They claimed (but only periodically achieved) suzerainty over other lands and peoples such as 2894:

Halls built of timber or stone were the centres of political and social life. Their design often adopted elements of later Roman architecture such as

2228:(r. 751–68) was crowned king with the consent of the Frankish leaders and the papacy. Pepin attacked the Lombards, enforcing their promise to respect 390:

faraway regions in return for economic and legal concessions. New towns developed from local commercial centers, and urban artisans united into local

15435: 14953: 13921: 13741: 6021:

Printing houses throughout Europe began the mass production of inexpensive playing cards and primitive religious images during the mid-15th century.

5452: 3243:

to the king or a higher-ranking aristocrat, but their landholding was free of feudal obligations. In the Byzantine Empire and the Balkan states, the

3029: 1772:

in 732 led to the reconquest of southern France by the Franks, but the main reason for the halt of Islamic growth in Europe was the overthrow of the

1473:. He resumed his expansionism in a decade, completing the conquest of the Ostrogothic kingdom and seizing much of southern Spain from the Visigoths. 538:

architects and artists revived several elements of classical culture in Italy. During the last medieval century, naval expeditions in search for new

14819:(2003). "The Medieval Church Encounters the Classical Tradition: Saint Augustine, Roger Bacon, and the Handmaiden Metaphor". In Lindberg, David C.; 14473: 5952:—the city's most influential family—gathered a significant collection of classical sculptures and opened it to local artists. The Tuscan architect 5725:(d. 1400). French became standardised with theoretical discussions about chivalric literature. One of the sharpest critics of chivalric romances, 4209:

Clashes with secular powers led to the militarisation of the papacy. In response to a Byzantine appeal for military aid against the Seljuk Turks,

2913:

Gold pouring into the tribal leaders from the Roman Empire was regularly remoulded into new artifacts, such as massive necklaces and eagle-shaped

16857: 13541: 5439:

Facing financial crises and threats from the west, the restored Byzantine Empire was unable to prevent Turkish expansion in Anatolia. Revolts by

5177:. Legal procedures improved as discretionary justice, previously dispensed by kings and their retainers, was delegated to professional lawyers. 752:) are poorly documented, which limits a comprehensive study of the period. The systematic publication of medieval written sources began with the 6726:(d. 1263) who made four visits to Sarai to gain the Khans' favor. He overcame his rivals with Mongol assistance, crushed an anti-Mongol riot in 1585:("morning gift"). Early medieval laws acknowledged a man's right to have long-term sexual relationships with women other than his wife (such as 19193: 16279: 7040:

In Bohemia, a mid-14th-century Czech treatise accused the local German artisans of plotting to keep prices high. In 1392, the bakers' guild in

5397: 3455:, were the first to profit from the revival of commerce in the Mediterranean. In the north, German merchants established associations known as 13980: 3479:

moneylending, because they could ignore the Christian clerical condemnation of loan interest. Jewish moneylenders and pawn brokers reinforced

1780:. The Abbasids were concerned with the Middle East, losing control of portions of the Muslim lands in the west. Umayyad descendants took over 1465:

and attacked the Ostrogoths, but his campaign was interrupted by an unexpected Sasanian invasion from the east. Between 541 and 543, a deadly

19218: 3301:

With the development of heavy cavalry, the uniform class of free warriors split into two groups. Those who could equip themselves as mounted

3125:

of the free population declined. One exception was Anglo-Saxon England, where the armies were still composed of regional levies known as the

2534: 2213:(d. 741), took advantage of the permanent Muslim threat to confiscate church property and raise troops by parcelling it out to the recruits. 1988: 13800: 18563: 16356: 15720: 5365: 4762:. Few wall paintings survive, although references to images abound in written sources. The employment of itinerant artists, and the use of 2592:

in Britain. By the middle of the 10th century, Alfred's successors had restored Anglo-Saxon control of the territory. In northern Britain,

1397: 1393: 1205:' culture had little impact on the Anglo-Saxon way of life, but the linguistic assimilation of the natives to the newcomers is evident. By 15663: 14224: 5287:

in 1415. Aragon and Castile were divided by conflicts between magnate factions or about the limits of royal government, but the Castilian

4813:(d. 1151). The new style quickly spread, dominating religious architecture in much of Catholic Europe until the end of the Middle Ages. 17474: 6676:

was known for his erudition and unconventional lifestyle; he had a harem and wore Arab-style garments, including a mantle decorated with

4229:

to march to the east. They lived by looting, and attacked Jewish communities. Few of them reached Anatolia, and those who succeeded were

4177: 3932: 3845:(r. 1273–91), the first German king to be elected after the interregnum, realised that he could not control the whole empire. He granted 14874: 5792:

simplified the mass publication of books, and competition between publishing houses contributed to the quick spread of news and ideas.

5235:(r. 1413–22) to seize much of France. The unconquered French regions put up a strong resistance, boosted by the visions of peasant girl 3432:. These associations typically made rules governing quality, training, and pricing, and only their members had access to local markets. 3270:, a manor was the basic unit of landholding; it consisted of smaller components, such as parcels held by peasant tenants and the lord's 1515:

largely disappeared. Although literacy remained important, it became a practical skill rather than an indication of status. By the late

375: 17067: 16055: 15988: 15949: 15906: 15838: 15748: 15624: 15585: 15102: 14655: 13516: 6118:. This is untrue; lecturers in medieval universities commonly argued that evidence indicated the Earth was a sphere. Science historian 5527:

in 1312. Although the papal seat was returned to Rome in 1377 due to popular pressure, disputes among the church leadership led to the

5476: 5073: 2796: 2782: 882:. The need for revenue led to increased taxes, more centralised and bureaucratic state administration, and a decline in numbers of the 19375: 5539:

with the resignation of one pope and the deposition of his two rivals, which paved the way for the election of an Italian cardinal as

3978:. After a number of divisions and reunifications of the Christian states, the Christian north had coalesced into the four kingdoms of 2310:, which facilitated reading with the clear separation of words and the extensive use of punctuation. Charlemagne sponsored changes in 19133: 17025: 14360: 5133: 4975:, who required less pasture than oxen. Legumes such as peas, beans, and lentils were grown more widely, in addition to cereal crops. 2220:, as Charles Martel's descendants are known, succeeded the Merovingians as the royal dynasty of Francia in 751. The Merovingian king 1478: 944:

accelerated by the conversion of Constantine, although Christianity emerged as the empire's dominant religion only at the end of the

4349:

by church authorities. The crusades fused monastic life with military service in the framework of a new type of monastic order, the

18407: 13834: 6388: 3334: 1750: 841: 15014: 14448: 5503:

and conflicts with the Roman aristocracy had undermined papal authority in Italy, the seat of the papacy was moved to the city of

2145:

in 909 initiated a more radical change, since Cluny was freed from lay control and placed under the protection of the papacy. The

18047: 17416: 16094: 14575: 5632: 5081: 4410:, from the pope or the Holy Roman Emperor. The new educational institutions encouraged scholarly discussion. Debates between the 973: 495: 13598: 5918:

The wealthiest Italian and French princes regularly hired foreign artists, which led to the convergence of courtly styles. This

1793:

eunuchs played a preeminent role in administration and social life, holding positions such as guardians of religious shrines or

1341:

and Germanic tribes in the lowlands along the lower and middle Danube by the end of the 6th century. Another steppe people (the

18495: 15494: 15296: 4064: 3535: 2538: 14849: 13626: 5451:

in 1354. Within a century, the Ottomans reduced the competing southeastern European kingdoms, principalities and lordships to

3385:

The expansion of population, greater agricultural productivity, and relative political stability laid the foundations for the

2576:

The Viking settlement in the British Isles led to the formation of new political entities, including the small (but militant)

1649:. Muslim rulers employed Jewish courtiers, but Christian legislation forbade the appointment of Jews to government positions. 19073: 16234: 16161: 16136: 16108: 16080: 16041: 16013: 15974: 15931: 15888: 15863: 15824: 15799: 15773: 15734: 15709: 15677: 15649: 15610: 15571: 15537: 15512: 15480: 15452: 15419: 15394: 15367: 15335: 15310: 15285: 15257: 15225: 15194: 15166: 15141: 15115: 15083: 15057: 15028: 14970: 14888: 14863: 14838: 14806: 14780: 14701: 14673: 14641: 14613: 14588: 14560: 14487: 14462: 14434: 14406: 14378: 14349: 14317: 14294: 14266: 14238: 14213: 14185: 14164: 14136: 14105: 14075: 14047: 14019: 13994: 13966: 13938: 13905: 13877: 13846: 13814: 13786: 13758: 13725: 13697: 13672: 13640: 13612: 13584: 13559: 13530: 13502: 6522: 3569:—the appointment of clerics by secular rulers—was condemned at a 1059 assembly of bishops in Rome. Henry's son and successor 2271:

His empire was administered by an itinerant court that travelled with the emperor and about 300 imperial officials (known as

1742: 1738: 1642: 812:

has significantly contributed to studying the history of poorly-documented regions, periods, and groups (such as peasantry);

613:

and 1500, but its start and end years are arbitrary. A common starting point, first used by Bruni, is 476: the year the last

7330: 6254: 5317:, a loose confederation of mainly-pagan Lithuanian chieftains and Orthodox Rus' principalities. The common enemy prompted a 4056: 3227:

regulated fundamental social relations in many parts of Europe. In this system, a lord granted property—typically land—to a

1030:. Although these movements of peoples have been described as "invasions", they were often not just military expeditions but 19503: 17140: 15466: 7203: 7179: 7163: 6694: 6449:

As illuminated books were flowing from the British Isles to Francia, the Insular style had a marked impact on Frankish art.

5648: 5199:, and Venice exploited the power vacuum to expand. The centuries-old rivalry between England and France escalated into the 4868: 4261:

in 1187. New crusades prolonged the crusader states' existence for another century, until the last strongholds fell to the

4249:, allowing the Byzantines to recover western Anatolia. The westerners consolidated their conquests in the Middle East into 2487: 2067:

were copied by monks. Monks were also the authors of new works on history, theology, and other subjects by authors such as

1859:

The flourishing Islamic economies' constant demand for fresh labour force and raw materials opened a new market for Europe

1007:(large halls which had been used for administrative and commercial purposes) were adapted for Christian worship. The first 1000: 941: 6384: 3428:

elements of external control. Townspeople engaged in the same trade or profession were united in confraternities known as

2137:. Monastic communities were the first to react to this fear with rigorous observance of their rules. The establishment of 19306: 17989: 17144: 16850: 16690: 16665: 16605: 5208: 4604:(d. 1287/88) also became popular. Previously present only in liturgy, polyphony appeared in secular songs in the form of 4537:, rather than Latin, and consisted of poems, stories, legends, and popular songs. Often the stories were written down in 2840: 2334:

in the west. Late-9th-century theoretical studies contain the earliest certain references to the arrangement of harmonic

2410:

Charlemagne continued the Frankish tradition of dividing his empire between his sons, but only one son –

17843: 17061: 17057: 16945: 16781: 16068: 16001: 15962: 15919: 15874: 15851: 15761: 15637: 15598: 7150: 6890: 5272: 4350: 3232: 2550: 1955:

looked to the papacy for leadership. The only part of Western Europe where the papacy had influence was Britain, where

960:

survived through proselytising campaigns outside the empire or because of local ethnic-group support; examples include

3711:

The High Middle Ages saw the development of institutions that would dominate political life in Europe beyond the late

2884: 19238: 17338: 17030: 16960: 16941: 16824: 16786: 16316: 14753: 14727: 14627: 5857: 5267:(r. 1485–1509). The wars prevented the English from expanding in the British Isles, but royal power remained weak in 5228: 3753: 3679:(d. 1179/80) was a prolific and highly-respected scholar who proudly said that "no man can be made without a woman". 3597: 2130: 2004: 1229: 1094: 6236:(d. 589) was a vehement but unsuccessful opponent of her people's conversion to Catholicism, and the Frankish queen 3897:

The French monarchy slowly began to expand its authority over the nobility. The kings faced a powerful rival in the

3491:. Church authorities' growing concerns about Jewish influence on Christian life inspired legal segregation and the 940:, with a widening gulf between rich and poor and a decline in the vitality of smaller towns. Another change was the 261:) lasted from approximately 500 to 1500 AD. It is the second of the three traditional divisions of Western history: 19068: 18429: 17974: 17569: 16979: 16968: 16964: 16937: 16153: 14067: 7132:

One of the most successful queens of the period, Margaret primarily ruled with her young male relatives—first with

6426: 5268: 4033: 3939:(r. 1180–1223). John's financial exactions to pay for his unsuccessful attempts to regain Normandy led to the 1215 3916: 3824: 3593: 2716: 2517:

in 955. In the Mediterranean, Arab pirates launched regular raids against Italy and southern France; the Aghlabids

1237: 836: 316: 124: 14175: 7259:(r. 1458–90) an excuse to conquer parts of the Czech lands. Poděbrady was succeeded by the Catholic Polish prince 3715:. The kings' right to rule without a foreign power's intercession became widely accepted, introducing the idea of 875: 19:

This article is about medieval Europe. For a global history of the period between the 5th and 15th centuries, see

19483: 19478: 19473: 19468: 19463: 19458: 19168: 19103: 18148: 17999: 17602: 17467: 16917: 16913: 16866: 16284: 14912: 14337: 5817: 5322: 4681:

from Greek into Latin. Medicine was studied, especially in southern Italy, where Islamic medicine influenced the

4378: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2011:

in the Balkans condemned sexual reproduction because they considered Satan the creator of the physical universe.

1190:

In the post-Roman world, the fusion of Roman culture with the customs of the invading tribes is well documented.

730: 15180: 7263:(r. 1471–1516), but the Diet enacted the Czech right to freely choose between Hussitism and Catholicism in 1485. 6328:(fl. c. 840 – 850) is an early example of a western theoretical work on music. In the study, Aurelian discusses 6018:

to create a translucent surface and tiny bushes to achieve a more lifelike representation of the natural world.

3624:. Monastic reforms continued; the Cluniac monasteries' ceremonies were alien to those who preferred the simpler 3592:

The High Middle Ages was a time of great religious movements. Old pilgrimage sites such as Rome, Jerusalem, and

695:, however, use of that term was restricted to the Early Middle Ages. Historians who regard the Middle Ages as a 19453: 19448: 19443: 19438: 18359: 17786: 17619: 17557: 16988: 16909: 16843: 16650: 16590: 16562: 16321: 15302: 14989: 14719: 14605: 14280: 14258: 14033: 6080: 5738: 5018: 4029: 4003: 3970:

The Iberian Christian states began to push back against the Islamic powers in the south, a period known as the

3743: 2824: 2653: 1963:

to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity. Church attendance was low, and meetings with itinerant clergy and

1908: 1746: 1225: 846: 614: 4146:

in eastern Europe, facilitating the development of direct trade contacts between Europe and China through new

3943:, a charter that confirmed the rights and privileges of free men in England. In France, Philip Augustus's son 3198:, Anatolia, and the Balkans. Their influx caused much destruction, and culminated in the establishment of the 2988:

tradition of realistic portrayal survived in the Mediterranean. Although the iconoclastic movement restricted

1145:(king) and took full control of Italy, although in theory he ruled as a representative of the eastern emperor 19358: 18512: 17994: 17903: 16996: 16992: 16736: 16567: 15500: 14661: 13828: 6158:

and the expansionism of empires. The professionalisation of historical study began with the German historian

6053:). Horror stories were widely read, including German booklets describing the cruel acts of Wallachian prince 5968:

for creating the illusion of depth was another innovation, demonstrated by reliefs on the bronze door of the

5516: 5484: 5472: 5330: 5054: 4872: 4823:

developed as a form of devotion for laypeople. Metalwork continued as the most prestigious form of art, with

4458:(a new method of intellectual discourse and pedagogy) required the study of authoritative texts, notably the 3819: 3799:

succeeded the Salians. Their recurring conflicts with the papacy allowed the northern Italian cities and the

3629: 3527: 2510: 1726: 1502: 1486: 767: 479: 327:. In the post-Roman world, taxation declined, the army was financed through land grants, and the blending of 19392: 3231:

in return for services (primarily military) rendered. In other parts of Europe such as Germany, Poland, and

2902:) were their most characteristic features, but castles often developed into multi-functional compounds with 2687:; the local inhabitants converted to Islam. Swedish traders and slave hunters ranged down the rivers of the 2679:

the Muslim expansion, and their leaders converted to Judaism. A new trade route developed at the end of the

2318:

in liturgical music for the churches. His commitment to liturgical uniformity stimulated the development of

617:

was deposed. There is no universally-agreed-upon end date; the most frequently-used dates include 1453 (the

19123: 19108: 19003: 17424: 17420: 17291: 15440: 14958: 13926: 13746: 5550:(d. 1384) criticised popular acts of devotion such as pilgrimages, and challenged Catholic doctrine on the 5284: 3915:

ascended the throne, since he had seized large areas of France through inheritance and marriage. The first

3609: 3570: 3480: 3061: 2546: 2542: 2255:(r. 768–71). When Carloman died, Charlemagne reunited Francia and embarked on a programme of expansion. He 273:

in power structures, and the weakness of state administration. The period is sometimes subdivided into the

169: 24: 6844: 6085: 5380:

completed Muscovy's dominance in the northeast. In southeastern Europe, the small Vlach principalities of

1760:

The conquerors bypassed the mountainous northwestern region of the Iberian Peninsula and a small kingdom,

18529: 18040: 17953: 17948: 17564: 16956: 16746: 15791: 15665:

Inventing the Middle Ages: The Lives, Works, and Ideas of the Great Medievalists of the Twentieth Century

14944: 14830: 14507: 14426: 13622: 7108: 5597:

emphasised lay piety, community experience and personal faith. In the Orthodox world, the Athonite monks

5318: 5180: 4366: 3995: 3519: 2664:

gained autonomy in the Carolingian border province. Asturias expanded slowly south, and continued as the

1426:

The Eastern Roman Empire remained intact and experienced an economic revival which lasted into the early

918: 871: 816:, however, is still uncertain. Legislation may influence archaeological research. New finds of coins and 755: 367:

quickly fell apart into competing kingdoms which later fragmented into autonomous duchies and lordships.

13488: 6628:(d. 1679), but the concept developed during conflicts between the emperors and the papacy. A 1202 papal 5883:

from the Christian population began supplying the Ottoman army with professional foot soldiers known as

3604:

rose to prominence. Popular movements emerged to support the implementation of church reform, but their

1811: 459:

stimulated a new method of intellectual discussion, with an emphasis on rational argumentation known as

54: 19256: 18400: 18123: 18009: 18004: 17460: 17334: 17072: 17015: 16905: 16741: 16731: 16695: 16537: 16439: 16072: 16005: 15966: 15923: 15855: 15765: 15641: 15602: 15472: 15020: 14880: 14479: 14454: 14286: 14230: 14205: 14097: 14011: 13986: 13778: 13689: 13512: 7171: 6657: 6430: 6072: 5460: 5415: 5411: 5407: 5401: 4242: 4233:

by the Turks. The official crusade departed in 1096 under the command of prominent aristocrats such as

4084: 4037: 3728: 3420:

also appeared, enabling the easy transmission of money. Since many types of coins were in circulation,

2997: 2636: 2072: 1265: 1150: 797:

are indispensable sources of medieval history, although many are forged. Other written sources include

749: 688: 653: 641: 507: 383: 370:

During the High Middle Ages, which began after 1000, the population of Europe increased greatly as the

286: 270: 6458:

Under the Macedonian emperors, the old churches were redecorated and newly-built churches such as the

6413: 1928:

in 843, issues such as the rivalry for ecclesiastic jurisdiction over newly-converted peoples and the

995:. The solemnity of later Roman artists' abstract style effectively visualised Christian messages, and 19488: 19048: 19008: 18449: 17979: 17733: 17694: 17390: 17220: 17077: 16923: 16464: 16227: 15834: 15816: 15430: 14948: 14824: 14552: 14057: 14039: 13916: 13736: 13717: 7167: 6922:

illustrates the blending of Byzantine and Romanesque traditions in Serbia. Its west portal, with its

6569: 6487: 6354: 6295: 5986: 5575: 4682: 4258: 4151: 4115: 4096: 2930: 2703:. Contacts with Francia paved the way for missionary efforts by Christian clergy in Scandinavia, and 2518: 1890: 1730: 1573:, or even command ships. Women usually died at a considerably younger age than men, primarily due to 1520: 1512: 1212:, new political centres emerged; some local leaders accumulated considerable wealth, and a number of 4398:. Schools reaching the highest level of mastery in the disciplines they taught received the rank of 4006:

from the Genoese. Southern Iberia remained under the control of Islamic states, initially under the

1936:

in the west widened to the extent that differences were greater than similarities. In the west, the

1589:), but women were expected to remain faithful. Clerics censured sexual unions outside marriage, and 19498: 19148: 18876: 18638: 18598: 18588: 18536: 16984: 16974: 16951: 16928: 16900: 16715: 15272: 15245: 14623: 14341: 14156: 13948: 13547: 7260: 7227: 7095: 5937: 5535:, three rival lines of popes were each supported by several states. The schism was resolved at the 5314: 5313:, during a period when the Teutonic Knights' expansion intensified. The Knights primarily targeted 5256: 4431: 4311: 4246: 3912: 3876: 3853:' future dominance in central Europe. After his death, three Alpine peasant communities formed the 2229: 1972: 1840:

and amber were delivered from the Baltic region to western Europe, triggering the establishment of

1754: 1646: 1261: 745: 426:, a new aristocracy stabilised their position through strict inheritance customs. In the system of 14063:

The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest

13860: 13654: 7314:

in 1444. He is often, but not universally, described as the prime mover of Portuguese exploration.

6143: 4341:

became a leading element of medieval life. A crusader oath could be fulfilled with a cash payment

569:

The Middle Ages is the second of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme of analysing

18926: 18834: 18133: 18128: 17984: 17642: 17356: 17322: 16419: 16389: 16128: 15726: 15523: 15444: 15386: 15359: 15249: 15217: 15158: 15125: 15107: 15049: 14962: 14772: 14580: 14516: 14398: 14128: 13930: 13897: 13750: 13707: 13576: 13551: 6923: 6207: 5965: 5860:

were dictated by the Burgundian ducal court in much of 15th-century Europe. In metalworking, the

5480: 4806: 4724: 4712: 4419: 4238: 4088: 3999: 3736: 3582: 3559: 3508: 2926: 2804: 2640:(r. 936–73) crossed the Alps into Italy, married the young widow and had himself crowned king in 2509:. The eastern parts of the Frankish kingdoms, especially Germany and Italy, were under continual 2295: 2083:, establishing the basis for a flourishing Slavic religious literature; a new script was adopted 1109:(r. 434–53) led invasions into the Balkans in 442 and 447, Gaul in 451 and Italy in 452, but his 1102: 937: 821:

is necessary; irony, satire, and anachronism were popular stylistic devices of medieval artists.

468: 415: 411: 17269: 15405: 5483:

resistance was broken by 1488. Ottoman rule was highly centralised, and sultans often appointed

4007: 3398:. New forms of commercial contracts emerged, allowing risk to be shared within the framework of 1372:. Greek remained the language of the Byzantine Empire, but Slav migrations expanded the area of 1022:

Civil wars between rival emperors diverted soldiers from the empire's frontier forces, allowing

593:(d. 1707). The adjective "medieval" or "mediaeval", pertaining to the Middle Ages, derives from 19098: 19088: 18677: 18608: 18593: 18074: 18033: 17808: 17637: 17409: 17405: 17317: 17184: 16776: 16532: 16306: 15462: 15267: 14651: 14416: 13982:

The Collapse of the Eastern Mediterranean: Climate Change and the Decline of the East, 950–1072

6826: 6710: 6632:

said that "a king is an emperor in his kingdom", implying the equal status of secular monarchs.

6325: 6237: 6115: 5554:. His teachings influenced two major movements condemned as heretical by Catholic authorities: 5361: 5292: 5252: 5150: 4816: 4331: 4303: 3601: 3342: 2856: 2751: 2724: 2041: 1992: 1841: 1734: 1672: 1662: 1415: 1350: 1241: 1008: 957: 618: 527: 344: 164: 60: 20: 14252: 7252: 7091: 6462:

in Greece were embellished with mosaics and icons. Richly-decorated ivory panels, such as the

6154:

sought the origins of modern nations in the Middle Ages, stimulating oppressed ethnic groups'

5715:

had matured into a literary language on a par with Latin. English reached the same level with

4711:

continued, with stone fortresses built in regions where central authority was weak. Many were

874:. The army doubled in size and military expenses steadily increased, primarily in response to 522:

against their Muslim neighbours. The prominence of personal faith is well documented, but the

19208: 19183: 19113: 18796: 18524: 18297: 18255: 18225: 17888: 17753: 16595: 16487: 16444: 15529: 15355: 15277: 15093: 15075: 15045: 14898: 14309: 14115:

Fößel, Amalie (2016) . "The Political Traditions of Female Rulership in Medieval Europe". In

13958: 13806: 13650: 13494: 7191: 7066: 6985: 6940: 6876:(towers) made some Italian towns look like brick-and-stone forests. The small Tuscan town of 6739:

After the fall of Constantinople to the crusaders, three Byzantine successor states emerged:

6211: 6203: 5834: 5349: 5334: 5288: 5240: 5204: 5200: 4641: 4411: 4295: 3928: 3902: 3869: 3860: 3854: 3659:

might present a challenge to clerical monopolies, but most respected official doctrines. The

3417: 3386: 2720: 2307: 2033: 2015: 1411: 922: 700: 499: 379: 154: 16147: 14359:

Harris, Stephen J. (2008). "Introduction". In Harris, Stephen J.; Grigsby, Bryon L. (eds.).

14061: 3949:(r. 1223–26) distributed large portions of his father's conquests among his younger sons as 3620:. To suppress heresies, the popes appointed special commissioners of investigation known as 3475:, allowing Italian and German merchants to trade with one another and with local merchants. 3135:

as a military weapon. A technological advance with implications beyond the military was the

2555: 2032:. Most European monasteries focused on community experience of the spiritual life, known as 19433: 19428: 19203: 18958: 18871: 18849: 18772: 18768: 18697: 18613: 18558: 18553: 18376: 18220: 18109: 17943: 17938: 17878: 17813: 17718: 17364: 17175: 16814: 16756: 16552: 16459: 16429: 16414: 16220: 16033: 15984: 15945: 15902: 15429:

Vale, Malcolm (2001) . "The Civilization of Courts and Cities in the North, 1200–1500". In

15186: 14797:. Reports of the Research Committee of the Society of Antiquaries of London. Vol. 36. 14546: 7120: 7112: 7087: 6702: 6649: 6151: 6111: 5919: 5767: 5759: 5717: 5697: 5693: 5536: 5377: 5260: 5192: 4574: 4346: 3945: 3924: 3804: 3621: 3551: 3539: 3346: 3218: 3017: 2963:

ornamenting and extensive segmentation. Paintings have mostly survived in richly-decorated

2888: 2836: 2676: 2045: 1964: 1925: 1916:(r. 717–41) prohibited the display of paintings of human figures in places of worship, the 1913: 1524: 1437: 1310: 1051: 902: 813: 773: 622: 531: 464: 371: 332: 320: 139: 79: 64: 14420: 6329: 6029:

containing illustrations and text—rapidly became popular, with best-sellers including the

3341:

had exclusive jurisdiction over marital affairs, and church authorities supported popular

2792: 664:—in power structures, slow inter-regional communication, and a fragile state bureaucracy. 8: 19409: 19228: 19093: 18963: 18753: 18682: 18439: 18412: 18395: 18383: 18205: 18161: 17908: 17838: 17781: 17698: 17524: 17260: 17255: 17244: 17224: 17194: 16700: 16680: 16660: 16625: 16557: 16469: 16336: 16029:

The Formation of a Persecuting Society: Authority and Deviance in Western Europe 950-1250

15620: 15133: 7338: 7307: 7079: 6973: 6944: 6919: 6748: 6740: 6706: 6617: 6530: 6463: 6380: 6059: 5969: 5845: 5622: 5574:; most Orthodox believers rejected papal supremacy, however, and those who supported the 5571: 5512: 5425: 5121: 5093: 4786: 4664: 4566: 4407: 4358: 4323: 4234: 4226: 4218: 4202: 4194: 4185: 4052: 3991: 3936: 3907: 3761: 3720: 3676: 3664: 3203: 3163: 3057: 2974: 2688: 2661: 2463: 2391: 2382: 2373: 2217: 2194: 2080: 2076: 1761: 1619:

settlement also varied greatly. Some peasants lived in large settlements with as many as

1466: 1285: 1281: 1256: 1252: 1011:—hand-written books decorated with colourful miniatures—were produced with the spread of 984: 590: 574: 554: 530:

presented a significant challenge to traditional power structures in the Western Church.

472: 456: 352: 296: 262: 211: 17091: 4365:. The Teutonic Knights focused much of their activity in the Baltic, where they founded 2799:, the destruction of old power centres accompanied the formation of the state under the 2044:, which was widely used in western monasteries. In the east, monastic rules compiled by 19493: 19270: 18948: 18864: 18854: 18687: 18650: 18580: 18519: 18502: 18456: 18366: 18280: 18094: 18014: 17918: 17702: 17654: 17649: 17552: 17542: 17499: 17491: 17386: 17285: 17250: 17240: 17234: 17228: 17206: 17202: 17165: 17136: 17083: 16933: 16804: 16640: 16615: 16517: 16394: 16346: 16341: 16331: 16269: 15559:

Contesting the Middle Ages: Debates that are Changing our Narrative of Medieval History

15378: 14932: 14903: 14798: 14764: 13711: 13664: 13522: 7187: 7133: 6961: 6904: 6857:

system in England developed through the adoption of principles and procedures (such as

6698: 6645: 6587: 6552: 6367: 6262: 5996: 5961: 5927:, commissioning small portraits and a growing range of luxury items such as jewellery, 5726: 5685: 5681: 5369: 5342: 5232: 5216: 4882: 4751: 4547: 4422:" were especially heated. Philosophical discourse was stimulated by the rediscovery of 4338: 4279: 4171: 4044: 3987: 3979: 3964: 3954: 3842: 3834: 3811: 3769: 3586: 3492: 3444: 3436: 3274:. As churchmen prohibited the enslavement of coreligionists, a new form of dependency ( 3004:

rediscovered the human figure and Western artists often depicted people in illuminated

2808: 2747: 2708: 2657: 2645: 2619: 2585: 2514: 2502: 2459: 2401: 2162: 2150: 2122: 2037: 1725:(d. 632) brought about more radical changes. After his death, Islamic forces conquered 1690: 1637:

southern Gaul and Italy. The Visigothic kings made concentrated efforts to convert the

1570: 1302: 1173: 1134: 1075: 980: 953: 949: 830: 399: 364: 328: 324: 292: 17198: 7219: 6751:

in northeastern Anatolia. Michael VIII had ruled Nicaea before seizing Constantinople.

5852:

In cloth production, the second main employer after agriculture, the increased use of

5388:

emerged; their rulers primarily accepted the suzerainty of Hungarian or Polish kings.

5212: 3016:. Charlemagne's court seems to have been responsible for the acceptance of figurative 2665: 2279:. The central administration supervised the counts with imperial emissaries, known as 19078: 18980: 18968: 18953: 18933: 18844: 18791: 18763: 18745: 18548: 18424: 18417: 18230: 18178: 18156: 18084: 17893: 17868: 17848: 17828: 17818: 17708: 17690: 17659: 17592: 17509: 17483: 17436: 17401: 17397: 17375: 17352: 17348: 17281: 17277: 17216: 17180: 17170: 17160: 17155: 17132: 16800: 16542: 16512: 16502: 16492: 16409: 16399: 16384: 16251: 16157: 16132: 16118: 16104: 16076: 16037: 16009: 15970: 15927: 15884: 15859: 15820: 15795: 15769: 15730: 15705: 15673: 15645: 15606: 15567: 15533: 15508: 15476: 15448: 15415: 15390: 15363: 15331: 15306: 15281: 15253: 15221: 15205: 15190: 15162: 15137: 15111: 15097: 15079: 15053: 15024: 15001: 14966: 14924: 14884: 14859: 14834: 14816: 14802: 14776: 14697: 14687: 14669: 14637: 14609: 14584: 14556: 14530: 14483: 14458: 14430: 14402: 14374: 14345: 14331: 14313: 14290: 14262: 14234: 14209: 14181: 14160: 14132: 14116: 14101: 14071: 14043: 14015: 13990: 13962: 13952: 13934: 13901: 13873: 13842: 13810: 13782: 13754: 13721: 13693: 13668: 13636: 13608: 13580: 13555: 13526: 13498: 7256: 7231: 7137: 7083: 6977: 6898: 6775: 6661: 6653: 6586:

of bishoprics and abbeys without formally sanctioning the monarch's claim to control

6526: 6307: 6159: 6131: 6103: 5977: 5809: 5670: 5448: 5373: 5326: 5280: 5248: 4933: 4902: 4886: 4755: 4651: 4625: 4621: 4558: 4553: 4383: 4287: 4269: 4230: 4135: 4021: 4017: 3983: 3891: 3883: 3780: 3773: 3748: 3716: 3668: 3512: 3448: 3206:

began in Europe and its estimated population grew from 35 to 80 million between

3195: 2766: 2712: 2631: 2577: 2564: 2311: 2233: 2142: 2028: 1960: 1777: 1773: 1700: 1566: 1369: 1306: 1178: 1162: 1023: 996: 867: 761: 720: 672: 668: 570: 535: 515: 448: 274: 242: 98: 19223: 14573:(2005) . Wehmeier, Sally; McIntosh, Colin; Turnbull, Joanna; Ashby, Michael (eds.). 13915:

Denley, Peter (2001) . "The Mediterranean in the Age of Renaissance, 1200–1500". In

13891: 13735:

Brown, Thomas (2001) . "The Transformation of the Roman Mediterranean, 400–900". In

6641: 5868:, in 1447 in Venice, granted a ten-year monopoly to inventors for their inventions. 4697: 4693: 3632:

life" of poverty and preaching. New monastic orders were established, including the

3373: 2750:. The imperial court was the centre of a rebirth of classical learning known as the 1924:

to declare new dogmas with imperial edicts. Although the Byzantine Church condemned

1195: 19324: 18839: 18829: 18655: 18603: 18507: 18371: 18260: 18210: 18188: 18183: 18114: 17883: 17798: 17743: 17713: 17664: 17624: 17607: 17597: 17532: 17504: 17371: 17360: 17330: 17309: 17190: 17095: 17046: 17040: 17020: 16895: 16761: 16710: 16705: 16645: 16610: 16522: 16479: 16449: 16371: 16289: 16259: 15209: 14993: 14916: 14790: 14749: 14723: 14520: 14248: 14120: 13976: 13869: 7235: 7116: 6801: 6744: 6723: 6500:

In France, Germany, and the Low Countries there was a further type of "noble", the

6459: 6405: 6155: 6076: 6054: 6006: 5973: 5722: 5669:

Prominent late-medieval philosophers departed from Aristotelian logic. Among them,

5644: 5598: 5456: 5164: 5113: 5007: 4763: 4601: 4545:(songs of great deeds), glorifying their male heroes' often-brutal acts, including 4540: 4478: 4401: 4391: 4362: 4262: 4181: 4131: 4072: 4060: 3898: 3846: 3788: 3680: 3641: 3578: 3531: 3458: 3452: 3148: 3118: 3066: 3009: 2765:

Missionary efforts by Eastern and Western clergy resulted in the conversion of the

2755: 2615: 2593: 2581: 2522: 2483: 2475: 2439: 2435: 2415: 2335: 2319: 2282: 2202: 1508: 1373: 1191: 1183: 1031: 906: 898: 680: 676: 558: 543: 503: 471:

churches, while structural innovations led to the development of the more delicate

452: 308: 304: 282: 278: 221: 134: 108: 103: 16205: 15132:. Vol. 12 (Transcendental meditation - Zwingli, Huldrych) (Second ed.). 14599: 14150: 8624: 7048:, "No one of Irish blood or birth" could hold office or be hired as an apprentice. 6004:(d. 1510). Flemish painters quickly improved their technique. When completing his 5653: 2454:

in Francia (r. 888–98). In the eastern lands, the dynasty ended with the death of

2294:

Charlemagne's court was the centre of the cultural revival sometimes known as the

2064: 1836:, new commercial networks were developing in northern Europe. Goods such as furs, 1600: 434:

owed military service to their lords in return for the lands they had received in

19213: 19153: 19038: 18886: 18881: 18859: 18779: 18733: 18490: 18444: 18342: 18319: 18302: 18275: 18060: 17923: 17898: 17686: 17669: 17514: 17432: 17344: 17212: 16835: 16771: 16685: 16655: 16379: 16296: 16195: 16100: 15691: 15411: 15327: 14711: 14633: 13838: 7311: 6981: 6969: 6965: 6690: 6481: 6174:(d. 1944) broadened their perspective, examining culture, society, and identity. 6095: 6090: 6032: 5944:

Florence emerged as the center of intellectual and artistic life for most of the

5805: 5704: 5602: 5592: 5582: 5532: 5440: 5156: 5125: 4859:

objects such as gaming pieces, combs, and small religious figures have survived.

