Late antiquity - Knowledge

1606: 1597: 1588: 1378: 1642:, which had functioned as a law court or for imperial reception of foreign dignitaries, became the primary public building in the 4th century. Due to the stress on civic finances, cities spent money on walls, maintaining baths and markets at the expense of amphitheaters, temples, libraries, porticoes, gymnasia, concert and lecture halls, theaters and other amenities of public life. In any case, as Christianity took over, many of these buildings which were associated with pagan cults were neglected in favor of building churches and donating to the poor. The Christian basilica was copied from the civic structure with variations. The bishop took the chair in the apse reserved in secular structures for the magistrate—or the Emperor himself—as the representative here and now of 1110: 122: 1706: 754: 1250: 1901: 5979: 238: 1182: 5969: 1084:

the character of Islam and its development. Such historians point to similarities with other late antique religions and philosophies—especially Christianity—in the prominent role and manifestations of piety in Islam, in Islamic asceticism and the role of "holy persons", in the pattern of universalist, homogeneous monotheism tied to worldly and military power, in early Islamic engagement with Greek schools of thought, in the apocalypticism of

1021: 360: 25: 5989: 1840:. Jesus Christ had been more commonly depicted as an itinerant philosopher, teacher or as the "Good Shepherd", resembling the traditional iconography of Hermes. He was increasingly given Roman elite status, and shrouded in purple robes like the emperors with orb and scepter in hand — this new type of depiction is variously thought to be derived from either the iconography of 1161:), and those who did not; although they were well-born and thoroughly educated, a classical education and the election by the Senate to magistracies was no longer the path to success. Room at the top of late antique society was more bureaucratic and involved increasingly intricate channels of access to the emperor; the plain toga that had identified all members of the 1826:

Nearly all of these more abstracted conventions could be observed in the glittering mosaics of the era, which during this period moved from being decoration derivative from painting used on floors (and walls likely to become wet) to a major vehicle of religious art in churches. The glazed surfaces of

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the military, political and economic demands made by the Empire made the service in local government to be an onerous duty, often imposed as punishment. Harassed urban dwellers fled to the walled estates of the wealthy to avoid taxes, military service, famine and disease. In the Western Roman Empire

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in 541. In Europe there was also a general decline in urban populations. As a whole, the period of late antiquity was accompanied by an overall population decline in almost all Europe, and a reversion to more of a subsistence economy. Long-distance markets disappeared, and there was a reversion to a

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predecessors, much more emphasis was placed on demonstrating a symbolic fact rather than on rendering a realistic scene. As time progressed during the late antique period, art become more concerned with biblical themes and influenced by interactions of Christianity with the Roman state. Within this

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together with ones in the new style, shows the contrast especially clearly. In nearly all artistic media, simpler shapes were adopted and once natural designs were abstracted. Additionally hierarchy of scale overtook the preeminence of perspective and other classical models for representing spatial

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seems to react to contemporary religious and cultural issues shared by the late antique world at large. Further indication that Arabia (and thus the environment in which Islam first developed) was a part of the late antique world is found in the close economic and military relations between Arabia,

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On the other hand, there is a more recent thesis, associated with scholars in the tradition of Peter Brown, in which Islam is seen to be a product of the late antique world, not foreign to it. This school suggests that its origin within the shared cultural horizon of the late antique world explains

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On the rise of Islam, two main theses prevail. On the one hand, there is the traditional view, as espoused by most historians prior to the second half of the twentieth century (and after) and by Muslim scholars. This view, the so-called "out of Arabia"-thesis, holds that Islam as a phenomenon was a

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tradition largely influenced by ancient Greek art to the more iconic, stylized art of the Middle Ages. Unlike classical art, late antique art does not emphasize the beauty and movement of the body, but rather, hints at the spiritual reality behind its subjects. Additionally, mirroring the rise of

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In the cities the strained economies of Roman over-expansion arrested growth. Almost all new public building in late antiquity came directly or indirectly from the emperors or imperial officials. Attempts were made to maintain what was already there. The supply of free grain and oil to 20% of the

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is the end of the polis model. While there was a decline of urban life in late antiquity (especially in the West) the epoch brought with it new forms of political participation in the urban spaces as well. Especially the role of crowds and masses in cities has increased, leading to new levels of

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was not the only new Christian movement to appear in late antiquity, although it had perhaps the greatest influence and it achieved unprecedented geographical spread. It influenced many aspects of Christian religious life and led to a proliferation of various ascetic or semi-ascetic practices.

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City life in the East, though negatively affected by the plague in the 6th–7th centuries, finally collapsed due to Slavic invasions in the Balkans and Persian destructions in Anatolia in the 620s. City life continued in Syria, Jordan and Palestine into the 8th. In the later 6th century street

1753:(r. 235–238) emerged from the provinces in the 3rd century, they brought with them their own regional influences and artistic tastes. For example, artists jettisoned the classical portrayal of the human body for one that was more rigid and frontal. This is markedly evident in the combined 1497:

most towns and cities had been in decline, apart from a brief period of recovery during the fourth century, well before the withdrawal of Roman governors and garrisons but the process might well have stretched well into the fifth century. Historians emphasizing urban continuities with the

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especially, many cities destroyed by invasion or civil war in the 3rd century could not be rebuilt. Plague and famine hit the urban class in greater proportion, and thus the people who knew how to keep civic services running. Perhaps the greatest blow came in the wake of the

186:, who proposed a period between 150–750 AD. The Oxford Centre for Late Antiquity defines it as "the period between approximately 250 and 750 AD". Precise boundaries for the period are a continuing matter of debate. In the West, its end was earlier, with the start of the 1634:

and town houses. Scholarly opinion has revised this. They monopolized the higher offices in the imperial administration, but they were removed from military command by the late 3rd century. Their focus turned to preserving their vast wealth rather than fighting for it.

1662:, a staggering display of later Roman/Byzantine power and architectural taste, though the building is not architecturally a basilica. In the former Western Roman Empire almost no great buildings were constructed from the 5th century. A most outstanding example is the 839:

the 3rd century was a major step in the development of Christian spirituality. While it initially operated outside the episcopal authority of the Church, it would become hugely successful and by the 8th century it became one of the key Christian practices.

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touched shore in North Africa: the miraculous spring that gushed forth to give them water and the rural population that straightway abandoned their ploughshares for civilised life within the new walls, lend a certain taste of unreality to the project.

1301:. The degree and extent of discontinuity in the smaller cities of the Greek East is a moot subject among historians. The urban continuity of Constantinople is the outstanding example of the Mediterranean world; of the two great cities of lesser rank, 1152:

that security could be obtained only by combining their established roles in the local town with new ones as servants and representatives of a distant emperor and his traveling court. After Constantine centralized the government in his new capital of

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were locally organised, self-governing bodies of citizens governed by written constitutions. When Rome came to dominate the known world, local initiative and control were gradually subsumed by the ever-growing Imperial bureaucracy; by the

1959:. It also marks a shift in literary style, with a preference for encyclopedic works in a dense and allusive style, consisting of summaries of earlier works (anthologies, epitomes) often dressed up in elaborate allegorical garb (e.g., 1746:

Christianity and the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, painting and freestanding sculpture gradually fell from favor in the artistic community. Replacing them were greater interests in mosaics, architecture, and relief sculpture.

346:". This term has mostly been abandoned as a name for a historiographical epoch, being replaced by "Late Antiquity" in the periodization of the late Western Roman Empire, the early Byzantine Empire and the Early Middle Ages. 2504: 2586:

For a thesis on the complementary nature of Islam to the absolutist trend of Christian monarchy, see Garth Fowden, Empire to Commonwealth: Consequences of Monotheism in Late Antiquity, Princeton University Press

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presented to friends, as well as religious ones, both Christian and pagan – they seem to have been especially a vehicle for the last group of powerful pagans to resist Christianity, as in the late 4th century

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carved in relief had already become highly elaborate, and Christian versions adopted new styles, showing a series of different tightly packed scenes rather than one overall image (usually derived from Greek

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was replaced with the silk court vestments and jewelry associated with Byzantine imperial iconography. Also indicative of the times is the fact that the imperial cabinet of advisors came to be known as the

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lamented the destruction of the twenty-eight cities of Britain; though not all in his list can be identified with known Roman sites, Loyn finds no reason to doubt the essential truth of his statement.

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The city of Rome went from a population of 800,000 in the beginning of the period to a population of 30,000 by the end of the period, the most precipitous drop coming with the breaking of the

1222:(marketplace). Burials within the urban precincts mark another stage in dissolution of traditional urbanistic discipline, overpowered by the attraction of saintly shrines and relics. In 3331: 2488: 1456:. All of these cities were founded for military purposes and at least Reccopolis, Victoriacum, and Ologicus in celebration of victory. A possible fifth Visigothic foundation is 2354: 1566:, when the remaining trade networks ensured the Plague spread to the remaining commercial cities. The impact of this outbreak of plague has recently been disputed. The end of 1202:

The later Roman Empire was in a sense a network of cities. Archaeology now supplements literary sources to document the transformation followed by collapse of cities in the

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The Roman citizen elite in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, under the pressure of taxation and the ruinous cost of presenting spectacular public entertainments in the traditional

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the polemical treatise Against Vigilantius in order to, among other disputes concerning relics of the saints, promote the greater spiritual nature of celibacy over marriage

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population of Rome remained intact the last decades of the 5th century. It was once thought that the elite and rich had withdrawn to the private luxuries of their numerous

1518:, however, the rapidity and thoroughness with which its urban life collapsed with the dissolution of centralized bureaucracy calls into question the extent to which 338:. As a result of this decline, and the relative scarcity of historical records from Europe in particular, the period from roughly the early fifth century until the 2172: 5314: 801:

had made Christianity the State religion, thereby transforming the Classical Roman world, which Peter Brown characterized as "rustling with the presence of many

5432: 1530:, "owing their reason for being more to the military and administrative needs of Rome than to any economic virtue". The other institutional power centre, the 5798: 1847:

