996:) were imposed upon the conquered; for when everything was surrendered to him who was the more powerful in arms, it is the victor's right and privilege to decide what of the conquered's property he wishes to confiscate; the second, when states that are equally matched in war conclude peace and friendship on terms of equality; under these conditions demands for restitution are made and granted by mutual agreement, and if the ownership of any property has been rendered uncertain by the war, these questions are settled according to the rules of traditional law or the convenience of each party; the third exists when states that have never been at war come together to pledge mutual friendship in a treaty of alliance; neither party gives or accepts conditions; for that happens when a conquering and a conquered party meet.
138:
963:. Questions of "international law" might arise in relation to individual grants of citizenship, and whether these accorded with treaty. Because there was no generally accepted principle of international law, controversy might also arise over whether "Rome was bound by an agreement concluded by a field commander without approval of the Senateβtypically an
871:
as comprising wars, national interests, kingship and sovereignty, rights of ownership, property boundaries, settlements, and commerce, "including contracts of buying and selling and letting and hiring, except for certain contractual elements distinguished through
1755:(ius gentium est sedium occupatio, aedificatio, munitio, bella, captivitates, servitutes, postliminia, foedera pacis, indutiae, legatorum non violandorum religio, conubia inter alienigenas prohibita. Et inde ius gentium, quia eo iure omnes fere gentes utuntur)
843:, however, divided law into three branches: natural law, which existed in nature and governed animals as well as humans; the law of nations, which was distinctively human; and, civil law, which was the body of laws specific to a people.
1132:
is occupation, construction, fortification, wars, captivity, the right of regaining citizenship after captivity, slavery, treaties, peace, armistice, the inviolability of ambassadors, the prohibition of mixed marriages; and it is the
936:
were brought under Roman rule, Roman law became in effect international law. Local laws remained in force as long as they did not come into conflict with Roman law; this compatibility was understood as reflecting the underlying
779:(law of nations, or law of the world) as being the law observed by all mankind. Thus the Roman people observes partly its own peculiar law and partly the common law of all mankind.
825:
as a higher law of moral obligation binding human beings beyond the requirements of civil law. A person driven into exile, for instance, lost his legal standing as a
1014:, "a relation of friendship without any further concrete engagements, i.e. the mere exclusion of hostilities; β¦ it could be concluded by a treaty but also without".
759:) observes partly its own peculiar law and partly the common law of all mankind. That law which a people established for itself is peculiar to it and is called
688:
1084:, "trustworthiness, loyalty, credibility", was a quality the Romans wanted to pride themselves for upholding, including respect for the law and
1034:, originally a sacred oath made by a fetial priest on behalf of the Roman people, who will suffer a "self-damnation" if they violate the treaty.
905:
1458:
900:
681:
285:
661:
275:
773:(state), while the law that natural reason establishes among all mankind is followed by all peoples alike, and is called
446:
1054:, surrender, with "the inherent normative expectation that the victor would in any case spare the inhabitants' lives".
268:
251:
674:
246:
1854:
899:
was far more developed among the Romans than that of international law. The earliest form of international law was
263:
256:
1242:
Quoted in
Laurens Winkel, "The Peace Treaties of Westphalia as an Instance of the Reception of Roman Law", in
1209:(Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2002, originally published 1997 by Scholars Press for Emory University), pp. 66β67; Dyson,
955:. Laws originally pertaining to matters of contract law among Roman citizens, such as property transfers and
105:
1399:(Transaction Publishers, 2010, 2nd ed., originally published 1960 by Princeton University Press), p. 210.
1397:
Politics and
Culture in International History from the Ancient Near East to the Opening of the Modern Age
93:
17:
1859:
459:
1070:
were excluded from the universal citizenship extended to all free inhabitants of the empire under the
1046:, "cease-fires" that "do not end the war as a whole, but interrupt the hostilities only temporarily".
524:
226:
1780:
1181:
Peace
Treaties and International Law in European History from the Late Middle Ages to World War One
951:) is thought by many scholars to have played an important role in extending Roman civil law to the
721:
128:
1072:
844:
562:
864:
805:
distinguished between things that are written and those that are unwritten but upheld by the
932:, there was no framework of international law per se with which a treaty had to conform. As
204:
81:("peoples" or "nations") in "reasoned compliance with standards of international conduct".
