620:(UNCC) was established, and US$ 350 billion in claims were filed by governments, corporations, and individuals. UNCC accepted and awarded compensations claims for $ 52.4 billion to approximately 1.5 million successful claimants; as of July 2019, $ 48.7 billion has been paid and only $ 3.7 billion was left to be paid to Kuwait on behalf of the Kuwait Petroleum Corporation. The UNCC says that its prioritization of claims by natural people, ahead of claims by governments and entities or corporations (legal persons), "marked a significant step in the evolution of international claims practice". Funds for these payments were to come from a 30% share of Iraq's oil revenues from the
20:
174:, defeated France was ordered to pay 700 million francs in indemnities. France was also to pay additional money to cover the cost of providing additional defensive fortifications to be built by neighbouring Coalition countries. It was the most expensive war reparation ever paid by a country (in proportion to its GDP).
495:
It is recognized that Japan should pay reparations to the Allied Powers for the damage and suffering caused by it during the war....Japan will promptly enter into negotiations with Allied Powers so desiring, whose present territories were occupied by
Japanese forces and damaged by Japan, with a view
445:
could only negotiate an interim peace deal with Soviet Union by agreeing to extensive reparations, and was eventually the only country to pay settled war reparations in full. The total amount of reparations rose to US$ 500 million, at the value of the dollar in 1953.
419:
and their nationals (US$ 200 million), renouncing German debts (US$ 200 million), irregular requisitioning (US$ 150 million) and maintenance of the Soviet Army unit on its territory (US$ 75 million). Romania paid $ 5.6 million in 1945 and, in the assessment of
53:
inflicted during a war. War reparations can take the form of hard currency, precious metals, natural resources, industrial assets, or intellectual properties. Loss of territory in a peace settlement is usually considered to be distinct from war reparations.
572:
414:
agreed to pay reparations of US$ 300 million to the Soviet Union. Romanian economists estimated that by
February 1947 the Romanian economy had suffered further losses due to returning seized goods (US$ 320 million), restoring properties to the
571:. Payments of reparations started in 1955, lasted for 23 years and ended in 1977. For countries that renounced any reparations from Japan, it agreed to pay an indemnity and/or grants in accordance with bilateral agreements. In the
148:
and the UN Basic
Principles on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims, and some scholars have argued that individuals should have a right to seek compensation for wrongs they sustained during warfare through tort law.
218:, defeated Greece was forced to pay a large war indemnity to Turkey (£4 million). Greece, which was already in default, was compelled to permit oversight of its public finances by an international financial commission.
496:
to assisting to compensate those countries for the cost of repairing the damage done, by making available the services of the
Japanese people in production, salvaging and other work for the Allied Powers in question.
632:
Certain groups in Iraq and the United States have campaigned for reparations by the United States for the devastation and health effects suffered by Iraqi citizens during the overthrow of Saddam
Hussein in the
512:
to compensate prisoners of war (POW) of 4.5 million pounds sterling (4.54109 billion yen) was made; and Japan relinquished all overseas assets, approximately US$ 23.681 billion (379.499 billion yen).
306:
During World War II, Germany extracted payments from occupied countries, compelled loans, stole or destroyed property. In addition, countries were obliged to provide resources, and forced labour.
1063:
356:
and civilians were used as forced labor (under various headings, such as "reparations labor" or "enforced labor") in Europe, Canada and the United States after the end of the Second World War.
1274:
Livy. Ab urbe condita (The Early
History of Rome, books I–V, and The History of Rome from its Foundation, books XXI–XXX: The War with Hannibal), London; Penguin Classics, 2002 and 1976.
773:
Livy. Ab urbe condita (The Early
History of Rome, books I–V, and The History of Rome from its Foundation, books XXI–XXX: The War with Hannibal), London; Penguin Classics, 2002 and 1976.
348:, states that the "intellectual reparations" (referring to German scientists) taken by the Allies amounted to close to $ 10 billion. German reparations were partly to be in the form of
274:
failed to be ratified, Germany had paid only a part of the sum. This still left
Germany with debts it had incurred in order to finance the reparations, and these were revised by the
686:
1121:
500:
War reparations made pursuant to the San
Francisco Peace Treaty with Japan (1951) include: reparations amounting to US$ 550 million (198 billion yen 1956) were made to the
782:
Metzler, M. 2006. Lever of Empire: The
International Gold Standard and the Crisis of Liberalism in Prewar Japan. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
1037:
1342:
1326:
Schuker, S. A. 1988. ‘American reparations’ to Germany, 1919–33.: implications for the third-world debt crisis. Princeton Studies in International Finance no. 61.