As for luxury arts, manuscript illumination on vellum and parchment emerged from the 5th century, with a few manuscripts of Roman literary classics like the

317:" tends to de-emphasize the disruptions in the former Western Roman Empire caused by the creation of Germanic kingdoms within her borders beginning with the 5304: 1364:

began to withdraw from them, as potential avenues of intrusion, and to rebuild in typically constricted fashion round an isolated fortified promontory, or

1157:(dedicated in 330), the late antique upper classes were divided among those who had access to the far-away centralized administration (in concert with the 5934: 1206:. Two diagnostic symptoms of decline—or as many historians prefer, 'transformation'—are subdivision, particularly of expansive formal spaces in both the 5179: 2813: 1172:, or those who would stand in courtly attendance upon their seated emperor, as distinct from the informal set of friends and advisors surrounding the 3521: 3530: 1241:. A similar though less marked decline in urban population occurred later in Constantinople, which was gaining population until the outbreak of the 954:(scroll), the former allowing for quicker access to key materials and easier portability than the fragile scroll, thus fueling the rise of synoptic 1076:

invasions marked—through conquest and the disruption of Mediterranean trade routes—the cataclysmic end of late antiquity and the beginning of the

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The general decline of population, technological knowledge and standards of living in Europe during this period became the archetypal example of

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led to the fall of the Ostrogothic and Vandal Kingdoms, and their reincorporation into the Empire, when the city of Rome and much of Italy and

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saw themselves as perpetuating the "Roman" tradition. While the usage "Late Antiquity" suggests that the social and cultural priorities of

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overthrew the Sasanian Empire and permanently wrested two thirds of the Eastern Roman Empire's territory from Roman control, forming the

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In the western Mediterranean, the only new cities known to be founded in Europe between the 5th and 8th centuries were the four or five

1370:; Cameron notes similar movement of populations in the Balkans, 'where inhabited centres contracted and regrouped around a defensible 5259: 2346: 908:

to create an organized but short-lived pagan state religion that ensured its underground survival into the Byzantine age and beyond.

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in 541). The effects of these events in the social and political life are still under discussion. In the 7th century the disastrous

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marked by pride, ambition and kinship solidarity, and differing from the married pagan leadership. Unlike later strictures on

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Within the recently legitimized Christian community of the 4th century, a division could be more distinctly seen between the

89: 461: 61: 5858: 5833: 5773: 4115: 1109: 1216:, and encroachment, in which artisans' shops invade the public thoroughfare, a transformation that was to result in the 5949: 3969: 2226: 1984: 1321: 596: 2662:, 1993:159ff, with notes; Hugh Kennedy, "From Polis to Madina: urban change in late Antique and early Islamic Syria", 1470:. The arrival of a highly urbanized Islamic culture in the decade following 711 ensured the survival of cities in the 511:

became the permanent imperial residence in the East by the 5th century and superseded Rome as the largest city in the

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Mordechai, Lee; Eisenberg, Merle; Newfield, Timothy P.; Izdebski, Adam; Kay, Janet E.; Poinar, Hendrik (2019-11-27).

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and the Sassanian Empire. In recent years, the period of late antiquity has become a major focus in the fields of

313:, the usage of "Early Middle Ages" or "Early Byzantine" emphasizes a break with the classical past, and the term " 222:

view of a stale and ossified Classical culture, in favour of a vibrant time of renewals and beginnings, and whose

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are stressed by writers who wish to emphasize that the seeds of medieval culture were already developing in the

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The Roman Empire underwent considerable social, cultural and organizational changes starting with the reign of

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greater degree of local production and consumption, rather than webs of commerce and specialized production.

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Mordechai, Lee; Eisenberg, Merle (2019-08-01). "Rejecting Catastrophe: The Case of the Justinianic Plague".

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offered a new paradigm of understanding the changes in Western culture of the time in order to confront Sir

6013: 5249: 5234: 5129: 3549: 2493:. Cambridge elements in religion in late antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 58–63. 2458:. Oxford handbooks. New York, New York, United States of America: Oxford University Press. pp. 35–50. 2047: 2038:, dedicated to the composition of commentaries, homilies, and treatises concerned with the exegesis of the 1978: 1820: 817: 57: 5914: 4655: 4166: 4079: 4074: 3690: 2407: 1554: 1360:

are typical of Byzantine urban sites in Greece. In Italy, populations that had clustered within reach of

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expresses the sense of moral decadence that coloured the 19th-century historical view of the 5th century.

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Gasper, Giles (2024). "On the Six Days of Creation: The Hexaemeral Tradition". In Goroncy, Jason (ed.).

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Byzantine art in the making: main lines of stylistic development in Mediterranean art, 3rd–7th century

206:, literally "late antiquity", has been used by German-speaking historians since its popularization by 5632: 5395: 5174: 5134: 4575: 4105: 3859: 3820: 3291: 1889: 982:

male leadership. These men presented themselves as removed from the traditional Roman motivations of

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José María Lacarra, "Panorama de la historia urbana en la Península Ibérica desde el siglo V al X,"

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than out of an urbanistic necessity; another "city", was reputed to have been founded, according to

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Islam appeared in the 7th century, spurring Arab armies to invade the Eastern Roman Empire and the

1002:. Celibate and detached, the upper clergy became an elite equal in prestige to urban notables, the 873: 734:

One of the most important transformations in late antiquity was the formation and evolution of the

437: 5587: 5557: 5052: 4960: 4259: 4254: 4110: 3768: 3534: 3525: 3185: 2142: 1987:—both later key works in medieval education). The 4th and 5th centuries also saw an explosion of 1655: 1481:

withdrew within a constricted line of defense around a citadel. Former imperial capitals such as

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Robert L. Vann, "Byzantine street construction at Caesarea Maritima", in R.L. Hohlfelder, ed.

2996:"A Restless City: Edessa and Urban Actors in the Syriac Acts of the Second Council of Ephesus" 1605: 1596: 1587: 1285:

came later, in the 7th century, as the Eastern Roman, or Byzantine Empire centered around the

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Roman infrastructure in early medieval Britain: the adaptations of the past in text and stone

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A recent thesis advanced by Peter Heather of Oxford posits the Goths, Hunnic Empire, and the

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and spread both East and West, for a time contending with Christianity in the Roman Empire.

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abandoned their cities for fortified sites in nearby high places; the fortified heights of

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Age of spirituality : late antique and early Christian art, third to seventh century

2094: 2075: 2059: 1944: 1940: 1877: 1848: 1841: 1799: 1781: 1690: 1567: 1563: 1541: 1306: 1242: 1203: 930: 897: 735: 669: 604: 600: 577: 516: 493: 465: 302: 175: 163: 3032: 2913: 2818:. Early medieval North Atlantic. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. pp. 87–91. 1737:. As a complicated period bridging between Roman art and later medieval styles (such as 549:

tribes disrupted Roman rule from the late 4th century onwards, culminating first in the

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in the early 20th century. It was given currency in English partly by the writings of

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are only among the most renowned representatives. On the other hand, authors such as

1996: 1964: 1956: 1952: 1948: 1936: 1852: 1723: 1686: 1345: 1254: 995: 991: 889: 717: 689: 589: 585: 512: 331: 274: 187: 134: 5349: 3335:. Elements in Late Antique Religion 2. Cambridge: Camabridge University Press, 2023. 3062:

M. Whittow, "Ruling the late Roman and early Byzantine city: a continuous history",

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Robert Hoyland, 'Early Islam as a Late Antique Religion', in: Scott F. Johnson ed.,

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within cities seems to be a result of increased gardening in formerly urban spaces.

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Medieval monasticisms: forms and experiences of the monastic life in the Latin West

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Christian subcategory of Roman art, dramatic changes were also taking place in the

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The stylistic changes characteristic of late antique art mark the end of classical

1651: 1094: 1049: 1037: 743: 713: 616: 538: 534: 441: 314: 290: 282: 278: 227: 137: 3518:, a Catholic website with English translations of the Early Fathers of the Church. 3204:

Authority and the Sacred : Aspects of the Christianisation of the Roman World

3008: 2995: 5939: 5853: 5823: 5547: 5464: 5339: 5279: 5164: 5012: 5007: 4985: 4905: 4859: 4616: 4570: 4468: 4445: 4428: 4401: 4186: 4049: 4024: 3812: 3795: 3640: 3561: 3384: 2658:'The changing city' in "Urban changes and the end of Antiquity", Averil Cameron, 2304: 2117: 2004: 1750: 1421: 1353: 1234: 1098: 1057: 854: 485: 425: 126: 1313:

survived its Islamic transformation, to suffer incremental decline in favour of

5843: 5788: 5742: 5695: 5675: 5519: 5369: 5289: 5244: 5184: 5149: 4941: 4854: 4759: 4667: 4458: 4215: 3999: 3989: 3984: 3979: 3959: 3949: 3864: 3807: 3663: 3253: 2028: 1915: 1806:, previously distrusted by Christians as it was so important in pagan worship. 1719: 1674: 1278: 1154: 1144: 1069: 1053: 987: 866: 790: 789:. Constantine confirmed the legalization of the religion through the so-called 528: 520: 508: 457: 148: 130: 3545: 2631: 2611: 2473: 2453: 1464:), mentioned as founded by Reccared in the 15th-century geographical account, 1336:' panegyric on Justinian's buildings, precisely at the spot where the general 588:, Germanic, and Christian traditions formed the foundations of the subsequent 6007: 5602: 5324: 5209: 5124: 5069: 4929: 4849: 4744: 4594: 4587: 4480: 4433: 4326: 4182: 4095: 3894: 3539: 3378:

The Later Roman Empire, 284–602; a social, economic and administrative survey

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In the field of literature, late antiquity is known for the declining use of

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Cf. the compendious list of ranks and liveries of imperial bureaucrats, the

1815:) as was the norm. Soon the scenes were split into two registers, as in the 1697:

with massive payments in gold in 540 and 544, before it was overrun in 609.