4794: 4570: 4519: 4395: 4354: 4250: 4147: 4139: 4107: 4048: 3865: 3800: 3732: 3649: 3605: 3555: 3543: 3523: 3472: 3440: 3240: 3213:

and 1347. The exact causes remain unclear, and improved agricultural techniques,

3190: 3110: 3001: 2985: 2914: 2743: 2739: 2608: 2604: 2455: 2446: 2411: 2315: 2260: 2225: 2173: 2146: 2099: 2095: 1996: 1769: 1658: 1346: 1330: 879: 407: 395: 195: 129: 7276:(d. 1472), aroused Italian scholarly interest in Greek studies during his exile. 4282:

by 1248. The German and Scandinavian rulers' expansion against the neighbouring

1667: 1268:. Elsewhere in Gaul, the Franks and Celtic Britons established stable polities. 19282: 19243: 19163: 19118: 19058: 19023: 18815: 18728: 18633: 18541: 18332: 18166: 18089: 17873: 17863: 17858: 17853: 17833: 17823: 17738: 17681: 17574: 17537: 17428: 17382: 17050: 16675: 16620: 16574: 16527: 16507: 16351: 16274: 16090: 16051: 15941: 15898: 15687: 15581: 15176: 14820: 14542: 14444: 14146: 14085: 14029: 13594: 7218:(d. 1468) resisted Ottoman conquest for more than two decades at the head of a 6832: 6534: 6179: 6165: 6147: 6139: 5957: 5785: 5743: 5712: 5528: 5524: 5520: 5508: 5500: 5468: 5444: 5353: 5244: 5196: 5144:

Although the growth of central governments continued, more than 500 autonomous

5050: 4972: 4941: 4918: 4844: 4824: 4708: 4671:

allowed more-advanced mathematics. Astronomy benefited from the translation of

4657: 4484: 4463: 4299: 3920: 3838: 3815: 3784: 3322: 3314: 3283: 2959:. Religious art quickly assimilated several elements of secular style, such as 2947:

refer to great royal treasures, but only a few of them survived; they included

2816: 2778: 2684: 2355: 2303: 2210: 2118: 2019: 1956: 1895: 1848: 1816: 1710: 1638: 1630: 1574: 1381: 1377: 1364:, the literary language of the Western Roman Empire, was gradually replaced by 1338: 1326: 1314: 1202: 1146: 1122: 1098: 1012: 930: 910: 704: 582: 523: 511: 439: 312: 266: 200: 19341: 7023:

Towns were especially hard-hit because of their crowded conditions; one town,

5984:

and eroticism (including homoerotocism) in artworks such as the bronze statue

5566:(d. 1415), who was burned at the stake at Constance. Hussitism, the target of 4059:

into autonomous duchies, enabling the Czech kings to expand in the prosperous

3957:(r. 1226–70) improved local administration by appointing inspectors, known as 3787:

in 1024. They protected the lesser nobility to reduce ducal power, and seized

3131:. In military technology, one of the main changes was the reappearance of the 2845: 2815:

of Kievan Rus' emerged as the rulers of East Europe's vast forest zones after

2330:. The systematic study of Byzantine liturgy contributed to the development of 2247:

Pepin left his kingdom in the hands of his sons: Charles, more often known as

19422: 19294: 19198: 19083: 18998: 18943: 18803: 18723: 18618: 18468: 18461: 18354: 18307: 18200: 18056: 17969: 17768: 17087: 16434: 15880: 15783: 15744: 15669: 15659: 15504: 15490: 15345: 15182:

Femina: A New History of the Middle Ages, Through the Women Written Out of It

15067: 15005: 14928: 14745: 14693: 14665: 14534: 14498: 14388: 14327: 14276: 13887: 13824: 13796: 13768: 13632: 6877: 6805: 6625: 6604: 6583: 6518: 6503: 6467: 5876: 5861: 5813: 5586: 5547: 5540: 5124:

was established to test their faith. Jews who refused to convert were exiled

5117: 5097: 4991: 4956: 4929: 4856: 4820: 4802: 4617: 4585: 4455: 4447: 4443: 4214: 4210: 4190: 4143: 4103: 3953:—virtually independent provinces—to facilitate their administration. His son 3765: 3757: 3724: 3464: 3421: 3326: 3318: 3307: 3199: 3086: 3078: 3021: 2989: 2969: 2851: 2812: 2800: 2774: 2479: 2451: 2221: 2091: 1921: 1272:

was centred in northern Gaul, and the first king about whom much is known is

965: 952:

intensified, and those who persisted with theological views condemned at the

802: 790: 586: 460: 423: 18025: 6762: 5511:, Frenchmen assumed leadership of the Catholic Church. When the French king 4727:. Romanesque buildings have massive stone walls decorated with sculpture in 4225:—the remission of sins—to all who took part. Tens of thousands of commoners 4221:. He declared the liberation of Jerusalem as its ultimate goal, and offered 3703: 3675:

by church authorities. Many popular mystics were women. Among them, the nun

3337:—the ban on priestly marriage—distinguished Catholic clergy from the laity. 3093:

in Europe, and it was adopted by Byzantine cavalrymen before the end of the

2917:, by local goldsmiths. Their unrealistic style, often influenced by Iranian 2811:

used extensive violence to crush opposition by rival Magyar chieftains. The

2683:, bypassing Khazar territory and connecting Central Asia with Europe across 1481:

with the Sasanian Empire, and the Persians seized Egypt, Syria, and much of

19265: 19233: 19033: 18938: 18784: 18758: 18667: 18349: 18337: 18285: 18245: 18240: 18104: 18099: 17928: 17758: 17629: 17547: 17150: 16600: 16497: 16301: 15810: 14683: 14570: 14525: 14502: 14195: 13856: 13660: 8879: 7223: 7058: 6811: 6786: 6565: 6119: 6044: 6011: 5953: 5945: 5789: 5750: 5567: 5562:

in Bohemia. The Bohemian movement began with teachings of Czech theologian

5420: 5338: 4968: 4732: 4593: 4530: 4319: 4307: 4127: 4123: 4111: 3796: 3672: 3547: 3338: 3255: 3251:

system—landholding with limited rights—benefited the military aristocracy.

3122: 3102: 3046: 3034: 2872: 2560: 2359: 2351: 2331: 2288: 2241: 1933: 1837: 1824: 1462: 1354: 1318: 1091: 859: 777: 696: 649: 645: 387: 340: 315:, continued into the Early Middle Ages. The movement of peoples led to the 15876:

The Medieval Fortress: Castles, Forts and Walled Cities of the Middle Ages

14997: 14282:

Sacred Foundations: The Religious and Medieval Roots of the European State

13628:

The Making of Europe: Conquest, Colonization and Cultural Change, 950–1350

12660: 7418: 5431: 4150:

in the Black Sea region. The new land and sea routes to the Far East were

3573:(r. 1056–1105) wanted to preserve the right to appoint his own choices as 2922: 19173: 18921: 18916: 18908: 18893: 18718: 18623: 18434: 18270: 18235: 18215: 18195: 18138: 17913: 17791: 17776: 17748: 16751: 16454: 16361: 16023: 14737: 6274:

Rome, for instance, shrank from a population of hundreds of thousands to

6183: 6135: 6107: 5610: 5491:, the sultans began murdering their brothers to avoid succession crises. 5455:. International coalitions, such as the crusades of Nicopolis (1396) and 5302: 5236: 5184: 5058: 4986:

and engineers. Crossbow use increased, partly because of the increase in

4979: 4827:

a popular and relatively-affordable option. In Italy, the innovations of

4736: 4439: 3973: 3940: 3727:

assumed power as female succession was recognised in most countries. The

3645: 3637: 3633: 3613: 3566: 3484: 3399: 3295: 3267: 3038: 2993: 2978: 2964: 2948: 2934: 2248: 2138: 2053: 2049: 2023: 2000: 1980: 1899: 1867: 1615: 1586: 1528: 1470: 1443: 1334: 1273: 1140: 1087: 809: 630: 539: 519: 498:

and local conflicts often escalated into full-scale warfare, such as the

483: 336: 216: 159: 149: 14876:

Origins of the European Economy: Communications and Commerce, AD 300–900

6265:" was a woman interred with an axe, sword, quiver of arrows, and spears. 6138:

inspired several influential intellectuals, including British historian

4608:; their popularity led to the fading of older liturgical forms, such as 4010:(which broke up in 1031 into a shifting number of petty states known as 3158: 2879:: the "arms" of a T-shaped building which are perpendicular to the long 1110: 18704: 18692: 18662: 18628: 18568: 18250: 17676: 17265: 16326: 16212: 15235: 14936: 8492: 7215: 7175: 6858: 6854: 6621: 6409: 6233: 6171: 6022: 5981: 5888: 5797: 5077: 4898: 4890: 4779: 4771: 4746:

Romanesque art (especially metalwork) was at its most sophisticated in

4718: 4562: 4561:

praised chaste love, and eroticism was primarily expressed in poems by

4534: 4533:

developed in royal and noble courts. This culture was expressed in the

4513: 4451: 4435: 4415: 4342: 4315: 4222: 4155: 3660: 3656: 3358: 3106: 3074: 3025: 2956: 2918: 2903: 2627: 2467: 2363: 2256: 2252: 2190: 2060: 2008: 1941: 1845: 1844:

stations and conflicts over their control. In the post-Roman kingdoms,

1781: 1580: 1458: 1454: 1365: 1248: 936:

Roman society stabilised in a new form which differed from the earlier

887: 794: 637: 578: 15072:

Medieval Warfare Source Book, Volume I: Warfare In Western Christendom

14394:

The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians

12648: 6880:

is an example, although only a few of the family towers have survived.

5589:(d. 1546). The most characteristic late-medieval reform movement, the 4805:

windows. Gothic architecture emerged during the reconstruction of the

2671:

The Eastern European trade routes towards Asia were controlled by the

1737:. The Eastern Romans halted the Muslim expansion at Constantinople in 19138: 18975: 18710: 18672: 18265: 18079: 17723: 16635: 16404: 15701: 15563: 14855: 14370: 14254:

Prints and Printmaking: An Introduction to the History and Techniques

13604: 8540: 7273: 7248: 7194:(d. 1383) and his opponents. Kantakouzenos was crowned co-emperor as 7007: 6015: 6001: 5991: 5884: 5880: 5872: 5830: 5801: 5708: 5658: 5606: 5551: 5464: 5381: 5087: 5030: 4945: 4770:

facilitated the transmission of artistic motifs over long distances.

4747: 4740: 4701: 4645: 4423: 4327: 4119: 3850: 3377:

Impression of the earliest known seal of the northern German city of

3224: 3214: 3136: 3098: 2960: 2427: 2339: 2291:

were responsible for recording important royal grants and decisions.

2287:, who were roving inspectors and troubleshooters. The clerics of the 2264: 2193:

were the most prominent beneficiaries of royal favour. As hereditary

2186: 2103: 1820: 1785: 1714: 1490: 1431: 1213: 1071: 992: 926: 914: 785: 716: 657: 600: 427: 17452: 15686: 14920: 13802:

Medieval Foundations of the Western Intellectual Tradition, 400–1400

12732: 7024: 5935:

pottery. In France and Flanders, tapestry weaving of series such as

5887:. In Bohemia, religious enthusiasm, stern discipline and the use of 5337:(r. 1387–1412) consolidated Denmark, Norway, and Sweden in the 1397 5187:

in peasant dress, wearing her arms, in a late-15th-century miniature

5023: 3289: 917:) stabilised the imperial government for about two decades. After a 707:", the "Muslim Middle Ages", and similar subjects are not uncommon. 285:, and the early medieval period is alternatively referred to as the 19128: 18824: 18645: 18473: 18388: 18327: 18290: 17933: 17728: 16670: 16547: 16424: 14947:(2001) . "Northern Europe Invades the Mediterranean, 900–1200". In 10417: 10369: 9119: 7324: 7045: 6894: 6727: 6629: 6600: 6337: 5932: 5689: 5662: 5559: 5555: 5463:(r. 1449–53), died during the conquest of Constantinople by Sultan 5443:

and recurring civil wars further weakened the empire, allowing the

5385: 5101: 5062: 5053:. Climate anomalies caused agricultural crises, culminating in the 4967:

allowed heavier soils to be farmed more efficiently. The spread of

4963:, with a consequent increase in production. The improvement of the 4914: 4836: 4775: 4677: 4526: 4283: 4198: 4167: 4068: 3950: 3692: 3463:

and controlled trade routes connecting the British islands and the

3405: 3395: 3349:

their sins to a priest at least once a year beginning in the early

3263: 3259: 3132: 3024:

and, by the end of the period, near-life-sized figures such as the

3013: 2895: 2876: 2864: 2759: 2506: 2237: 2206: 1929: 1879: 1806: 1789: 1722: 1680: 1590: 1550: 1539: 1482: 1322: 1295: 1277: 1118: 1083: 1004: 961: 883: 798: 734: 661: 626: 444: 394:

to protect their common interests. Western church leaders accepted

144: 83: 16199: 14980:

Murray, Alexander (2004). "Should the Middle Ages Be Abolished?".

14007:

An Economic and Social History of Later Medieval Europe, 1000–1500

12480: 12360: 11116: 10756: 9341: 8648: 5891:

were key factors in Hussite victories. The earliest references to

5459:(1444), could not stop their advance. The last Byzantine emperor, 3166:

with the three classes of medieval society: those who prayed (the

2707:

was closely associated with the growth of centralised kingdoms in

2167: 1360:

The settlement of peoples was accompanied by changes in language.

1240:

was divided into even smaller political units, perhaps as many as

331:

civilisation and the invaders' traditions is well documented. The

19043: 18898: 18810: 17803: 17614: 17127: 16311: 14604:. Memoires of the American Philosophical Society. Vol. 259. 12744: 8348: 7062: 6785:), the lyric correspondence between Abelard and his former lover 6392: 6350: 6303: 6175: 6026: 5928: 5900: 5775: 5563: 5504: 5391: 5224: 5172: 4995: 4949: 4828: 4801:

importance. The new solutions allowed the extensive use of large

4798: 4672: 4668: 4661: 4611: 4522:

to her former lover, reminding him her beauty and unselfish love.

4459: 4254: 4025: 3617: 3574: 3378: 3275: 3271: 3246: 3175: 3090: 3082: 2952: 2939: 2907: 2735: 2672: 2650: 2589: 2134: 2071:(d. 735), a native of northern England. The Byzantine missionary 1984: 1609: 1605: 1562: 1419: 1342: 1269: 1130: 1126: 1059: 1047: 969: 780:

in the United Kingdom. These large collections primarily contain

562: 13368: 10732: 10720: 10660: 8528: 6730:, and received a grant of tax exemption for the Orthodox Church. 6677: 4620:

which required the invention of a new notation system, known as

3503: 2438:(r. 843–76) controlled the eastern lands in modern-day Germany. 1940:(originally a voluntarily contribution) began to be levied as a 1133:(d. 493), who were partly (or fully) non-Roman. Odoacer deposed 1090:

ended up in Gaul; the Germanic groups now collectively known as

19063: 16190: 16184: 16179: 14088:(1986) . "From Europe to the World". In Fossier, Robert (ed.). 12972: 12211: 11455: 10573: 8336: 7372: 7370: 5949: 5892: 5865: 5853: 5220: 5145: 4983: 4964: 4937: 4848: 4840: 4832: 4728: 4142:

on the Byzantine border. The Mongol conquest was followed by a

4080: 4076: 3967:

began hearing litigants in regular sessions almost year-round.

3887: 3625: 3596:

received increasing numbers of visitors, and new sites such as

3488: 3391: 3302: 3228: 3171: 3167: 2770: 2569: 2299: 2276: 2126: 1968: 1952: 1875: 1871: 1765: 1558: 1447: 1407: 1221: 1217: 1106: 1079: 1043: 925:(r. 306–37) restored internal peace and re-founded the city of 851: 781: 431: 419: 386:

nearly disappeared, and peasants could improve their status by

356: 299:, the collapse of centralised authority, the mass migration of 16202:– Comparative and interdisciplinary articles about the period. 13344: 12696: 12636: 12624: 12324: 11898: 11896: 11662: 11554: 11301: 11299: 11020: 10936: 10614: 10612: 9944: 9199: 9197: 9184: 9182: 7532: 6202:

Medieval writers had divided history into periods such as the

5243:(r. 1422–61) expelled the English from the country except for 4122:(r. 1241–56)—a grandson of Genghis Khan—set up his capital in 3239:

remained the dominant forms of landholding. Their owners owed

2205:(d. 714), also assumed power in the central Frankish realm of 1402: 19300: 19028: 19018: 19013: 18485: 18480: 17273: 15697:

Why the Middle Ages Matter Medieval Light on Modern Injustice

15496:

The Inheritance of Rome: Illuminating the Dark Ages, 400–1000

12756: 11520: 11518: 11284: 9833: 9710: 8684: 8672: 8660: 7754: 7496: 6948: 6538: 6333: 6258: 5364:

began annexing the Rus' principalities (often in competition

4987: 4843:(d. 1337) greatly increased the sophistication and status of 4810: 4790: 4767: 4605: 4597: 4505: 4470: 4291: 4241:(d. 1105). The crusaders defeated the Turks in major battles 4012: 3905:(r. 1035–87). The cross-channel empire further expanded when 3739:, allowing them to exert influence on state administration. 3686: 3526:

Roman aristocrats during the early 11th century, but Emperor

3429: 3330: 3236: 3064:

chasing Muslim horsemen in a miniature from the 12th-century

3042: 3005: 2728: 2641: 2491: 2423: 2419: 2323: 2272: 2110: 1937: 1794: 1718: 1361: 1233: 1070:

in 406, and into present-day Spain in 409; a year later, the

1063: 1055: 1035: 817: 403: 391: 300: 15722:

World Medievalism: The Middle Ages in Modern Textual Culture

15377:

Swanson, Robert (2021). "The Church and Religious Life". In

15092: 12900: 12864: 12828: 12552: 12127: 12115: 12040: 10561: 10441: 10016: 9541: 9539: 9478: 9476: 9233: 8588: 8432: 7486: 7484: 7424: 7367: 6379:

Examples include a 4th-century basilica uncovered under the

6057:(r. 1456–62). The first large illustrated printed book, the 5820:

that led to the European discovery of the Americas in 1492.

5372:(r. 1462–1505), the conquest of the great trading cities of 4889:(1352), the first known (albeit anachronistic) depiction of 2224:(r. 743–51) was deposed that year, and Charles Martel's son 1137:(r. 475–76), the last western emperor, assumed the title of 764:(d. 1750), which was followed by similar series such as the 744:

Certain aspects of medieval society (including the lives of

19158: 13272: 13188: 13140: 13116: 13020: 12984: 12936: 12912: 12876: 12816: 12768: 12588: 12528: 12432: 12396: 12175: 12103: 12016: 12004: 11893: 11854: 11626: 11590: 11578: 11479: 11443: 11431: 11395: 11296: 11248: 11104: 11032: 10984: 10972: 10912: 10852: 10816: 10780: 10744: 10648: 10609: 10429: 10321: 10309: 10285: 10184: 10088: 10004: 9980: 9968: 9884: 9722: 9688: 9686: 9671: 9635: 9611: 9599: 9575: 9488: 9377: 9365: 9317: 9305: 9293: 9257: 9221: 9209: 9194: 9179: 9155: 9131: 9107: 9035: 9011: 8975: 8951: 8939: 8915: 8843: 8819: 8747: 8711: 8612: 8600: 8576: 8552: 8324: 8228: 7879: 7877: 7323:

The portal sculptures of the Burgundian ducal mausoleum at

7041: 6299: 5638: 5428:, from the late-16th-century Ottoman illuminated chronicle 4906: 4819:

gradually moved from monasteries to lay workshops, and the

4704:, completed in three phases from the 13th to 15th centuries 4589: 3468: 3361:

priests, the only roles open to them in the church were as

3127: 2944: 2899: 2880: 2868: 2820: 2754:. The military was reorganised, which allowed the emperors 2695:

from the Khazars, and attempted to seize Constantinople in

2692: 2068: 2003:

and those engaged in non-reproductive sexual acts (such as

1917: 1764:, emerged as the centre of local resistance. The defeat of 1368:

languages (which evolved from Latin) collectively known as

1067: 1039: 691:; with the adoption of the three subdivisions in the early 435: 406:

influence, which accelerated the separation of the western

228: 16:

Period of European history from the 5th to the 15th century

15214:

The Oxford Handbook of Women and Gender in Medieval Europe

14901:(April 1942). "Petrarch's Conception of the 'Dark Ages'". 14125:

The Oxford Handbook of Women and Gender in Medieval Europe

13332: 13308: 13248: 13128: 13008: 12852: 12708: 12684: 12672: 12540: 12468: 12444: 12223: 12069: 12067: 12028: 11871: 11869: 11842: 11830: 11818: 11806: 11782: 11542: 11530: 11515: 11491: 11407: 11359: 11323: 11260: 11236: 11212: 11152: 11080: 11068: 11044: 10996: 10960: 10828: 10804: 10549: 10537: 10393: 10273: 10100: 9862: 9860: 9845: 9806: 9794: 9782: 9401: 9389: 9071: 8855: 8831: 8444: 8408: 8396: 8360: 8312: 8300: 8264: 8216: 8144: 8057: 8045: 8033: 7997: 7889: 7272:

One of the main Byzantine supporters of the church union,

5825: 5295:(r. 1479–1516) reinforced royal power. They completed the 5211:

the French throne in 1337. The English won the battles of

4047:

into independent principalities. Among them, the northern

3317:

cared for believers' spiritual needs and mainly served in

3254:

Most medieval Western thinkers divided society into three

2117:. Aristocrats regarded the churches and monasteries under 2113:

influence over church affairs reached its apex during the

2106:(d. 1000) wrote the first non-liturgical medieval dramas. 2059:

Monasteries had a deep effect on local society, acting as

2048:(d. 826) gained popularity after they were adopted in the 1264:. The Burgundians settled in Gaul, where they reorganised 589:

in 1442, and it became standard with the German historian

188: 16180:

De Re Militari: The Society for Medieval Military History

15128:(2005). "Science and Religion". In Jones, Lindsay (ed.). 13428: 13356: 13296: 13284: 12960: 12924: 12804: 12600: 12564: 12456: 12420: 12408: 12384: 12300: 12247: 12091: 11794: 11770: 11746: 11698: 11686: 11674: 11650: 11200: 11176: 11164: 11140: 11128: 11092: 11056: 10864: 10672: 10624: 10357: 10333: 10237: 10172: 10136: 9823: 9821: 9746: 9734: 9563: 9551: 9536: 9512: 9500: 9473: 9461: 9449: 9425: 9413: 9353: 8999: 8987: 8891: 8807: 8795: 8783: 8759: 8516: 8180: 8009: 7814: 7708: 7706: 7693: 7691: 7640: 7481: 6926:, was completed by southern Italian builders in the late 5711:(d. 1375), both from Florence, indicate that the Italian 5605:(d. 1359) promoted a form of meditative prayers known as 5116:

led to the mass conversion of Spanish Jews in 1391. The "

4511: 4503: 4497: 3628:

monasticism of early Christianity, or wanted to live an "

3550:

in 1054. After a series of mutual excommunications, this

3362: 3189:

and 1060, severe droughts struck the Middle East and the

2197:, they were the power behind the throne beginning in the 502:. By the end of the period, the Byzantine Empire and the 15273:

Inventing the Flat Earth: Columbus and Modern Historians

14425:. Medieval Academy Reprints for Teaching. Vol. 29. 14201:

Planets, Stars, and Orbs: The Medieval Cosmos, 1200–1687

13416: 13392: 13320: 13176: 12948: 12780: 12516: 12336: 12266: 12264: 12262: 12199: 12151: 11920: 11722: 11638: 11371: 11347: 11335: 11224: 10501: 10489: 10477: 10297: 10261: 10227: 10225: 10223: 10196: 10040: 9992: 9683: 9659: 9647: 9623: 9587: 9047: 8867: 8771: 8384: 8276: 8240: 8192: 7973: 7913: 7874: 7862: 7838: 7778: 7766: 7730: 7664: 7580: 7310:(d. 1460) presided over an auction of African slaves at 6353:(d. 930) was one of the first music theorists to define 6223:

Brittany takes its name from this settlement by Britons.

6134:

sparked intense nostalgia for the medieval period. This

6066: 4386:

were expected to operate a school beginning in the late

3731:

emerged as the central office of royal government and a

2314:, imposing the Roman form of worship on his domains and 19143: 15204:

Ringrose, Kathryn M. (2016) . "The Byzantine Body". In

13464: 13224: 13200: 13092: 13080: 13044: 13032: 12840: 12792: 12504: 12372: 12312: 12235: 12079: 12064: 12052: 11992: 11980: 11956: 11932: 11866: 11614: 11467: 11188: 11008: 10876: 10840: 10708: 10597: 10465: 10453: 10381: 10160: 10148: 9956: 9896: 9872: 9857: 9698: 9329: 9281: 9269: 9245: 9167: 9143: 8963: 8735: 8723: 8701: 8699: 8636: 8480: 7850: 7718: 7652: 7592: 7568: 6240:(d. 613) was torn to pieces by horses at the age of 70. 4640:

paved the way for the systematic study of Roman law at

3857:

to defend their judicial autonomy against his kinsmen.

3837:(r. 1266–85). During the civil war, the right of seven 3803:

to extort considerable concessions from them. In 1183,

3772:(r. 1105–54) united the Norman principalities into the 1975:

were most active in Western Europe between the 5th and

1604:

Reconstruction of an early medieval peasant village in

1232:

were still under the control of the native Britons and

374:

allowed crop yields to increase, and technological and

16096:

Fiefs and Vassals: The Medieval Evidence Reinterpreted

14795:

Secular Goldsmiths' Work in Medieval France: A History

14096:. Vol. III. Translated by Sarah Hanbury Tenison. 13404: 13380: 13260: 13164: 13152: 13104: 13056: 12612: 12492: 12348: 11944: 11881: 11758: 11734: 11566: 11503: 11419: 11383: 11272: 10948: 10924: 10768: 10636: 10585: 10525: 10513: 10405: 10208: 10124: 10112: 9818: 9770: 9437: 9095: 9083: 9059: 9023: 8903: 8468: 8420: 8372: 8288: 8168: 8156: 8122: 8120: 8093: 8081: 8069: 8021: 7949: 7925: 7901: 7703: 7688: 7676: 7628: 7616: 7604: 7520: 7285:

Although medieval documents often described people as

6210:, and considered their time to be the last before the 5960:

in Rome before completing the plan of the dome of the

5879:

was created in France in the late 1440s. Around 1438,

5864:

increased the quantity and quality of iron. The first

4302:

was diverted from the Holy Land to Constantinople and

2588:

in 879, acknowledging the existence of an independent

640:, "did not live to a single rhythm over this period". 359:

reunited many of the Western Roman lands by the early

19254: 13452: 13212: 12996: 12888: 12576: 12288: 12259: 11968: 11908: 11710: 11602: 10900: 10888: 10792: 10345: 10220: 10076: 10064: 10052: 10028: 9932: 9920: 9908: 9524: 8927: 8504: 8252: 8204: 7985: 7961: 7937: 7826: 7802: 7544: 7459: 7457: 7382: 6232:

Among the powerful women, the Arian Visigothic queen

4797:

to reinforce walls, and rib vaults to minimise their

4750:, in which distinct artistic personalities—including 4268:

The papacy also used the crusading ideology in other

4051:

emerged as the dominant power after Suzdalian troops

3994:

by 1230. Aragon emerged as a naval power, conquering

2727:

that hindered the accumulation of power by ambitious

2528: 1565:

woman could demand compensation from her husband for

1349:

a Byzantine imperial army in 681 and established the

14094:

The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Middle Ages

14035:

Music in the Medieval West: Western Music in Context

13236: 13068: 12720: 12276: 12187: 12163: 12139: 11311: 10696: 10684: 10249: 9758: 8696: 8564: 8105: 7790: 7508: 7430: 7406: 5871:

As increased tax revenues allowed the employment of

5609:. A general fear of evil practices led to the first 5546:

Theological debates intensified. English theologian

4855:

resulted in greater production of secular art; many

3353:, which reinforced priestly control of their lives. 3221:, and the lack of invasions have been suggested. 3139:, which allowed horses to be used in rocky terrain. 2345: 16124:

Europe After Rome: A New Cultural History, 500–1000

15940: 15897: 15301:. A History of East Central Europe. Vol. III. 13774:

The Jews of Medieval Western Christendom, 1000–1500

13440: 8456: 8132: 8117: 7742: 7556: 7442: 7111:, the Habsburgs were expanding in Austria, and the 5696:; many emphasised human dignity, and were known as 4952:allowed navigation at a great distance from shore. 4785:Structural innovations introduced the evolution of 4774:flourished; churches and castles were decorated by 3935:the northern French possessions to the French king 3278:) almost completely supplanted slavery by the late 2153:" could be achieved with submission to the papacy. 862:reached its greatest territorial extent during the 16865: 15812:Medieval Bodies: Life and Death in the Middle Ages 14763:Lee, Alexander (2021). "Culture and the Arts". In 14367:Routledge Studies in Medieval Religion and Culture 7469: 7454: 7394: 6370:, who was also a king of West Francia (r. 922–23). 4330:, provided an opportunity for the French monarchy 4290:, forcing the assimilation of a number of Slavic, 3919:in Ireland were established during his reign. The 3818:to elect their leaders; the princes' autonomy was 2259:the Saxons, conquered the Lombards, and created a 1294:—present-day Great Britain—settled in what is now 1034:into the empire. In 376, hundreds of thousands of 991:, often by reinterpreting popular motifs of pagan 15436:The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe 15298:East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000–1500 14954:The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe 14330:(2001). "Introduction". In Hankins, James (ed.). 13922:The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe 13742:The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe 7355: 7255:(r. 1457–71) king, which gave the Hungarian king 6366:Hugh Capet was a grandson of King Odo's brother, 4337:With its unique ceremonies and institutions, the 4298:peoples into the culture of Catholic Europe. The 3581:(pope 1073–85). Their quarrel developed into the 2910:or wells, halls, chapels, stables and workshops. 1979:. They were the first to use handbooks, known as 972:remained tolerated, although legislation limited 19420: 15872: 14601:Renaissance Vision from Spectacles to Telescopes 14333:Leonardo Bruni: History of the Florentine People 7044:excluded those who married non-German women. In 5581:Mysticism and devotional literature flourished. 5321:sealed by the marriage of Lithuanian grand duke 5153:—at legislative assemblies known as parliament, 4134:disintegrated into small (but often aggressive) 3097:. Another development was the increasing use of 2762:(r. 976–1025) to expand the empire's frontiers. 2490:and settled there. In 911, the Viking chieftain 1046:(r. 364–78) to settle in Roman territory in the 897:) split the empire into separately-administered 549: 7153:the Orthodox Church in the Rus' principalities. 6842: 6332:and their association of specific varieties of 5247:. England fought a long civil war known as the 5042:The average annual temperature began declining 3963:, to oversee the royal officials' conduct. The 3655:Individuals who were thought to receive divine 3028:were common in important churches. In England, 2007:). In contrast with official Christianity, the 1999:and prescribed severe penances for adulterers, 1866:. The continent emerged as a major supplier of 1446:(r. 527–65). The Byzantines regularly employed 1353:, subjugating the local Slavic tribes near the 1224:) were formed. Smaller kingdoms in present-day 534:scholars began to emphasise human dignity, and 14275: 14038:. Western Music in Context: A Norton History. 13862:Eastern Europe in the Middle Ages (500–1300), 11560: 10762: 10738: 10726: 10666: 7190:(r. 1341–90), between the powerful aristocrat 5398:Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty 5392:Collapse of Byzantium and rise of the Ottomans 5035:revolt, from a 14th-century manuscript of the 4862: 905:in 286. This system, which eventually had two 18055: 18041: 17468: 16851: 16228: 14496: 14157:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press 13805:. The Yale Intellectual History of the West. 7538: 7006:The Mongols were reportedly the first to use 6902: 6871: 6830: 6537:(d. 1219)—also an Anglo-Norman knight—seized 6404:Later Roman ornaments decorate Charlemagne's 5429: 5296: 5227:by 1360. Aristocratic feuds escalated into a 5170: 5162: 5149:groups—primarily the nobility, prelates, and 4944:, both of which increased sailing speed. The 4273: 4272:. The Iberian crusades became fused with the 3971: 3411: 3403: 3202:in the Middle East. In contrast, a period of 2535:Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty 2521:, and the Umayyads of Al-Andalus annexed the 2501:) received permission from the Frankish king 1329:. Coming from the Asian steppes, the nomadic 494:. Conflicts between ethnic and social groups 335:(or Byzantine Empire) survived, but lost the 16149:Women in Medieval History and Historiography 15718: 14503:"Introduction: Towards a Global Middle Ages" 7328: 6705:(r. 1137–1204) months after her marriage to 6163: 5773: 5765: 5757: 5747: 5494: 5085: 5028: 4990:warfare. This led to the use of closed-face 4716: 4688: 4634:The 11th-century discovery of a copy of the 4584:). Other literary genres included spiritual 4538: 3958: 3849:to his sons, establishing the basis for the 3795:. After an interval from 1125 and 1137, the 3746:reached its zenith under the pontificate of 3684: 3577:in his lands, but his appointments outraged 3456: 3287: 3244: 2626:, driving back the Magyars and fighting the 1578: 1398:Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty 1394:Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty 15983: 14475:An Environmental History of Medieval Europe 7292: 7286: 7140:. The Swedes left the Kalmar Union in 1448. 6809: 6501: 6321:Musica disciplina (The Discipline of Music) 6319: 6261:ship after her son died; the 10th-century " 6042: 6030: 5620: 5590: 5356:undermined the Golden Horde's power in the 5154: 4778:, and clerical vestments were adorned with 4649: 4635: 4609: 4476: 4468: 4399: 4178:Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty 3313:The clergy was divided into two types. The 2445:There was a brief reunion of the empire by 2280: 1624: 1593:also became the norm of secular law in the 1435: 1289: 1138: 765: 753: 729:A letter from Zhiznomir to Mikula, written 594: 18048: 18034: 17475: 17461: 16858: 16844: 16235: 16221: 15788:Historical Anthropology of the Middle Ages 15241:The Middle Ages: A Very Short Introduction 15103:The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology 14551:. A Norton Introduction to Music History. 7425:Onions, Friedrichsen & Burchfield 1994 7170:(r. 1282–1328) disinherited his grandson, 6479:Examples include vivid caricatures in the 4079:. The Cumans supported the Bulgarians and 3530:(r. 1039–56) broke their power and placed 3052: 2322:, leading to the compilation of the first 2149:indicated that the reformist idea of the " 1971:were instrumental in religious education. 1641:to Christianity, but the Jewish community 1434:; the most comprehensive compilation, the 687:, the Middle Ages were often known as the 585:(d. 1444) was the first to use tripartite 15873:Kaufmann, J. E.; Kaufmann, H. W. (2004). 15468:The Making of Polities: Europe, 1300–1500 14872: 14789: 14710: 14524: 14415: 14247: 13975: 13868:. Brill's Companion to European History. 13600:The Two Cities: Medieval Europe 1050–1320 13398: 13374: 13326: 9851: 9728: 9716: 9677: 9641: 9617: 9605: 9581: 8690: 8678: 8666: 8654: 8633:, pp. 15, 227–228, 236–237, 268–271. 8522: 8438: 7820: 5291:(r. 1474–1504) and her Aragonese husband 4754:(d. 1205)—became apparent, and an almost- 4624:, mainly developed by the music theorist 2434:, and his imperial title was recognised. 1186:after the end of the Western Roman Empire 16242: 16089: 15808: 15782: 15743: 15580: 15203: 15154:The Central Middle Ages: Europe 950–1320 15012: 14815: 14716:Early Medieval Art in the British Museum 14471: 14303: 14173: 13954:The Pictorial Arts of the West: 800–1200 13835:Macmillan International Higher Education 13685:Women in Early Medieval Europe, 400–1100 13621: 13410: 12906: 12870: 12834: 12133: 12121: 12046: 11365: 10774: 10603: 10579: 10567: 10507: 10447: 10106: 10094: 10022: 8861: 8741: 8630: 8594: 8486: 8234: 7646: 6774:Examples include the spiritual works of 6485:and more naturalistic miniatures in the 6425:An early example of a stone fortress is 6182:, influenced historical research in the 6084: 5829: 5652: 5639:Scholars, intellectuals, and exploration 5487:to the highest offices. During the late 5419: 5179: 5022: 4876: 4692: 4489: 4189: 3859: 3707:Europe and the Mediterranean Sea in 1190 3702: 3644:who earned their living by begging (the 3502: 3372: 3217:(bringing new lands into production), a 3157: 3056: 2844: 2554: 2513:until the invaders were defeated at the 2263:in northern Spain. Frankish troops also 2166: 1889: 1874:for Al-Andalus, northern Africa and the 1810: 1745:; in the west, Islamic troops conquered 1666: 1599: 1401: 1182:Post-Roman kingdoms and tribes, and the 1177: 840: 724: 606:It customarily spans the period between 553: 15619: 15521: 15489: 15403: 15376: 15344: 15319: 15175: 15066: 14897: 14851:The Routledge Companion to the Crusades 14387: 14326: 14084: 14028: 14003: 13947: 13823: 13713:The World of Late Antiquity, AD 150–750 13568: 13278: 13230: 13206: 13194: 13170: 13158: 13146: 13122: 13098: 13050: 13038: 13026: 12990: 12942: 12918: 12882: 12846: 12822: 12810: 12798: 12774: 12594: 12558: 12534: 12510: 12438: 12402: 12378: 12318: 12241: 12181: 12109: 12085: 12073: 12058: 12022: 12010: 11998: 11986: 11962: 11950: 11938: 11902: 11875: 11860: 11728: 11716: 11632: 11620: 11596: 11584: 11485: 11473: 11449: 11437: 11401: 11305: 11254: 11194: 11038: 11014: 10990: 10978: 10954: 10918: 10882: 10858: 10846: 10822: 10786: 10750: 10654: 10618: 10471: 10459: 10435: 10387: 10363: 10339: 10327: 10315: 10291: 10279: 10243: 10214: 10190: 10178: 10166: 10154: 10142: 10130: 10118: 10070: 10058: 10034: 10010: 9986: 9974: 9962: 9950: 9914: 9902: 9890: 9878: 9839: 9827: 9812: 9800: 9788: 9776: 9752: 9740: 9569: 9557: 9545: 9518: 9506: 9494: 9482: 9383: 9371: 9335: 9323: 9311: 9299: 9287: 9275: 9263: 9251: 9239: 9227: 9215: 9203: 9188: 9173: 9161: 9149: 9137: 9125: 9113: 9077: 9065: 9041: 9017: 8981: 8957: 8945: 8921: 8849: 8825: 8813: 8753: 8717: 8642: 8618: 8606: 8582: 8558: 8546: 8534: 8450: 8426: 8414: 8402: 8378: 8366: 8354: 8342: 8330: 8318: 8306: 8270: 8222: 8210: 8198: 8150: 8063: 8051: 8039: 8015: 8003: 7991: 7979: 7967: 7943: 7931: 7919: 7907: 7895: 7868: 7844: 7784: 7772: 7736: 7724: 7712: 7682: 7670: 7634: 7526: 7448: 7388: 7376: 7078:The most successful dynasties were the 6680:during his imperial coronation in Rome. 5913: 5826:Technological and military developments 4936:. Other improvements to ships included 4932:method rather than the Roman system of 4656:. Greek and Islamic influence replaced 4588:, chronicles, philosophical poems, and 4565:. Chivalric literature was inspired by 3345:in the west. Laypeople were obliged to 3325:lived under a religious rule as monks, 2830: 2630:. After an appeal by the widowed Queen 2234:donation of central Italian territories 422:and secular powers. With the spread of 19421: 16145: 16050: 15658: 15555: 15294: 15266: 15157:. The Short Oxford History of Europe. 15124: 14979: 14943: 14689:The Pelican History of Medieval Europe 14650: 14597: 14569: 14541: 14453:. Elements in the Global Middle Ages. 14358: 13914: 13886: 13833:. History of Europe (Third ed.). 13795: 13767: 13649: 13593: 13539: 13521:. What is History? (Second ed.). 13511: 13470: 13422: 13386: 13338: 13314: 13266: 13254: 13182: 13134: 13110: 13062: 13014: 12978: 12858: 12762: 12738: 12714: 12690: 12678: 12642: 12618: 12498: 12450: 12354: 12229: 12217: 12034: 11974: 11926: 11914: 11887: 11848: 11836: 11824: 11812: 11788: 11764: 11740: 11668: 11644: 11608: 11572: 11548: 11536: 11524: 11509: 11497: 11461: 11425: 11413: 11389: 11329: 11278: 11266: 11242: 11218: 11158: 11110: 11086: 11074: 11050: 11002: 10966: 10942: 10930: 10834: 10810: 10642: 10591: 10555: 10543: 10531: 10519: 10495: 10483: 10423: 10411: 10399: 10375: 10351: 10303: 10267: 10231: 10202: 10082: 10046: 9998: 9938: 9866: 9692: 9665: 9653: 9629: 9443: 9407: 9395: 9101: 9089: 9053: 9029: 8933: 8909: 8873: 8777: 8510: 8498: 8186: 7796: 7658: 7598: 7586: 7574: 7562: 7502: 7490: 7412: 7400: 6960:Prominent examples include cathedrals 5012: 3901:, who conquered England in 1066 under 3791:before clashing with the papacy under 3698: 3037:. In Christian Spain, artists adopted 2795:consolidated authority in Bohemia. In 2777:, Magyars, and the inhabitants of the 2584:(r. 871–99) reached an agreement with 2567:, with Christ receiving a church from 2505:(r. 898–922) to settle in present-day 2458:(r. 899–911) and the selection of the 2014:The Early Middle Ages saw the rise of 1507:In Western Europe, values attached to 1251:moved to Italy from the Balkans under 1167: 18029: 17482: 17456: 16839: 16216: 16117: 16022: 15833: 15461: 15407:The Western Church in the Middle Ages 15234: 15150: 15016:Making Money in the Early Middle Ages 14736: 14622: 14222: 14194: 14145: 14114: 13855: 13734: 13706: 13681: 13486: 13458: 13446: 13434: 13362: 13350: 13302: 13290: 13218: 13002: 12966: 12930: 12894: 12669:, pp. 230–235, 250–252, 325–326. 12630: 12606: 12582: 12570: 12546: 12522: 12486: 12474: 12462: 12426: 12414: 12390: 12366: 12330: 12306: 12294: 12282: 12270: 12253: 12097: 11800: 11776: 11752: 11704: 11692: 11680: 11656: 11206: 11182: 11170: 11146: 11134: 11122: 11098: 11062: 11026: 10906: 10894: 10870: 10798: 10714: 10702: 10690: 10678: 10630: 10255: 9926: 9764: 9704: 9530: 9467: 9455: 9431: 9419: 9359: 9347: 9005: 8993: 8969: 8897: 8888:, pp. 183–189, 209–213, 219–220. 8885: 8837: 8801: 8789: 8765: 8729: 8705: 8570: 8474: 8462: 8390: 8294: 8282: 8258: 8246: 8174: 8162: 8138: 8126: 8111: 8099: 8087: 8075: 8027: 7955: 7883: 7760: 7748: 7697: 7622: 7610: 7514: 7475: 7463: 7436: 7361: 7031:of its population to the Black Death. 6945:Cathedral of Christ's Transfiguration 6616:The idea is mainly attributed to the 6389:Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe 6067:Modern perceptions and historiography 5519:against the wealthy Knights Templar, 4959:for crops increased land use by over 4616:. Composers seceded from traditional 4394:quickly marginalised the traditional 3783:, the Ottonians were replaced by the 3683:culminated in the compilation of the 3467:with Scandinavia and Eastern Europe. 3121:rather than true cavalry. The use of 2827:the Byzantines between 971 and 1018. 2156: 1894:An 11th-century illustration of Pope 1414:, bodyguards, clerics and courtiers ( 1387: 824: 526:and dissident movements condemned as 467:prompted the construction of massive 19307: 15694:; Remensnyder, Amy G., eds. (2012). 15428: 15037: 14847: 14682: 14576:Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary 14443: 14362:Misconceptions About the Middle Ages 14174:Gies, Frances; Gies, Joseph (1973). 14056: 13242: 13074: 12954: 12786: 12750: 12726: 12702: 12666: 12654: 12342: 12205: 12193: 12169: 12157: 12145: 11377: 11353: 11341: 11317: 11290: 11230: 9593: 7856: 7832: 7808: 7550: 7342:) are International Gothic examples. 7198:(r. 1347–54), but his conflict with 5649:Spanish colonization of the Americas 5447:to establish a strategic bridgehead 5325:(r. 1377–1434) and the Polish queen 5132:in 1497. Most Spanish Jews left for 5120:" were suspected of heresy, and the 4869:List of medieval European scientists 4499:A chantar m'er de so qu'eu no volria 4372: 3927:(r. 1189–99), but Richard's brother 3515:, built mainly between 1130 and 1156 2430:(r. 817–55) to go with his lands in 1800: 1489:, but could not conquer it. Emperor 1463:seized North Africa from the Vandals 1156: 942:Christianisation of the Roman Empire 490:, began the Late Middle Ages in the 17990:History of the Mediterranean region 16820: 16265:Decline of the Western Roman Empire 16187:News and articles about the period. 14854:. Routledge Companions to History. 14762: 13086: 7090:in central and eastern Europe, the 5139: 5037:Chroniques de France ou de St Denis 5001: 4851:. Increasing prosperity during the 4314:(r. 1259–82), ruler of a Byzantine 3368: 3142: 3101:and the progressive replacement of 2955:and the rich Anglo-Saxon burial at 2887:became an extraordinary example of 2841:pre-Romanesque art and architecture 2819:raiders sacked the Khazar capital, 1983:, to determine appropriate acts of 1523:were also created. The writings of 13: 16357:Growth of the Eastern Roman Empire 16146:Stuard, Susan Mosher, ed. (1987). 16069:The New Cambridge Medieval History 16002:The New Cambridge Medieval History 15963:The New Cambridge Medieval History 15920:The New Cambridge Medieval History 15852:The New Cambridge Medieval History 15762:The New Cambridge Medieval History 15638:The New Cambridge Medieval History 15599:The New Cambridge Medieval History 15548: 15385:. Short Oxford History of Europe. 14826:When Science and Christianity Meet 14771:. Short Oxford History of Europe. 13543:Fashion: A Very Short Introduction 7331:Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry 7065:firms during the 1340s, when King 6825:Among the earliest law codes, the 5507:in 1309. During the period of the 5275:was ruled by feuding local lords. 5223:, and took control of an expanded 4318:, recaptured the city in 1261 but 3841:to elect the king was reaffirmed. 3822:during the reign of his grandson, 3760:war bands from the local Lombard, 3608:sometimes led to the rejection of 3493:expulsion of the Jews from England 2529:New kingdoms and Byzantine revival 2326:prayer books by the middle of the 1496: 1301:Other monarchies were established 1288:aristocracy. Britons fleeing from 629:), and 1517 (the beginning of the 486:, which reduced the population by 14: 19515: 19239:Western European and Others Group 16787:Historiography in the Middle Ages 16172: 14226:God and Reason in the Middle Ages 13716:. Library of World Civilization. 13487:Adams, Laurie Schneider (2011) . 12657:, pp. 250, 290–293, 325–327. 8501:, pp. 77–78, 90–93, 116–117. 6644:(r. 1109–26) reigned in León and 5523:(pope 1305–14) could not prevent 4955:The development of a three-field 4917:were first built after 1100, and 4345:, which gave rise to the sale of 4322:remained under western rule. The 3723:was strengthening, and the first 3498: 3073:The creation of heavily-armoured 2580:in Ireland. The Anglo-Saxon king 2346:Breakup of the Carolingian Empire 2275:), who administered the empire's 1788:controlled North Africa, and the 1721:in Arabia during the lifetime of 1453:Justinian nearly died during the 1042:received permission from Emperor 1026:to encroach beginning in the mid- 699:concept tend to avoid its use in 19401: 19384: 19367: 19350: 19333: 19316: 19288: 19276: 19264: 17975:Bibliography of European history 17570:Fall of the Western Roman Empire 16819: 16810: 16809: 16799: 16191:Medieval History Database (MHDB) 16154:University of Pennsylvania Press 15790:. Translated by Howlett, Janet. 15471:. Cambridge Medieval Textbooks. 14478:. Cambridge Medieval Textbooks. 14068:The University of Michigan Press 13777:. Cambridge Medieval Textbooks. 13688:. Cambridge Medieval Textbooks. 7317: 7300: 7279: 7266: 7241: 7226:(d. 1456) defeated the Ottomans 7209: 7182:was fought over the regency for 7156: 7143: 7126: 7101: 7072: 7051: 7034: 7017: 7000: 6991: 6954: 6933: 6918:The Church of the Virgin in the 6912: 6883: 6864: 6819: 6768: 6754: 6743:in northern Greece and Albania, 6733: 6716: 6683: 6667: 6635: 6610: 6593: 6575: 6558: 6544: 6511: 6494: 6473: 6452: 6443: 6419: 6398: 6373: 6360: 6343: 6313: 6288: 5941:became a major luxury industry. 5333:to Catholicism. In Scandinavia, 5072:The trauma of the plague led to 5027:Execution of ringleaders of the 4905:. In Europe, horizontal treadle 4278:, and reduced Al-Andalus to the 3471:were established and flourished 3008:. These were often protected by 2734:Byzantium revived under Emperor 2390: 2381: 2372: 1944:on agrarian products during the 1652: 1485:. The Avars, Slavs and Persians 1280:(r. 509–11), the founder of the 1097:, and the Vandals conquered the 837:Fall of the Western Roman Empire 227: 187: 125:Fall of the Western Roman Empire 53: 18000:History of Western civilization 17603:Christianity in the Middle Ages 16285:Christianity in the Middle Ages 16280:Decline of Hellenistic religion 16208:Resources for Medieval Studies. 15725:. Oxford Textual Perspectives. 14913:The University of Chicago Press 14629:Europe's Barbarians: AD 200–600 14338:The I Tatti Renaissance Library 13830:Early Medieval Europe, 300–1000 6268: 6243: 6226: 6217: 6170:school such as the medievalist 6146:(d. 1879), and German composer 5808:(d. 1500) sailed as far as the 4789:from Romanesque. They included 4379:Renaissance of the 12th century 4126:on the Volga, establishing the 4087:that led to the restoration of 3652:) were approved by the papacy. 3483:which manifested itself in the 2738:(r. 867–86) and his successors 2551:Christianisation of Kievan Rus' 964:among the Germanic peoples and 892: 636:Europe, according to historian 518:, Christian kingdoms won their 17844:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 17787:Christianity in the modern era 17558:Christianity in late antiquity 16867:European Middle Ages by region 16563:Crisis of the late Middle Ages 15326:. Daily Life through History. 15303:University of Washington Press 14990:West Virginia University Press 14744:. The Pelican History of Art. 14720:Trustees of the British Museum 14657:Europe in the High Middle Ages 14606:American Philosophical Society 14259:University of California Press 13569:Backman, Clifford R. (2022) . 7247:The Bohemian Diet elected the 7094:in the Mediterranean, and the 7069:repudiated their loans to him. 6853:) in Norway. In contrast, the 6298:(d. 823) held lands along the 6196: 6081:Middle Ages in popular culture 5739:The Book of the City of Ladies 5736:), wrote the feminist utopian 5692:(d. 1374) intensively studied 5255:(r. 1483–85) died fighting at 5076:and the self-mortification of 5019:Crisis of the late Middle Ages 4569:and the Celtic legends of the 4227:formed loosely-organised bands 4213:(pope 1088–99) proclaimed the 4063:. The kings of Hungary seized 3923:remained intact under his son 3612:by radical groups such as the 2539:Byzantine–Arab wars (780–1180) 2090:, now known for Constantine's 1909:separation of church and state 1885: 1487:attacked Constantinople in 626 999:became a principal element of 847:Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs 644:, the conversion of Europe to 1: 17995:History of the European Union 16737:Disability in the Middle Ages 16410:Rise of the Republic of Genoa 16342:Rise of the Venetian Republic 15501:The Penguin History of Europe 15323:Daily Life in Medieval Europe 14662:The Penguin History of Europe 14472:Hoffmann, Richard C. (2014). 14306:Religion in the Medieval West 14155:. Translated by Peter Lewis. 13572:The Worlds of Medieval Europe 13479: 12741:, pp. 248–249, 251, 254. 8549:, pp. 143–150, 160, 226. 6790: 6779: 6568:on their clothes and live in 6564:Jews were required to wear a 6434: 6275: 6089:Medieval illustration of the 5904: 5838: 5730: 5674: 5613: 5348:After Polish, Hungarian, and 5043: 4922: 4873:military of the Mongol Empire 4731:and are typically covered by 4628: 4578: 4518:(female troubadour) known as 4138:such as the one ruled by the 3554:led to the separation of the 3207: 3183: 3174:), and those who worked (the 2996:triumph paved the way for an 2785: 2597: 2495: 2400:Territorial divisions of the 2084: 1860: 1543: 1532: 1503:Early medieval European dress 1410:of Justinian with Archbishop 1206: 768:Monumenta Germaniae Historica 607: 603:term first recorded in 1604. 550:Terminology and periodisation 183: 68: 42: 17292:Hereditary Kingdom of Norway 15441:Oxford Illustrated Histories 15404:Thomson, John A. F. (1998). 15320:Singman, Jeffrey L. (1999). 14959:Oxford Illustrated Histories 14873:McCormick, Michael (2010) . 13927:Oxford Illustrated Histories 13747:Oxford Illustrated Histories 12753:, pp. 424–425, 561–604. 12489:, pp. 328–332, 346–349. 12369:, pp. 180–181, 317–322. 11125:, pp. 336–337, 367–388. 10426:, pp. 166–167, 213–214. 10378:, pp. 209–212, 219–222. 9350:, pp. 131–134, 141–142. 7349: 6829:was compiled in Sicily, the 6816:, a hymn to the Virgin Mary. 6142:(d. 1881), French architect 5665:(French, early 15th century) 5619:and a popular handbook, the 5049:, gradually introducing the 4118:. Their commander-in-chief, 3691:, a 13th-century summary of 3546:and was excommunicated by a 3536:head of the Byzantine Church 3296:spread of German settlements 2981:of Ireland and Northumbria. 2781:. After Moravia fell due to 2746:(r. 913–59), members of the 2675:. Their multi-ethnic empire 2656:led to the formation of the 2547:Christianisation of Bulgaria 2240:marked the beginning of the 1477:defences collapsed during a 1153:maintained a claim on them. 1113:fell apart after his death. 886:(landowning) class. Emperor 478:Calamities which included a 170:Exploration of North America 25:Middle Ages (disambiguation) 7: 19504:History of Europe by period 17954:Russian invasion of Ukraine 17565:Crisis of the Third Century 15792:University of Chicago Press 15351:Early Medieval Architecture 14831:University of Chicago Press 14427:University of Toronto Press 14304:Hamilton, Bernard (2003) . 14004:Epstein, Steven A. (2009). 9128:, pp. xxvi–xxvii, 396. 7230:, and the Moldavian prince 7109:lands of the Bohemian Crown 5895:were recorded in the early 5837:, an agricultural calendar 5707:(d. 1321) and the prose of 5631:), laid the groundwork for 4863:Technology and the military 4758:is seen in works such as a 4197:in Syria, built during the 4161: 4036:, and the Swedes conquered 3768:between 1016 and 1091, and 3282:. Unlike slaves, serfs had 2603:) united the Picts and the 1776:and its replacement by the 1699: Expansion during the 1689: Expansion during the 1575:complications at childbirth 872:Crisis of the Third Century 756:Rerum italicarum scriptores 648:, took place in waves, and 10: 19520: 18010:Military history of Europe 18005:Maritime history of Europe 16538:Rise of the Ottoman Empire 16073:Cambridge University Press 16006:Cambridge University Press 15967:Cambridge University Press 15924:Cambridge University Press 15856:Cambridge University Press 15817:W. W. Norton & Company 15766:Cambridge University Press 15642:Cambridge University Press 15603:Cambridge University Press 15473:Cambridge University Press 15096:; Friedrichsen, G. W. S.; 15021:Princeton University Press 14982:Essays in Medieval Studies 14881:Cambridge University Press 14553:W. W. Norton & Company 14480:Cambridge University Press 14455:Cambridge University Press 14287:Princeton University Press 14231:Cambridge University Press 14206:Cambridge University Press 14098:Cambridge University Press 14012:Cambridge University Press 13987:Cambridge University Press 13957:. Pelican History of Art. 13779:Cambridge University Press 13718:W. W. Norton & Company 13690:Cambridge University Press 8357:, pp. 97–98, 117–118. 7327:and the miniatures in the 6529:in southern Scotland from 6488:Gospel Book of Charlemagne 6466:, indicate the renewal of 6431:Theobald I, Count of Blois 6385:Cathedral of Saint Étienne 6336:, and also the singing of 6093:in a 14th-century copy of 6073:Dark Ages (historiography) 6070: 5642: 5405: 5402:Rise of the Ottoman Empire 5395: 5016: 5005: 4866: 4809:, near Paris, under Abbot 4793:to reduce lateral thrust, 4376: 4286:tribes developed into the 4175: 4165: 4132:Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate 3153: 3146: 3012:made of gold, pearls, and 2834: 2644:in 951. His coronation as 2532: 2349: 2160: 1959:(pope 590–604) had sent a 1902:, dictating to a secretary 1804: 1656: 1500: 1391: 1171: 1160: 929:as the eastern capital of 834: 828: 714: 710: 577:, the Middle Ages and the 447:, led to the expansion of 18: 19009:Anglo-Portuguese Alliance 18989: 18907: 18744: 18579: 18450:Standard Average European 18318: 18147: 18067: 17980:Genetic history of Europe 17962: 17767: 17583: 17523: 17490: 17391:Principality of Chernigov 17300: 17221:Principality of Catalonia 17118: 17109: 17006: 16886: 16873: 16795: 16724: 16583: 16478: 16465:Mongol invasion of Europe 16370: 16250: 15965:. Vol. IV (Part 2). 15922:. Vol. IV (Part 1). 15719:D'Arcens, Louise (2021). 12705:, pp. 407, 412, 472. 