1487:
was thereafter the only other major power with which Rome was in regular contact. Baldus,
970:
A key passage pertaining to what Romans understood as "international law" is presented by
829:, but was supposed to retain the basic protections extended to all human beings under the
8:
702:
339:
1823:
1114:
947:
910:
785:
597:
236:
1005:
Terminology associated with Roman international law was non-specialized but included:
1773:
1026:, is "an obligation to peace and neutrality" with "a duty to grant military support".
516:
509:
312:
50:
1795:
1517:
1438:
1408:
Christian Baldus, "Vestigia pacis. The Roman Peace Treaty: Structure or Event?" in
1256:
798:
638:
632:
625:
611:
440:
419:
364:
349:
344:
329:
213:
104:
disintegrated as individual
European nations developed distinct bodies of law, the
85:
1462:"); Daniel Peretz, "The Roman Interpreter and His Diplomatic and Military Roles",
1480:
856:
354:
58:
1827:
1736:
Karl-Heinz
Ziegler, "The Influence of Medieval Roman Law on Peace Treaties," in
1110:
881:
732:
643:
590:
434:
409:
318:
166:
1803:
1223:
Quod vero naturalis ratio inter omnes homines constituit β¦ vocator ius gentium
797:
was regarded as "innate in every human being", a view that was consonant with
1848:
1838:
1799:
1319:
826:
539:
389:
157:
74:
1813:
1785:
925:
715:
452:
404:
374:
300:
175:
89:
1772:, Franciscus de Victoria (lect. 1532, first pub. 1557). Available online
1098:
956:
896:
817:
811:
710:
495:
113:
66:
1445:
of Q. Mucius
Scaevola: "If someone strikes an ambassador of the enemy (
726:
576:
306:
186:
70:
867:, a Roman jurist of the second half of the 3rd century, described the
1155:
Natural Law and
Political Realism in the History of Political Thought
1106:
1058:
964:
648:
618:
484:
466:
429:
54:
137:
1018:
1010:
583:
473:
384:
295:
193:
1040:, "both the state of peace and the means to achieve it by treaty".
1447:
1050:
942:
768:
569:
548:
399:
379:
1484:
1386:
1.1.5; Winkel, "The Peace
Treaties of Westphalia", pp. 225β226.
1192:
Randall
Lesaffer, "Peace Treaties from Lodi to Westphalia", in
1030:
984:
914:
840:
837:
802:
740:
604:
394:
1452:), he is regarded as having acted against the law of nations (
1062:, a person who became a subject of the Roman Empire through a
988:), he said, by which states and kings concluded friendships (
46:
1261:
The Stoic
Tradition from Antiquity to the Early Middle Ages
971:
109:
555:
502:
33:
1738:
Peace Treaties and International Law in European History
1725:
Peace Treaties and International Law in European History
1410:
Peace Treaties and International Law in European History
1244:
Peace Treaties and International Law in European History
1194:
Peace Treaties and International Law in European History
1483:
in 168 BC, no Western power was equal to that of Rome.
1812:, Cornelius van Bynkershoek (1737). Available online
1757:; Winkel, "The Peace Treaties of Westphalia," p. 226.
921:, and it was a religious violation to harm an envoy.
909:), which should only be undertaken with a ritualized
1255:
Winkel, "The Peace Treaties of Westphalia", p. 225;
917:priests. Foreign ambassadors were protected by the
851:, even though under natural law all are born free (
967:concluded in distress and on unfavourable terms."
100:. By the 16th century, the shared concept of the
61:law traditions based on or influenced by it. The
1846:
1524:(Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 134; Dyson,
1425:(Cambridge University Press, 2004), pp. 231β239
1326:(University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011), p. 29.
1324:Law, Language, and Empire in the Roman Tradition
903:and pertained to the concept of the "just war" (
1837:, St. George Tucker (1803). Available online
1456:), because ambassadors are regarded as sacred (
1117:(c. 560β636), enumerated the principles of the
880:was thus in practice important in facilitating
1183:(Cambridge University Press, 2004), pp. 5, 13.
27:Customary law concept within international law
1547:Politics and Culture in International History
1530:Politics and Culture in International History
1506:Politics and Culture in International History
765:(civil law) as being the special law of that
682:
887:
753:) that is governed by statutes and customs (
1441:(2nd century AD), in his commentary on the
974:, as spoken by an envoy of King Antiochus:
774:
766:
760:
754:
748:
1495:(Edinburgh University Press, 2008), p. 47.
1170:(Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 85.
959:, were thus "internationalized" among the
689:
675:
116:created subject nations outside the West.