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The middle of the 6th century was characterized by extreme climate events (

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The World of Late Antiquity: from Marcus Aurelius to Muhammad (CE 150–750)

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Julian's Gods: Religion and Philosophy in the Thought and Action of Julian

2298:"The late Roman period (which we are defining as, roughly, CE 250–450)..." 2297: 1876:

of silver plate are especially common from the 4th century, including the

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sparkled in the light and illuminated the basilica churches. Unlike their

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Contested Monarchy. Integrating the Roman Empire in the Fourth Century CE

1920: 1900: 1885: 1741:), the late antique period saw a transition from the classical idealized 1678: 1531: 1357: 1249: 1077: 1029: 934: 926: 853:

counted among the more extreme forms but through such personalities like

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typically placed in the 6th century, or even earlier on the edges of the

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Tomas Hägg (ed.) "SO Debate: The World of Late Antiquity revisited," in

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According to E. A Thompson, "The Barbarian Kingdoms in Gaul and Spain",

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in 325, subsidized the building of churches and sanctuaries such as the

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returned to imperial control. Though most of Italy was soon part of the

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empire, and that they continued to do so in the Eastern Roman Empire or

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From Constantine to Julian: Pagan and Byzantine Views, A Source History

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One genre of literature among Christian writers in this period was the

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In the 6th century, Roman imperial rule continued in the East, and the

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The Fall of the Roman Empire: a New History of Rome and the Barbarians

1506:. Aside from a mere handful of its continuously inhabited sites, like 1181: 237: 5803: 5572: 5264: 5101: 4836: 4798: 4391: 4205: 3849: 2098: 1803: 1730: 1449: 1417: 1371: 1333: 1266: 1190: 1186: 1149: 1128: 1068:

new, alien element in the late antique world. Related to this is the

941: 918: 893: 846: 681: 636: 632: 554: 421: 319: 298: 3578: 3515: 3332:

Monasticism and the City in Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages

2490:

Monasticism and the city in late antiquity and the early Middle Ages

359: 24: 5838: 5715: 5592: 5254: 4950: 4771: 4599: 4514: 4453: 4416: 4059: 3854: 2106: 2090: 2082: 1828: 1777: 1639: 1503: 1429: 1401: 1213: 1127:

The late antique period also saw a wholesale transformation of the

1020: 994:, celibacy in late antique Christianity sometimes took the form of 979: 955: 914: 901: 850: 829: 794: 693: 650: 574: 445: 170:, from around the late 3rd century up to the 7th or 8th century in 3218:

The Rise of Western Christendom: Triumph and Diversity 200–1000 CE

2895: 1823:(the last of these exemplifying a partial revival of classicism). 5479: 5169: 5024: 4936: 3929: 3740: 3522:

ORB Encyclopedia's section on Late Antiquity in the Mediterranean

2280:

Glen W. Bowersock, "The Vanishing Paradigm of the Fall of Rome",

2239: 2199:"Research Guides: Late Antiquity: A Resource Guide: Introduction" 1860: 1482: 1461: 1445: 1302: 1286: 1258: 1162: 1132: 1008: 948: 581: 562: 144: 2686:. Social and economic history of England. Vol. 1. Longman. 569:

itself by 476. The Western Empire was replaced by the so-called

5189: 2110: 2067: 2012: 1832: 1785: 1773: 1761: 1535: 1511: 1490: 1385: 1262: 1061: 1041: 999: 858: 716:, and together with the establishment of the later 7th century 527:

was constructed to supply it with water, and the tallest Roman

306: 171: 152: 16:

Post-classical antiquity in western Eurasia and northern Africa

1265:. The pillars on the left side of the street were part of the 998:

after marriage, and it came to be the expected norm for urban

5154: 5144: 5139: 4611: 4606: 1873: 1631: 1545: 1489:

lived on in diminished form as administrative centres of the

1486: 1453: 1314: 1208: 1089: 975: 869:

monastic attitudes penetrated other areas of Christian life.

802: 747: 685: 324: 246: 3310:

Pagan City and Christian Capital: Rome in the Fourth Century

2296:

The Oxford Centre for Late Antiquity dates this as follows:

1374:, or were abandoned in favour of such positions elsewhere." 1277:

Concurrently, the continuity of the Eastern Roman Empire at

781:(r. 306–337) in 312, as claimed by his Christian panegyrist 5284: 2046:, with the first occurrence in Syriac literature being the 1647: 1507: 1478: 1305:

was devastated by the Persian sack of 540, followed by the

1218: 1073: 808:

Constantine I was a key figure in many important events in

762: 641: 542: 3144: 3132: 3120: 3096: 1923:

in Greek, a rare example of a late antique scientific text

824:, and involved himself in questions such as the timing of 3072: 940:

Many of the new religions relied on the emergence of the

3108: 2873:

Freiheitsbeschränkungen der Dekurionen in der Spätantike

1544:

can generally be defined as an age of cities; the Greek

5269: 2486: 1863:

were used for secular subjects, as in the imperial and

3084: 2898:"The Justinianic Plague: An inconsequential pandemic?" 1193:, capital of the Sasanian Empire, photographed in 1864 3051:

City, Town and Countryside in the Early Byzantine Ear

2725:

The Mediterranean World in Late Antiquity, CE 395–600

2660:

The Mediterranean World in Late Antiquity, CE 395–600

2282:

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences

1802:

began to create new public forms, which now included

1028:

the provinces of Syria and Egypt – the same time the

428:

and began a new phase of the Roman–Persian Wars, the

3272:

The Mediterranean World in Late Antiquity CE 395–700

2613:

Early Islam: the sectarian milieu of late antiquity?

1646:, the Ruler of All, his characteristic late antique 416:, who began the custom of splitting the Empire into 182:

in English has generally been credited to historian

3487:

The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire

2173:

Church of the priest Félix and baptistry of Kélibia

1618:: ms. O.17.2 (the "Freshfield album"), folios 11–13 1502:depend largely on the post-Roman survival of Roman 793:in 313, jointly issued with his rival in the East, 241:Late 4th-century Roman bust of a Germanic slave in 49:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 3502:T&T Clark Handbook of the Doctrine of Creation 3380:, vols. I, II, University of Oklahoma Press, 1964. 3156: 2962: 2487:Fafinski, Mateusz; Riemenschneider, Jakob (2023). 178:depending on location. The popularisation of this 3421:The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine 3288:, vols. 12–14, Cambridge University Press 1997ff. 3030: 2376:The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine 1309:(542 onwards) and completed by earthquake, while 1044:, destroying the latter. After conquering all of 162:is sometimes defined as spanning from the end of 6005: 3440:Josef Lössl and Nicholas J. Baker-Brian (eds.), 2058:Greek poets of the late antique period included 1658:in Rome) were themselves outdone by Justinian's 3480:A History of the Later Roman Empire. CE 284–641 3449:The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian 2902:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1859:(420–430) is the oldest survivor. Carved ivory 1452:as a fortification against the Basques, modern 1253:View west along the Harbour Street towards the 797:(r. 308–324). By the late 4th century, Emperor 627:, and the first outbreak of the centuries-long 1477:Beyond the Mediterranean world, the cities of 880:sects, some formed centuries earlier, such as 5396: 4181: 4167: 3594: 3540:Princeton/Stanford Working Papers in Classics 3341:Profilo storico della letteratura tardolatina 3329:Mateusz Fafinski, and Jakob Riemenschneider. 1855:, but increasingly Christian texts, of which 1522:had ever become authentically urbanized: "in 962:. Notable in this regard is the topic of the 720:, generally marks the end of late antiquity. 3473:Christianizing the Roman Empire C.E. 100–400 3456:The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Attila 2712:The Fall of Rome and the End of Civilization 2524: 2455:The Oxford handbook of Christian monasticism 2347:"Christianity in the Roman Empire (article)" 1784:in Rome, which re-used earlier classicising 1226:, the typical 4th- and 5th-century layer of 1104: 710:Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty 2684:Anglo-Saxon England and the Norman Conquest 1976: 1269:walkway apparent in cities of late antique 523:system, the 250 km (160 mi)-long 440:of Christians in the early 4th century was 5403: 5389: 4174: 4160: 3601: 3587: 3504:. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 176–190. 2267:A. Giardina, "Esplosione di tardoantico", 896:. Culminating in the reforms advocated by 787:the sincerity of his conversion is debated 3442:A Companion to Religion in Late Antiquity 3383: 3296:Late Antiquity: A Very Short Introduction 3150: 3138: 3126: 3114: 3102: 3090: 3078: 3007: 2939: 2921: 2451: 2334:Late Antiquity: A Very Short Introduction 1526:towns appeared a shade exotic," observes 400:Learn how and when to remove this message 342:(or later still) was referred to as the " 109:Learn how and when to remove this message 5410: 2993: 2811: 2404:Constantine and the Conversion of Europe 1899: 1704: 1650:. These ecclesiastical basilicas (e.g., 1376: 1248: 1180: 1108: 1019: 752: 236: 151:in the first half of the sixth century ( 120: 2870: 2857: 2855: 2590: 1935:, and the rise of literary cultures in 1344:In mainland Greece, the inhabitants of 488:. During the late 4th century reign of 6006: 3516:New Advent – The Fathers of the Church 3499: 3485:Michael Rostovtzeff (rev. P. Fraser), 3162: 5384: 4155: 3608: 3582: 3364:The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity 3322:Peter Dinzelbacher and Werner Heinz, 3033:"Late Antiquity: The Age of Crowds?*" 2598:The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity 1685:construction was still undertaken in 1534:, did not survive in Britain either. 1281:meant that the turning-point for the 1052:, the Islamic invasion was halted by 424:. The Sasanian Empire supplanted the 3180:Passages from Antiquity to Feudalism 3031:Magalhães de Oliveira, Juan Caesar. 2852: 2800:Estudios de alta edad media española 2746:I.15.3ff, noted by Cameron 1993:158. 2678: 2326: 2042:. The first example of this was the 1700: 1320:Justinian rebuilt his birthplace in 1015: 872:Late antiquity marks the decline of 645:of which is the largest single-span 462:Christianization of the Roman Empire 382:adding citations to reliable sources 353: 47:adding citations to reliable sources 18: 5988: 5433:Decline of the Western Roman Empire 4116:History of the Mediterranean region 3575:from The Metropolitan Museum of Art 3465:, Cambridge University Press, 1990. 3458:, Cambridge University Press, 2015. 3451:, Cambridge University Press, 2005. 3423:, Cambridge University Press, 2006. 3232:Westrom. Von Honorius bis Justinian 2609: 2452:Kaczynski, Bernice M., ed. (2020). 1420:, which may survive as the city of 584:. The resultant cultural fusion of 464:was extended by the conversions of 13: 5525:Growth of the Eastern Roman Empire 3414:Rome in Late Antiquity: CE 313–604 3260:, Harvard University Press, 1993, 3258:The Later Roman Empire: CE 284–430 2196: 1961:De nuptiis Mercurii et Philologiae 1624: 969: 567:collapse of the Empire in the West 484:, who later invaded and ended the 14: 6060: 5955:Historiography in the Middle Ages 5365:Western European and Others Group 3509: 3366:, Oxford University Press, 2012, 3298:, Oxford University Press, 2011, 3284:Averil Cameron et al. (editors), 1991:, of which Greek writers such as 1560:extreme weather events of 535–536 917:developed in India and along the 674:Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 668:) and a disastrous pandemic (the 349: 174:and adjacent areas bordering the 5987: 5978: 5977: 5967: 4101:Bibliography of European history 3696:Fall of the Western Roman Empire 3496:, Oxford University Press, 2015. 3489:, Oxford University Press, 1979. 3344:, Pavia University Press, 2013, 2994:Fafinski, Mateusz (2024-04-04). 2723:Bibliography in Averil Cameron, 2153:Fall of the Western Roman Empire 1749:As the soldier emperors such as 1604: 1595: 1586: 1580:, Constantinople (built 401–421) 1135:basis of life in and around the 996:abstinence from sexual relations 653:in the world and the triumph of 615:endured, ensuring the so-called 502:state church of the Roman Empire 422:multiple emperors simultaneously 358: 23: 5453:Christianity in the Middle Ages 5448:Decline of Hellenistic religion 4126:History of Western civilization 3729:Christianity in the Middle Ages 3463:The end of Ancient Christianity 3056: 3043: 3024: 2987: 2956: 2889: 2864: 2843: 2832:from the original on 2024-04-16 2805: 2784: 2767: 2758: 2749: 2730: 2717: 2700: 2672: 2652: 2638: 2603: 2580: 2571: 2555: 2543: 2518: 2507:from the original on 2024-04-16 2480: 2445: 2433: 2421: 2393: 2368: 2357:from the original on 2024-04-29 2250:from the original on 2024-01-24 2209:from the original on 2023-11-05 2044:Hexaemeron of Basil of Caesarea 2031:alive in the Byzantine empire. 1024:The Byzantine Empire after the 460:in the Empire. The 4th century 369:needs additional citations for 289:. Concurrently, some migrating 147:, from an imperial workshop in 34:needs additional citations for 5731:Crisis of the late Middle Ages 3970:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 3913:Christianity in the modern era 3684:Christianity in late antiquity 3546:The End of the Classical World 3475:, Yale University Press, 1984. 2442:, Vita Constantini 3.5–6, 4.47 2339: 2309: 2290: 2274: 2261: 2232: 2220: 2190: 1844:or of classical philosophers. 1758:Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs 777:was the conversion of Emperor 730:Christianity in late antiquity 662:the volcanic winter of 535–536 635:, the Sasanians completed the 420:and Western portions ruled by 259:Rheinisches Landesmuseum Trier 197: 1: 5905:Disability in the Middle Ages 5578:Rise of the Republic of Genoa 5510:Rise of the Venetian Republic 4121:History of the European Union 3286:The Cambridge Ancient History 3172: 3009:10.1080/09503110.2024.2331915 2798:(1958:319–358). Reprinted in 2562: 2525:Vanderputten, Steven (2020). 