7539:Holmes & Standen 2018 6747:in western Anatolia, and 6722:A good example is Prince 6410:royal palace at Ingelheim 6355:consonance and dissonance 6257:assumed the command of a 6063:, was published in 1493. 5818:his voyage of exploration 5742:. The standardisation of 5495:Controversy in the church 5055:Great Famine of 1315–1317 4994:, heavy body armour, and 4901:, and the manufacture of 4689:Architecture and the arts 4432:Ancient Greek philosopher 4332:to expand into the region 4326:, against the Cathars of 4043:In the east, Kievan Rus' 3737:representative assemblies 3560:Eastern Orthodox Churches 3170:), those who fought (the 2951:from Childeric's tomb at 2634:(d. 999) for protection, 2302:(d. 804). He developed a 2268:"emperor of the Romans". 2024:hagiographical literature 2018:. Monastic ideals spread 1442:, was made under Emperor 997:Christ's enthroned figure 669:Romance language-speaking 207: 186: 178: 117: 91: 52: 41: 36: 19149:Lancaster House Treaties 18639:Christian existentialism 18599:Ancient Roman philosophy 18589:Ancient Greek philosophy 17370:Bosnia and Herzegovina ( 15295:Sedlar, Jean W. (1994). 15246:Very Short Introductions 15130:Encyclopedia of Religion 14598:Ilardi, Vincent (2007). 14342:Harvard University Press 14040:W. W. Norton and Company 13548:Very Short Introductions 13540:Arnold, Rebecca (2009). 13518:What is Medieval History 13490:A History of Western Art 13353:, pp. 241–253, 264. 12981:, pp. 302–315, 322. 12633:, pp. 177–178, 359. 12333:, pp. 165, 194–196. 12220:, pp. 153, 198–208. 11464:, pp. 266, 295–301. 11293:, pp. 107, 209–224. 11029:, pp. 185–188, 299. 8657:, pp. 753–754, 763. 8537:, pp. 136, 141–142. 8345:, pp. 116, 195–197. 7763:, pp. 65–68, 82–94. 7220:league of Albanian lords 7107:The Luxemburgs held the 6891:Basilica of Saint-Sernin 6804:(d. 1158), the poems of 6189: 5938:The Lady and the Unicorn 5903:quickly began to spread 5633:early modern witch hunts 5263:, consolidated power as 5074:pogroms against the Jews 4665:positional number system 4648:in Catholic Europe: the 4312:Michael VIII Palaiologos 4024:(two dynasties from the 3877:Robert, Count of Mortain 3085:composite bow. The Avar 2906:, fortified courtyards, 2543:Byzantine–Bulgarian wars 2488:raided the British Isles 2418:. A kingdom between the 2109:In Western Christendom, 1647:Muslim conquest of Spain 1313:in northwestern Iberia, 1276:(d. 481). Under his son 1255:(r. 493–526). He set up 510:a new Muslim power: the 376:agricultural innovations 18927:Equality before the law 18134:Romano-Germanic culture 17985:History of Christianity 17301:Central, Eastern Europe 17007:Central, Eastern Europe 16420:Investiture Controversy 16390:Second Bulgarian Empire 16129:Oxford University Press 15809:Hartnell, Jack (2019). 15727:Oxford University Press 15522:Wickham, Chris (2016). 15445:Oxford University Press 15387:Oxford University Press 15360:Oxford University Press 15250:Oxford University Press 15218:Oxford University Press 15159:Oxford University Press 15108:Oxford University Press 15050:Oxford University Press 15038:Nees, Lawrence (2002). 15013:Naismith, Rory (2023). 14963:Oxford University Press 14773:Oxford University Press 14652:Jordan, William Chester 14581:Oxford University Press 14517:Oxford University Press 14399:Oxford University Press 14177:Life in a Medieval City 14129:Oxford University Press 13931:Oxford University Press 13898:Oxford University Press 13751:Oxford University Press 13682:Bitel, Lisa M. (2002). 13577:Oxford University Press 13552:Oxford University Press 12645:, pp. 24, 394–395. 11671:, pp. 82, 93, 109. 10945:, pp. 60, 149–152. 7505:, pp. 21, 132–134. 7337:Very Rich Hours of the 7166:broke out when Emperor 7057:This happened with the 6897:is one of the earliest 6525:(d. 1141) received the 6414:kings' palace at Oviedo 6294:Among the Slav rulers, 6178:, with its emphasis on 6130:, the brutality of the 5899:, and the use of cheap 5844:, from a manuscript of 5515:(r. 1285–1314) brought 5319:Polish–Lithuanian union 5219:, captured the city of 4909:were introduced in the 4817:Manuscript illumination 4667:, and the invention of 4592:. Theatre developed in 4390:, and the more-lenient 4239:Raymond of Saint-Gilles 3875:and his half-brothers, 3640:. In the 13th century, 3583:Investiture Controversy 3081:in place of the weaker 3053:Military and technology 2885:Great Mosque of Córdoba 2823:, in 965. Bulgaria was 2426:rivers was created for 2296:Carolingian Renaissance 2123:their personal property 2040:(d. 547) developed the 1987:—typically prayers and 1930:unilateral modification 1784:(or Muslim Spain), the 1076:sacked the city of Rome 1009:illuminated manuscripts 870:combined to create the 703:, although studies of " 654:interpersonal relations 625:'s first voyage to the 416:Investiture Controversy 19484:15th century in Europe 19479:14th century in Europe 19474:13th century in Europe 19469:12th century in Europe 19464:11th century in Europe 19459:10th century in Europe 19089:Eastern European Group 18678:Continental philosophy 18609:Judeo-Christian ethics 18594:Hellenistic philosophy 18075:Cradle of civilization 17809:Grand Duchy of Tuscany 17185:Burgundian Netherlands 17026:Bosnia and Herzegovina 16777:Post-classical history 16533:Fall of Constantinople 16440:Capet–Plantagenet feud 16307:First Bulgarian Empire 15268:Russel, Jeffrey Burton 15151:Power, Daniel (2006). 14632:. The Medieval World. 14450:The Global Middle Ages 14223:Grant, Edward (2001). 13656:Art of the Middle Ages 13651:Benton, Janetta Rebold 13377:, pp. 17–18, 137. 12765:, pp. 26, 32, 96. 10582:, pp. 45–48, 116. 9953:, pp. 6, 11, 171. 7379:, pp. xvii–xviii. 7329: 7306:The Portuguese prince 7293: 7287: 6903: 6872: 6843: 6841:) in Castile, and the 6831: 6827:Constitutions of Melfi 6810: 6502: 6320: 6238:Brunhilda of Austrasia 6164: 6099: 6043: 6031: 5956:(d. 1446) studied the 5849: 5774: 5766: 5758: 5748: 5666: 5621: 5591: 5436: 5430: 5416:Hungarian–Ottoman Wars 5412:Bulgarian–Ottoman wars 5408:Byzantine–Ottoman wars 5368:). Under Grand Prince 5343:Danish–Norwegian union 5329:(r. 1384–99), and the 5297: 5188: 5171: 5163: 5155: 5086: 5039: 5029: 4893: 4717: 4705: 4650: 4636: 4610: 4539: 4523: 4512: 4504: 4498: 4477: 4469: 4434:, and his emphasis on 4418:about the concept of " 4400: 4306:in 1204, setting up a 4274: 4206: 3972: 3959: 3917:Anglo-Norman lordships 3894: 3708: 3685: 3516: 3457: 3412: 3404: 3382: 3333:. The introduction of 3288: 3245: 3179: 3089:introduced the use of 3070: 2860: 2859:from the British Isles 2857:illuminated manuscript 2752:Macedonian Renaissance 2654:fight for independence 2618:established itself in 2573: 2281: 2182: 1903: 1828: 1751:the Visigothic Kingdom 1705: 1679: Expansion under 1673:early Muslim conquests 1663:Early Muslim conquests 1625: 1612: 1579: 1436: 1423: 1416:Basilica of San Vitale 1351:First Bulgarian Empire 1290: 1187: 1139: 855: 766: 754: 741: 631:Protestant Reformation 619:fall of Constantinople 595: 566: 271:personal relationships 165:Fall of Constantinople 23:. For other uses, see 21:Post-classical history 19454:9th century in Europe 19449:8th century in Europe 19444:7th century in Europe 19439:6th century in Europe 19209:Three Seas Initiative 19184:Pacific Islands Forum 19049:British–Irish Council 18797:Greek Orthodox Church 18256:Industrial Revolution 18226:Scientific Revolution 17889:Industrial Revolution 17062:Late Medieval Kingdom 17058:High Medieval Kingdom 15985:McKitterick, Rosamond 15946:Riley-Smith, Jonathan 15903:Riley-Smith, Jonathan 15556:Aberth, John (2019). 15530:Yale University Press 15383:The Later Middle Ages 15356:Oxford History of Art 15278:Bloomsbury Publishing 15076:Arms and Armour Press 15046:Oxford History of Art 14998:10.1353/ems.2005.0010 14769:The Later Middle Ages 14344:. pp. ix–xviii. 13959:Yale University Press 13807:Yale University Press 9842:, pp. 41, 88–91. 7067:Edward III of England 7010:in Europe during the 6986:Saint Vitus Cathedral 6909:(Way of Saint James). 6870:Reportedly, the tall 6678:verses from the Quran 6527:Lordship of Annandale 6144:Eugène Viollet-le-Duc 6088: 5966:one-point perspective 5835:Labours of the Months 5833: 5656: 5629:Hammer of the Witches 5423: 5335:Margaret I of Denmark 5331:Lithuanian conversion 5241:Charles VII of France 5183: 5026: 4881:Portrait of Cardinal 4880: 4867:Further information: 4696: 4496: 4450:(d. 1164) introduced 4193: 4116:between 1236 and 1242 4102:With the rise of the 4099:gained independence. 4085:anti-Byzantine revolt 4055:in 1169. Poland also 3903:William the Conqueror 3870:William the Conqueror 3863: 3706: 3671:(d. 1226), was often 3506: 3387:commercial revolution 3376: 3161: 3060: 3010:sumptuous book covers 2977:—two examples of the 2883:. In Al-Andalus, the 2848: 2807:, the princes of the 2791:, dukes of the Czech 2558: 2470:(r. 987–96) as king. 2308:Carolingian minuscule 2306:, presently known as 2170: 2151:Liberty of the Church 2016:Christian monasticism 1893: 1814: 1670: 1603: 1412:Maximianus of Ravenna 1405: 1181: 1003:. Under Constantine, 923:Constantine the Great 844: 728: 615:Western Roman Emperor 557: 380:commercial revolution 311:, which had begun in 19204:Special Relationship 18614:Christian philosophy 18559:Western Christianity 18221:Age of Enlightenment 18095:Hellenistic Kingdoms 17944:European debt crisis 17939:European integration 17879:Age of Enlightenment 17719:Republic of Florence 17270:Caliphate of Córdoba 17176:Republic of Florence 16757:Medieval reenactment 16553:Renaissance Humanism 16460:Medieval Warm Period 16430:Republic of Florence 16244:European Middle Ages 16034:Blackwell Publishing 15690:; Doubleday, Simon; 15621:Allmand, Christopher 15447:. pp. 297–351. 15220:. pp. 362–378. 14965:. pp. 175–234. 14899:Mommsen, Theodore E. 14848:Lock, Peter (2006). 14791:Lightbown, Ronald W. 14775:. pp. 109–134. 14579:(Seventh ed.). 14526:10.1093/pastj/gty030 14277:Grzymała-Busse, Anna 14100:. pp. 454–493. 13933:. pp. 235–296. 12561:, pp. 192, 231. 12549:, pp. 178, 198. 12477:, pp. 186, 328. 11113:, pp. 300, 333. 9242:, pp. 350, 365. 8840:, pp. 322, 495. 8487:Gies & Gies 1973 8333:, pp. 116, 197. 6947:in the Rus' city of 6701:by marrying heiress 6541:in Ireland by force. 6427:the residential keep 6152:Romantic nationalism 5920:International Gothic 5914:Art and architecture 5848:'s manual on farming 5718:The Canterbury Tales 5694:classical literature 5568:anti-heresy crusades 5537:Council of Constance 5350:Lithuanian invasions 5251:, which ended after 5239:(d. 1431). By 1453, 5096:in England, and the 4637:Corpus Juris Civilis 4575:Geoffrey of Monmouth 4535:vernacular languages 4203:Knights Hospitallers 4095:. West of Bulgaria, 4008:Caliphate of Córdoba 3965:royal court at Paris 3911:(r. 1154–89) of the 3540:Michael I Cerularius 3219:more clement climate 3204:population expansion 3162:13th-century French 3018:monumental sculpture 2889:Moorish architecture 2837:Migration Period art 2831:Architecture and art 2769:, Danubian Bulgars, 2404:in 843, 855, and 870 2195:Mayors of the Palace 2046:Theodore the Studite 1753:in 711, and invaded 1525:Sidonius Apollinaris 1438:Corpus Juris Civilis 1111:Hunnic confederation 1052:Battle of Adrianople 968:in Egypt and Syria. 814:chronological dating 623:Christopher Columbus 372:Medieval Warm Period 333:Eastern Roman Empire 321:Western Roman Empire 80:Parable of the Sower 65:Canterbury Cathedral 19229:West Nordic Council 19094:Eastern Partnership 18683:Analytic philosophy 18384:Classical tradition 18206:Early modern period 18162:Classical antiquity 18157:European Bronze Age 17909:Revolutions of 1848 17839:Early modern France 17620:Anglo-Saxon England 17525:Classical antiquity 17261:Lordship of Ireland 17256:Kingdom of Scotland 17245:Kingdom of Portugal 17225:Kingdom of Valencia 17195:Kingdom of Asturias 16470:Kingdom of Portugal 16337:Old Church Slavonic 16322:Anglo-Saxon England 15389:. pp. 79–107. 15379:Lazzarini, Isabella 15134:Macmillan Reference 14799:Thames & Hudson 14765:Lazzarini, Isabella 14742:Ars Sacra, 800–1200 14718:(Second ed.). 14497:Holmes, Catherine; 14308:(Second ed.). 14180:. Apollo Editions. 13665:Thames & Hudson 13603:(Second ed.). 13575:(Fourth ed.). 13437:, pp. 626–630. 13365:, pp. 265–267. 13341:, pp. 257–262. 13305:, pp. 237–238. 13293:, pp. 237–240. 13281:, pp. 294–298. 13257:, pp. 241–242. 13197:, pp. 203–204. 13149:, pp. 492–493. 13137:, pp. 284–285. 13125:, pp. 483–490. 13089:, pp. 131–134. 13029:, pp. 213–214. 13017:, pp. 213–222. 12993:, pp. 568–569. 12969:, pp. 460–462. 12957:, pp. 437–439. 12945:, pp. 211–213. 12933:, pp. 359–361. 12921:, pp. 199–200. 12909:, pp. 146–147. 12885:, pp. 213–217. 12873:, pp. 136–137. 12861:, pp. 389–390. 12837:, pp. 135–136. 12825:, pp. 193–194. 12789:, pp. 331–333. 12777:, pp. 164–170. 12717:, pp. 266–267. 12693:, pp. 385–387. 12681:, pp. 256–257. 12609:, pp. 177–178. 12597:, pp. 183–184. 12573:, pp. 200–201. 12537:, pp. 229–230. 12465:, pp. 184–186. 12453:, pp. 268–270. 12441:, pp. 220–221. 12429:, pp. 324–327. 12417:, pp. 344–345. 12405:, pp. 549–550. 12393:, pp. 320–322. 12345:, pp. 319–322. 12309:, pp. 171–172. 12256:, pp. 420–425. 12232:, pp. 105–114. 12208:, pp. 237–239. 12184:, pp. 246–247. 12160:, pp. 234–237. 12136:, pp. 236–242. 12124:, pp. 236–239. 12112:, pp. 531–542. 12100:, pp. 420–423. 12049:, pp. 323–325. 12037:, pp. 210–219. 12025:, pp. 294–296. 12013:, pp. 134–138. 11905:, pp. 193–194. 11863:, pp. 191–192. 11851:, pp. 248–250. 11839:, pp. 264–278. 11827:, pp. 245–247. 11815:, pp. 250–258. 11803:, pp. 199–219. 11791:, pp. 201–240. 11779:, pp. 205–219. 11755:, pp. 198–199. 11707:, pp. 240–250. 11695:, pp. 638–644. 11683:, pp. 639–640. 11659:, pp. 186–191. 11635:, pp. 138–147. 11599:, pp. 343–344. 11587:, pp. 333–337. 11561:Grzymała-Busse 2023 11551:, pp. 325–334. 11539:, pp. 209–211. 11527:, pp. 178–182. 11500:, pp. 413–414. 11488:, pp. 352–359. 11452:, pp. 433–434. 11440:, pp. 324–333. 11416:, pp. 409–410. 11404:, pp. 345–348. 11380:, pp. 353–355. 11356:, pp. 333–342. 11344:, pp. 313–317. 11332:, pp. 173–174. 11308:, pp. 423–424. 11269:, pp. 118–126. 11257:, pp. 313–314. 11245:, pp. 115–118. 11233:, pp. 139–140. 11221:, pp. 112–115. 11209:, pp. 716–717. 11185:, pp. 703–715. 11173:, pp. 711–712. 11161:, pp. 458–460. 11149:, pp. 660–666. 11137:, pp. 674–694. 11101:, pp. 300–305. 11089:, pp. 344–352. 11077:, pp. 307–315. 11065:, pp. 304–307. 11053:, pp. 322–325. 11041:, pp. 279–281. 11005:, pp. 266–268. 10993:, pp. 404–406. 10981:, pp. 400–401. 10969:, pp. 156–160. 10921:, pp. 261–264. 10873:, pp. 160–170. 10861:, pp. 409–413. 10837:, pp. 182–203. 10825:, pp. 259–260. 10813:, pp. 206–210. 10789:, pp. 371–379. 10765:, pp. 155–160. 10763:Grzymała-Busse 2023 10753:, pp. 395–399. 10739:Grzymała-Busse 2023 10727:Grzymała-Busse 2023 10681:, pp. 272–273. 10667:Grzymała-Busse 2023 10657:, pp. 395–396. 10633:, pp. 287–288. 10621:, pp. 188–191. 10570:, pp. 133–134. 10558:, pp. 199–203. 10546:, pp. 162–172. 10450:, pp. 140–143. 10438:, pp. 298–300. 10402:, pp. 217–218. 10330:, pp. 461–464. 10318:, pp. 110–118. 10294:, pp. 100–103. 10193:, pp. 177–178. 10025:, pp. 111–123. 10013:, pp. 221–222. 9989:, pp. 231–232. 9977:, pp. 220–221. 9893:, pp. 247–249. 9719:, pp. 233–238. 9596:, pp. 104–105. 9497:, pp. 232–233. 9470:, pp. 239–248. 9458:, pp. 289–300. 9434:, pp. 343–347. 9422:, pp. 391–400. 9410:, pp. 321–326. 9398:, pp. 318–320. 9386:, pp. 476–477. 9374:, pp. 366–370. 9362:, pp. 143–151. 9326:, pp. 376–386. 9314:, pp. 255–257. 9302:, pp. 394–411. 9266:, pp. 362–363. 9230:, pp. 394–395. 9218:, pp. 191–199. 9206:, pp. 488–489. 9191:, pp. 341–342. 9164:, pp. 401–403. 9140:, pp. 186–189. 9116:, pp. 318–331. 9044:, pp. 162–165. 9020:, pp. 159–162. 9008:, pp. 103–110. 8996:, pp. 105–110. 8984:, pp. 280–288. 8960:, pp. 276–279. 8948:, pp. 150–154. 8924:, pp. 214–216. 8900:, pp. 285–286. 8852:, pp. 185–187. 8828:, pp. 239–240. 8804:, pp. 527–530. 8792:, pp. 127–130. 8768:, pp. 130–133. 8756:, pp. 170–172. 8720:, pp. 220–233. 8693:, pp. 670–677. 8681:, pp. 791–792. 8669:, pp. 708–733. 8621:, pp. 347–349. 8609:, pp. 218–219. 8597:, pp. 372–373. 8585:, pp. 373–375. 8561:, pp. 376–377. 8453:, pp. 119–120. 8441:, pp. 733–744. 8417:, pp. 211–212. 8405:, pp. 205–210. 8393:, pp. 180–182. 8369:, pp. 113–118. 8321:, pp. 195–199. 8309:, pp. 189–193. 8285:, pp. 174–181. 8273:, pp. 138–141. 8249:, pp. 150–156. 8237:, pp. 374–375. 8225:, pp. 130–131. 8189:, pp. 235–238. 8153:, pp. 203–209. 8066:, pp. 164–165. 8054:, pp. 156–159. 8042:, pp. 102–103. 8006:, pp. 116–134. 7898:, pp. 145–180. 7886:, pp. 122–124. 7859:, pp. 156–157. 7493:, pp. 291–293. 7308:Henry the Navigator 7253:George of Poděbrady 6974:Salisbury Cathedral 6920:Studenica Monastery 6899:pilgrimage churches 6765:or excommunication. 6707:Louis VII of France 6570:their own districts 6464:Harbaville Triptych 6412:, and the Asturian 6381:Barcelona Cathedral 6255:Unn the Deep-Minded 6060:Nuremberg Chronicle 5970:Florence Baptistery 5846:Pietro de Crescenzi 5623:Malleus Maleficarum 5572:Council of Florence 5471:, Byzantine Greece 5441:Catalan mercenaries 5426:Battle of Nicopolis 5122:Spanish Inquisition 5084:which included the 5013:Society and economy 4787:Gothic architecture 4567:classical mythology 4554:The Poem of the Cid 4442:. Scholars such as 4347:plenary indulgences 4324:Albigensian Crusade 4235:Godfrey of Bouillon 4219:Council of Clermont 4195:Krak des Chevaliers 4186:Rhineland massacres 3721:hereditary monarchy 3699:Rise of state power 3677:Hildegard of Bingen 3542:(d. 1059), refused 3256:fundamental classes 3164:historiated initial 3123:militia-type levies 2975:Lindisfarne Gospels 2689:East European Plain 2662:counts of Barcelona 2081:liturgical language 2077:Old Church Slavonic 2075:(d. 869) developed 2036:. The Italian monk 1967:to popular saints' 1717:. The emergence of 1282:Merovingian dynasty 1253:Theoderic the Great 1242:150 tribal kingdoms 1168:Post-Roman kingdoms 1001:early Christian art 985:their own symbolism 956:faced persecution. 954:ecumenical councils 919:period of civil war 868:outbreaks of plague 591:Christoph Cellarius 473:Gothic architecture 353:Carolingian dynasty 297:counterurbanisation 212:Early modern period 18688:Post-structuralism 18651:Christian humanism 18281:Universal suffrage 18015:Crusading movement 17919:Russian Revolution 17754:Hundred Years' War 17650:Maritime republics 17553:Early Christianity 17543:Hellenistic period 17500:Paleolithic Europe 17421:Grand Principality 17339:Kingdom of Croatia 17286:Emirate of Granada 17251:Kingdom of England 17235:Kingdom of Navarre 17229:Kingdom of Majorca 17207:Kingdom of Galicia 17203:Kingdom of Castile 17166:Republic of Venice 17137:Kingdom of Bohemia 16651:In popular culture 16616:Crusading movement 16488:Hundred Years' War 16347:Civitas Schinesghe 16332:Carolingian Empire 16317:Kingdom of Croatia 16270:Barbarian kingdoms 15206:Bennett, Judith M. 15041:Early Medieval Art 14821:Numbers, Ronald L. 14817:Lindberg, David C. 14543:Hoppin, Richard H. 14508:Past & Present 14131:. pp. 68–83. 14117:Bennett, Judith M. 13493:(Fifth ed.). 13317:, p. 253–256. 12525:, pp. 64, 86. 10282:, pp. 83, 89. 10097:, pp. 32, 79. 9815:, pp. 59, 67. 9803:, pp. 58, 76. 9791:, pp. 34, 39. 9080:, pp. 45, 49. 8018:, pp. 98–101. 7589:, pp. 37, 40. 7274:Basilios Bessarion 7192:John Kantakouzenos 7174:(r. 1328–41), for 7096:Valois of Burgundy 6943:in Venice and the 6941:St Mark's Basilica 6905:Camino de Santiago 6861:) in royal courts. 6808:(d. 1202/03), and 6553:War of Saint Sabas 6533:(r. 1124–53), but 6470:during the period. 6408:, the Carolingian 6383:, the five-aisled 6281:by the end of the 6156:national awakening 6100: 5997:The Birth of Venus 5962:Florence Cathedral 5850: 5727:Christine de Pizan 5686:Marsilius of Padua 5682:natural philosophy 5667: 5437: 5305:Granada in 1492. 5259:and his opponent, 5233:Henry V of England 5207:(r. 1327–77) laid 5201:Hundred Years' War 5189: 5134:the Ottoman Empire 5040: 4971:led to the use of 4894: 4883:Hugh of Saint-Cher 4752:Nicholas of Verdun 4706: 4646:ecclesiastical law 4548:The Song of Roland 4524: 4452:Aristotelian logic 4384:Cathedral chapters 4339:crusading movement 4280:Emirate of Granada 4259:captured Jerusalem 4207: 4172:Crusading movement 4075:, and the nomadic 3937:Philip II Augustus 3895: 3843:Rudolf of Habsburg 3835:Charles I of Anjou 3709: 3587:Concordat of Worms 3517: 3473:in northern France 3437:maritime republics 3383: 3258:: the clergy, the 3180: 3071: 3039:Islamic decorative 3014:polished gemstones 2861: 2748:Macedonian dynasty 2721:settled in Iceland 2719:. Norse colonists 2658:Kingdom of Navarre 2646:Holy Roman Emperor 2574: 2515:Battle of Lechfeld 2503:Charles the Simple 2402:Carolingian Empire 2251:(r. 768–814), and 2183: 2163:Carolingian Empire 2157:Carolingian Europe 2038:Benedict of Nursia 1995:. They emphasised 1973:Irish missionaries 1904: 1898:, inspired by the 1829: 1757:beginning in 713. 1706: 1691:Rashidun Caliphate 1613: 1467:outbreak of plague 1424: 1388:Byzantine survival 1192:Popular assemblies 1188: 1174:Barbarian kingdoms 1135:Romulus Augustulus 1105:. The Hunnic king 1095:settled in Britain 950:Christian theology 911:junior co-emperors 856: 831:Later Roman Empire 825:Later Roman Empire 742: 599:("middle age"), a 567: 500:Hundred Years' War 414:and triggered the 365:Carolingian Empire 293:Population decline 155:Hundred Years' War 19252: 19251: 19079:Council of Europe 18981:International law 18934:Constitutionalism 18792:Eastern Orthodoxy 18298:Post–Cold War era 18231:Age of Revolution 18085:Greco-Roman world 18023: 18022: 17949:COVID-19 pandemic 17894:French Revolution 17869:Habsburg monarchy 17849:Cossack Hetmanate 17829:Portuguese Empire 17819:Absolute monarchy 17814:Thirty Years' War 17709:Holy Roman Empire 17634:Bulgarian Empire 17593:Early Middle Ages 17510:Bronze Age Europe 17484:History of Europe 17450: 17449: 17446: 17445: 17402:Novgorod Republic 17376:Kingdom of Bosnia 17314:Bulgarian Empire 17217:Kingdom of Aragon 17181:Duchy of Burgundy 17171:Republic of Genoa 17161:Kingdom of Naples 17156:Kingdom of Sicily 17145:Swiss Confederacy 17133:Holy Roman Empire 17105: 17104: 16833: 16832: 16742:Basic topics list 16543:Swiss mercenaries 16493:Wars of the Roses 16400:Kingdom of Poland 16385:Holy Roman Empire 16252:Early Middle Ages 16163:978-0-8122-1290-7 16138:978-0-19-924427-0 16110:978-0-19-820648-4 16082:978-1-139-05572-7 16071:. Vol. III. 16043:978-1-405-12964-0 16015:978-1-139-05571-0 15976:978-1-139-05403-4 15933:978-1-139-05402-7 15890:978-0-2747-9776-9 15865:978-1-139-05574-1 15826:978-1-324-00216-1 15801:978-0-226-31083-1 15775:978-1-139-05393-8 15736:978-0-19-882595-1 15711:978-0-415-78065-0 15679:978-0-688-12302-4 15660:Cantor, Norman F. 15651:978-1-139-05575-8 15640:. Vol. VII. 15612:978-1-139-05573-4 15573:978-0-415-72930-7 15539:978-0-3002-0834-4 15514:978-0-713-99429-2 15482:978-0-521-79664-4 15454:978-0-19-285220-5 15421:978-0-340-60118-1 15396:978-0-19-873163-4 15369:978-0-19-284223-7 15337:978-0-313-36076-3 15312:978-0-295-97290-9 15287:978-0-275-95904-3 15259:978-0-19-969729-8 15227:978-0-19-877938-4 15210:Karras, Ruth Mazo 15196:978-0-7535-5957-4 15168:978-0-19-925312-8 15143:978-0-02-865980-0 15117:978-0-19-861112-7 15098:Burchfield, R. W. 15085:978-1-854-09236-6 15059:978-0-19-284243-5 15030:978-0-691-17740-3 14972:978-0-19-285220-5 14890:978-0-521-66102-7 14865:978-0-415-39312-6 14840:978-0-226-48214-9 14833:. pp. 7–32. 14808:978-0-500-99027-8 14782:978-0-19-873163-4 14703:978-0-14-021085-9 14675:978-0-140-16664-4 14664:. Vol. III. 14643:978-0-582-77296-0 14615:978-0-87169-259-7 14590:978-0-19-431606-4 14562:978-0-393-09090-1 14501:(November 2018). 14489:978-0-521-70037-5 14464:978-1-009-16116-9 14436:978-0-8020-6984-9 14417:Henderson, George 14408:978-0-19-532541-6 14380:978-0-415-87113-6 14373:. pp. 1–27. 14351:978-0-674-00506-8 14319:978-0-340-80839-9 14296:978-0-6912-4508-9 14268:978-0-520-20714-1 14249:Griffiths, Antony 14240:978-0-521-80279-6 14215:978-0-521-43344-0 14187:978-0-8152-0345-2 14166:978-0-674-05562-9 14138:978-0-19-877938-4 14121:Karras, Ruth Mazo 14107:978-0-521-26646-8 14077:978-0-472-08260-5 14049:978-0-393-92915-7 14021:978-0-521-70653-7 13996:978-1-107-02335-2 13977:Ellenblum, Ronnie 13968:978-0-300-06493-3 13940:978-0-19-285220-5 13907:978-0-19-520912-9 13893:Europe: A History 13879:978-90-04-41534-8 13848:978-0-333-69381-0 13816:978-0-300-07852-7 13797:Colish, Marcia L. 13788:978-0-521-84666-0 13760:978-0-19-285220-5 13753:. pp. 1–62. 13727:978-0-393-95803-4 13699:978-0-521-59773-9 13674:978-0-500-20350-7 13642:978-0-140-15409-2 13614:978-0-415-17415-2 13586:978-0-1975-7153-8 13561:978-0-19-954790-6 13532:978-1-5095-3256-8 13504:978-0-07-337922-7 13425:, pp. 49–58. 13185:, pp. 6, 51. 12813:, pp. 83–86. 11929:, pp. 69–70. 11647:, pp. 61–62. 11368:, pp. 46–47. 10741:, pp. 92–98. 10729:, pp. 86–90. 10717:, pp. 75–79. 10669:, pp. 68–70. 10498:, pp. 87–94. 10486:, pp. 93–94. 10366:, pp. 78–83. 10342:, pp. 78–81. 10306:, pp. 48–49. 10270:, pp. 70–71. 10246:, pp. 74–85. 10205:, pp. 41–42. 10181:, pp. 14–15. 10145:, pp. 11–12. 10109:, pp. 24–39. 10049:, pp. 36–37. 10001:, pp. 10–12. 9755:, pp. 30–31. 9743:, pp. 28–29. 9731:, pp. 60–77. 9707:, pp. 16–18. 9695:, pp. 47–49. 9680:, pp. 40–41. 9668:, pp. 32–38. 9656:, pp. 36–37. 9644:, pp. 22–28. 9632:, pp. 41–42. 9620:, pp. 63–64. 9608:, pp. 47–57. 9584:, pp. 35–40. 9572:, pp. 83–90. 9560:, pp. 88–89. 9548:, pp. 96–97. 9521:, pp. 43–44. 9509:, pp. 21–44. 9485:, pp. 28–29. 9056:, pp. 66–70. 8972:, pp. 97–99. 8876:, pp. 63–65. 8864:, pp. 43–44. 8816:, pp. 75–77. 8780:, pp. 62–63. 8732:, pp. 45–46. 8477:, pp. 24–26. 8297:, pp. 45–49. 8201:, pp. 81–82. 8177:, pp. 71–77. 8165:, pp. 51–59. 8102:, pp. 79–81. 8090:, pp. 77–78. 8078:, pp. 82–94. 8030:, pp. 11–13. 7982:, pp. 96–97. 7958:, pp. 67–69. 7922:, pp. 59–60. 7871:, pp. 31–33. 7847:, pp. 21–23. 7835:, pp. 52–56. 7811:, pp. 32–36. 7787:, pp. 60–75. 7775:, pp. 43–45. 7739:, pp. 23–24. 7700:, pp. 24–25. 7673:, pp. 10–14. 7661:, pp. 47–50. 7649:, pp. 17–19. 7625:, pp. 28–29. 7613:, pp. 17–23. 7601:, pp. 44–45. 7577:, pp. 26–27. 7553:, pp. 18–24. 7541:, pp. 15–16. 7257:Matthias Corvinus 7251:Czech aristocrat 7232:Stephen the Great 7027:in Germany, lost 6978:Cologne Cathedral 6851:Code of the Realm 6776:Guibert of Nogent 6709:(r. 1137–80) was 6566:distinctive badge 6387:in Paris and the 6326:Aurelian of Réôme 6308:March of Pannonia 6160:Leopold von Ranke 6132:French Revolution 5980:artists restored 5978:Early Renaissance 5810:Cape of Good Hope 5680:) concluded that 5671:William of Ockham 5657:Clerics studying 5525:their suppression 5360:, the princes of 5354:succession crises 5249:Wars of the Roses 5082:popular uprisings 4942:stern-post rudder 4934:mortise and tenon 4903:distilled spirits 4887:Tommaso da Modena 4807:Saint-Denis Abbey 4795:flying buttresses 4683:school at Salerno 4652:Decretum Gratiani 4626:Franco of Cologne 4622:mensural notation 4600:such as those by 4559:Chivalric romance 4541:chansons de geste 4529:and the ethos of 4494: 4392:cathedral schools 4373:Intellectual life 4343:beginning in 1213 4304:captured the city 4288:Northern Crusades 4032:, Denmark seized 3899:Dukes of Normandy 3892:Duchy of Normandy 3855:Swiss Confederacy 3814:the right of the 3781:Holy Roman Empire 3774:Kingdom of Sicily 3719:. The concept of 3717:state sovereignty 3669:Francis of Assisi 3513:Maria Laach Abbey 3418:Bills of exchange 3335:clerical celibacy 3062:Byzantine cavalry 3030:book illuminators 2793:Přemyslid dynasty 2742:(r. 886–912) and 2632:Adelaide of Italy 2628:disobedient dukes 2578:Kingdom of Dublin 2565:Magdeburg Ivories 2232:. His subsequent 2230:papal possessions 2056:during the 960s. 2026:, especially the 1957:Gregory the Great 1896:Gregory the Great 1801:Trade and economy 1778:Abbasid Caliphate 1774:Umayyad Caliphate 1713:on the Christian 1701:Umayyad Caliphate 1567:domestic violence 1509:Latin scholarship 1370:Romance languages 1307:Iberian Peninsula 1163:Early Middle Ages 1157:Early Middle Ages 1074:(a Gothic group) 1038:fleeing from the 808:Since the 1950s, 762:Ludovico Muratori 737:during the early 721:historical source 536:Early Renaissance 520:centuries-old war 516:Iberian Peninsula 508:were conquered by 453:cathedral schools 449:Latin Christendom 412:Orthodox Churches 345:Muslim conquerors 243:history of Europe 239: 238: 235: 234: 99:Early Middle Ages 19511: 19489:Christianization 19414: 19406: 19405: 19404: 19397: 19396:from Wikiversity 19389: 19388: 19387: 19380: 19372: 19371: 19370: 19363: 19355: 19354: 19353: 19346: 19338: 19337: 19336: 19329: 19321: 19320: 19319: 19309: 19293: 19292: 19291: 19281: 19280: 19279: 19269: 19268: 19260: 19124:EU Customs Union 18656:Secular humanism 18604:Christian ethics 18554:East–West Schism 18537:Physical culture 18261:Great Divergence 18211:Age of Discovery 18050: 18043: 18036: 18027: 18026: 17884:Great Divergence 17799:Age of Discovery 17744:Late Middle Ages 17714:High Middle Ages 17625:Byzantine Empire 17608:Christianization 17598:Migration Period 17533:Classical Greece 17505:Neolithic Europe 17477: 17470: 17463: 17454: 17453: 17372:Banate of Bosnia 17310:Byzantine Empire 17191:Crown of Castile 17141:Kingdom of Italy 17116: 17115: 16884: 16883: 16860: 16853: 16846: 16837: 16836: 16823: 16822: 16813: 16812: 16803: 16762:Medieval studies 16606:Church and State 16480:Late Middle Ages 16372:High Middle Ages 16290:Christianization 16260:Migration Period 16237: 16230: 16223: 16214: 16213: 16200:Official website 16185:Medievalists.net 16167: 16142: 16114: 16086: 16047: 16032:(2nd ed.). 