928:might be said to fall broadly within the
1784:, Hugo Grotius (1625). Available online
1022:, although sometimes a mere synonym for
855:). In this tripartite division of law,
14:
1847:
1109:in addition to Roman legal theory. In
815:, "ancestral custom". In his treatise
49:for "law of nations") is a concept of
1522:The Praetorship in the Roman Republic
847:, for instance, was supported by the
1291:Roman Law: Mechanisms of Development
1137:because nearly every nation uses it.
978:There were three kinds of treaties (
743:has established among all peoples":
77:thought to be held in common by all
1157:(Peter Lang, 2005), vol. 1, p. 127.
992:): one, when in time of war terms (
24:
1763:
1179:Randall Lesaffer, introduction to
1092:
859:might be considered a part of the
25:
1871:
1526:Natural Law and Political Realism
1211:Natural Law and Political Realism
96:also contributed to the European
1792:The Law of Nature and of Nations
1491:, pp. 111β112; Olivier Hekster,
136:
1743:
1730:
1717:
1704:
1691:
1678:
1665:
1652:
1639:
1626:
1613:
1600:
1591:
1578:
1565:
1552:
1535:
1511:
1498:
1493:Rome and Its Empire, AD 193β284
1473:
1466:55.4 (2006), p. 454; Bederman,
1432:
1415:
1402:
1389:
1377:
1361:
1345:
1329:
1313:
1296:
1283:
1468:International Law in Antiquity
1423:International Law in Antiquity
1270:
1249:
1236:
1216:
1199:
1186:
1173:
1168:International Law in Antiquity
1160:
1147:
1000:
895:The theory and terminology of
793:As a form of natural law, the
13:
1:
1141:
945:assigned to foreign affairs (
709:was regarded as an aspect of
1293:(Mouton, 1978), pp. 254β255.
119:
7:
10:
1876:
1826:(1758). Available online
1723:Lesaffer, introduction to
1372:The Idea of Natural Rights
1356:The Idea of Natural Rights
1340:The Idea of Natural Rights
1231:The Idea of Natural Rights
1207:The Idea of Natural Rights
863:, but not of natural law.
55:ancient Roman legal system
1802:1703). Available online
525:Senatus consultum ultimum
420:Extraordinary magistrates
1781:The Law of War and Peace
720:, as distinguished from
129:Politics of ancient Rome
1855:Latin legal terminology
1810:Questions of Public Law
1470:, pp. 104β105, 114β115.
1073:Constitutio Antoniniana
1263:(Brill, 1980), p. 360
1139:
998:
836:The 2nd-century Roman
791:
775:
767:
761:
755:
749:
286:Political institutions
1806:, under construction.
1278:Partitiones oratoriae
1127:
1088:in foreign relations.
976:
745:
1699:Rome and Its Empire,
1289:A. Arthur Schiller,
1125:, "peace treaties":
365:Ordinary magistrates
1545:, p. 529; Bozeman,
1528:, p. 127; Bozeman,
1421:David J. Bederman,
1308:The Stoic Tradition
1166:David J. Bederman,
924:While the terms of
888:War, peace and the
703:classical antiquity
1824:Emmerich de Vattel
1820:The Law of Nations
1338:1.1.1.4; Tierney,
1115:Isidore of Seville
948:praetor peregrinus
911:declaration of war
598:Triumvir monetalis
532:Titles and honours
1860:International law
1395:Adda B. Bozeman,
1306:3.17.69; Colish,
821:, he regards the
739:as what "natural
699:
698:
517:Quaestio perpetua
510:Senatus consultum
313:Roman citizenship
65:is not a body of
51:international law
16:(Redirected from
1867:
1796:Samuel Pufendorf
1758:
1747:
1741:
1734:
1728:
1721:
1715:
1708:
1702:
1695:
1689:
1682:
1676:
1669:
1663:
1656:
1650:
1643:
1637:
1630:
1624:
1617:
1611:
1604:
1598:
1597:Livy, 34.57.7β9.