2048:Hexaemeron of Jacob of Serugh 1895: 1793: 1667: 698:Muslim conquest of the Levant 684:facilitated the emergence of 565:in 455, part of the eventual 265:The continuities between the 255:praetorian prefecture of Gaul 232:The Making of the Middle Ages 6024:History of the Mediterranean 3550:Internet Medieval Sourcebook 3548:, source documents from the 2875:(Thesis). Hildesheim: Olms. 2802:(Valencia: 1975), pp. 25–90. 2775:Nottingham Mediaeval Studies 2764:"Arte Visigótico: Recópolis" 2610:Dye, Guillaume, ed. (2022). 2600:(Oxford 2012) pp. 1053–1077. 1979:De consolatione philosophiae 1821:Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus 818:Church of the Holy Sepulchre 619:. Justinian constructed the 599:continued. The campaigns of 436:became more pronounced. The 432:. The divisions between the 224:The Making of Late Antiquity 7: 4080:Russian invasion of Ukraine 3691:Crisis of the Third Century 3482:, 2nd ed., Blackwell, 2015. 3192:, Thames and Hudson, 1989, 2871:Baumann, Alexander (2014). 2792:La città nell'alto medioevo 2561:Jerome of Stridon wrote in 2408:University of Toronto Press 2227:The World of Late Antiquity 2131: 1555:Crisis of the Third Century 1163:Republican senatorial class 964:Fifty Bibles of Constantine 723: 666:Late Antique Little Ice Age 269:, as it was reorganized by 216:The World of Late Antiquity 10: 6065: 5706:Rise of the Ottoman Empire 4136:Military history of Europe 4131:Maritime history of Europe 3566:University of Pennsylvania 3531:Overview of Late Antiquity 2812:Fafinski, Mateusz (2021). 2380:Cambridge University Press 2287:.8 (May 1996:29–43) p. 34. 2040:Genesis creation narrative 2007:and Latin writers such as 1870:Symmachi–Nicomachi diptych 1857:Quedlinburg Itala fragment 1616:Trinity College, Cambridge 765:, where he was proclaimed 727: 166:to the local start of the 5963: 5892: 5751: 5646: 5633:Mongol invasion of Europe 5538: 5418: 5135:Anglo-Portuguese Alliance 5115: 5033: 4870: 4705: 4576:Standard Average European 4444: 4273: 4193: 4106:Genetic history of Europe 4088: 3893: 3709: 3649: 3616: 2577:Brown (1987) p. 270. 2382:, 2006), "Introduction". 2053: 1890:Missorium of Theodosius I 1673:at a cost of 26,000 gold 1197: 1105:Political transformations 1072:, according to which the 906:Flavius Claudius Julianus 434:Greek East and Latin West 5275:Lancaster House Treaties 4765:Christian existentialism 4725:Ancient Roman philosophy 4715:Ancient Greek philosophy 3555:Worlds of Late Antiquity 3492:Johannes Wienand (ed.), 3444:, Wiley Blackwell, 2018. 3324:Europa in der Spätantike 3312:, Clarendon Press, 2000. 2429:Authority and the Sacred 2183: 1412:is one: the others were 1317:in the medieval period. 828:and its relation to the 438:Diocletianic Persecution 5588:Investiture Controversy 5558:Second Bulgarian Empire 5053:Equality before the law 4260:Romano-Germanic culture 4111:History of Christianity 2923:10.1073/pnas.1903797116 2336:(Oxford 2011), pp. 1–2. 1908:, an early 6th-century 1666:in Ravenna constructed 1410:province of Guadalajara 1390:Villa Romana del Casale 1328:, more in a gesture of 1121:John William Waterhouse 714:middle Byzantine period 692:during the lifetime of 609:Kingdom of the Lombards 597:Byzantine-Sasanian wars 340:Carolingian Renaissance 5945:Post-classical history 5701:Fall of Constantinople 5608:Capet–Plantagenet feud 5475:First Bulgarian Empire 5215:Eastern European Group 4804:Continental philosophy 4735:Judeo-Christian ethics 4720:Hellenistic philosophy 4201:Cradle of civilization 3935:Grand Duchy of Tuscany 3362:Scott F. Johnson ed., 2739:Buildings of Justinian 2116:Jewish poets included 1977: 1924: 1910:illuminated manuscript 1739:that of the Byzantines 1733:and the beginnings of 1726: 1664:Basilica of San Vitale 1474:into the Middle Ages. 1467:Kitab al-Rawd al-Mitar 1397: 1274: 1194: 1148:, had found under the 1124: 1114:The Favourites of the 1033: 1032:settled in the Balkans 947:(bound book) over the 892:, some novel, such as 775:spread of Christianity 770: 625:Byzantine architecture 557:in 410 and subsequent 273:(r. 284–305), and the 262: 156: 143:leaf from an imperial 5335:Three Seas Initiative 5310:Pacific Islands Forum 5175:British–Irish Council 4923:Greek Orthodox Church 4382:Industrial Revolution 4352:Scientific Revolution 4015:Industrial Revolution 3319:, 2nd ed., Beck, 2007 2317:Rhine invaders of 406 2081:Latin poets included 2025:Procopius of Caesarea 1903: 1708: 1380: 1252: 1184: 1112: 1101:and Islamic origins. 1023: 837:Christian monasticism 826:Christ's resurrection 779:Constantine the Great 756: 676:and the campaigns of 655:Sasanian architecture 629:first plague pandemic 623:, a great example of 450:Constantine the Great 334:for writers from the 327:in Aquitania in 418. 240: 124: 5925:Medieval reenactment 5721:Renaissance Humanism 5628:Medieval Warm Period 5598:Republic of Florence 5412:European Middle Ages 5330:Special Relationship 4740:Christian philosophy 4685:Western Christianity 4347:Age of Enlightenment 4221:Hellenistic Kingdoms 4070:European debt crisis 4065:European integration 4005:Age of Enlightenment 3845:Republic of Florence 3454:Michael Maas (ed.), 3447:Michael Maas (ed.), 3182:, NLB, London, 1974. 2973:10.1093/pastj/gtz009 2549:Smith, Rowland B.E. 2440:Eusebius of Caesarea 2103:Sidonius Apollinaris 2072:Romanus the Melodist 2021:Ammianus Marcellinus 2001:Gregory of Nazianzus 1993:Eusebius of Caesarea 1989:Christian literature 1817:Dogmatic Sarcophagus 1718:, later sacked from 1693:was able to deflect 978:and an increasingly 874:Roman state religion 799:Theodosius the Great 783:Eusebius of Caesarea 613:Exarchate of Ravenna 531:were erected there. 378:improve this article 192:Western Roman Empire 43:improve this article 6014:Classical antiquity 5638:Kingdom of Portugal 5505:Old Church Slavonic 5490:Anglo-Saxon England 5355:West Nordic Council 5220:Eastern Partnership 4809:Analytic philosophy 4510:Classical tradition 4332:Early modern period 4288:Classical antiquity 4283:European Bronze Age 4035:Revolutions of 1848 3965:Early modern France 3746:Anglo-Saxon England 3651:Classical antiquity 3419:Noel Lenski (ed.), 3376:Arnold H.M. Jones, 3315:Alexander Demandt, 3274:, Routledge, 2011, 3220:, Blackwell, 2003, 3206:, Routledge, 1997, 2914:2019PNAS..11625546M 2908:(51): 25546–25554. 2680:Loyn, Henry Royston 2374:Noel Lenski (ed.), 2095:Rutilius Namatianus 2076:Paul the Silentiary 2060:Antoninus Liberalis 1888:, and the imperial 1878:Mildenhall Treasure 1849:Vergilius Vaticanus 1800:Early Christian art 1782:Arch of Constantine 1568:classical antiquity 1564:Plague of Justinian 1542:Classical antiquity 1307:plague of Justinian 1243:Plague of Justinian 1204:Mediterranean Basin 1088:and in the way the 898:Apollonius of Tyana 773:A milestone in the 736:Abrahamic religions 670:Plague of Justinian 601:Justinian the Great 578:Ostrogothic Kingdom 517:Mediterranean Basin 494:Nicene Christianity 466:Tiridates the Great 430:Roman–Sasanian Wars 305:endured throughout 303:classical antiquity 285:at least until the 218:(1971) revised the 176:Mediterranean Basin 164:classical antiquity 5819:In popular culture 5784:Crusading movement 5656:Hundred Years' War 5515:Civitas Schinesghe 5500:Carolingian Empire 5485:Kingdom of Croatia 5438:Barbarian kingdoms 4814:Post-structuralism 4777:Christian humanism 4407:Universal suffrage 4141:Crusading movement 4045:Russian Revolution 3880:Hundred Years' War 3776:Maritime republics 3679:Early Christianity 3669:Hellenistic period 3626:Paleolithic Europe 3560:2005-06-06 at the 3478:Stephen Mitchell, 3437:, Routledge, 1996. 3431:Dominic Montserrat 3416:, Routledge, 2001. 3357:Symbolae Osloenses 2965:Past & Present 2727:, 1993:152 note 1. 2708:Bryan Ward-Perkins 2647:Notitia Dignitatum 2303:2017-07-06 at the 2168:Roman–Persian Wars 2122:Eleazar ben Killir 2023:(4th century) and 2017:Augustine of Hippo 1925: 1906:Vienna Dioscurides 1882:Esquiline Treasure 1838:Depiction of Jesus 1727: 1711:The Four Tetrarchs 1689:in Palestine, and 1644:Christ Pantocrator 1578:Column of Arcadius 1500:Anglo-Saxon period 1434:Isidore of Seville 1404:"victory cities". 