16024:Moore, Robert I. 16019: 16004:. Vol. II. 15980: 15937: 15894: 15869: 15854:. Vol. VI. 15830: 15805: 15779: 15740: 15715: 15692:Lifshitz, Felice 15683: 15655: 15616: 15577: 15543: 15518: 15503:. Vol. II. 15486: 15458: 15425: 15400: 15373: 15341: 15316: 15291: 15263: 15231: 15200: 15172: 15147: 15136:. p. 8182. 15121: 15100:, eds. (1994) . 15089: 15063: 15034: 15009: 14976: 14945:Morris, Rosemary 14940: 14894: 14869: 14844: 14812: 14786: 14759: 14733: 14712:Kitzinger, Ernst 14707: 14679: 14647: 14619: 14594: 14566: 14538: 14528: 14493: 14468: 14440: 14412: 14384: 14355: 14323: 14300: 14272: 14244: 14219: 14191: 14170: 14142: 14111: 14081: 14058:Fine, John V. A. 14053: 14025: 14000: 13972: 13944: 13911: 13883: 13852: 13820: 13792: 13764: 13731: 13703: 13678: 13646: 13623:Bartlett, Robert 13618: 13590: 13565: 13536: 13508: 13474: 13473:, pp. 8–15. 13468: 13462: 13456: 13450: 13444: 13438: 13432: 13426: 13420: 13414: 13408: 13402: 13396: 13390: 13384: 13378: 13372: 13366: 13360: 13354: 13348: 13342: 13336: 13330: 13324: 13318: 13312: 13306: 13300: 13294: 13288: 13282: 13276: 13270: 13264: 13258: 13252: 13246: 13240: 13234: 13228: 13222: 13216: 13210: 13204: 13198: 13192: 13186: 13180: 13174: 13168: 13162: 13156: 13150: 13144: 13138: 13132: 13126: 13120: 13114: 13108: 13102: 13096: 13090: 13084: 13078: 13072: 13066: 13060: 13054: 13048: 13042: 13036: 13030: 13024: 13018: 13012: 13006: 13000: 12994: 12988: 12982: 12976: 12970: 12964: 12958: 12952: 12946: 12940: 12934: 12928: 12922: 12916: 12910: 12904: 12898: 12892: 12886: 12880: 12874: 12868: 12862: 12856: 12850: 12844: 12838: 12832: 12826: 12820: 12814: 12808: 12802: 12796: 12790: 12784: 12778: 12772: 12766: 12760: 12754: 12748: 12742: 12736: 12730: 12724: 12718: 12712: 12706: 12700: 12694: 12688: 12682: 12676: 12670: 12664: 12658: 12652: 12646: 12640: 12634: 12628: 12622: 12616: 12610: 12604: 12598: 12592: 12586: 12580: 12574: 12568: 12562: 12556: 12550: 12544: 12538: 12532: 12526: 12520: 12514: 12508: 12502: 12496: 12490: 12484: 12478: 12472: 12466: 12460: 12454: 12448: 12442: 12436: 12430: 12424: 12418: 12412: 12406: 12400: 12394: 12388: 12382: 12376: 12370: 12364: 12358: 12352: 12346: 12340: 12334: 12328: 12322: 12316: 12310: 12304: 12298: 12292: 12286: 12280: 12274: 12268: 12257: 12251: 12245: 12239: 12233: 12227: 12221: 12215: 12209: 12203: 12197: 12191: 12185: 12179: 12173: 12167: 12161: 12155: 12149: 12143: 12137: 12131: 12125: 12119: 12113: 12107: 12101: 12095: 12089: 12083: 12077: 12071: 12062: 12056: 12050: 12044: 12038: 12032: 12026: 12020: 12014: 12008: 12002: 11996: 11990: 11984: 11978: 11972: 11966: 11960: 11954: 11948: 11942: 11936: 11930: 11924: 11918: 11912: 11906: 11900: 11891: 11885: 11879: 11873: 11864: 11858: 11852: 11846: 11840: 11834: 11828: 11822: 11816: 11810: 11804: 11798: 11792: 11786: 11780: 11774: 11768: 11762: 11756: 11750: 11744: 11738: 11732: 11731:, pp. 7–44. 11726: 11720: 11714: 11708: 11702: 11696: 11690: 11684: 11678: 11672: 11666: 11660: 11654: 11648: 11642: 11636: 11630: 11624: 11618: 11612: 11606: 11600: 11594: 11588: 11582: 11576: 11570: 11564: 11558: 11552: 11546: 11540: 11534: 11528: 11522: 11513: 11507: 11501: 11495: 11489: 11483: 11477: 11471: 11465: 11459: 11453: 11447: 11441: 11435: 11429: 11423: 11417: 11411: 11405: 11399: 11393: 11387: 11381: 11375: 11369: 11363: 11357: 11351: 11345: 11339: 11333: 11327: 11321: 11315: 11309: 11303: 11294: 11288: 11282: 11276: 11270: 11264: 11258: 11252: 11246: 11240: 11234: 11228: 11222: 11216: 11210: 11204: 11198: 11192: 11186: 11180: 11174: 11168: 11162: 11156: 11150: 11144: 11138: 11132: 11126: 11120: 11114: 11108: 11102: 11096: 11090: 11084: 11078: 11072: 11066: 11060: 11054: 11048: 11042: 11036: 11030: 11024: 11018: 11012: 11006: 11000: 10994: 10988: 10982: 10976: 10970: 10964: 10958: 10952: 10946: 10940: 10934: 10928: 10922: 10916: 10910: 10904: 10898: 10892: 10886: 10880: 10874: 10868: 10862: 10856: 10850: 10844: 10838: 10832: 10826: 10820: 10814: 10808: 10802: 10796: 10790: 10784: 10778: 10772: 10766: 10760: 10754: 10748: 10742: 10736: 10730: 10724: 10718: 10712: 10706: 10700: 10694: 10688: 10682: 10676: 10670: 10664: 10658: 10652: 10646: 10640: 10634: 10628: 10622: 10616: 10607: 10601: 10595: 10589: 10583: 10577: 10571: 10565: 10559: 10553: 10547: 10541: 10535: 10529: 10523: 10517: 10511: 10505: 10499: 10493: 10487: 10481: 10475: 10469: 10463: 10457: 10451: 10445: 10439: 10433: 10427: 10421: 10415: 10409: 10403: 10397: 10391: 10385: 10379: 10373: 10367: 10361: 10355: 10349: 10343: 10337: 10331: 10325: 10319: 10313: 10307: 10301: 10295: 10289: 10283: 10277: 10271: 10265: 10259: 10253: 10247: 10241: 10235: 10229: 10218: 10212: 10206: 10200: 10194: 10188: 10182: 10176: 10170: 10164: 10158: 10152: 10146: 10140: 10134: 10128: 10122: 10116: 10110: 10104: 10098: 10092: 10086: 10080: 10074: 10068: 10062: 10056: 10050: 10044: 10038: 10032: 10026: 10020: 10014: 10008: 10002: 9996: 9990: 9984: 9978: 9972: 9966: 9960: 9954: 9948: 9942: 9936: 9930: 9924: 9918: 9912: 9906: 9900: 9894: 9888: 9882: 9876: 9870: 9869:, pp. 5–10. 9864: 9855: 9854:, pp. 3–11. 9849: 9843: 9837: 9831: 9825: 9816: 9810: 9804: 9798: 9792: 9786: 9780: 9774: 9768: 9762: 9756: 9750: 9744: 9738: 9732: 9726: 9720: 9714: 9708: 9702: 9696: 9690: 9681: 9675: 9669: 9663: 9657: 9651: 9645: 9639: 9633: 9627: 9621: 9615: 9609: 9603: 9597: 9591: 9585: 9579: 9573: 9567: 9561: 9555: 9549: 9543: 9534: 9528: 9522: 9516: 9510: 9504: 9498: 9492: 9486: 9480: 9471: 9465: 9459: 9453: 9447: 9441: 9435: 9429: 9423: 9417: 9411: 9405: 9399: 9393: 9387: 9381: 9375: 9369: 9363: 9357: 9351: 9345: 9339: 9333: 9327: 9321: 9315: 9309: 9303: 9297: 9291: 9285: 9279: 9273: 9267: 9261: 9255: 9249: 9243: 9237: 9231: 9225: 9219: 9213: 9207: 9201: 9192: 9186: 9177: 9171: 9165: 9159: 9153: 9147: 9141: 9135: 9129: 9123: 9117: 9111: 9105: 9099: 9093: 9087: 9081: 9075: 9069: 9063: 9057: 9051: 9045: 9039: 9033: 9027: 9021: 9015: 9009: 9003: 8997: 8991: 8985: 8979: 8973: 8967: 8961: 8955: 8949: 8943: 8937: 8931: 8925: 8919: 8913: 8907: 8901: 8895: 8889: 8883: 8877: 8871: 8865: 8859: 8853: 8847: 8841: 8835: 8829: 8823: 8817: 8811: 8805: 8799: 8793: 8787: 8781: 8775: 8769: 8763: 8757: 8751: 8745: 8739: 8733: 8727: 8721: 8715: 8709: 8703: 8694: 8688: 8682: 8676: 8670: 8664: 8658: 8652: 8646: 8640: 8634: 8628: 8622: 8616: 8610: 8604: 8598: 8592: 8586: 8580: 8574: 8568: 8562: 8556: 8550: 8544: 8538: 8532: 8526: 8520: 8514: 8508: 8502: 8496: 8490: 8484: 8478: 8472: 8466: 8460: 8454: 8448: 8442: 8436: 8430: 8424: 8418: 8412: 8406: 8400: 8394: 8388: 8382: 8376: 8370: 8364: 8358: 8352: 8346: 8340: 8334: 8328: 8322: 8316: 8310: 8304: 8298: 8292: 8286: 8280: 8274: 8268: 8262: 8261:, pp. 8–10. 8256: 8250: 8244: 8238: 8232: 8226: 8220: 8214: 8208: 8202: 8196: 8190: 8184: 8178: 8172: 8166: 8160: 8154: 8148: 8142: 8136: 8130: 8124: 8115: 8109: 8103: 8097: 8091: 8085: 8079: 8073: 8067: 8061: 8055: 8049: 8043: 8037: 8031: 8025: 8019: 8013: 8007: 8001: 7995: 7989: 7983: 7977: 7971: 7965: 7959: 7953: 7947: 7941: 7935: 7929: 7923: 7917: 7911: 7905: 7899: 7893: 7887: 7881: 7872: 7866: 7860: 7854: 7848: 7842: 7836: 7830: 7824: 7823:, pp. 1–15. 7818: 7812: 7806: 7800: 7794: 7788: 7782: 7776: 7770: 7764: 7758: 7752: 7746: 7740: 7734: 7728: 7727:, pp. 8–11. 7722: 7716: 7710: 7701: 7695: 7686: 7680: 7674: 7668: 7662: 7656: 7650: 7644: 7638: 7632: 7626: 7620: 7614: 7608: 7602: 7596: 7590: 7584: 7578: 7572: 7566: 7560: 7554: 7548: 7542: 7536: 7530: 7524: 7518: 7512: 7506: 7500: 7494: 7488: 7479: 7473: 7467: 7461: 7452: 7446: 7440: 7434: 7428: 7422: 7416: 7410: 7404: 7398: 7392: 7386: 7380: 7374: 7365: 7359: 7343: 7334: 7321: 7315: 7304: 7298: 7296: 7290: 7283: 7277: 7270: 7264: 7249:moderate Hussite 7245: 7239: 7213: 7207: 7201: 7197: 7185: 7184:Andronikos III's 7180:second civil war 7160: 7154: 7147: 7141: 7136:, then with her 7134:her underage son 7130: 7124: 7105: 7099: 7076: 7070: 7055: 7049: 7038: 7032: 7030: 7021: 7015: 7013: 7012:mid-13th century 7004: 6998: 6995: 6989: 6958: 6952: 6937: 6931: 6929: 6916: 6910: 6908: 6887: 6881: 6875: 6868: 6862: 6848: 6836: 6823: 6817: 6815: 6802:Otto of Freising 6795: 6792: 6784: 6781: 6772: 6766: 6758: 6752: 6737: 6731: 6724:Alexander Nevsky 6720: 6714: 6689:Henry inherited 6687: 6681: 6675: 6671: 6665: 6660:(r. 1194–98) in 6652:(r. 1137–62) in 6639: 6633: 6614: 6608: 6597: 6591: 6579: 6573: 6562: 6556: 6548: 6542: 6515: 6509: 6507: 6498: 6492: 6477: 6471: 6460:Daphni Monastery 6456: 6450: 6447: 6441: 6439: 6436: 6423: 6417: 6406:palace at Aachen 6402: 6396: 6377: 6371: 6364: 6358: 6347: 6341: 6323: 6317: 6311: 6306:(d. 861) in the 6292: 6286: 6284: 6280: 6277: 6272: 6266: 6252: 6247: 6241: 6230: 6224: 6221: 6215: 6212:end of the world 6200: 6169: 6129: 6096:L'Image du monde 6077:Medieval studies 6055:Vlad the Impaler 6048: 6036: 6007:Ghent Altarpiece 5974:Lorenzo Ghiberti 5926: 5909: 5906: 5898: 5843: 5840: 5783: 5779: 5771: 5763: 5755: 5735: 5732: 5723:Geoffrey Chaucer 5679: 5676: 5645:Age of Discovery 5626: 5618: 5615: 5599:Gregory of Sinai 5596: 5499:Since prolonged 5490: 5453:tributary states 5435: 5359: 5312: 5300: 5266: 5176: 5168: 5160: 5140:State resurgence 5094:Peasants' Revolt 5091: 5068: 5048: 5045: 5034: 5008:Late Middle Ages 5002:Late Middle Ages 4962: 4927: 4924: 4912: 4854: 4722: 4715:structures, but 4713:motte-and-bailey 4702:Rayonnant Gothic 4700:, an example of 4655: 4639: 4630: 4615: 4602:Adam de la Halle 4583: 4580: 4544: 4517: 4509: 4501: 4495: 4482: 4479:Summa Theologica 4475:, including the 4474: 4429: 4405: 4402:studium generale 4396:monastic schools 4389: 4363:Teutonic Knights 4353:, including the 4277: 4263:Mamluks of Egypt 4182:List of Crusades 4148:Genoese colonies 4136:Turkic lordships 4094: 4061:Duchy of Silesia 4034:parts of Estonia 4016:). Although the 4000:Italian Angevins 3977: 3962: 3948: 3910: 3831: 3827: 3807: 3794: 3751: 3733:court of appeals 3714: 3690: 3681:Jewish mysticism 3642:mendicant orders 3579:Pope Gregory VII 3552:East–West Schism 3462: 3415: 3409: 3369:Economic revival 3352: 3293: 3281: 3250: 3212: 3209: 3188: 3185: 3149:High Middle Ages 3143:High Middle Ages 3119:mounted infantry 3096: 3067:Madrid Skylitzes 3035:Ottonian artists 2998:artistic renewal 2967:, including the 2849:A page from the 2790: 2787: 2783:Magyar invasions 2758:(r. 969–76) and 2725:political system 2705:Christianisation 2682: 2639: 2625: 2616:Ottonian dynasty 2602: 2599: 2594:Kenneth MacAlpin 2582:Alfred the Great 2572: 2563:plaque from the 2523:Balearic Islands 2519:conquered Sicily 2500: 2497: 2440:Charles the Bald 2436:Louis the German 2416:Treaty of Verdun 2394: 2385: 2376: 2329: 2320:musical notation 2286: 2203:Pepin of Herstal 2200: 2171:A page from the 2116: 2089: 2086: 2042:Benedictine Rule 1978: 1947: 1865: 1862: 1855: 1835: 1698: 1688: 1678: 1628: 1622: 1596: 1584: 1548: 1545: 1537: 1534: 1518: 1441: 1429: 1374:Slavic languages 1303:by the Visigoths 1293: 1211: 1208: 1201:In Britain, the 1196:taxation systems 1184:Byzantine Empire 1144: 1029: 1018: 990: 981:early Christians 948:. Debates about 947: 938:classical period 896: 894: 865: 771: 759: 740: 694: 686: 667:Historians from 650:(re)urbanisation 642:Christianisation 612: 609: 598: 571:European history 559:Palais des Papes 544:Age of Discovery 493: 489: 451:. The spread of 438:. Stone castles 362: 350: 323:and the rise of 309:Christianisation 305:Germanic peoples 283:Late Middle Ages 265:, medieval, and 231: 222:Age of Discovery 191: 184: 140:East–West Schism 135:Treaty of Verdun 109:Late Middle Ages 104:High Middle Ages 78:, depicting the 77: 73: 70: 57: 48: – 1500 47: 44: 34: 33: 19519: 19518: 19514: 19513: 19512: 19510: 19509: 19508: 19499:Historical eras 19419: 19418: 19417: 19413:from Wikivoyage 19407: 19402: 19400: 19390: 19385: 19383: 19373: 19368: 19366: 19362:from Wikisource 19356: 19351: 19349: 19339: 19334: 19332: 19322: 19317: 19315: 19312: 19308:sister projects 19305:at Knowledge's 19299: 19289: 19287: 19277: 19275: 19263: 19255: 19253: 19248: 19214:UKUSA Agreement 19154:Lublin Triangle 19039:Baltic Assembly 18991: 18985: 18903: 18740: 18575: 18445:Eurolinguistics 18314: 18303:Information age 18276:Interwar period 18143: 18063: 18054: 18024: 18019: 17958: 17924:Interwar period 17899:Napoleonic Wars 17763: 17734:Mongol invasion 17687:Crown of Aragon 17579: 17519: 17515:Iron Age Europe 17486: 17481: 17451: 17442: 17387:Kingdom of Rus' 17345:Crusader states 17302: 17296: 17213:Crown of Aragon 17199:Kingdom of León 17128:Frankish Empire 17121:Northern Europe 17120: 17111: 17101: 17008: 17002: 16889:Northern Europe 16888: 16880:political units 16879: 16877: 16875: 16869: 16864: 16834: 16829: 16791: 16772:Neo-medievalism 16720: 16656:Itinerant court 16579: 16474: 16395:Georgian Empire 16380:Norman Conquest 16366: 16312:Frankish Empire 16246: 16241: 16211: 16196:Medieval Worlds 16175: 16170: 16164: 16139: 16111: 16101:Clarendon Press 16091:Reynolds, Susan 16083: 16052:Reuter, Timothy 16044: 16016: 15977: 15948:, eds. (2004). 15942:Luscombe, David 15934: 15905:, eds. (2004). 15899:Luscombe, David 15891: 15866: 15827: 15802: 15776: 15764:. Vol. I. 15737: 15712: 15688:Chazelle, Celia 15680: 15652: 15613: 15601:. Vol. V. 15582:Abulafia, David 15574: 15551: 15549:Further reading 15546: 15540: 15525:Medieval Europe 15515: 15483: 15455: 15422: 15397: 15370: 15338: 15328:Greenwood Press 15313: 15288: 15260: 15228: 15197: 15177:Ramirez, Janina 15169: 15144: 15118: 15086: 15060: 15031: 14973: 14921:10.2307/2856364 14891: 14866: 14841: 14809: 14783: 14756: 14730: 14704: 14676: 14644: 14634:Pearson Longman 14616: 14591: 14563: 14490: 14465: 14445:Heng, Geraldine 14437: 14409: 14381: 14369:. Vol. 7. 14352: 14320: 14297: 14269: 14241: 14216: 14188: 14167: 14152:The Middle Ages 14147:Fried, Johannes 14139: 14108: 14086:Fossier, Robert 14078: 14050: 14030:Fassler, Margot 14022: 13997: 13969: 13941: 13908: 13880: 13849: 13839:Red Globe Press 13817: 13789: 13761: 13728: 13700: 13675: 13643: 13615: 13595:Barber, Malcolm 13587: 13562: 13533: 13513:Arnold, John H. 13505: 13482: 13477: 13469: 13465: 13461:, pp. 6–9. 13457: 13453: 13445: 13441: 13433: 13429: 13421: 13417: 13409: 13405: 13397: 13393: 13385: 13381: 13373: 13369: 13361: 13357: 13349: 13345: 13337: 13333: 13325: 13321: 13313: 13309: 13301: 13297: 13289: 13285: 13277: 13273: 13265: 13261: 13253: 13249: 13241: 13237: 13229: 13225: 13217: 13213: 13205: 13201: 13193: 13189: 13181: 13177: 13169: 13165: 13157: 13153: 13145: 13141: 13133: 13129: 13121: 13117: 13109: 13105: 13097: 13093: 13085: 13081: 13073: 13069: 13061: 13057: 13049: 13045: 13037: 13033: 13025: 13021: 13013: 13009: 13001: 12997: 12989: 12985: 12977: 12973: 12965: 12961: 12953: 12949: 12941: 12937: 12929: 12925: 12917: 12913: 12905: 12901: 12893: 12889: 12881: 12877: 12869: 12865: 12857: 12853: 12845: 12841: 12833: 12829: 12821: 12817: 12809: 12805: 12797: 12793: 12785: 12781: 12773: 12769: 12761: 12757: 12749: 12745: 12737: 12733: 12725: 12721: 12713: 12709: 12701: 12697: 12689: 12685: 12677: 12673: 12665: 12661: 12653: 12649: 12641: 12637: 12629: 12625: 12617: 12613: 12605: 12601: 12593: 12589: 12581: 12577: 12569: 12565: 12557: 12553: 12545: 12541: 12533: 12529: 12521: 12517: 12509: 12505: 12497: 12493: 12485: 12481: 12473: 12469: 12461: 12457: 12449: 12445: 12437: 12433: 12425: 12421: 12413: 12409: 12401: 12397: 12389: 12385: 12377: 12373: 12365: 12361: 12353: 12349: 12341: 12337: 12329: 12325: 12317: 12313: 12305: 12301: 12293: 12289: 12281: 12277: 12269: 12260: 12252: 12248: 12240: 12236: 12228: 12224: 12216: 12212: 12204: 12200: 12192: 12188: 12180: 12176: 12168: 12164: 12156: 12152: 12144: 12140: 12132: 12128: 12120: 12116: 12108: 12104: 12096: 12092: 12084: 12080: 12072: 12065: 12057: 12053: 12045: 12041: 12033: 12029: 12021: 12017: 12009: 12005: 11997: 11993: 11985: 11981: 11973: 11969: 11961: 11957: 11949: 11945: 11937: 11933: 11925: 11921: 11913: 11909: 11901: 11894: 11890:, pp. 4–5. 11886: 11882: 11874: 11867: 11859: 11855: 11847: 11843: 11835: 11831: 11823: 11819: 11811: 11807: 11799: 11795: 11787: 11783: 11775: 11771: 11763: 11759: 11751: 11747: 11739: 11735: 11727: 11723: 11715: 11711: 11703: 11699: 11691: 11687: 11679: 11675: 11667: 11663: 11655: 11651: 11643: 11639: 11631: 11627: 11619: 11615: 11607: 11603: 11595: 11591: 11583: 11579: 11571: 11567: 11559: 11555: 11547: 11543: 11535: 11531: 11523: 11516: 11508: 11504: 11496: 11492: 11484: 11480: 11472: 11468: 11460: 11456: 11448: 11444: 11436: 11432: 11424: 11420: 11412: 11408: 11400: 11396: 11388: 11384: 11376: 11372: 11364: 11360: 11352: 11348: 11340: 11336: 11328: 11324: 11316: 11312: 11304: 11297: 11289: 11285: 11277: 11273: 11265: 11261: 11253: 11249: 11241: 11237: 11229: 11225: 11217: 11213: 11205: 11201: 11193: 11189: 11181: 11177: 11169: 11165: 11157: 11153: 11145: 11141: 11133: 11129: 11121: 11117: 11109: 11105: 11097: 11093: 11085: 11081: 11073: 11069: 11061: 11057: 11049: 11045: 11037: 11033: 11025: 11021: 11013: 11009: 11001: 10997: 10989: 10985: 10977: 10973: 10965: 10961: 10953: 10949: 10941: 10937: 10929: 10925: 10917: 10913: 10905: 10901: 10893: 10889: 10881: 10877: 10869: 10865: 10857: 10853: 10845: 10841: 10833: 10829: 10821: 10817: 10809: 10805: 10797: 10793: 10785: 10781: 10773: 10769: 10761: 10757: 10749: 10745: 10737: 10733: 10725: 10721: 10713: 10709: 10701: 10697: 10689: 10685: 10677: 10673: 10665: 10661: 10653: 10649: 10641: 10637: 10629: 10625: 10617: 10610: 10602: 10598: 10590: 10586: 10578: 10574: 10566: 10562: 10554: 10550: 10542: 10538: 10530: 10526: 10518: 10514: 10510:, pp. 7–8. 10506: 10502: 10494: 10490: 10482: 10478: 10470: 10466: 10458: 10454: 10446: 10442: 10434: 10430: 10422: 10418: 10410: 10406: 10398: 10394: 10386: 10382: 10374: 10370: 10362: 10358: 10350: 10346: 10338: 10334: 10326: 10322: 10314: 10310: 10302: 10298: 10290: 10286: 10278: 10274: 10266: 10262: 10254: 10250: 10242: 10238: 10230: 10221: 10213: 10209: 10201: 10197: 10189: 10185: 10177: 10173: 10165: 10161: 10153: 10149: 10141: 10137: 10129: 10125: 10117: 10113: 10105: 10101: 10093: 10089: 10081: 10077: 10069: 10065: 10057: 10053: 10045: 10041: 10033: 10029: 10021: 10017: 10009: 10005: 9997: 9993: 9985: 9981: 9973: 9969: 9961: 9957: 9949: 9945: 9937: 9933: 9925: 9921: 9913: 9909: 9905:, pp. 4–6. 9901: 9897: 9889: 9885: 9877: 9873: 9865: 9858: 9850: 9846: 9838: 9834: 9826: 9819: 9811: 9807: 9799: 9795: 9787: 9783: 9775: 9771: 9763: 9759: 9751: 9747: 9739: 9735: 9727: 9723: 9715: 9711: 9703: 9699: 9691: 9684: 9676: 9672: 9664: 9660: 9652: 9648: 9640: 9636: 9628: 9624: 9616: 9612: 9604: 9600: 9592: 9588: 9580: 9576: 9568: 9564: 9556: 9552: 9544: 9537: 9529: 9525: 9517: 9513: 9505: 9501: 9493: 9489: 9481: 9474: 9466: 9462: 9454: 9450: 9442: 9438: 9430: 9426: 9418: 9414: 9406: 9402: 9394: 9390: 9382: 9378: 9370: 9366: 9358: 9354: 9346: 9342: 9334: 9330: 9322: 9318: 9310: 9306: 9298: 9294: 9286: 9282: 9274: 9270: 9262: 9258: 9250: 9246: 9238: 9234: 9226: 9222: 9214: 9210: 9202: 9195: 9187: 9180: 9172: 9168: 9160: 9156: 9148: 9144: 9136: 9132: 9124: 9120: 9112: 9108: 9100: 9096: 9088: 9084: 9076: 9072: 9064: 9060: 9052: 9048: 9040: 9036: 9028: 9024: 9016: 9012: 9004: 9000: 8992: 8988: 8980: 8976: 8968: 8964: 8956: 8952: 8944: 8940: 8932: 8928: 8920: 8916: 8908: 8904: 8896: 8892: 8884: 8880: 8872: 8868: 8860: 8856: 8848: 8844: 8836: 8832: 8824: 8820: 8812: 8808: 8800: 8796: 8788: 8784: 8776: 8772: 8764: 8760: 8752: 8748: 8740: 8736: 8728: 8724: 8716: 8712: 8704: 8697: 8689: 8685: 8677: 8673: 8665: 8661: 8653: 8649: 8641: 8637: 8629: 8625: 8617: 8613: 8605: 8601: 8593: 8589: 8581: 8577: 8569: 8565: 8557: 8553: 8545: 8541: 8533: 8529: 8521: 8517: 8509: 8505: 8497: 8493: 8489:, pp. 3–4. 8485: 8481: 8473: 8469: 8461: 8457: 8449: 8445: 8437: 8433: 8425: 8421: 8413: 8409: 8401: 8397: 8389: 8385: 8377: 8373: 8365: 8361: 8353: 8349: 8341: 8337: 8329: 8325: 8317: 8313: 8305: 8301: 8293: 8289: 8281: 8277: 8269: 8265: 8257: 8253: 8245: 8241: 8233: 8229: 8221: 8217: 8209: 8205: 8197: 8193: 8185: 8181: 8173: 8169: 8161: 8157: 8149: 8145: 8137: 8133: 8125: 8118: 8110: 8106: 8098: 8094: 8086: 8082: 8074: 8070: 8062: 8058: 8050: 8046: 8038: 8034: 8026: 8022: 8014: 8010: 8002: 7998: 7990: 7986: 7978: 7974: 7966: 7962: 7954: 7950: 7942: 7938: 7930: 7926: 7918: 7914: 7906: 7902: 7894: 7890: 7882: 7875: 7867: 7863: 7855: 7851: 7843: 7839: 7831: 7827: 7819: 7815: 7807: 7803: 7795: 7791: 7783: 7779: 7771: 7767: 7759: 7755: 7747: 7743: 7735: 7731: 7723: 7719: 7711: 7704: 7696: 7689: 7685:, pp. 3–6. 7681: 7677: 7669: 7665: 7657: 7653: 7645: 7641: 7633: 7629: 7621: 7617: 7609: 7605: 7597: 7593: 7585: 7581: 7573: 7569: 7561: 7557: 7549: 7545: 7537: 7533: 7525: 7521: 7513: 7509: 7501: 7497: 7489: 7482: 7474: 7470: 7462: 7455: 7447: 7443: 7439:, p. viii. 7435: 7431: 7423: 7419: 7411: 7407: 7399: 7395: 7387: 7383: 7375: 7368: 7360: 7356: 7352: 7347: 7346: 7322: 7318: 7305: 7301: 7284: 7280: 7271: 7267: 7246: 7242: 7234:(r. 1457–1504) 7214: 7210: 7204:third civil war 7199: 7195: 7183: 7164:first civil war 7161: 7157: 7148: 7144: 7131: 7127: 7106: 7102: 7077: 7073: 7056: 7052: 7039: 7035: 7028: 7022: 7018: 7011: 7005: 7001: 6996: 6992: 6982:Milan Cathedral 6970:Sainte-Chapelle 6959: 6955: 6938: 6934: 6927: 6917: 6913: 6888: 6884: 6869: 6865: 6824: 6820: 6793: 6782: 6773: 6769: 6759: 6755: 6738: 6734: 6721: 6717: 6688: 6684: 6673: 6672: 6668: 6640: 6636: 6615: 6611: 6598: 6594: 6580: 6576: 6563: 6559: 6549: 6545: 6516: 6512: 6499: 6495: 6482:Utrecht Psalter 6478: 6474: 6457: 6453: 6448: 6444: 6437: 6424: 6420: 6403: 6399: 6378: 6374: 6365: 6361: 6348: 6344: 6318: 6314: 6293: 6289: 6282: 6278: 6273: 6269: 6250: 6248: 6244: 6231: 6227: 6222: 6218: 6201: 6197: 6192: 6127: 6091:spherical Earth 6083: 6069: 6033:Biblia pauperum 6014:(d. 1441) used 6000:by the painter 5924: 5916: 5907: 5896: 5841: 5828: 5806:Bartolomeu Dias 5781: 5744:song structures 5733: 5677: 5651: 5643:Main articles: 5641: 5616: 5603:Gregory Palamas 5593:Devotio Moderna 5583:Meister Eckhart 5578:died in exile. 5558:in England and 5501:papal elections 5497: 5488: 5481:Albanian lords' 5418: 5404: 5396:Main articles: 5394: 5357: 5341:, but only the 5339:Union of Kalmar 5310: 5264: 5142: 5114:Massive pogroms 5092:in France, the 5066: 5046: 5021: 5015: 5010: 5004: 4960: 4957:rotation system 4925: 4919:spinning wheels 4910: 4875: 4865: 4852: 4756:classical style 4691: 4586:autobiographies 4581: 4571:Arthurian cycle 4520:Comtessa de Dia 4490: 4454:into theology. 4427: 4387: 4381: 4375: 4367:their own state 4355:Knights Templar 4320:parts of Greece 4270:theaters of war 4257:(d. 1193), who 4251:crusader states 4188: 4174: 4166:Main articles: 4164: 4144:peaceful period 4108:Eurasian Steppe 4092: 4049:Vladimir-Suzdal 3944: 3931:(r. 1199–1216) 3913:Angevin dynasty 3906: 3866:Bayeux Tapestry 3839:prince-electors 3829: 3823: 3805: 3792: 3747: 3712: 3701: 3606:anticlericalism 3544:papal supremacy 3520:Papal elections 3501: 3371: 3350: 3343:peace movements 3319:parish churches 3279: 3210: 3191:Eurasian Steppe 3186: 3156: 3151: 3145: 3111:lamellar armour 3094: 3055: 3041:motifs such as 3002:Carolingian art 2943:and the Nordic 2871:of Justinian's 2843: 2833: 2813:Rurikid princes 2788: 2744:Constantine VII 2680: 2666:Kingdom of León 2635: 2623: 2609:Kingdom of Alba 2600: 2586:Danish invaders 2568: 2553: 2531: 2498: 2456:Louis the Child 2447:Charles the Fat 2412:Louis the Pious 2408: 2407: 2406: 2405: 2397: 2396: 2395: 2387: 2386: 2378: 2377: 2366: 2350:Main articles: 2348: 2327: 2316:Gregorian chant 2261:border province 2226:Pepin the Short 2199:mid-7th century 2198: 2174:Utrecht Psalter 2165: 2159: 2147:Cluniac Reforms 2119:their patronage 2114: 2087: 2029:Life of Anthony 1997:sexual morality 1976: 1945: 1888: 1882:in Al-Andalus. 1863: 1853: 1833: 1809: 1803: 1770:Battle of Tours 1704: 1696: 1694: 1686: 1684: 1676: 1665: 1659:Spread of Islam 1657:Main articles: 1655: 1643:quickly revived 1621:700 inhabitants 1620: 1594: 1546: 1535: 1516: 1505: 1499: 1497:Western society 1427: 1400: 1392:Main articles: 1390: 1333:conquered most 1262:reconquer Italy 1209: 1176: 1170: 1165: 1159: 1032:mass migrations 1027: 1016: 988: 958:Heretical views 945: 891: 880:Sasanian Empire 863: 839: 833: 827: 805:, and letters. 738: 733:in the city of 723: 713: 692: 684: 660:, kinship, and 610: 552: 542:introduced the 491: 487: 396:papal supremacy 360: 351:. Although the 348: 251:medieval period 226: 205: 182: 174: 130:Spread of Islam 113: 87: 75: 71: 45: 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 19517: 19507: 19506: 19501: 19496: 19491: 19486: 19481: 19476: 19471: 19466: 19461: 19456: 19451: 19446: 19441: 19436: 19431: 19416: 19415: 19398: 19381: 19379:from Wikibooks 19364: 19347: 19345:from Wikiquote 19330: 19301: 19298: 19297: 19285: 19273: 19250: 19249: 19247: 19246: 19244:Westernization 19241: 19236: 19231: 19226: 19224:Visegrád Group 19221: 19216: 19211: 19206: 19201: 19196: 19191: 19186: 19181: 19176: 19171: 19166: 19164:Nordic Council 19161: 19156: 19151: 19146: 19141: 19136: 19131: 19126: 19121: 19116: 19111: 19106: 19101: 19096: 19091: 19086: 19081: 19076: 19071: 19066: 19061: 19059:Bucharest Nine 19056: 19051: 19046: 19041: 19036: 19031: 19026: 19024:Arctic Council 19021: 19016: 19011: 19006: 19001: 18995: 18993: 18987: 18986: 18984: 18983: 18978: 18973: 18972: 18971: 18966: 18961: 18956: 18951: 18946: 18936: 18931: 18930: 18929: 18919: 18913: 18911: 18905: 18904: 18902: 18901: 18896: 18891: 18890: 18889: 18884: 18879: 18874: 18869: 18868: 18867: 18862: 18857: 18852: 18842: 18837: 18832: 18822: 18821: 18820: 18819: 18818: 18808: 18807: 18806: 18801: 18800: 18799: 18789: 18788: 18787: 18777: 18776: 18775: 18750: 18748: 18742: 18741: 18739: 18738: 18737: 18736: 18726: 18721: 18716: 18715: 18714: 18702: 18701: 18700: 18690: 18685: 18680: 18675: 18670: 18665: 18660: 18659: 18658: 18653: 18643: 18642: 18641: 18634:Existentialism 18631: 18626: 18621: 18616: 18611: 18606: 18601: 18596: 18591: 18585: 18583: 18577: 18576: 18574: 18573: 18572: 18571: 18566: 18561: 18556: 18546: 18545: 18544: 18534: 18533: 18532: 18527: 18517: 18516: 18515: 18505: 18500: 18499: 18498: 18493: 18488: 18478: 18477: 18476: 18466: 18465: 18464: 18454: 18453: 18452: 18447: 18437: 18432: 18427: 18422: 18421: 18420: 18410: 18405: 18404: 18403: 18393: 18392: 18391: 18381: 18380: 18379: 18369: 18364: 18363: 18362: 18352: 18347: 18346: 18345: 18340: 18335: 18324: 18322: 18316: 18315: 18313: 18312: 18311: 18310: 18305: 18295: 18294: 18293: 18288: 18283: 18278: 18273: 18268: 18263: 18258: 18253: 18248: 18243: 18238: 18233: 18228: 18223: 18218: 18213: 18208: 18198: 18193: 18192: 18191: 18186: 18181: 18171: 18170: 18169: 18167:Late antiquity 18159: 18153: 18151: 18145: 18144: 18142: 18141: 18136: 18131: 18126: 18121: 18120: 18119: 18118: 18117: 18112: 18102: 18097: 18092: 18082: 18077: 18071: 18069: 18065: 18064: 18053: 18052: 18045: 18038: 18030: 18021: 18020: 18018: 18017: 18012: 18007: 18002: 17997: 17992: 17987: 17982: 17977: 17972: 17966: 17964: 17960: 17959: 17957: 17956: 17951: 17946: 17941: 17936: 17931: 17926: 17921: 17916: 17911: 17906: 17901: 17896: 17891: 17886: 17881: 17876: 17874:Russian Empire 17871: 17866: 17864:British Empire 17861: 17859:Dutch Republic 17856: 17854:Swedish Empire 17851: 17846: 17841: 17836: 17834:Spanish Empire 17831: 17826: 17824:Ottoman Empire 17821: 17816: 17811: 17806: 17801: 17796: 17795: 17794: 17784: 17779: 17773: 17771: 17765: 17764: 17762: 17761: 17756: 17751: 17746: 17741: 17739:Serbian Empire 17736: 17731: 17726: 17721: 17716: 17711: 17706: 17684: 17679: 17674: 17673: 17672: 17667: 17662: 17657: 17647: 17646: 17645: 17640: 17632: 17627: 17622: 17617: 17612: 17611: 17610: 17600: 17595: 17589: 17587: 17581: 17580: 17578: 17577: 17575:Late antiquity 17572: 17567: 17562: 17561: 17560: 17550: 17545: 17540: 17538:Roman Republic 17535: 17529: 17527: 17521: 17520: 17518: 17517: 17512: 17507: 17502: 17496: 17494: 17488: 17487: 17480: 17479: 17472: 17465: 17457: 17448: 17447: 17444: 17443: 17441: 17440: 17413: 17398:Rus' Khaganate 17394: 17379: 17368: 17342: 17327: 17326: 17325: 17320: 17312: 17306: 17304: 17298: 17297: 17295: 17294: 17289: 17263: 17258: 17253: 17248: 17237: 17232: 17210: 17188: 17178: 17173: 17168: 17163: 17158: 17153: 17148: 17130: 17124: 17122: 17113: 17107: 17106: 17103: 17102: 17100: 17099: 17080: 17075: 17070: 17065: 17054: 17043: 17038: 17033: 17028: 17023: 17018: 17012: 17010: 17004: 17003: 17001: 17000: 16982: 16977: 16972: 16954: 16949: 16931: 16926: 16921: 16903: 16898: 16892: 16890: 16881: 16871: 16870: 16863: 16862: 16855: 16848: 16840: 16831: 16830: 16828: 16827: 16817: 16807: 16796: 16793: 16792: 16790: 16789: 16784: 16779: 16774: 16769: 16767:Misconceptions 16764: 16759: 16754: 16749: 16744: 16739: 16734: 16728: 16726: 16722: 16721: 16719: 16718: 16713: 16708: 16703: 16698: 16693: 16688: 16683: 16678: 16673: 16668: 16663: 16658: 16653: 16648: 16643: 16638: 16633: 16628: 16623: 16618: 16613: 16608: 16603: 16598: 16593: 16587: 16585: 16581: 16580: 16578: 16577: 16575:Little Ice Age 16572: 16571: 16570: 16560: 16555: 16550: 16545: 16540: 16535: 16530: 16528:Western Schism 16525: 16520: 16515: 16510: 16505: 16500: 16495: 16490: 16484: 16482: 16476: 16475: 16473: 16472: 16467: 16462: 16457: 16452: 16447: 16442: 16437: 16432: 16427: 16422: 16417: 16412: 16407: 16402: 16397: 16392: 16387: 16382: 16376: 16374: 16368: 16367: 16365: 16364: 16359: 16354: 16349: 16344: 16339: 16334: 16329: 16324: 16319: 16314: 16309: 16304: 16299: 16294: 16293: 16292: 16282: 16277: 16275:Late antiquity 16272: 16267: 16262: 16256: 16254: 16248: 16247: 16240: 16239: 16232: 16225: 16217: 16210: 16209: 16203: 16193: 16188: 16182: 16176: 16174: 16173:External links 16171: 16169: 16168: 16162: 16143: 16137: 16115: 16109: 16087: 16081: 16054:, ed. (2000). 