1595:
1589:
1582:
1576:
1569:
1563:
1556:
1550:
1539:
1533:
1518:T. Corey Brennan
1515:
1509:
1502:
1496:
1477:
1471:
1439:Sextus Pomponius
1436:
1430:
1419:
1413:
1406:
1400:
1393:
1387:
1381:
1375:
1370:1.1.5; Tierney,
1365:
1359:
1354:1.1.4; Tierney,
1349:
1343:
1333:
1327:
1317:
1311:
1300:
1294:
1287:
1281:
1274:
1268:
1257:Marcia L. Colish
1253:
1247:
1240:
1234:
1229:1.1.9; Tierney,
1220:
1214:
1203:
1197:
1190:
1184:
1177:
1171:
1164:
1158:
1151:
799:Stoic philosophy
789:
778:
772:
764:
758:
752:
691:
684:
677:
633:Pontifex maximus
626:Princeps senatus
612:Magister militum
447:Consular tribune
441:Magister equitum
269:Augustan reforms
140:
124:
123:
86:Christianization
21:
1875:
1874:
1870:
1869:
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1866:
1865:
1864:
1845:
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1766:
1764:Further reading
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1512:
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1481:Battle of Pydna
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1237:
1221:
1217:
1205:Brian Tierney,
1204:
1200:
1191:
1187:
1178:
1174:
1165:
1161:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1095:
1093:Medieval Europe
1003:
893:
857:property rights
790:
783:
695:
666:
662:Other countries
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522:
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359:
324:
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257:Sullan republic
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1807:
1789:
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1762:
1760:
1759:
1742:
1729:
1716:
1712:Vestigia pacis
1703:
1690:
1686:Vestigia pacis
1677:
1673:Vestigia pacis
1664:
1660:Vestigia pacis
1651:
1649:, pp. 120β121.
1647:Vestigia pacis
1638:
1634:Vestigia pacis
1625:
1621:Vestigia pacis
1612:
1608:Vestigia pacis
1599:
1590:
1588:, pp. 114β115.
1586:Vestigia pacis
1577:
1573:Vestigia pacis
1564:
1562:, pp. 135β136.
1560:Vestigia pacis
1551:
1549:, pp. 206β208.
1534:
1510:
1508:, pp. 208β209.
1497:
1489:Vestigia pacis
1472:
1431:
1414:
1412:, pp. 112β113.
1401:
1388:
1376:
1374:, pp. 136β137.
1360:
1344:
1328:
1312:
1295:
1282:
1269:
1248:
1235:
1215:
1198:
1185:
1172:
1159:
1145:
1143:
1140:
1121:, focusing on
1111:late antiquity
1094:
1091:
1090:
1089:
1079:
1078:
1077:
1047:
1041:
1035:
1027:
1015:
1002:
999:
926:peace treaties
892:
886:
882:commercial law
781:
756:leges et mores
747:Every people (
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686:
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190:27 BC β AD 284
183:
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180:27 BC β AD 395
172:
167:Roman Republic
163:
151:
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146:
145:
142:
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133:
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127:
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112:declined, and
84:Following the
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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1800:Basil Kennett
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1320:Clifford Ando
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1123:foedera pacis
1120:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1105:derived from
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1100:
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906:bellum iustum
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865:Hermogenianus
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839:
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828:
827:Roman citizen
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623:
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390:Promagistrate
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195:
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158:Roman Kingdom
155:
154:
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126:
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117:
115:
111:
107:
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76:
75:customary law
73:, but rather
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
43:
38:
37:
35:
19:
1834:
1819:
1809:
1791:
1779:
1769:
1754:
1750:
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1737:
1732:
1724:
1719:
1711:
1706:
1698:
1693:
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1680:
1672:
1667:
1659:
1654:
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1641:
1633:
1628:
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1607:
1602:
1593:
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1572:
1567:
1559:
1554:
1546:
1542:
1537:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1513:
1505:
1500:
1492:
1488:
1475:
1467:
1463:
1457:
1453:
1446:
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1434:
1426:
1422:
1417:
1409:
1404:
1396:
1391:
1383:
1379:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1323:
1315:
1307:
1303:
1298:
1290:
1285:
1277:
1272:
1264:
1260:
1251:
1243:
1238:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1210:
1206:
1201:
1193:
1188:
1180:
1175:
1167:
1162:
1154:
1153:R.W. Dyson,
1149:
1134:
1129:
1128:
1122:
1118:
1102:
1096:
1085:
1081:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1057:
1049:
1043:
1037:
1029:
1023:
1017:
1009:
1004:
993:
989:
983:
979:
977:
969:
960:
952:
946:
938:
933:
929:
923:
918:
904:
894:
889:
877:
873:
868:
860:
852:
848:
835:
830:
822:
816:
810:
806:
794:
792:
746:
736:
735:defined the
733:jurist Gaius
724:
716:ius naturale
713:
706:
700:
631:
624:
617:
610:
603:
596:
589:
582:
575:
568:
561:
554:
547:
523:
515:
508:
501:
494:
472:
465:
458:
451:
439:
317:
305:
301:Collegiality
237:Constitution
225:
214:
205:
176:Roman Empire
174:
165:
156:
101:
97:
90:Roman Empire
83:
78:
62:
41:
40:
32:
31:
29:
1798:(1674, tr.