1398: 1275: 1195: 1125: 1034: 904:and formulated by 771: 706:Rashidun Caliphate 571:barbarian kingdoms 525:Aqueduct of Valens 267:later Roman Empire 263: 243:Augusta Treverorum 157: 6019:History by period 6001: 6000: 5910:Basic topics list 5711:Swiss mercenaries 5661:Wars of the Roses 5568:Kingdom of Poland 5553:Holy Roman Empire 5420:Early Middle Ages 5378: 5377: 5205:Council of Europe 5107:International law 5060:Constitutionalism 4918:Eastern Orthodoxy 4424:Post–Cold War era 4357:Age of Revolution 4211:Greco-Roman world 4149: 4148: 4075:COVID-19 pandemic 4020:French Revolution 3995:Habsburg monarchy 3975:Cossack Hetmanate 3955:Portuguese Empire 3945:Absolute monarchy 3940:Thirty Years' War 3835:Holy Roman Empire 3760:Bulgarian Empire 3719:Early Middle Ages 3636:Bronze Age Europe 3610:History of Europe 3393:Faber & Faber 3372:978-0-19-533693-1 3350:978-88-96764-09-1 3304:978-0-19-954620-6 3248:Review in English 3244:978-3-17-023276-1 3236:Kohlhammer Verlag 3153:, pp. 34–38. 3141:, pp. 29–34. 3129:, pp. 15–28. 3105:, pp. 12–13. 2825:978-90-485-5197-2 2755:Cameron 1993:159. 2623:978-2-8004-1814-8 2536:978-3-11-054378-0 2500:978-1-108-98931-2 2465:978-0-19-968973-6 2388:978-0-521-81838-4 2244:www.ocla.ox.ac.uk 2158:Early Middle Ages 2064:Quintus Smyrnaeus 1997:Basil of Caesarea 1965:Martianus Capella 1865:consular diptychs 1853:Vergilius Romanus 1724:St. Marks, Venice 1701:Sculpture and art 1687:Caesarea Maritima 1448:labour in 621 by 1444:), founded using 1432:, referred to by 1426:Lugo id est Luceo 1255:Library of Celsus 1185:The ruins of the 1016:The rise of Islam 992:priestly celibacy 900:being adopted by 890:Chaldaean oracles 867:Gregory the Great 810:Christian history 757:Modern statue of 746:and, eventually, 718:Umayyad Caliphate 690:Arabian Peninsula 590:culture of Europe 580:ruling Rome from 529:triumphal columns 513:Late Roman Empire 410: 409: 402: 332:societal collapse 275:Early Middle Ages 188:Early Middle Ages 119: 118: 111: 93: 6056: 5991: 5990: 5981: 5980: 5971: 5930:Medieval studies 5774:Church and State 5648:Late Middle Ages 5540:High Middle Ages 5458:Christianization 5428:Migration Period 5405: 5398: 5391: 5382: 5381: 5250:EU Customs Union 4782:Secular humanism 4730:Christian ethics 4680:East–West Schism 4663:Physical culture 4387:Great Divergence 4337:Age of Discovery 4176: 4169: 4162: 4153: 4152: 4010:Great Divergence 3925:Age of Discovery 3870:Late Middle Ages 3840:High Middle Ages 3751:Byzantine Empire 3734:Christianization 3724:Migration Period 3659:Classical Greece 3631:Neolithic Europe 3603: 3596: 3589: 3580: 3579: 3505: 3469:Ramsay MacMullen 3427:Samuel N.C. Lieu 3406: 3385:Kitzinger, Ernst 3270:Averil Cameron, 3178:Perry Anderson, 3166: 3160: 3154: 3148: 3142: 3136: 3130: 3124: 3118: 3112: 3106: 3100: 3094: 3088: 3082: 3081:, pp. 2–21. 3076: 3070: 3064:Past and Present 3060: 3054: 3047: 3041: 3040: 3037:Past and Present 3028: 3022: 3021: 3011: 2991: 2985: 2984: 2960: 2954: 2953: 2943: 2925: 2893: 2887: 2886: 2868: 2862: 2859: 2850: 2847: 2841: 2840: 2838: 2837: 2809: 2803: 2788: 2782: 2771: 2765: 2762: 2756: 2753: 2747: 2734: 2728: 2721: 2715: 2704: 2698: 2697: 2676: 2670: 2664:Past and Present 2656: 2650: 2642: 2636: 2635: 2607: 2601: 2594: 2588: 2584: 2578: 2575: 2569: 2567: 2564: 2559: 2553: 2547: 2541: 2540: 2522: 2516: 2515: 2513: 2512: 2484: 2478: 2477: 2449: 2443: 2437: 2431: 2425: 2419: 2410:, 2003), p. 73. 2397: 2391: 2372: 2366: 2365: 2363: 2362: 2343: 2337: 2330: 2324: 2313: 2307: 2294: 2288: 2278: 2272: 2265: 2259: 2258: 2256: 2255: 2236: 2230: 2224: 2218: 2217: 2215: 2214: 2197:Gaudio, Andrew. 2194: 2178:Low Roman Empire 2163:Migration Period 2138:Byzantine Empire 2087:Paulinus of Nola 2009:Ambrose of Milan 1982: 1813:history painting 1798: 1795: 1672: 1669: 1652:St. John Lateran 1608: 1599: 1590: 1460:(perhaps modern 1396:, 4th century CE 1326:Justiniana Prima 1289:, North Africa ( 1159:great landowners 1116:Emperor Honorius 1095:Byzantine Empire 1086:Islamic theology 1050:Visigothic Spain 1038:Sassanian Empire 933:faith, arose in 744:Rabbinic Judaism 649:of unreinforced 617:Byzantine Papacy 405: 398: 394: 391: 385: 362: 354: 315:Migration Period 283:Byzantine Empire 228:Richard Southern 114: 107: 103: 100: 94: 92: 58:"Late antiquity" 51: 27: 19: 6064: 6063: 6059: 6058: 6057: 6055: 6054: 6053: 6049:Historical eras 6004: 6003: 6002: 5997: 5959: 5940:Neo-medievalism 5888: 5824:Itinerant court 5747: 5642: 5563:Georgian Empire 5548:Norman Conquest 5534: 5480:Frankish Empire 5414: 5409: 5379: 5374: 5340:UKUSA Agreement 5280:Lublin Triangle 5165:Baltic Assembly 5117: 5111: 5029: 4866: 4701: 4571:Eurolinguistics 4440: 4429:Information age 4402:Interwar period 4269: 4189: 4180: 4150: 4145: 4084: 4050:Interwar period 4025:Napoleonic Wars 3889: 3860:Mongol invasion 3813:Crown of Aragon 3705: 3645: 3641:Iron Age Europe 3612: 3607: 3562:Wayback Machine 3512: 3461:Robert Markus, 3410:Bertrand Lançon 3403: 3326:, Primus, 2007. 3175: 3170: 3169: 3161: 3157: 3149: 3145: 3137: 3133: 3125: 3121: 3117:, pp. 7–8. 3113: 3109: 3101: 3097: 3089: 3085: 3077: 3073: 3061: 3057: 3048: 3044: 3029: 3025: 2992: 2988: 2961: 2957: 2894: 2890: 2883: 2869: 2865: 2860: 2853: 2848: 2844: 2835: 2833: 2826: 2810: 2806: 2789: 2785: 2772: 2768: 2763: 2759: 2754: 2750: 2735: 2731: 2722: 2718: 2705: 2701: 2694: 2677: 2673: 2657: 2653: 2643: 2639: 2624: 2608: 2604: 2595: 2591: 2585: 2581: 2576: 2572: 2565: 2560: 2556: 2548: 2544: 2537: 2523: 2519: 2510: 2508: 2501: 2485: 2481: 2466: 2450: 2446: 2438: 2434: 2426: 2422: 2398: 2394: 2373: 2369: 2360: 2358: 2345: 2344: 2340: 2331: 2327: 2314: 2310: 2305:Wayback Machine 2295: 2291: 2279: 2275: 2266: 2262: 2253: 2251: 2238: 2237: 2233: 2225: 2221: 2212: 2210: 2195: 2191: 2186: 2134: 2056: 2005:John Chrysostom 1929:classical Greek 1898: 1796: 1751:Maximinus Thrax 1703: 1670: 1627: 1625:Public building 1622: 1621: 1620: 1619: 1611: 1610: 1609: 1601: 1600: 1592: 1591: 1582: 1581: 1562:and subsequent 1212:and the public 1200: 1107: 1099:Quranic studies 1058:Battle of Tours 1026:Arabs conquered 1018: 972: 970:Laity vs clergy 855:John Chrysostom 732: 726: 639:, the colossal 631:took place. At 575:Arian Christian 486:Kingdom of Kush 426:Parthian Empire 406: 395: 389: 386: 375: 363: 352: 291:Germanic tribes 287:coming of Islam 214:, whose survey 200: 127:Barberini ivory 115: 104: 98: 95: 52: 50: 40: 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6062: 6052: 6051: 6046: 6041: 6036: 6031: 6026: 6021: 6016: 5999: 5998: 5996: 5995: 5985: 5975: 5964: 5961: 5960: 5958: 5957: 5952: 5947: 5942: 5937: 5935:Misconceptions 5932: 5927: 5922: 5917: 5912: 5907: 5902: 5896: 5894: 5890: 5889: 5887: 5886: 5881: 5876: 5871: 5866: 5861: 5856: 5851: 5846: 5841: 5836: 5831: 5826: 5821: 5816: 5811: 5806: 5801: 5796: 5791: 5786: 5781: 5776: 5771: 5766: 5761: 5755: 5753: 5749: 5748: 5746: 5745: 5743:Little Ice Age 5740: 5739: 5738: 5728: 5723: 5718: 5713: 5708: 5703: 5698: 5696:Western Schism 5693: 5688: 5683: 5678: 5673: 5668: 5663: 5658: 5652: 5650: 5644: 5643: 5641: 5640: 5635: 5630: 5625: 5620: 5615: 5610: 5605: 5600: 5595: 5590: 5585: 5580: 5575: 5570: 5565: 5560: 5555: 5550: 5544: 5542: 5536: 5535: 5533: 5532: 5527: 5522: 5517: 5512: 5507: 5502: 5497: 5492: 5487: 5482: 5477: 5472: 5467: 5462: 5461: 5460: 5450: 5445: 5443:Late antiquity 5440: 5435: 5430: 5424: 5422: 5416: 5415: 5408: 5407: 5400: 5393: 5385: 5376: 5375: 5373: 5372: 5370:Westernization 5367: 5362: 5357: 5352: 5350:Visegrád Group 5347: 5342: 5337: 5332: 5327: 5322: 5317: 5312: 5307: 5302: 5297: 5292: 5290:Nordic Council 5287: 5282: 5277: 5272: 5267: 5262: 5257: 5252: 5247: 5242: 5237: 5232: 5227: 5222: 5217: 5212: 5207: 5202: 5197: 5192: 5187: 5185:Bucharest Nine 5182: 5177: 5172: 5167: 5162: 5157: 5152: 5150:Arctic Council 5147: 5142: 5137: 5132: 5127: 5121: 5119: 5113: 5112: 5110: 5109: 5104: 5099: 5098: 5097: 5092: 5087: 5082: 5077: 5072: 5062: 5057: 5056: 5055: 5045: 5039: 5037: 5031: 5030: 5028: 5027: 5022: 5017: 5016: 5015: 5010: 5005: 5000: 4995: 4994: 4993: 4988: 4983: 4978: 4968: 4963: 4958: 4948: 4947: 4946: 4945: 4944: 4934: 4933: 4932: 4927: 4926: 4925: 4915: 4914: 4913: 4903: 4902: 4901: 4876: 4874: 4868: 4867: 4865: 4864: 4863: 4862: 4852: 4847: 4842: 4841: 4840: 4828: 4827: 4826: 4816: 4811: 4806: 4801: 4796: 4791: 4786: 4785: 4784: 4779: 4769: 4768: 4767: 4760:Existentialism 4757: 4752: 4747: 4742: 4737: 4732: 4727: 4722: 4717: 4711: 4709: 4703: 4702: 4700: 4699: 4698: 4697: 4692: 4687: 4682: 4672: 4671: 4670: 4660: 4659: 4658: 4653: 4643: 4642: 4641: 4631: 4626: 4625: 4624: 4619: 4614: 4604: 4603: 4602: 4592: 4591: 4590: 4580: 4579: 4578: 4573: 4563: 4558: 4553: 4548: 4547: 4546: 4536: 4531: 4530: 4529: 4519: 4518: 4517: 4507: 4506: 4505: 4495: 4490: 4489: 4488: 4478: 4473: 4472: 4471: 4466: 4461: 4450: 4448: 4442: 4441: 4439: 4438: 4437: 