16048: 16042: 16020: 16014: 15987:, ed. (1995). 15981: 15975: 15938: 15932: 15895: 15889: 15870: 15864: 15837:, ed. (2000). 15835:Jones, Michael 15831: 15825: 15806: 15800: 15784:Gurevich, Aron 15780: 15774: 15747:, ed. (2005). 15745:Fouracre, Paul 15741: 15735: 15716: 15710: 15684: 15678: 15656: 15650: 15623:, ed. (1998). 15617: 15611: 15584:, ed. (1999). 15578: 15572: 15552: 15550: 15547: 15545: 15544: 15538: 15519: 15513: 15491:Wickham, Chris 15487: 15481: 15459: 15453: 15431:Holmes, George 15426: 15420: 15401: 15395: 15374: 15368: 15346:Stalley, Roger 15342: 15336: 15317: 15311: 15292: 15286: 15264: 15258: 15232: 15226: 15201: 15195: 15173: 15167: 15148: 15142: 15122: 15116: 15090: 15084: 15068:Nicolle, David 15064: 15058: 15035: 15029: 15010: 14977: 14971: 14949:Holmes, George 14941: 14895: 14889: 14870: 14864: 14845: 14839: 14813: 14807: 14787: 14781: 14760: 14754: 14734: 14728: 14708: 14702: 14680: 14674: 14648: 14642: 14620: 14614: 14595: 14589: 14567: 14561: 14548:Medieval Music 14539: 14499:Standen, Naomi 14494: 14488: 14469: 14463: 14441: 14435: 14422:Early Medieval 14413: 14407: 14389:Heather, Peter 14385: 14379: 14356: 14350: 14328:Hankins, James 14324: 14318: 14301: 14295: 14273: 14267: 14245: 14239: 14220: 14214: 14192: 14186: 14171: 14165: 14143: 14137: 14112: 14106: 14082: 14076: 14054: 14048: 14026: 14020: 14001: 13995: 13973: 13967: 13949:Dodwell, C. R. 13945: 13939: 13917:Holmes, George 13912: 13906: 13888:Davies, Norman 13884: 13878: 13853: 13847: 13825:Collins, Roger 13821: 13815: 13793: 13787: 13769:Chazan, Robert 13765: 13759: 13737:Holmes, George 13732: 13726: 13704: 13698: 13679: 13673: 13647: 13641: 13619: 13613: 13591: 13585: 13566: 13560: 13537: 13531: 13509: 13503: 13483: 13481: 13478: 13476: 13475: 13463: 13451: 13439: 13427: 13415: 13403: 13399:Griffiths 1996 13391: 13389:, p. 451. 13379: 13375:Griffiths 1996 13367: 13355: 13343: 13331: 13327:Lightbown 1978 13319: 13307: 13295: 13283: 13271: 13269:, p. 233. 13259: 13247: 13245:, p. 323. 13235: 13233:, p. 212. 13223: 13221:, p. 221. 13211: 13209:, p. 213. 13199: 13187: 13175: 13163: 13151: 13139: 13127: 13115: 13113:, p. 284. 13103: 13101:, p. 490. 13091: 13079: 13077:, p. 346. 13067: 13065:, p. 287. 13055: 13053:, p. 224. 13043: 13041:, p. 484. 13031: 13019: 13007: 13005:, p. 241. 12995: 12983: 12971: 12959: 12947: 12935: 12923: 12911: 12899: 12897:, p. 370. 12887: 12875: 12863: 12851: 12849:, p. 218. 12839: 12827: 12815: 12803: 12801:, p. 213. 12791: 12779: 12767: 12755: 12743: 12731: 12729:, p. 563. 12719: 12707: 12695: 12683: 12671: 12659: 12647: 12635: 12623: 12621:, p. 380. 12611: 12599: 12587: 12585:, p. 201. 12575: 12563: 12551: 12539: 12527: 12515: 12513:, p. 231. 12503: 12501:, p. 281. 12491: 12479: 12467: 12455: 12443: 12431: 12419: 12407: 12395: 12383: 12381:, p. 211. 12371: 12359: 12357:, p. 308. 12347: 12335: 12323: 12321:, p. 225. 12311: 12299: 12297:, p. 171. 12287: 12275: 12273:, p. 414. 12258: 12246: 12244:, p. 103. 12234: 12222: 12210: 12198: 12196:, p. 238. 12186: 12174: 12172:, p. 237. 12162: 12150: 12148:, p. 318. 12138: 12126: 12114: 12102: 12090: 12088:, p. 189. 12078: 12076:, p. 210. 12063: 12061:, p. 531. 12051: 12039: 12027: 12015: 12003: 12001:, p. 124. 11991: 11989:, p. 125. 11979: 11967: 11965:, p. 225. 11955: 11943: 11941:, p. 241. 11931: 11919: 11907: 11892: 11880: 11878:, p. 344. 11865: 11853: 11841: 11829: 11817: 11805: 11793: 11781: 11769: 11767:, p. 152. 11757: 11745: 11743:, p. 150. 11733: 11721: 11709: 11697: 11685: 11673: 11661: 11649: 11637: 11625: 11623:, p. 142. 11613: 11601: 11589: 11577: 11575:, p. 153. 11565: 11563:, p. 131. 11553: 11541: 11529: 11514: 11512:, p. 182. 11502: 11490: 11478: 11476:, p. 129. 11466: 11454: 11442: 11430: 11428:, p. 265. 11418: 11406: 11394: 11392:, p. 332. 11382: 11370: 11358: 11346: 11334: 11322: 11320:, p. 112. 11310: 11295: 11283: 11281:, p. 118. 11271: 11259: 11247: 11235: 11223: 11211: 11199: 11197:, p. 181. 11187: 11175: 11163: 11151: 11139: 11127: 11115: 11103: 11091: 11079: 11067: 11055: 11043: 11031: 11019: 11017:, p. 145. 11007: 10995: 10983: 10971: 10959: 10947: 10935: 10933:, p. 257. 10923: 10911: 10909:, p. 104. 10899: 10897:, p. 319. 10887: 10885:, p. 413. 10875: 10863: 10851: 10849:, p. 411. 10839: 10827: 10815: 10803: 10801:, p. 271. 10791: 10779: 10767: 10755: 10743: 10731: 10719: 10707: 10695: 10683: 10671: 10659: 10647: 10645:, p. 105. 10635: 10623: 10608: 10596: 10594:, p. 324. 10584: 10572: 10560: 10548: 10536: 10534:, p. 199. 10524: 10522:, p. 137. 10512: 10500: 10488: 10476: 10474:, p. 301. 10464: 10462:, p. 309. 10452: 10440: 10428: 10416: 10414:, p. 213. 10404: 10392: 10390:, p. 107. 10380: 10368: 10356: 10344: 10332: 10320: 10308: 10296: 10284: 10272: 10260: 10248: 10236: 10219: 10207: 10195: 10183: 10171: 10169:, p. 209. 10159: 10157:, p. 252. 10147: 10135: 10123: 10111: 10099: 10087: 10075: 10063: 10051: 10039: 10027: 10015: 10003: 9991: 9979: 9967: 9965:, p. 220. 9955: 9943: 9931: 9929:, p. 467. 9919: 9907: 9895: 9883: 9881:, p. 221. 9871: 9856: 9852:Ellenblum 2012 9844: 9832: 9817: 9805: 9793: 9781: 9769: 9757: 9745: 9733: 9729:Kitzinger 1969 9721: 9717:Henderson 1993 9709: 9697: 9682: 9678:Kitzinger 1969 9670: 9658: 9646: 9642:Kitzinger 1969 9634: 9622: 9618:Henderson 1993 9610: 9606:Henderson 1993 9598: 9586: 9582:Henderson 1993 9574: 9562: 9550: 9535: 9533:, p. 172. 9523: 9511: 9499: 9487: 9472: 9460: 9448: 9446:, p. 334. 9436: 9424: 9412: 9400: 9388: 9376: 9364: 9352: 9340: 9338:, p. 500. 9328: 9316: 9304: 9292: 9290:, p. 169. 9280: 9278:, p. 368. 9268: 9256: 9254:, p. 196. 9244: 9232: 9220: 9208: 9193: 9178: 9176:, p. 254. 9166: 9154: 9152:, p. 337. 9142: 9130: 9118: 9106: 9104:, p. 187. 9094: 9092:, p. 189. 9082: 9070: 9058: 9046: 9034: 9032:, p. 302. 9022: 9010: 8998: 8986: 8974: 8962: 8950: 8938: 8926: 8914: 8912:, p. 163. 8902: 8890: 8878: 8866: 8854: 8842: 8830: 8818: 8806: 8794: 8782: 8770: 8758: 8746: 8734: 8722: 8710: 8695: 8691:McCormick 2010 8683: 8679:McCormick 2010 8671: 8667:McCormick 2010 8659: 8655:McCormick 2010 8647: 8645:, p. 354. 8635: 8623: 8611: 8599: 8587: 8575: 8563: 8551: 8539: 8527: 8525:, p. 649. 8523:McCormick 2010 8515: 8503: 8491: 8479: 8467: 8455: 8443: 8439:McCormick 2010 8431: 8429:, p. 215. 8419: 8407: 8395: 8383: 8381:, p. 120. 8371: 8359: 8347: 8335: 8323: 8311: 8299: 8287: 8275: 8263: 8251: 8239: 8227: 8215: 8203: 8191: 8179: 8167: 8155: 8143: 8131: 8116: 8114:, p. 124. 8104: 8092: 8080: 8068: 8056: 8044: 8032: 8020: 8008: 7996: 7984: 7972: 7960: 7948: 7936: 7934:, p. 417. 7924: 7912: 7910:, p. 219. 7900: 7888: 7873: 7861: 7849: 7837: 7825: 7821:Kitzinger 1969 7813: 7801: 7789: 7777: 7765: 7753: 7741: 7729: 7717: 7715:, p. 111. 7702: 7687: 7675: 7663: 7651: 7639: 7637:, p. 204. 7627: 7615: 7603: 7591: 7579: 7567: 7555: 7543: 7531: 7529:, p. 226. 7519: 7517:, p. 304. 7507: 7495: 7480: 7468: 7453: 7441: 7429: 7427:, p. 566. 7417: 7415:, p. 955. 7405: 7393: 7391:, p. 238. 7381: 7366: 7353: 7351: 7348: 7345: 7344: 7316: 7299: 7278: 7265: 7240: 7208: 7186:underage son, 7172:Andronikos III 7155: 7142: 7125: 7100: 7071: 7050: 7033: 7016: 6999: 6990: 6984:in Italy, and 6953: 6932: 6911: 6882: 6863: 6833:Siete Partidas 6818: 6798:The Two Cities 6767: 6753: 6732: 6715: 6682: 6666: 6634: 6624:(d. 1596) and 6609: 6592: 6588:their election 6574: 6557: 6555:in the Levant. 6543: 6535:John de Courcy 6510: 6493: 6472: 6451: 6442: 6418: 6397: 6372: 6359: 6342: 6312: 6287: 6267: 6242: 6225: 6216: 6194: 6193: 6191: 6188: 6180:class conflict 6148:Richard Wagner 6140:Thomas Carlyle 6116:Earth was flat 6104:David Lindberg 6068: 6065: 6039:Paupers' Bible 5994:(d. 1466) and 5915: 5912: 5827: 5824: 5786:printing press 5780:—in the early 5756:(fixed forms)— 5713:Tuscan dialect 5703:The poetry of 5640: 5637: 5601:(d. 1346) and 5529:Western Schism 5521:Pope Clement V 5509:Avignon Papacy 5496: 5493: 5461:Constantine XI 5393: 5390: 5366:with Lithuania 5141: 5138: 5118:new Christians 5051:Little Ice Age 5017:Main article: 5014: 5011: 5006:Main article: 5003: 5000: 4973:draught horses 4940:sails and the 4864: 4861: 4845:panel painting 4825:Limoges enamel 4791:pointed arches 4709:Encastellation 4698:León Cathedral 4690: 4687: 4658:Roman numerals 4618:rhythmic modes 4485:Thomas Aquinas 4446:(d. 1142) and 4377:Main article: 4374: 4371: 4351:military order 4300:Fourth Crusade 4237:(d. 1100) and 4163: 4160: 3921:Angevin Empire 3864:Detail of the 3830:Frederick II's 3828:(r. 1220–50). 3816:Lombard cities 3801:German princes 3744:Papal Monarchy 3725:queens regnant 3700: 3697: 3610:Catholic dogma 3556:Roman Catholic 3500: 3499:Church reforms 3497: 3422:money changers 3370: 3367: 3323:regular clergy 3315:secular clergy 3284:legal capacity 3235:, inalienable 3155: 3152: 3147:Main article: 3144: 3141: 3054: 3051: 3047:Moorish arches 2931:Literary works 2832: 2829: 2723:and created a 2685:Volga Bulgaria 2530: 2527: 2511:Magyar assault 2399: 2398: 2389: 2388: 2380: 2379: 2371: 2370: 2369: 2368: 2367: 2356:Middle Francia 2347: 2344: 2312:church liturgy 2283:missi dominici 2211:Charles Martel 2161:Main article: 2158: 2155: 1887: 1884: 1872:slave soldiers 1827:(r. 533–47/48) 1802: 1799: 1768:forces at the 1749:, annihilated 1711:Zoroastrianism 1695: 1685: 1675: 1654: 1651: 1631:Medieval Latin 1521:original works 1498: 1495: 1389: 1386: 1382:eastern Europe 1327:northern Italy 1214:small kingdoms 1203:Celtic Britons 1172:Main article: 1169: 1166: 1161:Main article: 1158: 1155: 1013:silent reading 931:Constantinople 913:(known as the 903:western halves 895: 284–305 864:2nd century AD 829:Main article: 826: 823: 791:royal charters 712: 709: 705:Medieval India 701:global history 583:Leonardo Bruni 581:. The Italian 551: 548: 524:Western Schism 512:Ottoman Empire 378:introduced a " 317:disintegration 313:late antiquity 237: 236: 233: 232: 225: 224: 219: 214: 208: 206: 204: 203: 201:Late antiquity 198: 192: 176: 175: 173: 172: 167: 162: 157: 152: 147: 142: 137: 132: 127: 121: 119: 115: 114: 112: 111: 106: 101: 95: 93: 89: 88: 58: 50: 49: 39: 38: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 19516: 19505: 19502: 19500: 19497: 19495: 19492: 19490: 19487: 19485: 19482: 19480: 19477: 19475: 19472: 19470: 19467: 19465: 19462: 19460: 19457: 19455: 19452: 19450: 19447: 19445: 19442: 19440: 19437: 19435: 19432: 19430: 19427: 19426: 19424: 19412: 19411: 19410:Travel guides 19399: 19395: 19394: 19382: 19378: 19377: 19365: 19361: 19360: 19348: 19344: 19343: 19331: 19327: 19326: 19314: 19313: 19310: 19304: 19296: 19286: 19284: 19274: 19272: 19267: 19262: 19261: 19258: 19245: 19242: 19240: 19237: 19235: 19232: 19230: 19227: 19225: 19222: 19220: 19217: 19215: 19212: 19210: 19207: 19205: 19202: 19200: 19197: 19195: 19192: 19190: 19189:PROSUR/PROSUL 19187: 19185: 19182: 19180: 19177: 19175: 19172: 19170: 19167: 19165: 19162: 19160: 19157: 19155: 19152: 19150: 19147: 19145: 19142: 19140: 19137: 19135: 19132: 19130: 19127: 19125: 19122: 19120: 19117: 19115: 19112: 19110: 19107: 19105: 19102: 19100: 19097: 19095: 19092: 19090: 19087: 19085: 19084:Craiova Group 19082: 19080: 19077: 19075: 19072: 19070: 19067: 19065: 19062: 19060: 19057: 19055: 19052: 19050: 19047: 19045: 19042: 19040: 19037: 19035: 19032: 19030: 19027: 19025: 19022: 19020: 19017: 19015: 19012: 19010: 19007: 19005: 19002: 19000: 18999:ABCANZ Armies 18997: 18996: 18994: 18988: 18982: 18979: 18977: 18974: 18970: 18967: 18965: 18962: 18960: 18957: 18955: 18952: 18950: 18947: 18945: 18942: 18941: 18940: 18937: 18935: 18932: 18928: 18925: 18924: 18923: 18920: 18918: 18915: 18914: 18912: 18910: 18906: 18900: 18897: 18895: 18892: 18888: 18885: 18883: 18880: 18878: 18875: 18873: 18870: 18866: 18863: 18861: 18858: 18856: 18853: 18851: 18848: 18847: 18846: 18843: 18841: 18838: 18836: 18833: 18831: 18828: 18827: 18826: 18823: 18817: 18814: 18813: 18812: 18809: 18805: 18804:Protestantism 18802: 18798: 18795: 18794: 18793: 18790: 18786: 18783: 18782: 18781: 18778: 18774: 18770: 18767: 18766: 18765: 18762: 18761: 18760: 18757: 18756: 18755: 18752: 18751: 18749: 18747: 18743: 18735: 18732: 18731: 18730: 18727: 18725: 18724:Sovereigntism 18722: 18720: 18717: 18713: 18712: 18708: 18707: 18706: 18703: 18699: 18696: 18695: 18694: 18691: 18689: 18686: 18684: 18681: 18679: 18676: 18674: 18671: 18669: 18666: 18664: 18661: 18657: 18654: 18652: 18649: 18648: 18647: 18644: 18640: 18637: 18636: 18635: 18632: 18630: 18627: 18625: 18622: 18620: 18619:Scholasticism 18617: 18615: 18612: 18610: 18607: 18605: 18602: 18600: 18597: 18595: 18592: 18590: 18587: 18586: 18584: 18582: 18578: 18570: 18567: 18565: 18562: 18560: 18557: 18555: 18552: 18551: 18550: 18547: 18543: 18540: 18539: 18538: 18535: 18531: 18528: 18526: 18523: 18522: 18521: 18518: 18514: 18511: 18510: 18509: 18506: 18504: 18501: 18497: 18494: 18492: 18489: 18487: 18484: 18483: 18482: 18479: 18475: 18472: 18471: 18470: 18467: 18463: 18460: 18459: 18458: 18455: 18451: 18448: 18446: 18443: 18442: 18441: 18438: 18436: 18433: 18431: 18428: 18426: 18423: 18419: 18416: 18415: 18414: 18411: 18409: 18406: 18402: 18399: 18398: 18397: 18394: 18390: 18387: 18386: 18385: 18382: 18378: 18375: 18374: 18373: 18370: 18368: 18365: 18361: 18358: 18357: 18356: 18353: 18351: 18348: 18344: 18341: 18339: 18336: 18334: 18331: 18330: 18329: 18326: 18325: 18323: 18321: 18317: 18309: 18308:War on terror 18306: 18304: 18301: 18300: 18299: 18296: 18292: 18289: 18287: 18284: 18282: 18279: 18277: 18274: 18272: 18269: 18267: 18264: 18262: 18259: 18257: 18254: 18252: 18249: 18247: 18244: 18242: 18239: 18237: 18234: 18232: 18229: 18227: 18224: 18222: 18219: 18217: 18214: 18212: 18209: 18207: 18204: 18203: 18202: 18201:Modern period 18199: 18197: 18194: 18190: 18187: 18185: 18182: 18180: 18177: 18176: 18175: 18172: 18168: 18165: 18164: 18163: 18160: 18158: 18155: 18154: 18152: 18150: 18146: 18140: 18137: 18135: 18132: 18130: 18127: 18125: 18122: 18116: 18113: 18111: 18108: 18107: 18106: 18103: 18101: 18098: 18096: 18093: 18091: 18088: 18087: 18086: 18083: 18081: 18078: 18076: 18073: 18072: 18070: 18066: 18062: 18058: 18057:Western world 18051: 18046: 18044: 18039: 18037: 18032: 18031: 18028: 18016: 18013: 18011: 18008: 18006: 18003: 18001: 17998: 17996: 17993: 17991: 17988: 17986: 17983: 17981: 17978: 17976: 17973: 17971: 17970:Art of Europe 17968: 17967: 17965: 17961: 17955: 17952: 17950: 17947: 17945: 17942: 17940: 17937: 17935: 17932: 17930: 17927: 17925: 17922: 17920: 17917: 17915: 17912: 17910: 17907: 17905: 17902: 17900: 17897: 17895: 17892: 17890: 17887: 17885: 17882: 17880: 17877: 17875: 17872: 17870: 17867: 17865: 17862: 17860: 17857: 17855: 17852: 17850: 17847: 17845: 17842: 17840: 17837: 17835: 17832: 17830: 17827: 17825: 17822: 17820: 17817: 17815: 17812: 17810: 17807: 17805: 17802: 17800: 17797: 17793: 17790: 17789: 17788: 17785: 17783: 17780: 17778: 17775: 17774: 17772: 17770: 17769:Modern period 17766: 17760: 17757: 17755: 17752: 17750: 17747: 17745: 17742: 17740: 17737: 17735: 17732: 17730: 17727: 17725: 17722: 17720: 17717: 17715: 17712: 17710: 17707: 17704: 17700: 17696: 17692: 17688: 17685: 17683: 17680: 17678: 17675: 17671: 17668: 17666: 17663: 17661: 17658: 17656: 17653: 17652: 17651: 17648: 17644: 17641: 17639: 17636: 17635: 17633: 17631: 17628: 17626: 17623: 17621: 17618: 17616: 17613: 17609: 17606: 17605: 17604: 17601: 17599: 17596: 17594: 17591: 17590: 17588: 17586: 17582: 17576: 17573: 17571: 17568: 17566: 17563: 17559: 17556: 17555: 17554: 17551: 17549: 17546: 17544: 17541: 17539: 17536: 17534: 17531: 17530: 17528: 17526: 17522: 17516: 17513: 17511: 17508: 17506: 17503: 17501: 17498: 17497: 17495: 17493: 17489: 17485: 17478: 17473: 17471: 17466: 17464: 17459: 17458: 17455: 17438: 17434: 17430: 17426: 17422: 17418: 17414: 17411: 17407: 17403: 17399: 17395: 17392: 17388: 17384: 17380: 17377: 17373: 17369: 17366: 17362: 17358: 17354: 17350: 17346: 17343: 17340: 17336: 17332: 17328: 17324: 17321: 17319: 17316: 17315: 17313: 17311: 17308: 17307: 17305: 17303:and Near East 17299: 17293: 17290: 17287: 17283: 17279: 17275: 17271: 17267: 17264: 17262: 17259: 17257: 17254: 17252: 17249: 17246: 17242: 17238: 17236: 17233: 17230: 17226: 17222: 17218: 17214: 17211: 17208: 17204: 17200: 17196: 17192: 17189: 17186: 17182: 17179: 17177: 17174: 17172: 17169: 17167: 17164: 17162: 17159: 17157: 17154: 17152: 17149: 17146: 17142: 17138: 17134: 17131: 17129: 17126: 17125: 17123: 17117: 17114: 17108: 17097: 17093: 17089: 17085: 17081: 17079: 17076: 17074: 17071: 17069: 17066: 17063: 17059: 17055: 17052: 17048: 17044: 17042: 17039: 17037: 17034: 17032: 17029: 17027: 17024: 17022: 17019: 17017: 17014: 17013: 17011: 17009:and Near East 17005: 16998: 16994: 16990: 16986: 16983: 16981: 16978: 16976: 16973: 16970: 16966: 16962: 16958: 16955: 16953: 16950: 16947: 16943: 16939: 16935: 16932: 16930: 16927: 16925: 16922: 16919: 16915: 16911: 16907: 16904: 16902: 16899: 16897: 16894: 16893: 16891: 16885: 16882: 16872: 16868: 16861: 16856: 16854: 16849: 16847: 16842: 16841: 16838: 16826: 16818: 16816: 16808: 16806: 16802: 16798: 16797: 16794: 16788: 16785: 16783: 16780: 16778: 16775: 16773: 16770: 16768: 16765: 16763: 16760: 16758: 16755: 16753: 16750: 16748: 16745: 16743: 16740: 16738: 16735: 16733: 16730: 16729: 16727: 16723: 16717: 16714: 16712: 16709: 16707: 16704: 16702: 16699: 16697: 16694: 16692: 16689: 16687: 16684: 16682: 16679: 16677: 16674: 16672: 16669: 16667: 16664: 16662: 16659: 16657: 16654: 16652: 16649: 16647: 16644: 16642: 16639: 16637: 16634: 16632: 16629: 16627: 16624: 16622: 16619: 16617: 16614: 16612: 16609: 16607: 16604: 16602: 16599: 16597: 16594: 16592: 16589: 16588: 16586: 16582: 16576: 16573: 16569: 16566: 16565: 16564: 16561: 16559: 16556: 16554: 16551: 16549: 16546: 16544: 16541: 16539: 16536: 16534: 16531: 16529: 16526: 16524: 16521: 16519: 16516: 16514: 16511: 16509: 16506: 16504: 16501: 16499: 16496: 16494: 16491: 16489: 16486: 16485: 16483: 16481: 16477: 16471: 16468: 16466: 16463: 16461: 16458: 16456: 16453: 16451: 16448: 16446: 16443: 16441: 16438: 16436: 16435:Scholasticism 16433: 16431: 16428: 16426: 16423: 16421: 16418: 16416: 16413: 16411: 16408: 16406: 16403: 16401: 16398: 16396: 16393: 16391: 16388: 16386: 16383: 16381: 16378: 16377: 16375: 16373: 16369: 16363: 16360: 16358: 16355: 16353: 16350: 16348: 16345: 16343: 16340: 16338: 16335: 16333: 16330: 16328: 16325: 16323: 16320: 16318: 16315: 16313: 16310: 16308: 16305: 16303: 16300: 16298: 16297:Rise of Islam 16295: 16291: 16288: 16287: 16286: 16283: 16281: 16278: 16276: 16273: 16271: 16268: 16266: 16263: 16261: 16258: 16257: 16255: 16253: 16249: 16245: 16238: 16233: 16231: 16226: 16224: 16219: 16218: 16215: 16207: 16206:The Labyrinth 16204: 16201: 16197: 16194: 16192: 16189: 16186: 16183: 16181: 16178: 16177: 16165: 16159: 16155: 16151: 16150: 16144: 16140: 16134: 16130: 16126: 16125: 16120: 16116: 16112: 16106: 16102: 16098: 16097: 16092: 16088: 16084: 16078: 16074: 16070: 16066: 16065: 16061: 16057: 16053: 16049: 16045: 16039: 16035: 16031: 16030: 16025: 16021: 16017: 16011: 16007: 16003: 15999: 15998: 15994: 15990: 15986: 15982: 15978: 15972: 15968: 15964: 15960: 15959: 15955: 15951: 15947: 15943: 15939: 15935: 15929: 15925: 15921: 15917: 15916: 15912: 15908: 15904: 15900: 15896: 15892: 15886: 15882: 15881:Da Capo Press 15878: 15877: 15871: 15867: 15861: 15857: 15853: 15849: 15848: 15844: 15840: 15836: 15832: 15828: 15822: 15818: 15814: 15813: 15807: 15803: 15797: 15793: 15789: 15785: 15781: 15777: 15771: 15767: 15763: 15759: 15758: 15754: 15750: 15746: 15742: 15738: 15732: 15728: 15724: 15723: 15717: 15713: 15707: 15703: 15699: 15698: 15693: 15689: 15685: 15681: 15675: 15671: 15670:HarperCollins 15667: 15666: 15661: 15657: 15653: 15647: 15643: 15639: 15635: 15634: 15630: 15626: 15622: 15618: 15614: 15608: 15604: 15600: 15596: 15595: 15591: 15587: 15583: 15579: 15575: 15569: 15565: 15561: 15560: 15554: 15553: 15541: 15535: 15531: 15527: 15526: 15520: 15516: 15510: 15506: 15505:Penguin Books 15502: 15498: 15497: 15492: 15488: 15484: 15478: 15474: 15470: 15469: 15464: 15460: 15456: 15450: 15446: 15442: 15438: 15437: 15432: 15427: 15423: 15417: 15413: 15409: 15408: 15402: 15398: 15392: 15388: 15384: 15380: 15375: 15371: 15365: 15361: 15357: 15353: 15352: 15347: 15343: 15339: 15333: 15329: 15325: 15324: 15318: 15314: 15308: 15304: 15300: 15299: 15293: 15289: 15283: 15279: 15275: 15274: 15269: 15265: 15261: 15255: 15251: 15247: 15243: 15242: 15237: 15233: 15229: 15223: 15219: 15215: 15211: 15207: 15202: 15198: 15192: 15188: 15184: 15183: 15178: 15174: 15170: 15164: 15160: 15156: 15155: 15149: 15145: 15139: 15135: 15131: 15127: 15123: 15119: 15113: 15109: 15105: 15104: 15099: 15095: 15094:Onions, C. T. 15091: 15087: 15081: 15077: 15073: 15069: 15065: 15061: 15055: 15051: 15047: 15043: 15042: 15036: 15032: 15026: 15022: 15018: 15017: 15011: 15007: 15003: 14999: 14995: 14991: 14987: 14983: 14978: 14974: 14968: 14964: 14960: 14956: 14955: 14950: 14946: 14942: 14938: 14934: 14930: 14926: 14922: 14918: 14914: 14910: 14906: 14905: 14900: 14896: 14892: 14886: 14882: 14878: 14877: 14871: 14867: 14861: 14857: 14853: 14852: 14846: 14842: 14836: 14832: 14828: 14827: 14822: 14818: 14814: 14810: 14804: 14800: 14796: 14792: 14788: 14784: 14778: 14774: 14770: 14766: 14761: 14757: 14751: 14747: 14746:Penguin Books 14743: 14739: 14735: 14731: 14725: 14721: 14717: 14713: 14709: 14705: 14699: 14695: 14694:Penguin Books 14691: 14690: 14685: 14684:Keen, Maurice 14681: 14677: 14671: 14667: 14666:Penguin Books 14663: 14659: 14658: 14653: 14649: 14645: 14639: 14635: 14631: 14630: 14625: 14624:James, Edward 14621: 14617: 14611: 14607: 14603: 14602: 14596: 14592: 14586: 14582: 14578: 14577: 14572: 14571:Hornby, A. S. 14568: 14564: 14558: 14554: 14550: 14549: 14544: 14540: 14536: 14532: 14527: 14522: 14518: 14514: 14510: 14509: 14504: 14500: 14495: 14491: 14485: 14481: 14477: 14476: 14470: 14466: 14460: 14456: 14452: 14451: 14446: 14442: 14438: 14432: 14428: 14424: 14423: 14418: 14414: 14410: 14404: 14400: 14396: 14395: 14390: 14386: 14382: 14376: 14372: 14368: 14364: 14363: 14357: 14353: 14347: 14343: 14339: 14335: 14334: 14329: 14325: 14321: 14315: 14311: 14307: 14302: 14298: 14292: 14288: 14284: 14283: 14278: 14274: 14270: 14264: 14260: 14256: 14255: 14250: 14246: 14242: 14236: 14232: 14228: 14227: 14221: 14217: 14211: 14207: 14203: 14202: 14197: 14196:Grant, Edward 14193: 14189: 14183: 14179: 14178: 14172: 14168: 14162: 14158: 14154: 14153: 14148: 14144: 14140: 14134: 14130: 14126: 14122: 14118: 14113: 14109: 14103: 14099: 14095: 14091: 14087: 14083: 14079: 14073: 14069: 14065: 14064: 14059: 14055: 14051: 14045: 14041: 14037: 14036: 14031: 14027: 14023: 14017: 14013: 14009: 14008: 14002: 13998: 13992: 13988: 13984: 13983: 13978: 13974: 13970: 13964: 13960: 13956: 13955: 13950: 13946: 13942: 13936: 13932: 13928: 13924: 13923: 13918: 13913: 13909: 13903: 13899: 13895: 13894: 13889: 13885: 13881: 13875: 13871: 13867: 13866: 13863: 13858: 13857:Curta, Florin 13854: 13850: 13844: 13840: 13836: 13832: 13831: 13826: 13822: 13818: 13812: 13808: 13804: 13803: 13798: 13794: 13790: 13784: 13780: 13776: 13775: 13770: 13766: 13762: 13756: 13752: 13748: 13744: 13743: 13738: 13733: 13729: 13723: 13719: 13715: 13714: 13709: 13705: 13701: 13695: 13691: 13687: 13686: 13680: 13676: 13670: 13666: 13662: 13658: 13657: 13652: 13648: 13644: 13638: 13634: 13633:Penguin Books 13630: 13629: 13624: 13620: 13616: 13610: 13606: 13602: 13601: 13596: 13592: 13588: 13582: 13578: 13574: 13573: 13567: 13563: 13557: 13553: 13549: 13545: 13544: 13538: 13534: 13528: 13524: 13520: 13519: 13514: 13510: 13506: 13500: 13496: 13492: 13491: 13485: 13484: 13472: 13467: 13460: 13455: 13448: 13443: 13436: 13431: 13424: 13419: 13412: 13411:Lindberg 2003 13407: 13401:, p. 18. 13400: 13395: 13388: 13383: 13376: 13371: 13364: 13359: 13352: 13347: 13340: 13335: 13329:, p. 78. 13328: 13323: 13316: 13311: 13304: 13299: 13292: 13287: 13280: 13275: 13268: 13263: 13256: 13251: 13244: 13239: 13232: 13227: 13220: 13215: 13208: 13203: 13196: 13191: 13184: 13179: 13173:, p. 38. 13172: 13167: 13161:, p. 36. 13160: 13155: 13148: 13143: 13136: 13131: 13124: 13119: 13112: 13107: 13100: 13095: 13088: 13083: 13076: 13071: 13064: 13059: 13052: 13047: 13040: 13035: 13028: 13023: 13016: 13011: 13004: 12999: 12992: 12987: 12980: 12975: 12968: 12963: 12956: 12951: 12944: 12939: 12932: 12927: 12920: 12915: 12908: 12907:Hamilton 2003 12903: 12896: 12891: 12884: 12879: 12872: 12871:Hamilton 2003 12867: 12860: 12855: 12848: 12843: 12836: 12835:Hamilton 2003 12831: 12824: 12819: 12812: 12807: 12800: 12795: 12788: 12783: 12776: 12771: 12764: 12759: 12752: 12747: 12740: 12735: 12728: 12723: 12716: 12711: 12704: 12699: 12692: 12687: 12680: 12675: 12668: 12663: 12656: 12651: 12644: 12639: 12632: 12627: 12620: 12615: 12608: 12603: 12596: 12591: 12584: 12579: 12572: 12567: 12560: 12555: 12548: 12543: 12536: 12531: 12524: 12519: 12512: 12507: 12500: 12495: 12488: 12483: 12476: 12471: 12464: 12459: 12452: 12447: 12440: 12435: 12428: 12423: 12416: 12411: 12404: 12399: 12392: 12387: 12380: 12375: 12368: 12363: 12356: 12351: 12344: 12339: 12332: 12327: 12320: 12315: 12308: 12303: 12296: 12291: 12285:, p. 98. 12284: 12279: 12272: 12267: 12265: 12263: 12255: 12250: 12243: 12238: 12231: 12226: 12219: 12214: 12207: 12202: 12195: 12190: 12183: 12178: 12171: 12166: 12159: 12154: 12147: 12142: 12135: 12134:Bartlett 1994 12130: 12123: 12122:Bartlett 1994 12118: 12111: 12106: 12099: 12094: 12087: 12082: 12075: 12070: 12068: 12060: 12055: 12048: 12047:Hoffmann 2014 12043: 12036: 12031: 12024: 12019: 12012: 12007: 12000: 11995: 11988: 11983: 11977:, p. 76. 11976: 11971: 11964: 11959: 11953:, p. 45. 11952: 11947: 11940: 11935: 11928: 11923: 11917:, p. 64. 11916: 11911: 11904: 11899: 11897: 11889: 11884: 11877: 11872: 11870: 11862: 11857: 11850: 11845: 11838: 11833: 11826: 11821: 11814: 11809: 11802: 11797: 11790: 11785: 11778: 11773: 11766: 11761: 11754: 11749: 11742: 11737: 11730: 11725: 11718: 11713: 11706: 11701: 11694: 11689: 11682: 11677: 11670: 11665: 11658: 11653: 11646: 11641: 11634: 11629: 11622: 11617: 11611:, p. 13. 