1770:Relectiones
1751:Etymologies
1454:ius gentium
1304:De officiis
1135:ius gentium
1130:Ius gentium
1119:ius gentium
1103:ius gentium
1099:Middle Ages
1001:Terminology
982:, singular
957:manumission
939:ius gentium
930:ius gentium
919:ius gentium
897:private law
878:ius gentium
869:ius gentium
861:ius gentium
849:ius gentium
831:ius gentium
823:ius gentium
818:De officiis
812:mos maiorum
807:ius gentium
795:ius gentium
776:ius gentium
737:ius gentium
711:natural law
707:ius gentium
496:Mos maiorum
276:Late Empire
219:AD 395β1453
114:colonialism
102:ius gentium
98:ius gentium
67:statute law
63:ius gentium
53:within the
42:jus gentium
18:Ius gentium
1849:Categories
1835:Blackstone
1541:Schiller,
1479:After the
1443:ius civile
1142:References
1059:dediticius
874:ius civile
762:ius civile
727:ius civile
577:Praefectus
485:Public law
340:Centuriate
330:Assemblies
307:Auctoritas
210:AD 395β476
197:AD 284β641
187:Principate
162:753β509 BC
71:legal code
1833:Tucker's
1749:Isidore,
1740:, p. 147.
1714:, p. 140.
1697:Hekster,
1688:, p. 122.
1675:, p. 122.
1662:, p. 122.
1636:, p. 120.
1623:, p. 120.
1610:, p. 113.
1575:, p. 132.
1543:Roman Law
1532:, p. 208.
1504:Bozeman,
1427:et passim
1358:, p. 136.
1342:, p. 136.
1310:, p. 150.
1265:et passim
1246:, p. 225.
1233:, p. 136.
1213:, p. 236.
1107:canon law
1068:dediticii
990:amicitiae
965:armistice
901:religious
722:civil law
619:Imperator
467:Decemviri
460:Triumviri
430:Corrector
171:509β27 BC
120:Roman law
106:authority
94:canon law
1710:Baldus,
1684:Baldus,
1671:Baldus,
1658:Baldus,
1645:Baldus,
1632:Baldus,
1619:Baldus,
1606:Baldus,
1584:Baldus,
1571:Baldus,
1558:Baldus,
1464:Historia
1302:Cicero,
1276:Cicero,
1196:, p. 34.
1044:indutiae
1024:amicitia
1019:societas
1011:amicitia
786:G. Inst.
782:β
649:Tetrarch
639:Augustus
584:Vicarius
563:Officium
474:Interrex
435:Dictator
410:Governor
385:Quaestor
350:Plebeian
296:Imperium
252:Republic
227:Timeline
194:Dominate
1727:, p. 5.
1459:sanctus
1450:hostium
1448:legatus
1280:37.130.
1097:In the
1064:deditio
1051:deditio
980:foedera
943:praetor
913:by the
876:". The
845:Slavery
809:or the
784:Gaius,
769:civitas
750:populus
570:Praeses
549:Legatus
540:Emperor
400:Tribune
380:Praetor
345:Curiate
247:Kingdom
215:Eastern
206:Western
149:Periods
108:of the
88:of the
59:Western
36:gentium
1701:p. 47.
1485:Persia
1384:Digest
1368:Digest
1352:Digest
1336:Digest
1227:Digest
1101:, the
1031:foedus
985:foedus
961:gentes
953:gentes
941:. The
934:gentes
915:fetial
890:gentes
853:liberi
841:Ulpian
838:jurist
803:Cicero
741:reason
731:. The
705:, the
644:Caesar
605:Lictor
405:Censor
395:Aedile
375:Consul
355:Tribal
264:Empire
79:gentes
69:nor a
1086:fides
1082:fides
994:leges
47:Latin
1839:here
1828:here
1814:here
1804:here
1786:here
1774:here
1753:5.6
972:Livy
110:Pope
57:and
30:The
1038:pax
788:1.1
701:In
556:Dux
503:Ius
453:Rex
39:or
34:ius
1851::
1822:,
1794:,
1520:,
1322:,
1259:,
1225:,
1113:,
1066:;
884:.
833:.
801:.
92:,
1841:.
1830:.
1816:.
1788:.
1776:.
1429:.
1267:.
1076:.
729:)
725:(
718:)
714:(
690:e
683:t
676:v
45:(
20:)
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