4436: 4431: 4421: 4420: 4419: 4414: 4409: 4404: 4399: 4394: 4389: 4384: 4379: 4374: 4369: 4364: 4359: 4354: 4349: 4344: 4339: 4334: 4324: 4319: 4318: 4317: 4312: 4307: 4297: 4296: 4295: 4293:Late antiquity 4285: 4279: 4277: 4271: 4270: 4268: 4267: 4262: 4257: 4252: 4247: 4246: 4245: 4244: 4243: 4238: 4228: 4223: 4218: 4208: 4203: 4197: 4195: 4191: 4190: 4179: 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3528: 3519: 3511: 3510:External links 3508: 3507: 3506: 3497: 3490: 3483: 3476: 3466: 3459: 3452: 3445: 3438: 3424: 3417: 3407: 3401: 3381: 3374: 3360: 3353: 3336: 3327: 3320: 3317:Die Spätantike 3313: 3306: 3289: 3282: 3268: 3254:Averil Cameron 3251: 3230:Henning Börm, 3228: 3214: 3200: 3183: 3174: 3171: 3168: 3167: 3155: 3151:Kitzinger 1977 3143: 3139:Kitzinger 1977 3131: 3127:Kitzinger 1977 3119: 3115:Kitzinger 1977 3107: 3103:Kitzinger 1977 3095: 3091:Kitzinger 1977 3083: 3079:Kitzinger 1977 3071: 3055: 3042: 3023: 2986: 2955: 2888: 2881: 2863: 2851: 2849:Loyn 1991:15f. 2842: 2824: 2804: 2783: 2766: 2757: 2748: 2729: 2716: 2699: 2692: 2671: 2651: 2637: 2622: 2602: 2589: 2579: 2570: 2554: 2542: 2535: 2517: 2499: 2479: 2464: 2444: 2432: 2420: 2392: 2367: 2338: 2332:Gilian Clark, 2325: 2308: 2289: 2273: 2260: 2231: 2219: 2203:guides.loc.gov 2188: 2187: 2185: 2182: 2181: 2180: 2175: 2170: 2165: 2160: 2155: 2150: 2145: 2140: 2133: 2130: 2055: 2052: 2029:historiography 1969:De arithmetica 1916:Materia Medica 1897: 1894: 1872:. Extravagant 1789:organization. 1780:diminish. The 1720:Constantinople 1702: 1699: 1626: 1623: 1613: 1612: 1603: 1602: 1594: 1593: 1585: 1584: 1583: 1576: 1575: 1574: 1573: 1279:Constantinople 1261:, present-day 1199: 1196: 1155:Constantinople 1145:cursus honorum 1106: 1103: 1070:Pirenne Thesis 1054:Charles Martel 1017: 1014: 971: 968: 803:divine spirits 791:Edict of Milan 728:Main article: 725: 722: 521:Roman aqueduct 519:. The longest 509:Constantinople 408: 407: 366: 364: 357: 351: 350:Period history 348: 253:, seat of the 199: 196: 160:Late antiquity 149:Constantinople 117: 116: 31: 29: 22: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6061: 6050: 6047: 6045: 6042: 6040: 6037: 6035: 6032: 6030: 6027: 6025: 6022: 6020: 6017: 6015: 6012: 6011: 6009: 5994: 5986: 5984: 5976: 5974: 5970: 5966: 5965: 5962: 5956: 5953: 5951: 5948: 5946: 5943: 5941: 5938: 5936: 5933: 5931: 5928: 5926: 5923: 5921: 5918: 5916: 5913: 5911: 5908: 5906: 5903: 5901: 5898: 5897: 5895: 5891: 5885: 5882: 5880: 5877: 5875: 5872: 5870: 5867: 5865: 5862: 5860: 5857: 5855: 5852: 5850: 5847: 5845: 5842: 5840: 5837: 5835: 5832: 5830: 5827: 5825: 5822: 5820: 5817: 5815: 5812: 5810: 5807: 5805: 5802: 5800: 5797: 5795: 5792: 5790: 5787: 5785: 5782: 5780: 5777: 5775: 5772: 5770: 5767: 5765: 5762: 5760: 5757: 5756: 5754: 5750: 5744: 5741: 5737: 5734: 5733: 5732: 5729: 5727: 5724: 5722: 5719: 5717: 5714: 5712: 5709: 5707: 5704: 5702: 5699: 5697: 5694: 5692: 5689: 5687: 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5266: 5263: 5261: 5258: 5256: 5253: 5251: 5248: 5246: 5243: 5241: 5238: 5236: 5233: 5231: 5228: 5226: 5223: 5221: 5218: 5216: 5213: 5211: 5210:Craiova Group 5208: 5206: 5203: 5201: 5198: 5196: 5193: 5191: 5188: 5186: 5183: 5181: 5178: 5176: 5173: 5171: 5168: 5166: 5163: 5161: 5158: 5156: 5153: 5151: 5148: 5146: 5143: 5141: 5138: 5136: 5133: 5131: 5128: 5126: 5125:ABCANZ Armies 5123: 5122: 5120: 5114: 5108: 5105: 5103: 5100: 5096: 5093: 5091: 5088: 5086: 5083: 5081: 5078: 5076: 5073: 5071: 5068: 5067: 5066: 5063: 5061: 5058: 5054: 5051: 5050: 5049: 5046: 5044: 5041: 5040: 5038: 5036: 5032: 5026: 5023: 5021: 5018: 5014: 5011: 5009: 5006: 5004: 5001: 4999: 4996: 4992: 4989: 4987: 4984: 4982: 4979: 4977: 4974: 4973: 4972: 4969: 4967: 4964: 4962: 4959: 4957: 4954: 4953: 4952: 4949: 4943: 4940: 4939: 4938: 4935: 4931: 4930:Protestantism 4928: 4924: 4921: 4920: 4919: 4916: 4912: 4909: 4908: 4907: 4904: 4900: 4896: 4893: 4892: 4891: 4888: 4887: 4886: 4883: 4882: 4881: 4878: 4877: 4875: 4873: 4869: 4861: 4858: 4857: 4856: 4853: 4851: 4850:Sovereigntism 4848: 4846: 4843: 4839: 4838: 4834: 4833: 4832: 4829: 4825: 4822: 4821: 4820: 4817: 4815: 4812: 4810: 4807: 4805: 4802: 4800: 4797: 4795: 4792: 4790: 4787: 4783: 4780: 4778: 4775: 4774: 4773: 4770: 4766: 4763: 4762: 4761: 4758: 4756: 4753: 4751: 4748: 4746: 4745:Scholasticism 4743: 4741: 4738: 4736: 4733: 4731: 4728: 4726: 4723: 4721: 4718: 4716: 4713: 4712: 4710: 4708: 4704: 4696: 4693: 4691: 4688: 4686: 4683: 4681: 4678: 4677: 4676: 4673: 4669: 4666: 4665: 4664: 4661: 4657: 4654: 4652: 4649: 4648: 4647: 4644: 4640: 4637: 4636: 4635: 4632: 4630: 4627: 4623: 4620: 4618: 4615: 4613: 4610: 4609: 4608: 4605: 4601: 4598: 4597: 4596: 4593: 4589: 4586: 4585: 4584: 4581: 4577: 4574: 4572: 4569: 4568: 4567: 4564: 4562: 4559: 4557: 4554: 4552: 4549: 4545: 4542: 4541: 4540: 4537: 4535: 4532: 4528: 4525: 4524: 4523: 4520: 4516: 4513: 4512: 4511: 4508: 4504: 4501: 4500: 4499: 4496: 4494: 4491: 4487: 4484: 4483: 4482: 4479: 4477: 4474: 4470: 4467: 4465: 4462: 4460: 4457: 4456: 4455: 4452: 4451: 4449: 4447: 4443: 4435: 4434:War on terror 4432: 4430: 4427: 4426: 4425: 4422: 4418: 4415: 4413: 4410: 4408: 4405: 4403: 4400: 4398: 4395: 4393: 4390: 4388: 4385: 4383: 4380: 4378: 4375: 4373: 4370: 4368: 4365: 4363: 4360: 4358: 4355: 4353: 4350: 4348: 4345: 4343: 4340: 4338: 4335: 4333: 4330: 4329: 4328: 4327:Modern period 4325: 4323: 4320: 4316: 4313: 4311: 4308: 4306: 4303: 4302: 4301: 4298: 4294: 4291: 4290: 4289: 4286: 4284: 4281: 4280: 4278: 4276: 4272: 4266: 4263: 4261: 4258: 4256: 4253: 4251: 4248: 4242: 4239: 4237: 4234: 4233: 4232: 4229: 4227: 4224: 4222: 4219: 4217: 4214: 4213: 4212: 4209: 4207: 4204: 4202: 4199: 4198: 4196: 4192: 4188: 4184: 4183:Western world 4177: 4172: 4170: 4165: 4163: 4158: 4157: 4154: 4142: 4139: 4137: 4134: 4132: 4129: 4127: 4124: 4122: 4119: 4117: 4114: 4112: 4109: 4107: 4104: 4102: 4099: 4097: 4096:Art of Europe 4094: 4093: 4091: 4087: 4081: 4078: 4076: 4073: 4071: 4068: 4066: 4063: 4061: 4058: 4056: 4053: 4051: 4048: 4046: 4043: 4041: 4038: 4036: 4033: 4031: 4028: 4026: 4023: 4021: 4018: 4016: 4013: 4011: 4008: 4006: 4003: 4001: 3998: 3996: 3993: 3991: 3988: 3986: 3983: 3981: 3978: 3976: 3973: 3971: 3968: 3966: 3963: 3961: 3958: 3956: 3953: 3951: 3948: 3946: 3943: 3941: 3938: 3936: 3933: 3931: 3928: 3926: 3923: 3919: 3916: 3915: 3914: 3911: 3909: 3906: 3904: 3901: 3900: 3898: 3896: 3895:Modern period 3892: 3886: 3883: 3881: 3878: 3876: 3873: 3871: 3868: 3866: 3863: 3861: 3858: 3856: 3853: 3851: 3848: 3846: 3843: 3841: 3838: 3836: 3833: 3830: 3826: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3811: 3809: 3806: 3804: 3801: 3797: 3794: 3792: 3789: 3787: 3784: 3782: 3779: 3778: 3777: 3774: 3770: 3767: 3765: 3762: 3761: 3759: 3757: 3754: 3752: 3749: 3747: 3744: 3742: 3739: 3735: 3732: 3731: 3730: 3727: 3725: 3722: 3720: 3717: 3716: 3714: 3712: 3708: 3702: 3699: 3697: 3694: 3692: 3689: 3685: 3682: 3681: 3680: 3677: 3675: 3672: 3670: 3667: 3665: 3662: 3660: 3657: 3656: 3654: 3652: 3648: 3642: 3639: 3637: 3634: 3632: 3629: 3627: 3624: 3623: 3621: 3619: 3615: 3611: 3604: 3599: 3597: 3592: 3590: 3585: 3584: 3581: 3574: 3573: 3569: 3567: 3563: 3559: 3556: 3553: 3551: 3547: 3544: 3541: 3538: 3536: 3532: 3529: 3527: 3523: 3520: 3517: 3514: 3513: 3503: 3498: 3495: 3491: 3488: 3484: 3481: 3477: 3474: 3470: 3467: 3464: 3460: 3457: 3453: 3450: 3446: 3443: 3439: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3425: 3422: 3418: 3415: 3411: 3408: 3404: 3402:0-571-11154-8 3398: 3394: 3390: 3386: 3382: 3379: 3375: 3373: 3369: 3365: 3361: 3358: 3354: 3351: 3347: 3343: 3342: 3338:Fabio Gasti, 3337: 3334: 3333: 3328: 3325: 3321: 3318: 3314: 3311: 3308:John Curran, 3307: 3305: 3301: 3297: 3293: 3290: 3287: 3283: 3281: 3280:0-415-01421-2 3277: 3273: 3269: 3267: 3266:0-674-51194-8 3263: 3259: 3255: 3252: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3237: 3233: 3229: 3227: 3226:0-631-22138-7 3223: 3219: 3216:Peter Brown, 3215: 3213: 3212:0-521-59557-6 3209: 3205: 3202:Peter Brown, 3201: 3199: 3198:0-393-95803-5 3195: 3191: 3187: 3184: 3181: 3177: 3176: 3164: 3159: 3152: 3147: 3140: 3135: 3128: 3123: 3116: 3111: 3104: 3099: 3092: 3087: 3080: 3075: 3068: 3065: 3059: 3052: 3046: 3038: 3034: 3027: 3019: 3015: 3010: 3005: 3001: 2997: 2990: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2967:(244): 3–50. 2966: 2959: 2951: 2947: 2942: 2937: 2933: 2929: 2924: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2903: 2899: 2892: 2884: 2882:9783487151540 2878: 2874: 2867: 2861:Loyn 1991:16. 