11610: 11605: 11598: 11593: 11586: 11581: 11574: 11569: 11562: 11557: 11550: 11545: 11538: 11533: 11526: 11521: 11519: 11511: 11506: 11499: 11494: 11487: 11482: 11475: 11470: 11463: 11458: 11451: 11446: 11439: 11434: 11427: 11422: 11415: 11410: 11403: 11398: 11391: 11386: 11379: 11374: 11367: 11366:Hamilton 2003 11362: 11355: 11350: 11343: 11338: 11331: 11326: 11319: 11314: 11307: 11302: 11300: 11292: 11287: 11280: 11275: 11268: 11263: 11256: 11251: 11244: 11239: 11232: 11227: 11220: 11215: 11208: 11203: 11196: 11191: 11184: 11179: 11172: 11167: 11160: 11155: 11148: 11143: 11136: 11131: 11124: 11119: 11112: 11107: 11100: 11095: 11088: 11083: 11076: 11071: 11064: 11059: 11052: 11047: 11040: 11035: 11028: 11023: 11016: 11011: 11004: 10999: 10992: 10987: 10980: 10975: 10968: 10963: 10957:, p. 85. 10956: 10951: 10944: 10939: 10932: 10927: 10920: 10915: 10908: 10903: 10896: 10891: 10884: 10879: 10872: 10867: 10860: 10855: 10848: 10843: 10836: 10831: 10824: 10819: 10812: 10807: 10800: 10795: 10788: 10783: 10776: 10775:Hamilton 2003 10771: 10764: 10759: 10752: 10747: 10740: 10735: 10728: 10723: 10716: 10711: 10705:, p. 75. 10704: 10699: 10693:, p. 64. 10692: 10687: 10680: 10675: 10668: 10663: 10656: 10651: 10644: 10639: 10632: 10627: 10620: 10615: 10613: 10606:, p. 32. 10605: 10604:Hamilton 2003 10600: 10593: 10588: 10581: 10580:Hamilton 2003 10576: 10569: 10568:Hamilton 2003 10564: 10557: 10552: 10545: 10540: 10533: 10528: 10521: 10516: 10509: 10508:Hamilton 2003 10504: 10497: 10492: 10485: 10480: 10473: 10468: 10461: 10456: 10449: 10448:Hamilton 2003 10444: 10437: 10432: 10425: 10420: 10413: 10408: 10401: 10396: 10389: 10384: 10377: 10372: 10365: 10360: 10354:, p. 61. 10353: 10348: 10341: 10336: 10329: 10324: 10317: 10312: 10305: 10300: 10293: 10288: 10281: 10276: 10269: 10264: 10258:, p. 99. 10257: 10252: 10245: 10240: 10234:, p. 58. 10233: 10228: 10226: 10224: 10217:, p. 15. 10216: 10211: 10204: 10199: 10192: 10187: 10180: 10175: 10168: 10163: 10156: 10151: 10144: 10139: 10133:, p. 87. 10132: 10127: 10121:, p. 11. 10120: 10115: 10108: 10107:Bartlett 1994 10103: 10096: 10095:Bartlett 1994 10091: 10085:, p. 40. 10084: 10079: 10072: 10067: 10060: 10055: 10048: 10043: 10036: 10031: 10024: 10023:Bartlett 1994 10019: 10012: 10007: 10000: 9995: 9988: 9983: 9976: 9971: 9964: 9959: 9952: 9947: 9941:, p. 73. 9940: 9935: 9928: 9923: 9916: 9911: 9904: 9899: 9892: 9887: 9880: 9875: 9868: 9863: 9861: 9853: 9848: 9841: 9836: 9830:, p. 80. 9829: 9824: 9822: 9814: 9809: 9802: 9797: 9790: 9785: 9779:, p. 41. 9778: 9773: 9767:, p. 52. 9766: 9761: 9754: 9749: 9742: 9737: 9730: 9725: 9718: 9713: 9706: 9701: 9694: 9689: 9687: 9679: 9674: 9667: 9662: 9655: 9650: 9643: 9638: 9631: 9626: 9619: 9614: 9607: 9602: 9595: 9590: 9583: 9578: 9571: 9566: 9559: 9554: 9547: 9542: 9540: 9532: 9527: 9520: 9515: 9508: 9503: 9496: 9491: 9484: 9479: 9477: 9469: 9464: 9457: 9452: 9445: 9440: 9433: 9428: 9421: 9416: 9409: 9404: 9397: 9392: 9385: 9380: 9373: 9368: 9361: 9356: 9349: 9344: 9337: 9332: 9325: 9320: 9313: 9308: 9301: 9296: 9289: 9284: 9277: 9272: 9265: 9260: 9253: 9248: 9241: 9236: 9229: 9224: 9217: 9212: 9205: 9200: 9198: 9190: 9185: 9183: 9175: 9170: 9163: 9158: 9151: 9146: 9139: 9134: 9127: 9122: 9115: 9110: 9103: 9098: 9091: 9086: 9079: 9074: 9068:, p. 51. 9067: 9062: 9055: 9050: 9043: 9038: 9031: 9026: 9019: 9014: 9007: 9002: 8995: 8990: 8983: 8978: 8971: 8966: 8959: 8954: 8947: 8942: 8936:, p. 87. 8935: 8930: 8923: 8918: 8911: 8906: 8899: 8894: 8887: 8882: 8875: 8870: 8863: 8862:Hamilton 2003 8858: 8851: 8846: 8839: 8834: 8827: 8822: 8815: 8810: 8803: 8798: 8791: 8786: 8779: 8774: 8767: 8762: 8755: 8750: 8744:, p. 35. 8743: 8742:Hamilton 2003 8738: 8731: 8726: 8719: 8714: 8708:, p. 41. 8707: 8702: 8700: 8692: 8687: 8680: 8675: 8668: 8663: 8656: 8651: 8644: 8639: 8632: 8631:Naismith 2023 8627: 8620: 8615: 8608: 8603: 8596: 8595:Ringrose 2016 8591: 8584: 8579: 8573:, p. 15. 8572: 8567: 8560: 8555: 8548: 8543: 8536: 8531: 8524: 8519: 8513:, p. 92. 8512: 8507: 8500: 8495: 8488: 8483: 8476: 8471: 8465:, p. 26. 8464: 8459: 8452: 8447: 8440: 8435: 8428: 8423: 8416: 8411: 8404: 8399: 8392: 8387: 8380: 8375: 8368: 8363: 8356: 8351: 8344: 8339: 8332: 8327: 8320: 8315: 8308: 8303: 8296: 8291: 8284: 8279: 8272: 8267: 8260: 8255: 8248: 8243: 8236: 8235:Ringrose 2016 8231: 8224: 8219: 8213:, p. 83. 8212: 8207: 8200: 8195: 8188: 8183: 8176: 8171: 8164: 8159: 8152: 8147: 8141:, p. 77. 8140: 8135: 8129:, p. 78. 8128: 8123: 8121: 8113: 8108: 8101: 8096: 8089: 8084: 8077: 8072: 8065: 8060: 8053: 8048: 8041: 8036: 8029: 8024: 8017: 8012: 8005: 8000: 7994:, p. 86. 7993: 7988: 7981: 7976: 7970:, p. 79. 7969: 7964: 7957: 7952: 7946:, p. 80. 7945: 7940: 7933: 7928: 7921: 7916: 7909: 7904: 7897: 7892: 7885: 7880: 7878: 7870: 7865: 7858: 7853: 7846: 7841: 7834: 7829: 7822: 7817: 7810: 7805: 7799:, p. 35. 7798: 7793: 7786: 7781: 7774: 7769: 7762: 7757: 7751:, p. 34. 7750: 7745: 7738: 7733: 7726: 7721: 7714: 7709: 7707: 7699: 7694: 7692: 7684: 7679: 7672: 7667: 7660: 7655: 7648: 7647:Naismith 2023 7643: 7636: 7631: 7624: 7619: 7612: 7607: 7600: 7595: 7588: 7583: 7576: 7571: 7564: 7559: 7552: 7547: 7540: 7535: 7528: 7523: 7516: 7511: 7504: 7499: 7492: 7487: 7485: 7477: 7472: 7465: 7460: 7458: 7450: 7445: 7438: 7433: 7426: 7421: 7414: 7409: 7402: 7397: 7390: 7385: 7378: 7373: 7371: 7363: 7358: 7354: 7341: 7340: 7339:Duke of Berry 7333: 7332: 7326: 7320: 7313: 7309: 7303: 7295: 7289: 7282: 7275: 7269: 7262: 7261:Vladislaus II 7258: 7254: 7250: 7244: 7237: 7233: 7229: 7225: 7221: 7217: 7212: 7205: 7193: 7189: 7181: 7177: 7173: 7169: 7168:Andronikos II 7165: 7159: 7152: 7146: 7139: 7135: 7129: 7122: 7118: 7114: 7110: 7104: 7097: 7093: 7089: 7088:Jagiellonians 7085: 7081: 7075: 7068: 7064: 7060: 7054: 7047: 7043: 7037: 7026: 7020: 7009: 7003: 6994: 6987: 6983: 6980:in Germany, 6979: 6975: 6971: 6967: 6963: 6957: 6950: 6946: 6942: 6936: 6925: 6921: 6915: 6907: 6906: 6900: 6896: 6892: 6886: 6879: 6878:San Gimignano 6874: 6867: 6860: 6859:trial by jury 6856: 6852: 6847: 6846: 6840: 6835: 6834: 6828: 6822: 6814: 6813: 6807: 6806:Alan of Lille 6803: 6799: 6788: 6777: 6771: 6764: 6757: 6750: 6746: 6742: 6736: 6729: 6725: 6719: 6712: 6708: 6704: 6700: 6697:, and seized 6696: 6692: 6686: 6679: 6670: 6663: 6659: 6655: 6651: 6647: 6643: 6638: 6631: 6627: 6626:Thomas Hobbes 6623: 6620:philosophers 6619: 6613: 6606: 6605:female orgasm 6602: 6599:Often facing 6596: 6589: 6585: 6578: 6572:of the towns. 6571: 6567: 6561: 6554: 6547: 6540: 6536: 6532: 6528: 6524: 6520: 6514: 6506: 6505: 6504:ministerialis 6497: 6490: 6489: 6484: 6483: 6476: 6469: 6468:ivory carving 6465: 6461: 6455: 6446: 6432: 6428: 6422: 6415: 6411: 6407: 6401: 6394: 6390: 6386: 6382: 6376: 6369: 6363: 6356: 6352: 6346: 6339: 6335: 6331: 6327: 6322: 6316: 6309: 6305: 6301: 6297: 6291: 6279: 30,000 6271: 6264: 6263:Birka Warrior 6260: 6256: 6246: 6239: 6235: 6229: 6220: 6213: 6209: 6205: 6199: 6195: 6187: 6185: 6181: 6177: 6173: 6168: 6167: 6161: 6157: 6153: 6149: 6145: 6141: 6137: 6133: 6124: 6121: 6117: 6113: 6112:Enlightenment 6109: 6105: 6102:According to 6098: 6097: 6092: 6087: 6082: 6078: 6074: 6064: 6062: 6061: 6056: 6052: 6047: 6046: 6040: 6035: 6034: 6028: 6024: 6019: 6017: 6013: 6009: 6008: 6003: 5999: 5998: 5993: 5989: 5988: 5983: 5979: 5975: 5971: 5967: 5964:. The use of 5963: 5959: 5955: 5951: 5947: 5942: 5940: 5939: 5934: 5930: 5921: 5911: 5902: 5894: 5890: 5886: 5882: 5881:child tribute 5878: 5877:standing army 5874: 5869: 5867: 5863: 5862:blast furnace 5859: 5855: 5847: 5836: 5832: 5823: 5821: 5819: 5815: 5814:Vasco da Gama 5812:in 1486, and 5811: 5807: 5803: 5799: 5793: 5791: 5787: 5778: 5777: 5770: 5769: 5762: 5761: 5754: 5752: 5746:led to three 5745: 5741: 5740: 5728: 5724: 5720: 5719: 5714: 5710: 5706: 5701: 5699: 5695: 5691: 5687: 5683: 5672: 5664: 5660: 5655: 5650: 5646: 5636: 5634: 5630: 5625: 5624: 5612: 5608: 5604: 5600: 5595: 5594: 5588: 5587:Martin Luther 5584: 5579: 5577: 5573: 5569: 5565: 5561: 5557: 5553: 5549: 5548:John Wycliffe 5544: 5542: 5541:Pope Martin V 5538: 5534: 5530: 5526: 5522: 5518: 5517:false charges 5514: 5510: 5506: 5502: 5492: 5486: 5482: 5478: 5474: 5470: 5466: 5462: 5458: 5454: 5450: 5446: 5445:Ottoman Turks 5442: 5434: 5433: 5427: 5422: 5417: 5413: 5409: 5403: 5399: 5389: 5387: 5383: 5379: 5375: 5371: 5367: 5363: 5355: 5351: 5346: 5345:was lasting. 5344: 5340: 5336: 5332: 5328: 5324: 5320: 5316: 5306: 5304: 5299: 5294: 5290: 5286: 5285:seizing Ceuta 5282: 5276: 5274: 5270: 5262: 5258: 5254: 5250: 5246: 5242: 5238: 5234: 5230: 5226: 5222: 5218: 5214: 5210: 5206: 5202: 5198: 5194: 5186: 5182: 5178: 5175: 5174: 5167: 5166: 5159: 5158: 5152: 5147: 5137: 5135: 5131: 5130:from Portugal 5128:in 1492, and 5127: 5123: 5119: 5115: 5109: 5105: 5103: 5099: 5098:Ciompi Revolt 5095: 5090: 5089: 5083: 5079: 5075: 5070: 5064: 5060: 5056: 5052: 5038: 5033: 5032: 5025: 5020: 5009: 4999: 4997: 4993: 4989: 4985: 4981: 4976: 4974: 4970: 4969:horse collars 4966: 4958: 4953: 4951: 4947: 4943: 4939: 4935: 4931: 4930:rib-and-plank 4920: 4916: 4908: 4904: 4900: 4892: 4888: 4885:(d. 1263) by 4884: 4879: 4874: 4870: 4860: 4858: 4850: 4846: 4842: 4838: 4834: 4830: 4826: 4822: 4821:book of hours 4818: 4814: 4812: 4808: 4804: 4803:stained glass 4800: 4796: 4792: 4788: 4783: 4781: 4777: 4773: 4769: 4765: 4761: 4760:font at Liège 4757: 4753: 4749: 4744: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4730: 4726: 4721: 4720: 4714: 4710: 4703: 4699: 4695: 4686: 4684: 4680: 4679: 4674: 4670: 4666: 4663: 4659: 4654: 4653: 4647: 4643: 4638: 4632: 4627: 4623: 4619: 4614: 4613: 4607: 4603: 4599: 4595: 4594:mystery plays 4591: 4587: 4576: 4573:collected by 4572: 4568: 4564: 4560: 4556: 4555: 4550: 4549: 4543: 4542: 4536: 4532: 4528: 4521: 4516: 4515: 4508: 4507: 4500: 4488: 4487:(d. 1274). 4486: 4481: 4480: 4473: 4472: 4465: 4461: 4457: 4456:Scholasticism 4453: 4449: 4448:Peter Lombard 4445: 4444:Peter Abelard 4441: 4437: 4433: 4425: 4421: 4417: 4413: 4409: 4404: 4403: 4397: 4393: 4385: 4380: 4370: 4368: 4364: 4360: 4356: 4352: 4348: 4344: 4340: 4335: 4333: 4329: 4325: 4321: 4317: 4313: 4310:in the east. 4309: 4305: 4301: 4297: 4293: 4289: 4285: 4281: 4276: 4271: 4266: 4264: 4260: 4256: 4252: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4232: 4228: 4224: 4220: 4216: 4215:First Crusade 4212: 4204: 4200: 4196: 4192: 4187: 4183: 4179: 4173: 4169: 4159: 4157: 4153: 4149: 4145: 4141: 4137: 4133: 4129: 4125: 4121: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4105: 4104:Mongol Empire 4100: 4098: 4090: 4086: 4083:during their 4082: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4066: 4062: 4058: 4057:disintegrated 4054: 4050: 4046: 4041: 4039: 4035: 4031: 4027: 4023: 4019: 4015: 4014: 4009: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3976: 3975: 3968: 3966: 3961: 3956: 3952: 3947: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3930: 3926: 3922: 3918: 3914: 3909: 3904: 3900: 3893: 3889: 3885: 3881: 3878: 3874: 3871: 3867: 3862: 3858: 3856: 3852: 3848: 3844: 3840: 3836: 3826: 3821: 3817: 3813: 3810:(r. 1155–90) 3809: 3802: 3798: 3797:Hohenstaufens 3790: 3786: 3782: 3777: 3775: 3771: 3767: 3766:Muslim rulers 3763: 3759: 3755: 3750: 3745: 3740: 3738: 3734: 3730: 3726: 3722: 3718: 3705: 3696: 3694: 3689: 3688: 3682: 3678: 3674: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3658: 3653: 3651: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3635: 3631: 3627: 3623: 3619: 3615: 3611: 3607: 3603: 3599: 3598:Monte Gargano 3595: 3590: 3588: 3584: 3580: 3576: 3572: 3568: 3563: 3561: 3557: 3553: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3537: 3533: 3532:reform-minded 3529: 3525: 3524:controlled by 3521: 3514: 3510: 3505: 3496: 3494: 3490: 3486: 3482: 3476: 3474: 3470: 3469:Trading fairs 3466: 3465:Low Countries 3461: 3460: 3454: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3433: 3431: 3425: 3423: 3419: 3414: 3408: 3407: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3388: 3380: 3375: 3366: 3364: 3360: 3354: 3348: 3344: 3340: 3339:Church courts 3336: 3332: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3316: 3311: 3309: 3308:primogeniture 3304: 3299: 3297: 3292: 3291: 3285: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3257: 3252: 3249: 3248: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3222: 3220: 3216: 3205: 3201: 3200:Seljuk Empire 3197: 3192: 3177: 3173: 3169: 3165: 3160: 3150: 3140: 3138: 3134: 3130: 3129: 3124: 3120: 3114: 3112: 3108: 3104: 3100: 3092: 3088: 3087:heavy cavalry 3084: 3080: 3079:composite bow 3076: 3069: 3068: 3063: 3059: 3050: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3031: 3027: 3023: 3022:Christian art 3019: 3015: 3011: 3007: 3003: 2999: 2995: 2991: 2990:Byzantine art 2987: 2982: 2980: 2976: 2972: 2971: 2970:Book of Kells 2966: 2962: 2958: 2954: 2950: 2946: 2942: 2941: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2927:animal motifs 2924: 2920: 2916: 2911: 2909: 2905: 2901: 2897: 2892: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2866: 2858: 2854: 2853: 2852:Book of Kells 2847: 2842: 2838: 2828: 2826: 2822: 2818: 2814: 2810: 2809:Árpád dynasty 2806: 2802: 2798: 2794: 2784: 2780: 2776: 2772: 2768: 2763: 2761: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2741: 2737: 2732: 2730: 2726: 2722: 2718: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2678: 2674: 2669: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2655: 2652: 2647: 2643: 2638: 2633: 2629: 2622:in the early 2621: 2617: 2612: 2610: 2606: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2571: 2566: 2562: 2559:10th-century 2557: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2536: 2526: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2471: 2469: 2465: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2448: 2443: 2441: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2421: 2417: 2413: 2403: 2393: 2384: 2375: 2365: 2361: 2357: 2353: 2343: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2297: 2292: 2290: 2285: 2284: 2278: 2274: 2269: 2266: 2262: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2245: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2227: 2223: 2222:Childeric III 2219: 2214: 2212: 2208: 2204: 2196: 2192: 2188: 2180: 2176: 2175: 2169: 2164: 2154: 2152: 2148: 2144: 2140: 2136: 2132: 2128: 2124: 2120: 2112: 2107: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2092:monastic name 2082: 2078: 2074: 2070: 2066: 2062: 2057: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2039: 2035: 2031: 2030: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2012: 2010: 2006: 2002: 1998: 1994: 1990: 1986: 1982: 1977:7th centuries 1974: 1970: 1966: 1962: 1958: 1954: 1949: 1943: 1939: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1919: 1915: 1910: 1901: 1897: 1892: 1883: 1881: 1877: 1873: 1869: 1857: 1850: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1834:8th centuries 1826: 1822: 1818: 1813: 1808: 1798: 1796: 1791: 1787: 1783: 1779: 1775: 1771: 1767: 1763: 1758: 1756: 1755:southern Gaul 1752: 1748: 1744: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1728: 1724: 1720: 1716: 1712: 1702: 1692: 1682: 1674: 1669: 1664: 1660: 1653:Rise of Islam 1650: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1639:Hispanic Jews 1634: 1632: 1627: 1617: 1611: 1607: 1602: 1598: 1592: 1588: 1583: 1582: 1576: 1572: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1554: 1552: 1541: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1514: 1510: 1504: 1494: 1492: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1474: 1472: 1468: 1464: 1460: 1456: 1451: 1449: 1445: 1440: 1439: 1433: 1421: 1417: 1413: 1409: 1404: 1399: 1395: 1385: 1383: 1379: 1375: 1371: 1367: 1363: 1358: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1328: 1324: 1320: 1316: 1312: 1308: 1304: 1299: 1297: 1292: 1287: 1283: 1279: 1275: 1271: 1267: 1266:their kingdom 1263: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1245: 1243: 1239: 1235: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1204: 1199: 1197: 1193: 1185: 1180: 1175: 1164: 1154: 1152: 1148: 1143: 1142: 1136: 1132: 1129:(d. 472), or 1128: 1124: 1120: 1114: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1100: 1096: 1093: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1069: 1066:crossed into 1065: 1061: 1057: 1053: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1025: 1020: 1014: 1010: 1006: 1002: 998: 994: 986: 982: 977: 975: 971: 967: 966:monophysitism 963: 959: 955: 951: 943: 939: 934: 932: 928: 924: 920: 916: 912: 908: 904: 900: 889: 885: 881: 877: 873: 869: 861: 853: 849: 848: 843: 838: 832: 822: 819: 815: 811: 806: 804: 800: 796: 792: 787: 783: 779: 775: 770: 769: 763: 758: 757: 751: 747: 736: 732: 731:on birch bark 727: 722: 718: 708: 706: 702: 698: 690: 683:. During the 682: 678: 674: 670: 665: 663: 659: 655: 651: 647: 643: 639: 634: 632: 628: 624: 620: 616: 604: 602: 597: 592: 588: 587:periodisation 584: 580: 576: 572: 564: 560: 556: 547: 545: 541: 537: 533: 529: 525: 521: 517: 513: 509: 505: 501: 497: 485: 481: 476: 474: 470: 466: 462: 461:scholasticism 458: 454: 450: 446: 441: 437: 433: 429: 425: 424:heavy cavalry 421: 417: 413: 409: 405: 401: 397: 393: 389: 385: 381: 377: 373: 368: 366: 358: 354: 346: 342: 338: 334: 330: 326: 322: 318: 314: 310: 306: 302: 298: 294: 290: 288: 284: 280: 276: 272: 268: 264: 260: 256: 252: 248: 244: 230: 223: 220: 218: 215: 213: 210: 209: 202: 199: 197: 194: 193: 190: 185: 181: 177: 171: 168: 166: 163: 161: 158: 156: 153: 151: 148: 146: 143: 141: 138: 136: 133: 131: 128: 126: 123: 122: 120: 116: 110: 107: 105: 102: 100: 97: 96: 94: 90: 85: 81: 66: 62: 61:stained-glass 56: 51: 46: AD 500 40: 35: 32: 30: 26: 22: 19408: 19391: 19374: 19357: 19340: 19328:from Commons 19323: 19302: 19234:Western Bloc 19034:AUSCANNZUKUS 18990:Contemporary 18939:Human rights 18785:Latin Church 18759:Christianity 18709: 18668:Conservatism 18513:contemporary 18350:Architecture 18286:World War II 18246:Emancipation 18241:Abolitionism 18173: 18129:Romanization 18124:Roman legacy 18105:Roman Empire 17929:World War II 17782:Early modern 17759:Kalmar Union 17630:Papal States 17584: 17548:Roman Empire 17417:Principality 17151:Papal States 16876:histories of 16596:Architecture 16568:Great Famine 16558:Universities 16498:Hussite Wars 16415:Great Schism 16302:Papal States 16243: 16148: 16123: 16119:Smith, Julia 16095: 16063: 16059: 16056: 16028: 15996: 15992: 15989: 15957: 15953: 15950: 15914: 15910: 15907: 15875: 15846: 15842: 15839: 15811: 15787: 15756: 15752: 15749: 15721: 15696: 15664: 15632: 15628: 15625: 15593: 15589: 15586: 15558: 15524: 15495: 15467: 15434: 15406: 15382: 15350: 15322: 15297: 15271: 15240: 15213: 15181: 15153: 15129: 15101: 15071: 15040: 15015: 14985: 14981: 14952: 14908: 14902: 14875: 14850: 14825: 14794: 14768: 14741: 14738:Lasko, Peter 14715: 14688: 14656: 14628: 14600: 14574: 14547: 14515:(suppl_13). 14512: 14506: 14474: 14449: 14421: 14393: 14361: 14332: 14305: 14281: 14253: 14225: 14200: 14176: 14151: 14124: 14089: 14062: 14034: 14006: 13981: 13953: 13920: 13892: 13865: 13861: 13829: 13801: 13773: 13740: 13712: 13708:Brown, Peter 13684: 13661:World of Art 13655: 13627: 13599: 13571: 13542: 13517: 13489: 13466: 13454: 13449:, p. 9. 13442: 13430: 13418: 13413:, p. 7. 13406: 13394: 13382: 13370: 13358: 13346: 13334: 13322: 13310: 13298: 13286: 13279:Nicolle 1996 13274: 13262: 13250: 13238: 13231:Wickham 2016 13226: 13214: 13207:Epstein 2009 13202: 13195:Epstein 2009 13190: 13178: 13171:Singman 1999 13166: 13159:Singman 1999 13154: 13147:Fossier 1986 13142: 13130: 13123:Fossier 1986 13118: 13106: 13099:Fossier 1986 13094: 13082: 13070: 13058: 13051:Singman 1999 13046: 13039:Backman 2022 13034: 13027:Fassler 2014 13022: 13010: 12998: 12991:Backman 2022 12986: 12974: 12962: 12950: 12943:Thomson 1998 12938: 12926: 12919:Thomson 1998 12914: 12902: 12890: 12883:Thomson 1998 12878: 12866: 12854: 12847:Thomson 1998 12842: 12830: 12823:Thomson 1998 12818: 12811:Swanson 2021 12806: 12799:Wickham 2016 12794: 12782: 12775:Thomson 1998 12770: 12758: 12746: 12734: 12722: 12710: 12698: 12686: 12674: 12662: 12650: 12638: 12626: 12614: 12602: 12595:Wickham 2016 12590: 12578: 12566: 12559:Wickham 2016 12554: 12542: 12535:Wickham 2016 12530: 12518: 12511:Wickham 2016 12506: 12494: 12482: 12470: 12458: 12446: 12439:Wickham 2016 12434: 12422: 12410: 12403:Backman 2022 12398: 12386: 12379:Wickham 2016 12374: 12362: 12350: 12338: 12326: 12319:Wickham 2016 12314: 12302: 12290: 12278: 12249: 12242:Swanson 2021 12237: 12225: 12213: 12201: 12189: 12182:Epstein 2009 12177: 12165: 12153: 12141: 12129: 12117: 12110:Backman 2022 12105: 12093: 12086:Singman 1999 12081: 12074:Wickham 2016 12059:Backman 2022 12054: 12042: 12030: 12023:Nicolle 1996 12018: 12011:Nicolle 1996 12006: 11999:Singman 1999 11994: 11987:Nicolle 1996 11982: 11970: 11963:Backman 2022 11958: 11951:Epstein 2009 11946: 11939:Backman 2022 11934: 11922: 11910: 11903:Epstein 2009 11883: 11876:Backman 2022 11861:Epstein 2009 11856: 11844: 11832: 11820: 11808: 11796: 11784: 11772: 11760: 11748: 11736: 11729:Dodwell 1993 11724: 11719:, p. 7. 11717:Dodwell 1993 11712: 11700: 11688: 11676: 11664: 11652: 11640: 11633:Nicolle 1996 11628: 11621:Nicolle 1996 11616: 11604: 11597:Backman 2022 11592: 11585:Backman 2022 11580: 11568: 11556: 11544: 11532: 11505: 11493: 11486:Backman 2022 11481: 11474:Fassler 2014 11469: 11457: 11450:Backman 2022 11445: 11438:Backman 2022 11433: 11421: 11409: 11402:Backman 2022 11397: 11385: 11373: 11361: 11349: 11337: 11325: 11313: 11306:Backman 2022 11286: 11274: 11262: 11255:Backman 2022 11250: 11238: 11226: 11214: 11202: 11195:Wickham 2016 11190: 11178: 11166: 11154: 11142: 11130: 11118: 11106: 11094: 11082: 11070: 11058: 11046: 11039:Backman 2022 11034: 11022: 11015:Wickham 2016 11010: 10998: 10991:Backman 2022 10986: 10979:Backman 2022 10974: 10962: 10955:Wickham 2016 10950: 10938: 10926: 10919:Backman 2022 10914: 10902: 10890: 10883:Backman 2022 10878: 10866: 10859:Backman 2022 10854: 10847:Backman 2022 10842: 10830: 10823:Backman 2022 10818: 10806: 10794: 10787:Backman 2022 10782: 10777:, p. 7. 10770: 10758: 10751:Backman 2022 10746: 10734: 10722: 10710: 10698: 10686: 10674: 10662: 10655:Backman 2022 10650: 10638: 10626: 10619:Ramirez 2022 10599: 10587: 10575: 10563: 10551: 10539: 10527: 10515: 10503: 10491: 10479: 10472:Backman 2022 10467: 10460:Backman 2022 10455: 10443: 10436:Backman 2022 10431: 10419: 10407: 10395: 10388:Epstein 2009 10383: 10371: 10364:Epstein 2009 10359: 10347: 10340:Epstein 2009 10335: 10328:Backman 2022 10323: 10316:Epstein 2009 10311: 10299: 10292:Epstein 2009 10287: 10280:Epstein 2009 10275: 10263: 10251: 10244:Epstein 2009 10239: 10215:Singman 1999 10210: 10198: 10191:Singman 1999 10186: 10179:Singman 1999 10174: 10167:Thomson 1998 10162: 10155:Backman 2022 10150: 10143:Singman 1999 10138: 10131:Thomson 1998 10126: 10119:Singman 1999 10114: 10102: 10090: 10078: 10073:, p. 3. 10071:Singman 1999 10066: 10061:, p. 8. 10059:Singman 1999 10054: 10042: 10037:, p. 2. 10035:Singman 1999 10030: 10018: 10011:Backman 2022 10006: 9994: 9987:Backman 2022 9982: 9975:Backman 2022 9970: 9963:Backman 2022 9958: 9951:Singman 1999 9946: 9934: 9922: 9917:, p. 6. 9915:Singman 1999 9910: 9903:Singman 1999 9898: 9891:Backman 2022 9886: 9879:Backman 2022 9874: 9847: 9840:Nicolle 1996 9835: 9828:Nicolle 1996 9813:Nicolle 1996 9808: 9801:Nicolle 1996 9796: 9789:Nicolle 1996 9784: 9777:Nicolle 1996 9772: 9760: 9753:Nicolle 1996 9748: 9741:Nicolle 1996 9736: 9724: 9712: 9700: 9673: 9661: 9649: 9637: 9625: 9613: 9601: 9589: 9577: 9570:Stalley 1999 9565: 9558:Stalley 1999 9553: 9546:Stalley 1999 9526: 9519:Stalley 1999 9514: 9507:Stalley 1999 9502: 9495:Wickham 2009 9490: 9483:Stalley 1999 9463: 9451: 9439: 9427: 9415: 9403: 9391: 9384:Wickham 2009 9379: 9372:Collins 2010 9367: 9355: 9343: 9336:Wickham 2009 9331: 9324:Collins 2010 9319: 9312:Backman 2022 9307: 9300:Collins 2010 9295: 9288:Wickham 2009 9283: 9276:Collins 2010 9271: 9264:Collins 2010 9259: 9252:Backman 2022 9247: 9240:Collins 2010 9235: 9228:Collins 2010 9223: 9216:Backman 2022 9211: 9204:Wickham 2009 9189:Collins 2010 9174:Backman 2022 9169: 9162:Wickham 2009 9157: 9150:Collins 2010 9145: 9138:Backman 2022 9133: 9126:Wickham 2009 9121: 9114:Collins 2010 9109: 9097: 9085: 9078:Fassler 2014 9073: 9066:Fassler 2014 9061: 9049: 9042:Backman 2022 9037: 9025: 9018:Backman 2022 9013: 9001: 8989: 8982:Collins 2010 8977: 8965: 8958:Collins 2010 8953: 8946:Backman 2022 8941: 8929: 8922:Backman 2022 8917: 8905: 8893: 8881: 8869: 8857: 8850:Wickham 2009 8845: 8833: 8826:Collins 2010 8821: 8814:Collins 2010 8809: 8797: 8785: 8773: 8761: 8754:Wickham 2009 8749: 8737: 8725: 8718:Collins 2010 8713: 8686: 8674: 8662: 8650: 8643:Collins 2010 8638: 8626: 8619:Collins 2010 8614: 8607:Wickham 2009 8602: 8590: 8583:Collins 2010 8578: 8566: 8559:Collins 2010 8554: 8547:Collins 2010 8542: 8535:Collins 2010 8530: 8518: 8506: 8494: 8482: 8470: 8458: 8451:Backman 2022 8446: 8434: 8427:Wickham 2009 8422: 8415:Wickham 2009 8410: 8403:Wickham 2009 8398: 8386: 8379:Backman 2022 8374: 8367:Ramirez 2022 8362: 8355:Ramirez 2022 8350: 8343:Wickham 2009 8338: 8331:Wickham 2009 8326: 8319:Wickham 2009 8314: 8307:Wickham 2009 8302: 8290: 8278: 8271:Collins 2010 8266: 8254: 8242: 8230: 8223:Backman 2022 8218: 8211:Wickham 2009 8206: 8199:Wickham 2009 8194: 8182: 8170: 8158: 8151:Collins 2010 8146: 8134: 8107: 8095: 8083: 8071: 8064:Wickham 2009 8059: 8052:Wickham 2009 8047: 8040:Wickham 2009 8035: 8023: 8016:Wickham 2009 8011: 8004:Collins 2010 7999: 7992:Wickham 2009 7987: 7980:Wickham 2009 7975: 7968:Wickham 2009 7963: 7951: 7944:Collins 2010 7939: 7932:Heather 2006 7927: 7920:Collins 2010 7915: 7908:Heather 2006 7903: 7896:Heather 2006 7891: 7869:Collins 2010 7864: 7852: 7845:Stalley 1999 7840: 7828: 7816: 7804: 7792: 7785:Collins 2010 7780: 7773:Backman 2022 7768: 7756: 7744: 7737:Collins 2010 7732: 7725:Collins 2010 7720: 7713:Heather 2006 7683:Collins 2010 7678: 7671:Heather 2006 7666: 7654: 7642: 7635:Wickham 2009 7630: 7618: 7606: 7594: 7582: 7570: 7565:, p. 4. 7558: 7546: 7534: 7527:Mommsen 1942 7522: 7510: 7498: 7478:, p. 5. 7471: 7466:, p. 1. 7451:, p. 1. 7449:Wickham 2016 7444: 7432: 7420: 7408: 7403:, p. 4. 7396: 7389:Mommsen 1942 7384: 7377:Hankins 2001 7364:, p. 3. 7357: 7336: 7319: 7302: 7281: 7268: 7243: 7224:John Hunyadi 7211: 7158: 7145: 7138:young nephew 7128: 7113:Wittelsbachs 7103: 7074: 7053: 7036: 7019: 7002: 6993: 6976:in England, 6956: 6935: 6928:12th century 6914: 6885: 6866: 6850: 6838: 6821: 6812:Stabat Mater 6797: 6770: 6756: 6735: 6718: 6685: 6674:Frederick II 6669: 6637: 6618:early modern 6612: 6595: 6577: 6560: 6546: 6531:King David I 6523:Robert Bruce 6519:Anglo-Norman 6513: 6496: 6486: 6480: 6475: 6454: 6445: 6421: 6400: 6375: 6362: 6345: 6315: 6290: 6270: 6245: 6228: 6219: 6208:Four Empires 6198: 6128:19th century 6125: 6120:Edward Grant 6101: 6094: 6058: 6051:Art of Dying 6050: 6045:Ars moriendi 6038: 6020: 6012:Jan van Eyck 6005: 5995: 5985: 5954:Brunelleschi 5946:Quattrocento 5943: 5936: 5931:chests, and 5925:15th century 5917: 5897:14th century 5870: 5851: 5822: 5794: 5790:movable type 5782:14th century 5751:formes fixes 5737: 5716: 5702: 5668: 5628: 5611:witch trials 5580: 5576:church union 5545: 5498: 5489:15th century 5449:at Gallipoli 5438: 5358:14th century 5347: 5311:14th century 5307: 5293:Ferdinand II 5277: 5271:and much of 5190: 5143: 5110: 5106: 5071: 5041: 5036: 4996:horse armour 4977: 4954: 4911:11th century 4895: 4857:carved-ivory 4853:12th century 4815: 4784: 4745: 4707: 4676: 4633: 4596:, but comic 4552: 4546: 4531:courtly love 4525: 4388:11th century 4382: 4359:Hospitallers 4336: 4308:Latin Empire 4267: 4243:at Dorylaeum 4208: 4152:described by 4140:Ottoman clan 4128:Golden Horde 4112:Genghis Khan 4101: 4093:12th century 4091:in the late 4042: 4011: 3969: 3896: 3886:, Bishop of 3879: 3872: 3825:Frederick II 3778: 3749:Innocent III 3741: 3713:18th century 3710: 3654: 3591: 3564: 3548:papal legate 3538:, Patriarch 3518: 3481:antisemitism 3477: 3435:The Italian 3434: 3426: 3400:partnerships 3384: 3355: 3351:13th century 3312: 3300: 3280:11th century 3253: 3223: 3181: 3126: 3115: 3103:scale armour 3072: 3065: 3045:letters and 2994:iconophiles' 2983: 2968: 2965:Gospel Books 2938: 2933:such as the 2912: 2893: 2873:Hagia Sophia 2862: 2850: 2764: 2733: 2670: 2624:10th century 2613: 2590:Viking realm 2575: 2472: 2444: 2409: 2360:West Francia 2352:East Francia 2332:music theory 2293: 2289:royal chapel 2270: 2246: 2242:Papal States 2218:Carolingians 2215: 2184: 2178: 2177:, completed 2172: 2115:10th century 2108: 2058: 2027: 2013: 1981:penitentials 1951:Few western 1950: 1946:10th century 1934:Nicene Creed 1905: 1868:house slaves 1858: 1838:walrus ivory 1830: 1825:Theudebert I 1759: 1747:North Africa 1707: 1635: 1614: 1555: 1551:compensation 1506: 1475: 1471:public roads 1452: 1425: 1359: 1355:Danube Delta 1319:North Africa 1300: 1246: 1200: 1189: 1115: 1092:Anglo-Saxons 1021: 978: 935: 860:Roman Empire 857: 845: 807: 778:Rolls Series 743: 739:12th century 693:20th century 685:19th century 666: 646:Christianity 635: 605: 596:medium aevum 568: 540:trade routes 492:14th century 480:great famine 477: 457:universities 418:between the 410:and eastern 369: 341:North Africa 325:new kingdoms 291: 258: 254: 253:(also spelt 250: 246: 240: 179: 31: 29: 19434:5th century 19429:Middle Ages 19303:Middle Ages 19271:Middle Ages 19174:Open Balkan 18992:integration 18922:Rule of law 18917:Natural law 18894:Agnosticism 18872:Hellenistic 18850:Anglo-Saxon 18780:Catholicism 18719:Atlanticism 18624:Rationalism 18430:Immigration 18413:Esotericism 18271:World War I 18236:Romanticism 18216:Reformation 18196:Renaissance 18174:Middle Ages 18139:Christendom 18068:Foundations 17914:World War I 17904:Nationalism 17792:Reformation 17777:Renaissance 17749:Black Death 17682:Kievan Rus' 17585:Middle Ages 17383:Kievan Rus' 17119:Western and 17112:territories 17036:Czech lands 16887:Western and 16825:WikiProject 16752:Medievalism 16591:Agriculture 16455:Manorialism 16450:Communalism 16445:Monasticism 16362:Reconquista 16352:Kievan Rus' 15463:Watts, John 15236:Rubin, Miri 15126:Peters, Ted 14915:: 226–242. 14755:14-056036-X 14729:7141-1327-1 13495:McGraw Hill 13471:Arnold 2021 13423:Russel 1991 13387:Sedlar 1994 13339:Benton 2002 13315:Benton 2002 13267:Sedlar 1994 13255:Sedlar 1994 13183:Arnold 2009 13135:Denley 2001 13111:Denley 2001 13063:Denley 2001 13015:Colish 2002 12979:Colish 2002 12859:Sedlar 1994 12763:Sedlar 1994 12739:Sedlar 1994 12715:Denley 2001 12691:Sedlar 1994 12679:Denley 2001 12643:Sedlar 1994 12619:Sedlar 1994 12499:Denley 2001 12451:Denley 2001 12355:Jordan 2002 12230:Chazan 2006 12218:Chazan 2006 12035:Sedlar 1994 11975:Barber 2004 11927:Barber 2004 11915:Barber 2004 11888:Ilardi 2007 11849:Benton 2002 11837:Benton 2002 11825:Benton 2002 11813:Benton 2002 11789:Benton 2002 11765:Benton 2002 11741:Benton 2002 11669:Benton 2002 11645:Benton 2002 11609:Jordan 2002 11573:Jordan 2002 11549:Hoppin 1978 11537:Colish 2002 11525:Colish 2002 11510:Colish 2002 11498:Barber 2004 11462:Colish 2002 11426:Colish 2002 11414:Barber 2004 11390:Barber 2004 11330:Barber 2004 11279:Barber 2004 11267:Barber 2004 11243:Barber 2004 11219:Barber 2004 11159:Barber 2004 11111:Barber 2004 11087:Barber 2004 11075:Barber 2004 11051:Barber 2004 11003:Barber 2004 10967:Jordan 2002 10943:Jordan 2002 10931:Barber 2004 10835:Barber 2004 10811:Barber 2004 10643:Chazan 2006 10592:Jordan 2002 10556:Morris 2001 10544:Barber 2004 10532:Morris 2001 10520:Barber 2004 10496:Barber 2004 10484:Barber 2004 10424:Chazan 2006 10412:Chazan 2006 10400:Chazan 2006 10376:Chazan 2006 10352:Barber 2004 10304:Barber 2004 10268:Barber 2004 10232:Barber 2004 10203:Barber 2004 10083:Barber 2004 10047:Barber 2004 9999:Jordan 2002 9939:Sedlar 1994 9867:Jordan 2002 9693:Benton 2002 9666:Benton 2002 9654:Benton 2002 9630:Benton 2002 9444:Barber 2004 9408:Davies 1996 9396:Davies 1996 9102:Hoppin 1978 9090:Hoppin 1978 9054:Colish 2002 9030:Davies 1996 8934:Barber 2004 8910:Colish 2002 8874:Colish 2002 8778:Colish 2002 8511:Chazan 2006 8499:Chazan 2006 8187:Davies 1996 7797:Chazan 2006 7659:Arnold 2021 7599:Arnold 2021 7587:Arnold 2021 7575:Arnold 2021 7563:Harris 2008 7503:Arnold 2021 7491:Davies 1996 7413:Hornby 2005 7401:Murray 2004 7294:illiteratus 7228:at Belgrade 7202:caused the 7092:Trastámaras 7080:Luxembourgs 7029:90 per cent 6972:in France, 6962:in Chartres 6839:Seven Parts 6794: 1164 6783: 1125 6584:possessions 6521:aristocrat 6330:eight modes 6302:river, and 6283:6th century 6251:9th century 6184:Soviet Bloc 6150:(d. 1883). 6136:medievalism 6126:During the 6108:Renaissance 6023:Block books 5976:(d. 1455). 5908: 1360 5889:wagon forts 5885:Jannisaries 5873:mercenaries 5842: 1470 5734: 1430 5678: 1348 5617: 1450 5543:(1417–31). 5531:; two and, 5298:Reconquista 5261:Henry Tudor 5253:Richard III 5237:Joan of Arc 5231:, allowing 5185:Joan of Arc 5078:flagellants 5059:Black Death 5047: 1200 4980:crossbowmen 4961:30 per cent 4926: 1200 4582: 1155 4563:troubadours 4440:rationalism 4416:nominalists 4275:Reconquista 4231:annihilated 4158:(d. 1324). 4154:the trader 4053:sacked Kyiv 3974:Reconquista 3941:Magna Carta 3806:Frederick I 3693:kabbalistic 3663:of popular 3657:revelations 3646:Franciscans 3638:Cistercians 3634:Carthusians 3622:inquisitors 3614:Waldensians 3567:investiture 3485:blood libel 3392:in Florence 3268:manorialism 3211: 1000 3095:6th century 2986:Hellenistic 2979:Insular art 2949:grave goods 2935:Old English 2904:drawbridges 2801:Piast dukes 2779:Kievan Rus' 2691:, captured 2681:9th century 2328:9th century 2249:Charlemagne 2209:. His son, 2139:Cluny Abbey 2073:Constantine 2061:land trusts 2054:Mount Athos 2050:Great Lavra 2005:homosexuals 2001:fornicators 1965:pilgrimages 1900:Holy Spirit 1886:Church life 1854:7th century 1616:Landholding 1595:9th century 1569:, act as a 1529:Cassiodorus 1517:6th century 1428:7th century 1315:the Vandals 1286:Gallo-Roman 1274:Childeric I 1088:Burgundians 1028:4th century 1017:5th century 989:3rd century 946:4th century 810:archaeology 795:chrysobulls 697:Eurocentric 656:—violence, 496:intensified 488:50 per cent 484:Black Death 465:pilgrimages 361:9th century 349:7th century 337:Middle East 329:Later Roman 247:Middle Ages 217:Renaissance 160:Black Death 150:Magna Carta 76: 1180 72: 1175 63:panel from 37:Middle Ages 19423:Categories 19342:Quotations 19194:Rio Treaty 18705:Relativism 18663:Liberalism 18629:Empiricism 18581:Philosophy 18569:Secularism 18520:Philosophy 18457:Literature 18251:Capitalism 17677:Viking Age 17492:Prehistory 17278:Almoravids 17266:al-Andalus 17239:Portugal ( 17082:Anatolia ( 16747:Land terms 16701:Technology 16681:Philosophy 16661:Literature 16626:Demography 16327:Viking Age 13480:References 13459:Rubin 2014 13447:Grant 2001 13435:Grant 1994 13363:Adams 2011 13351:Adams 2011 13303:Adams 2011 13291:Adams 2011 13219:Watts 2014 13003:Adams 2011 12967:Fried 2015 12931:Fried 2015 12895:Fried 2015 12631:Watts 2014 12607:Watts 2014 12583:Watts 2014 12571:Watts 2014 12547:Watts 2014 12523:Watts 2014 12487:Watts 2014 12475:Watts 2014 12463:Watts 2014 12427:Watts 2014 12415:Watts 2014 12391:Watts 2014 12367:Watts 2014 12331:Watts 2014 12307:Watts 2014 12295:Watts 2014 12283:Rubin 2014 12271:Watts 2014 12254:Watts 2014 12098:Fried 2015 11801:Adams 2011 11777:Adams 2011 11753:Adams 2011 11705:Lasko 1972 11693:Curta 2019 11681:Curta 2019 11657:Adams 2011 11207:Curta 2019 11183:Curta 2019 11171:Curta 2019 11147:Curta 2019 11135:Curta 2019 11123:Curta 2019 11099:Curta 2019 11063:Fried 2015 11027:Fried 2015 10907:Watts 2014 10895:Fried 2015 10871:Watts 2014 10799:Fried 2015 10715:Fößel 2016 10703:Fößel 2016 10691:Watts 2014 10679:Fried 2015 10631:Bitel 2002 10256:Rubin 2014 9927:Curta 2019 9765:Curta 2019 9705:Lasko 1972 9531:Adams 2011 9468:Curta 2019 9456:Curta 2019 9432:Curta 2019 9420:Curta 2019 9360:Curta 2019 9348:Curta 2019 9006:Curta 2019 8994:Curta 2019 8970:Brown 2001 8898:Bitel 2002 8886:Curta 2019 8838:Curta 2019 8802:Curta 2019 8790:Bitel 2002 8766:Bitel 2002 8730:Brown 2001 8706:Brown 2001 8571:Brown 2001 8475:Brown 2001 8463:Brown 2001 8391:Bitel 2002 8295:Brown 2001 8283:Brown 1989 8259:Brown 2001 8247:Brown 1989 8175:Curta 2019 8163:Curta 2019 8139:James 2009 8127:James 2009 8112:Brown 1989 8100:James 2009 8088:James 2009 8076:James 2009 8028:Rubin 2014 7956:James 2009 7884:Brown 1989 7761:Brown 1989 7749:Brown 1989 7698:Brown 1989 7623:Curta 2019 7611:Curta 2019 7515:Power 2006 7476:Rubin 2014 7464:Rubin 2014 7437:Fried 2015 7362:Power 2006 7216:Skanderbeg 7176:fratricide 7121:Palatinate 6988:in Prague. 6968:, and the 6855:common law 6695:his father 6650:Petronilla 6622:Jean Bodin 6438: 950 6234:Goiswintha 6172:Marc Bloch 6071:See also: 5866:patent law 5854:sheep with 5800:landed at 5798:Dinis Dias 5479:, and the 5406:See also: 5303:conquering 5289:Isabella I 5205:Edward III 5126:from Spain 5067:50 percent 4899:spectacles 4891:spectacles 4835:, and the 4780:needlework 4776:tapestries 4772:Embroidery 4741:rib vaults 4725:Romanesque 4719:Bergfriede 4514:trobairitz 4436:empiricism 4420:universals 4408:university 4316:rump state 4223:indulgence 4176:See also: 4156:Marco Polo 4045:fell apart 4018:Almoravids 3960:enquêteurs 3946:Louis VIII 3820:recognised 3812:sanctioned 3808:Barbarossa 3695:teaching. 3673:sanctioned 3667:, such as 3661:veneration 3650:Dominicans 3626:hermetical 3594:Compostela 3511:Church of 3509:Romanesque 3439:, such as 3321:, and the 3262:, and the 3187: 950 3099:longswords 3075:cataphract 3026:Gero Cross 2957:Sutton Hoo 2937:epic poem 2919:polychrome 2835:See also: 2825:annexed by 2789: 900 2729:chieftains 2601: 860 2533:See also: 2499: 931 2468:Hugh Capet 2460:Franconian 2364:Viking Age 2257:subjugated 2191:Arnulfings 2131:sacraments 2088: 900 2034:cenobitism 2020:from Egypt 1942:church tax 1926:iconoclasm 1864: 750 1846:base metal 1821:Austrasian 1805:See also: 1797:servants. 1782:Al-Andalus 1645:after the 1587:concubines 1581:Morgengabe 1547: 525 1536: 585 1527:(d. 489), 1501:See also: 1459:Belisarius 1455:Nika riots 1366:vernacular 1321:, and the 1249:Ostrogoths 1210: 600 1198:declined. 1125:(d. 454), 1121:(d. 408), 1086:, and the 983:developed 888:Diocletian 835:See also: 786:chronicles 715:See also: 638:Miri Rubin 611: 500 579:modern era 469:Romanesque 440:were built 388:colonising 180:Chronology 118:Key events 74: – c. 19494:Dark ages 19393:Resources 19376:Textbooks 19139:Five Eyes 19134:EU–UK TCA 18976:Democracy 18865:Old Norse 18754:Abrahamic 18711:Peritrope 18693:Tolerance 18673:Socialism 18503:Mythology 18491:Classical 18440:Languages 18418:Astrology 18266:Modernism 18080:Old World 17724:Feudalism 17695:Catalonia 17437:Despotate 17381:Ukraine ( 17365:Jerusalem 17329:Croatia ( 17084:Byzantine 17056:Hungary ( 17047:Byzantine 16946:1169–1536 16732:Dark Ages 16641:Household 16636:Hastilude 16405:Feudalism 16093:(2001) . 16026:(2006) . 15702:Routledge 15662:(1993) . 15564:Routledge 15465:(2014) . 15006:1538-4608 14929:0038-7134 14856:Routledge 14714:(1969) . 14686:(1976) . 14654:(2002) . 14535:0031-2746 14419:(1993) . 14391:(2006) . 14371:Routledge 14149:(2015) . 14090:1250–1520 14060:(2009) . 13827:(2010) . 13799:(2002) . 13710:(1989) . 13625:(1994) . 13605:Routledge 13597:(2004) . 13515:(2021) . 13243:Vale 2001 13075:Vale 2001 12955:Fine 2009 12787:Vale 2001 12751:Fine 2009 12727:Fine 2009 12703:Fine 2009 12667:Fine 2009 12655:Fine 2009 12343:Vale 2001 12206:Keen 1976 12194:Keen 1976 12170:Keen 1976 12158:Keen 1976 12146:Vale 2001 11378:Lock 2006 11354:Lock 2006 11342:Lock 2006 11318:Lock 2006 11291:Lock 2006 11231:Lock 2006 9594:Nees 2002 7857:Nees 2002 7833:Nees 2002 7809:Nees 2002 7551:Heng 2021 7350:Citations 7288:literatus 7236:at Vaslui 7084:Habsburgs 7008:gunpowder 6749:Trebizond 6699:Aquitaine 6658:Constance 6433:(d. 975) 6429:built by 6349:The monk 6338:antiphons 6016:oil paint 6002:Boticelli 5992:Donatello 5804:in 1444, 5802:Cap Verde 5709:Boccaccio 5698:humanists 5659:astronomy 5607:Hesychasm 5560:Hussitism 5552:Eucharist 5513:Philip IV 5475:, Bosnia 5465:Mehmed II 5432:Hünername 5382:Wallachia 5315:Lithuania 5265:Henry VII 5229:civil war 5088:Jacquerie 5031:Jacquerie 4946:astrolabe 4921:appeared 4915:windmills 4748:Mosan art 4660:with the 4464:patristic 4424:Aristotle 4369:in 1226. 4328:Occitania 4265:in 1291. 4120:Batu Khan 4030:Greenland 3998:from the 3951:appanages 3925:Richard I 3890:, in the 3851:Habsburgs 3762:Byzantine 3630:apostolic 3528:Henry III 3413:compagnia 3402:known as 3264:commoners 3225:Feudalism 3215:assarting 3176:peasantry 3137:horseshoe 2961:strapwork 2923:cloisonné 2896:pilasters 2865:basilicas 2767:Moravians 2607:into the 2428:Lothair I 2340:polyphony 2336:intervals 2265:destroyed 2187:Austrasia 2104:Hrosvitha 2079:as a new 1922:his claim 1920:rejected 1786:Aghlabids 1715:Armenians 1703:, 661–750 1693:, 632–661 1683:, 622–632 1513:education 1491:Heraclius 1461:(d. 565) 1444:Justinian 1432:Roman law 1311:the Suebi 1291:Britannia 1257:a kingdom 1216:(such as 1072:Visigoths 1005:basilicas 993:Roman art 927:Byzantium 915:Tetrarchy 878:with the 850:, now in 717:Cartulary 689:Dark Ages 658:patronage 621:), 1492 ( 601:Neo-Latin 575:antiquity 565:, France) 514:; in the 428:feudalism 287:Dark Ages 263:antiquity 255:mediaeval 196:Antiquity 92:Including 86:narrative 19199:Schengen 19129:Eurozone 18969:Property 18964:Religion 18855:Frankish 18845:Germanic 18825:Paganism 18746:Religion 18734:European 18646:Humanism 18549:Religion 18508:Painting 18474:Internet 18425:Folklore 18396:Clothing 18367:Calendar 18343:Cyrillic 18328:Alphabet 18291:Cold War 17963:See also 17934:Cold War 17729:Crusades 17699:Valencia 17433:Lordship 17415:Serbia ( 17396:Russia ( 17335:Pannonia 17331:Dalmatia 17282:Almohads 17110:Medieval 17045:Greece ( 16957:Scotland 16942:800–1169 16874:Medieval 16815:Category 16782:Timeline 16671:Minstrel 16666:Medicine 16548:Chivalry 16503:Burgundy 16425:Crusades 16121:(2005). 15786:(1992). 15493:(2009). 15348:(1999). 15270:(1991). 15238:(2014). 15212:(eds.). 15187:WH Allen 15179:(2022). 15070:(1996). 14992:: 1–22. 14904:Speculum 14823:(eds.). 14793:(1978). 14740:(1972). 14626:(2009). 14545:(1978). 14519:: 1–44. 14447:(2021). 14279:(2023). 14251:(1996). 14198:(1994). 14123:(eds.). 14032:(2014). 13979:(2012). 13951:(1993). 13890:(1996). 13864:Volume I 13859:(2019). 13771:(2006). 13653:(2002). 13087:Lee 2021 7325:Champmol 7119:and the 7046:Limerick 6924:tympanum 6895:Toulouse 6845:Landslov 6728:Novgorod 6711:annulled 6630:decretal 6601:misogyny 6368:Robert I 6296:Liudewit 6204:Six Ages 6027:woodcuts 5982:the nude 5958:Pantheon 5933:maiolica 5901:handguns 5690:Petrarch 5663:geometry 5556:Lollardy 5386:Moldavia 5374:Novgorod 5370:Ivan III 5269:Scotland 5257:Bosworth 5217:Poitiers 5209:claim to 5193:Florence 5151:burghers 5146:polities 5102:Florence 5063:pandemic 4837:Trecento 4782:images. 4764:sketches 4678:Almagest 4631:1260. 4527:Chivalry 4414:and the 4412:realists 4361:and the 4211:Urban II 4201:for the 4199:crusades 4168:Crusades 4162:Crusades 4089:Bulgaria 4069:Dalmatia 4022:Almohads 4020:and the 4004:Sardinia 3992:Portugal 3955:Louis IX 3908:Henry II 3873:(centre) 3868:showing 3793:Henry IV 3789:Burgundy 3770:Roger II 3729:chancery 3648:and the 3636:and the 3575:prelates 3571:Henry IV 3406:commenda 3359:ordained 3298:. 3260:nobility 3182:Between 3133:crossbow 3091:stirrups 3083:Scythian 2973:and the 2908:cisterns 2877:transept 2760:Basil II 2677:resisted 2660:and the 2561:Ottonian 2507:Normandy 2464:Conrad I 2277:counties 2253:Carloman 2238:Holy See 2207:Neustria 2143:Burgundy 2133:such as 2096:Cyrillic 2065:classics 2009:Bogomils 1880:Zaragoza 1807:Saqaliba 1790:Tulunids 1762:Asturias 1723:Muhammad 1681:Muhammad 1626:slavicus 1591:monogamy 1559:abbesses 1540:Boethius 1483:Anatolia 1422:, Italy) 1347:defeated 1323:Lombards 1296:Brittany 1278:Clovis I 1230:Scotland 1151:emperors 1119:Stilicho 1099:province 1084:Alemanni 1024:invaders 976:rights. 962:Arianism 933:in 330. 909:and two 799:graffiti 776:and the 735:Novgorod 662:charisma 627:Americas 532:Humanist 528:heresies 482:and the 445:crusades 430:, noble 408:Catholic 303:(mainly 259:mediæval 145:Crusades 84:biblical 19283:History 19257:Portals 19044:Benelux 18949:Thought 18899:Atheism 18840:Finnish 18816:Culture 18811:Judaism 18773:Eastern 18769:Western 18764:Culture 18698:Paradox 18564:Decline 18525:Science 18401:History 18389:Studies 18372:Cuisine 18360:Periods 18320:Culture 18149:History 18115:Eastern 18110:Western 18061:culture 17804:Baroque 17703:Majorca 17615:Francia 17425:Kingdom 17357:Antioch 17353:Tripoli 17096:Ottoman 17073:Romania 17051:Ottoman 17041:Georgia 17031:Croatia 17021:Armenia 17016:Albania 16938:400–800 16934:Ireland 16929:Germany 16906:England 16901:Denmark 16896:Corsica 16878:current 16725:Related 16711:Warfare 16706:Theatre 16696:Slavery 16691:Science 16646:Hunting 16611:Cuisine 16584:Culture 16523:Castile 16518:England 15433:(ed.). 15381:(ed.). 14951:(ed.). 14937:2856364 14767:(ed.). 13919:(ed.). 13739:(ed.). 7196:John VI 7151:head of 7117:Bavaria 7063:Peruzzi 6901:on the 6787:Héloïse 6703:Eleanor 6646:Castile 6393:Ravenna 6351:Hucbald 6304:Pribina 6249:In the 6206:or the 6176:Marxism 6166:Annales 5929:cassone 5893:cannons 5858:fashion 5776:virelai 5768:ballade 5760:rondeau 5564:Jan Hus 5505:Avignon 5477:in 1463 5473:in 1460 5469:in 1459 5362:Muscovy 5327:Jadwiga 5323:Jogaila 5281:Morocco 5273:Ireland 5225:Gascony 5173:Landtag 4992:helmets 4984:sappers 4950:compass 4839:master 4829:Cimabue 4673:Ptolemy 4669:algebra 4662:decimal 4642:Bologna 4612:organum 4510:by the 4460:Vulgate 4430:), the 4255:Saladin 4247:Antioch 4217:at the 4106:in the 4065:Croatia 4038:Finland 4026:Maghreb 3988:Navarre 3980:Castile 3880:(right) 3847:Austria 3785:Salians 3779:In the 3665:mystics 3618:Cathars 3489:pogroms 3379:Hamburg 3347:confess 3303:knights 3290:corvées 3276:serfdom 3272:demesne 3247:pronoia 3233:Hungary 3172:knights 3154:Society 3006:codices 2953:Tournai 2940:Beowulf 2915:fibulae 2805:Hungary 2736:Basil I 2709:Denmark 2673:Khazars 2620:Germany 2484:Croatia 2480:Moravia 2476:Bohemia 2236:to the 2201:. One, 2135:baptism 1993:sinners 1985:penance 1969:shrines 1961:mission 1953:bishops 1932:of the 1914:Leo III 1849:coinage 1819:of the 1817:solidus 1610:Germany 1606:Bavaria 1571:seeress 1538:), and 1479:new war 1448:eunuchs 1420:Ravenna 1378:central 1343:Bulgars 1305:in the 1270:Francia 1238:Ireland 1131:Odoacer 1127:Ricimer 1060:Vandals 1048:Balkans 1015:in the 987:by the 970:Judaism 899:eastern 876:the war 854:, Italy 774:Germany 711:Sources 563:Avignon 506:states 463:. Mass 432:knights 400:get rid 384:Slavery 355:of the 347:in the 319:of the 307:), and 241:In the 19295:Europe 19064:CANZUK 18954:Speech 18882:Slavic 18860:Gothic 18835:Celtic 18830:Baltic 18729:Values 18530:Values 18090:Greece 17691:Aragon 17670:Amalfi 17655:Venice 17643:Second 17429:Empire 17410:Moscow 17406:Ryazan 17361:Edessa 17349:Cyprus 17323:Second 17241:County 17088:Seljuk 17078:Serbia 17068:Poland 16980:Sweden 16924:France 16805:Portal 16686:Poetry 16513:France 16160: 16135: 16107: 16079: 16040: 16012: 15973: 15930: 15887: 15862: 15823: 15798: 15772: 15733: 15708: 15676: 15648: 15609: 15570: 15536: 15511: 15479: 15451: 15418: 15412:Arnold 15393: 15366: 15334: 15309: 15284: 15256: 15224: 15193: 15165: 15140: 15114: 15082: 15056: 15027: 15004: 14969: 14935: 14927: 14887: 14862: 14837: 14805: 14779: 14752: 14726: 14700: 14672: 14640: 14612: 14587: 14559: 14533: 14486: 14461: 14433: 14405: 14377: 14348: 14316: 14310:Arnold 14293: 14265: 14237: 14212: 14184: 14163: 14135: 14104: 14074: 14046: 14018: 13993: 13965: 13937: 13904: 13876: 13845: 13813: 13785: 13757: 13724: 13696: 13671: 13639: 13611: 13583: 13558: 13529: 13523:Polity 13501: 7200:John V 7188:John V 7178:. The 7115:ruled 7086:, and 7025:Lübeck 6763:infamy 6745:Nicaea 6741:Epirus 6662:Sicily 6656:, and 6654:Aragón 6642:Urraca 6334:chants 6079:, and 6041:) and 5950:Medici 5948:. The 5772:, and 5485:slaves 5414:, and 5352:, and 5245:Calais 5221:Calais 5165:cortes 4965:plough 4938:lateen 4849:fresco 4841:Giotto 4833:Duccio 4799:static 4768:murals 4733:barrel 4729:relief 4606:motets 4598:farces 4471:summae 4428:322 BC 4357:, the 4296:Finnic 4292:Baltic 4184:, and 4110:under 4097:Serbia 4081:Vlachs 4077:Cumans 4073:Bosnia 4013:taifas 3996:Sicily 3990:, and 3984:Aragon 3888:Bayeux 3758:Norman 3754:seized 3459:hansas 3451:, and 3445:Venice 3441:Amalfi 3430:guilds 3381:(1241) 3331:friars 3327:canons 3241:homage 3237:allods 3229:vassal 3168:clergy 2992:, the 2797:Poland 2771:Czechs 2756:John I 2740:Leo VI 2717:Sweden 2715:, and 2713:Norway 2651:Basque 2637:Otto I 2570:Otto I 2549:, and 2482:, and 2362:, and 2324:neumed 2304:script 2300:Alcuin 2273:counts 2189:, the 2127:simony 2125:, and 2098:. The 1918:papacy 1876:Levant 1766:Muslim 1743:717–18 1739:674–78 1733:, and 1731:Persia 1697: 1687: 1677: 1629:, the 1563:Viking 1408:mosaic 1339:Turkic 1335:Slavic 1222:Mercia 1218:Wessex 1123:Aetius 1107:Attila 1103:Africa 1080:Franks 1078:. The 1062:, and 1054:. The 1044:Valens 974:Jewish 907:senior 884:curial 852:Venice 818:hoards 782:annals 750:slaves 679:, and 504:Balkan 420:papacy 392:guilds 363:, the 357:Franks 301:tribes 281:, and 267:modern 245:, the 19359:Texts 19325:Media 19219:USMCA 19074:CEFTA 19029:AUKUS 19019:ANZUS 19014:ANZUK 18959:Press 18877:Roman 18542:Sport 18486:Chant 18481:Music 18469:Media 18462:Canon 18408:Dance 18338:Latin 18333:Greek 18179:early 17660:Genoa 17638:First 17318:First 17274:Taifa 16989:Early 16985:Wales 16975:Spain 16961:Early 16952:Italy 16910:Early 16716:Women 16676:Music 16631:Domes 16621:Dance 16508:Milan 15954:1024- 15911:1024- 15843:1300- 15629:1415- 15590:1198- 14933:JSTOR 14911:(2). 13870:Brill 7312:Lagos 7059:Bardi 6966:Reims 6949:Pskov 6873:torri 6693:from 6691:Anjou 6539:Ulaid 6259:knarr 6190:Notes 5987:David 5788:with 5705:Dante 5533:later 5457:Varna 5213:Crécy 5203:when 5197:Milan 5169:, or 4988:siege 4907:looms 4811:Suger 4737:groin 4590:hymns 4506:tenso 4406:, or 4284:pagan 4124:Sarai 3687:Zohar 3522:were 3449:Genoa 3396:Genoa 3329:, or 3043:Kufic 2945:sagas 2900:keeps 2855:, an 2803:. In 2775:Poles 2642:Pavia 2605:Scots 2492:Rollo 2462:duke 2432:Italy 2424:Rhone 2420:Rhine 2100:Saxon 1991:—for 1989:fasts 1938:tithe 1823:king 1815:Gold 1795:harem 1735:Egypt 1727:Syria 1719:Islam 1362:Latin 1331:Avars 1234:Picts 1226:Wales 1064:Suebi 1056:Alans 1036:Goths 803:seals 746:women 673:Early 275:Early 19179:OSCE 19159:NATO 19104:EFTA 19069:CBSS 19054:BSEC 18944:Life 18496:Folk 18377:Diet 18189:late 18184:high 18100:Rome 18059:and 17665:Pisa 17243:and 17094:and 17060:and 17049:and 16997:Late 16993:High 16969:Late 16965:High 16918:Late 16914:High 16158:ISBN 16133:ISBN 16105:ISBN 16077:ISBN 16064:1024 16060:900- 16038:ISBN 16010:ISBN 15993:700- 15971:ISBN 15958:1198 15928:ISBN 15915:1198 15885:ISBN 15860:ISBN 15847:1415 15821:ISBN 15796:ISBN 15770:ISBN 15753:500- 15731:ISBN 15706:ISBN 15674:ISBN 15646:ISBN 15633:1500 15607:ISBN 15594:1300 15568:ISBN 15534:ISBN 15509:ISBN 15477:ISBN 15449:ISBN 15416:ISBN 15391:ISBN 15364:ISBN 15332:ISBN 15307:ISBN 15282:ISBN 15254:ISBN 15222:ISBN 15191:ISBN 15163:ISBN 15138:ISBN 15112:ISBN 15080:ISBN 15054:ISBN 15025:ISBN 15002:ISSN 14967:ISBN 14925:ISSN 14885:ISBN 14860:ISBN 14835:ISBN 14803:ISBN 14777:ISBN 14698:ISBN 14670:ISBN 14638:ISBN 14610:ISBN 14585:ISBN 14557:ISBN 14531:ISSN 14484:ISBN 14459:ISBN 14431:ISBN 14403:ISBN 14375:ISBN 14346:ISBN 14314:ISBN 14291:ISBN 14263:ISBN 14235:ISBN 14210:ISBN 14182:ISBN 14161:ISBN 14133:ISBN 14102:ISBN 14072:ISBN 14044:ISBN 14016:ISBN 13991:ISBN 13963:ISBN 13935:ISBN 13902:ISBN 13874:ISBN 13843:ISBN 13811:ISBN 13783:ISBN 13755:ISBN 13722:ISBN 13694:ISBN 13669:ISBN 13637:ISBN 13609:ISBN 13581:ISBN 13556:ISBN 13527:ISBN 13499:ISBN 7162:The 7061:and 7042:Riga 6889:The 6789:(d. 6778:(d. 6517:The 6300:Sava 6110:and 5729:(d. 5673:(d. 5661:and 5647:and 5424:The 5400:and 5384:and 5378:Tver 5376:and 5215:and 5157:diet 5061:, a 4948:and 4871:and 4847:and 4577:(d. 4551:and 4462:and 4438:and 4426:(d. 4294:and 4245:and 4170:and 4002:and 3933:lost 3929:John 3882:and 3764:and 3616:and 3602:Bari 3600:and 3565:Lay 3558:and 3507:The 3487:and 3453:Pisa 3394:and 3363:nuns 3196:Iraq 3128:fyrd 3109:and 3107:mail 2984:The 2921:and 2881:nave 2869:dome 2863:New 2839:and 2821:Atil 2817:Rus' 2699:and 2693:Kyiv 2614:The 2596:(d. 2494:(d. 2422:and 2216:The 2102:nun 2069:Bede 1870:and 1842:toll 1741:and 1671:The 1661:and 1542:(d. 1531:(d. 1511:and 1396:and 1380:and 1247:The 1228:and 1220:and 1147:Zeno 1068:Gaul 1040:Huns 979:The 901:and 858:The 793:and 719:and 681:Late 677:High 455:and 436:fief 339:and 279:High 82:, a 19169:OAS 19114:ESA 19109:EPC 19099:EEA 19004:AER 18909:Law 18887:Neo 18435:Law 18355:Art 17276:, 17092:Rum 16601:Art 15997:900 15757:700 14994:doi 14917:doi 14750:SBN 14724:SBN 14521:doi 14513:238 7291:or 6893:in 6800:by 6796:), 6391:in 6324:by 5990:by 5972:by 5721:by 5283:by 5100:in 4766:of 4739:or 4675:'s 4502:—a 4483:by 3884:Odo 3756:by 3410:or 3105:by 3020:in 2701:907 2697:860 2452:Odo 2338:in 2181:800 2141:in 2121:as 2111:lay 2094:as 2052:on 2022:in 1948:. 1376:in 1325:in 1317:in 1141:rex 1101:of 1019:. 772:in 760:by 748:or 633:). 404:lay 402:of 398:to 382:". 343:to 257:or 249:or 19425:: 19144:G7 19119:EU 17701:, 17697:, 17693:, 17435:, 17431:, 17427:, 17423:, 17419:, 17408:, 17404:, 17400:, 17389:, 17385:, 17374:, 17363:, 17359:, 17355:, 17351:, 17337:, 17333:, 17284:, 17280:, 17272:, 17227:, 17223:, 17219:, 17205:, 17201:, 17197:, 17143:, 17139:, 17086:, 16995:, 16991:, 16967:, 16963:, 16944:, 16940:, 16916:, 16912:, 16198:, 16156:. 16152:. 16131:. 16127:. 16103:. 16099:. 16075:. 16067:. 16062:c. 16058:c. 16036:. 16008:. 16000:. 15995:c. 15991:c. 15969:. 15961:. 15956:c. 15952:c. 15944:; 15926:. 15918:. 15913:c. 15909:c. 15901:; 15883:. 15879:. 15858:. 15850:. 15845:c. 15841:c. 15819:. 15815:. 15794:. 15768:. 15760:. 15755:c. 15751:c. 15729:. 15704:. 15700:. 15672:. 15668:. 15644:. 15636:. 15631:c. 15627:c. 15605:. 15597:. 15592:c. 15588:c. 15566:. 15562:. 15532:. 15528:. 15507:. 15499:. 15475:. 15443:. 15439:. 15414:. 15410:. 15362:. 15358:. 15354:. 15330:. 15305:. 15280:. 15276:. 15252:. 15248:. 15244:. 15216:. 15208:; 15189:. 15185:. 15161:. 15110:. 15106:. 15078:. 15074:. 15052:. 15048:. 15044:. 15023:. 15019:. 15000:. 14988:. 14986:21 14984:. 14961:. 14957:. 14931:. 14923:. 14909:17 14907:. 14883:. 14879:. 14858:. 14829:. 14801:. 14748:. 14722:. 14696:. 14692:. 14668:. 14660:. 14636:. 14608:. 14583:. 14555:. 14529:. 14511:. 14505:. 14482:. 14457:. 14429:. 14401:. 14397:. 14365:. 14340:. 14336:. 14312:. 14289:. 14285:. 14261:. 14257:. 14233:. 14229:. 14208:. 14204:. 14159:. 14127:. 14119:; 14092:. 14070:. 14066:. 14042:. 14014:. 14010:. 13989:. 13985:. 13961:. 13929:. 13925:. 13900:. 13896:. 13872:. 13841:. 13837:, 13809:. 13781:. 13749:. 13745:. 13720:. 13692:. 13667:. 13663:. 13659:. 13635:. 13631:. 13607:. 13579:. 13554:. 13550:. 13546:. 13525:. 13497:. 12261:^ 12066:^ 11895:^ 11868:^ 11517:^ 11298:^ 10611:^ 10222:^ 9859:^ 9820:^ 9685:^ 9538:^ 9475:^ 9196:^ 9181:^ 8698:^ 8119:^ 7876:^ 7705:^ 7690:^ 7483:^ 7456:^ 7369:^ 7222:; 7082:, 6964:, 6791:c. 6780:c. 6648:, 6435:c. 6276:c. 6253:, 6075:, 6010:, 5910:. 5905:c. 5839:c. 5764:, 5731:c. 5700:. 5675:c. 5635:. 5614:c. 5410:, 5301:, 5195:, 5161:, 5136:. 5069:. 5044:c. 4982:, 4923:c. 4913:; 4831:, 4735:, 4685:. 4629:c. 4579:c. 4557:. 4334:. 4180:, 4071:, 4040:. 3986:, 3982:, 3776:. 3589:. 3562:. 3495:. 3447:, 3443:, 3416:. 3365:. 3208:c. 3184:c. 3113:. 3049:. 2929:. 2891:. 2786:c. 2773:, 2731:. 2711:, 2668:. 2611:. 2598:c. 2545:, 2541:, 2537:, 2525:. 2496:c. 2478:, 2358:, 2354:, 2342:. 2244:. 2179:c. 2085:c. 1861:c. 1729:, 1608:, 1597:. 1553:. 1544:c. 1533:c. 1418:, 1406:A 1384:. 1357:. 1345:) 1337:, 1309:, 1298:. 1244:. 1236:. 1207:c. 1082:, 1058:, 921:, 893:r. 801:, 784:, 675:, 608:c. 573:: 546:. 475:. 295:, 289:. 277:, 69:c. 67:, 59:A 43:c. 19311:: 19259:: 18771:/ 18049:e 18042:t 18035:v 17705:) 17689:( 17476:e 17469:t 17462:v 17439:) 17412:) 17393:) 17378:) 17367:) 17347:( 17341:) 17288:) 17268:( 17247:) 17231:) 17215:( 17209:) 17193:( 17187:) 17183:( 17147:) 17135:( 17098:) 17090:- 17064:) 17053:) 16999:) 16987:( 16971:) 16959:( 16948:) 16936:( 16920:) 16908:( 16859:e 16852:t 16845:v 16236:e 16229:t 16222:v 16166:. 16141:. 16113:. 16085:. 16046:. 16018:. 15979:. 15936:. 15893:. 15868:. 15829:. 15804:. 15778:. 15739:. 15714:. 15682:. 15654:. 15615:. 15576:. 15542:. 15517:. 15485:. 15457:. 15424:. 15399:. 15372:. 15340:. 15315:. 15290:. 15262:. 15230:. 15199:. 15171:. 15146:. 15120:. 15088:. 15062:. 15033:. 15008:. 14996:: 14975:. 14939:. 14919:: 14893:. 14868:. 14843:. 14811:. 14785:. 14758:. 14732:. 14706:. 14678:. 14646:. 14618:. 14593:. 14565:. 14537:. 14523:: 14492:. 14467:. 14439:. 14411:. 14383:. 14354:. 14322:. 14299:. 14271:. 14243:. 14218:. 14190:. 14169:. 14141:. 14110:. 14080:. 14052:. 14024:. 13999:. 13971:. 13943:. 13910:. 13882:. 13851:. 13819:. 13791:. 13763:. 13730:. 13702:. 13677:. 13645:. 13617:. 13589:. 13564:. 13535:. 13507:. 7335:( 7238:. 7206:. 7123:. 7098:. 7014:. 6951:. 6930:. 6849:( 6837:( 6713:. 6664:. 6607:. 6590:. 6491:. 6440:. 6416:. 6395:. 6357:. 6340:. 6310:. 6285:. 6214:. 6049:( 6037:( 6025:— 5753:" 5749:" 5627:( 4205:. 3178:) 890:( 561:( 27:.

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index