2858: 2856: 2846: 2831: 2827: 2821: 2817: 2816: 2808: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2787: 2780: 2776: 2770: 2761: 2752: 2745: 2741: 2740: 2733: 2726: 2720: 2713: 2709: 2703: 2695: 2693:9780582072978 2689: 2685: 2681: 2675: 2668: 2665: 2661: 2655: 2649: 2648: 2641: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2619: 2615: 2614: 2606: 2599: 2593: 2583: 2574: 2558: 2552: 2546: 2538: 2532: 2528: 2521: 2506: 2502: 2496: 2492: 2491: 2483: 2475: 2471: 2467: 2461: 2457: 2456: 2448: 2441: 2436: 2430: 2424: 2417: 2416:0-8020-6369-1 2413: 2409: 2405: 2401: 2400:A. H.M. Jones 2396: 2389: 2385: 2381: 2377: 2371: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2342: 2335: 2329: 2322: 2318: 2312: 2306: 2302: 2299: 2293: 2286: 2283: 2277: 2270: 2269:Studi storici 2264: 2249: 2245: 2241: 2235: 2228: 2223: 2208: 2204: 2200: 2193: 2189: 2179: 2176: 2174: 2171: 2169: 2166: 2164: 2161: 2159: 2156: 2154: 2151: 2149: 2148:Henri Pirenne 2146: 2144: 2141: 2139: 2136: 2135: 2129: 2127: 2126:Yose ben Yose 2123: 2119: 2114: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2100: 2096: 2092: 2088: 2084: 2079: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2061: 2051: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2032: 2030: 2026: 2022: 2018: 2014: 2010: 2006: 2002: 1998: 1994: 1990: 1986: 1981: 1980: 1974: 1970: 1966: 1962: 1958: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1930: 1922: 1918: 1917: 1911: 1907: 1902: 1893: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1875: 1871: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1845: 1843: 1839: 1834: 1830: 1824: 1822: 1818: 1814: 1809: 1805: 1801: 1790: 1787: 1783: 1779: 1775: 1771: 1767: 1766:individualism 1763: 1759: 1756: 1752: 1747: 1744: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1712: 1707: 1698: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1682: 1680: 1676: 1665: 1661: 1657: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1641: 1636: 1633: 1617: 1607: 1598: 1589: 1579: 1572: 1569: 1565: 1561: 1556: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1539: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1524:Roman Britain 1521: 1520:Roman Britain 1517: 1514:and possibly 1513: 1509: 1505: 1501: 1496: 1492: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1475: 1473: 1469: 1468: 1463: 1459: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1431: 1427: 1423: 1419: 1416:, founded by 1415: 1411: 1407: 1403: 1395: 1391: 1387: 1383: 1382:Roman cavalry 1379: 1375: 1373: 1369: 1368: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1347: 1342: 1339: 1335: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1318: 1316: 1312: 1308: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1272: 1268: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1251: 1247: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1231: 1229: 1225: 1224:Roman Britain 1221: 1220: 1215: 1211: 1210: 1205: 1192: 1188: 1183: 1179: 1177: 1176: 1171: 1170: 1164: 1160: 1156: 1151: 1147: 1146: 1140: 1138: 1134: 1130: 1122: 1118: 1117: 1111: 1102: 1100: 1096: 1091: 1087: 1081: 1079: 1075: 1071: 1065: 1063: 1059: 1055: 1051: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1031: 1027: 1022: 1013: 1011: 1010: 1005: 1001: 997: 993: 989: 985: 981: 977: 967: 965: 961: 957: 953: 950: 946: 943: 938: 936: 932: 928: 924: 920: 916: 913: 909: 907: 903: 899: 895: 891: 887: 883: 879: 875: 870: 868: 864: 860: 856: 852: 848: 843: 838: 835:The birth of 833: 831: 827: 823: 819: 815: 811: 806: 804: 800: 796: 792: 788: 784: 780: 776: 768: 764: 760: 759:Constantine I 755: 751: 749: 745: 741: 737: 731: 721: 719: 715: 711: 707: 703: 699: 696:. Subsequent 695: 691: 687: 683: 679: 675: 671: 667: 663: 658: 656: 652: 648: 644: 643: 638: 634: 630: 626: 622: 618: 614: 610: 606: 602: 598: 593: 591: 587: 583: 579: 576: 572: 568: 564: 560: 556: 552: 548: 544: 540: 536: 532: 530: 526: 522: 518: 514: 510: 505: 503: 499: 495: 491: 487: 483: 482:Ezana of Axum 479: 475: 471: 467: 463: 459: 455: 451: 447: 443: 439: 435: 431: 427: 423: 419: 415: 404: 401: 393: 383: 379: 373: 372: 367:This section 365: 361: 356: 355: 347: 345: 341: 337: 333: 328: 326: 322: 321: 316: 312: 308: 304: 300: 296: 292: 288: 284: 280: 279:Christianized 276: 272: 268: 260: 256: 252: 251:Belgica Prima 248: 244: 239: 235: 233: 229: 225: 221: 217: 213: 209: 205: 195: 193: 189: 185: 181: 180:periodization 177: 173: 169: 165: 161: 154: 150: 146: 142: 139: 136: 132: 128: 123: 113: 110: 102: 91: 88: 84: 81: 77: 74: 70: 67: 63: 60: – 59: 55: 54:Find sources: 48: 44: 38: 37: 32:This article 30: 26: 21: 20: 5764:Architecture 5736:Great Famine 5726:Universities 5666:Hussite Wars 5583:Great Schism 5470:Papal States 5442: 5360:Western Bloc 5160:AUSCANNZUKUS 5116:Contemporary 5065:Human rights 4911:Latin Church 4885:Christianity 4835: 4794:Conservatism 4639:contemporary 4476:Architecture 4412:World War II 4372:Emancipation 4367:Abolitionism 4292: 4255:Romanization 4250:Roman legacy 4231:Roman Empire 4055:World War II 3908:Early modern 3885:Kalmar Union 3756:Papal States 3700: 3674:Roman Empire 3570: 3501: 3493: 3486: 3479: 3472: 3462: 3455: 3448: 3441: 3434: 3420: 3413: 3388: 3377: 3363: 3356: 3339: 3330: 3323: 3316: 3309: 3295: 3292:Gilian Clark 3285: 3271: 3257: 3231: 3217: 3203: 3189: 3179: 3158: 3146: 3134: 3122: 3110: 3098: 3093:, p. 9. 3086: 3074: 3069:(1990:3–29). 3066: 3063: 3058: 3053:1982:167–70. 3050: 3045: 3036: 3026: 2999: 2989: 2964: 2958: 2905: 2901: 2891: 2872: 2866: 2845: 2834:. 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Retrieved 2202: 2192: 2115: 2080: 2057: 2033: 1972: 1968: 1960: 1926: 1913: 1846: 1825: 1791: 1776:, and Greek 1748: 1735:medieval art 1728: 1710: 1683: 1679:Roman pounds 1660:Hagia Sophia 1637: 1628: 1540: 1476: 1471: 1465: 1457: 1441: 1437: 1425: 1413: 1399: 1365: 1343: 1329: 1325: 1319: 1276: 1232: 1217: 1207: 1201: 1173: 1169:consistorium 1167: 1143: 1141: 1137:Roman Empire 1126: 1113: 1082: 1066: 1046:North Africa 1035: 1007: 1003: 988:private life 973: 951: 944: 939: 923:Central Asia 910: 886:Neoplatonism 871: 834: 807: 772: 740:Christianity 733: 659: 640: 621:Hagia Sophia 611:, the Roman 605:North Africa 594: 559:Sack of Rome 551:Sack of Rome 533: 507:The city of 506: 490:Theodosius I 454:Christianity 411: 396: 387: 376:Please help 371:verification 368: 329: 318: 293:such as the 264: 231: 223: 215: 203: 201: 159: 158: 105: 96: 86: 79: 72: 65: 53: 41:Please help 36:verification 33: 6044:7th century 6039:6th century 6034:5th century 6029:4th century 5993:WikiProject 5920:Medievalism 5759:Agriculture 5623:Manorialism 5618:Communalism 5613:Monasticism 5530:Reconquista 5520:Kievan Rus' 5300:Open Balkan 5118:integration 5048:Rule of law 5043:Natural law 5020:Agnosticism 4998:Hellenistic 4976:Anglo-Saxon 4906:Catholicism 4845:Atlanticism 4750:Rationalism 4556:Immigration 4539:Esotericism 4397:World War I 4362:Romanticism 4342:Reformation 4322:Renaissance 4300:Middle Ages 4265:Christendom 4194:Foundations 4040:World War I 4030:Nationalism 3918:Reformation 3903:Renaissance 3875:Black Death 3808:Kievan Rus' 3711:Middle Ages 3564:, from the 3359:(72), 1997. 3234:, 2nd ed., 3186:Peter Brown 3163:Gasper 2024 2744:Vandal Wars 2736:Procopius, 2323:, OUP 2005. 2143:Peter Brown 1921:Dioscorides 1886:Hoxne Hoard 1656:St. Peter's 1614:Library of 1532:Roman villa 1414:Victoriacum 1362:Roman roads 1358:Acrocorinth 1237:during the 1078:Middle Ages 1030:early Slavs 935:Mesopotamia 927:Manichaeism 894:hermeticism 842:Monasticism 785:, although 586:Greco-Roman 573:, with the 336:Renaissance 311:Middle Ages 212:Peter Brown 208:Alois Riegl 198:Terminology 184:Peter Brown 168:Middle Ages 6008:Categories 5915:Land terms 5869:Technology 5849:Philosophy 5829:Literature 5794:Demography 5495:Viking Age 5320:Rio Treaty 4831:Relativism 4789:Liberalism 4755:Empiricism 4707:Philosophy 4695:Secularism 4646:Philosophy 4583:Literature 4377:Capitalism 3803:Viking Age 3618:Prehistory 3173:References 3039:(1): 3–52. 2836:2024-04-15 2714:, OUP 2005 2632:1371946542 2566: 406 2511:2024-04-15 2474:1148587171 2361:2024-05-22 2271:40 (1999). 2254:2024-08-13 2213:2024-08-13 2036:Hexaemeron 1896:Literature 1808:Sarcophagi 1797: 300 1770:naturalism 1695:Chosroes I 1671: 530 1550:municipium 1548:and Roman 1528:H. 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