579:, the Soviet Union waived its rights to reparations from Japan, and both Japan and the Soviet Union waived all reparations claims arising from war. Additionally,
667:
1268:
198:
of 5 billion gold francs in five years. The indemnity was proportioned, according to population, to be the exact equivalent to the indemnity imposed by
1059:
1181:
336:
pursued a vigorous program of harvesting technological and scientific know-how as well as patents and many leading scientists in Germany (known as
1156:
1329:
White, E. N. 2001. Making the French pay: the cost and consequences of the Napoleonic reparations. European Review of Economic History 5, 337–65.
609:
1094:
576:
463:, signed on April 17, 1895, obliged China to pay an indemnity of 200 million silver taels (¥3.61 billion) to Japan; and to open the ports of
341:
278:
in 1953. After another pause pending the reunification of Germany, the last installment of these debt repayments was paid on 3 October 2010.
1283:
Occhino, F., Oosterlinck, K. and White, E. 2008. How much can a victor force the vanquished to pay? Journal of Economic History 68, 1–45.
1280:
Morrison, R. J. 1992. Gulf war reparations: Iraq, OPEC, and the transfer problem. American Journal of Economics and Sociology 51, 385–99.
437:
301:
293:
1487:
Petra Schmidt, "Disabled Colonial Veterans of the Imperial Japanese Forces and the Right to Receive Social Welfare Benefits from Japan"
987:
206:. German troops remained in parts of France until the last installment of the indemnity was paid in September 1873, ahead of schedule.
1414:
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1402:
1296:
509:
373:
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1390:
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617:
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Reparations for the gross violations of human rights during the regime of Democratic Kampuchea (the Khmer Rouge) in Cambodia
1210:
1339:
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or under the threat of re-occupation. The legal basis for war reparations in modern international law is Article 3 of the
544:
287:
921:
676:
275:
1265:"The Wreck of Reparations, being the political background of the Lausanne Agreement, 1932", New York, H. Fertig, 1972.
1317:
1277:
Mantoux, E. 1946. The Carthaginian Peace or The Economic Consequences of Mr. Keynes. London: Oxford University Press.
1016:
515:
Japan signed the peace treaty with 49 nations in 1952 and concluded 54 bilateral agreements that included those with
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548:
536:
396:
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Wynne William H., (1951), State insolvency and foreign bondholders, New Haven, Yale University Press, vol. 2.
411:
297:
145:
652:
271:
1472:
Joint Communique of the Government of Japan and the Government of the People's Republic of China (1972)
1271:"Redress for Victims of Crimes under International Law", Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, The Hague (2004).
1143:
692:
187:
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575:(1972), the People's Republic of China renounced its demand for war reparations from Japan. In the
215:
66:
1291:
902:, without taking in account the Napoleonic War reparation (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1955), p. 133.
832:
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paid reparations of 2.25 billion gold francs (90 million pounds) to the Entente, according to the
718:
697:
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237:
227:
138:
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Joint Communiqué of the Government of Japan and the Government of the People's Republic of China
399:
agreed to pay reparations of US$ 200 million to the Soviet Union, and US$ 100 million apiece to
57:
War reparations are often governed by treaties which belligerent parties negotiate as part of a
1477:
Japan's Records on War Reparations, The Association for Advancement of Unbiased View of History
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318:
171:
72:
Prominent examples of war reparations include Carthage's indemnity paid to Rome following the
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703:
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Agreement Between Japan and Thailand Concerning Settlement of "Special Yen Problem" (1955)
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527:(US$ 223.08 million 1958), the Philippines (US$ 525 million/52.94 billion yen 1967),
249:
50:
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War Responsibility, Postwar Compensation, and Peace Movements and Education in Japan
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Stephen D. Roper, Romania: The Unfinished Revolution, Routledge, London, 2000, p. 18
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878:
870:
805:
713:
195:
127:
58:
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Ohlin, B. 1929. The reparation problem: a discussion. Economic Journal 39, 172–82.
270:. When Germany stopped making payments in 1932 after the agreement reached at the
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612:, which declared Iraq's financial liability for damage caused in its invasion of
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332:
Beginning before the German surrender and continuing for the next two years, the
255:
119:
77:
73:
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856:"Making the French pay: the cost and consequences of the Napoleonic reparations"
19:
1309:
1182:"PRESS RELEASE UNITED NATIONS COMPENSATION COMMISSION PAYS OUT US$ 270 MILLION"
954:
647:
416:
400:
346:
Science Technology and Reparations: Exploitation and Plunder in Postwar Germany
263:
233:
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Agreement of 21st September, 1967, Between Japan and the Republic of Singapore
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Reparations Agreement Between Japan and the Republic of the Philippines (1956)
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When nations can't default: a history of war reparations and sovereign debt
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There have been attempts to codify reparations both in the Statutes of the
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for the German Navy, was taken by the United States as reparations in 1946.
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Reparations Agreement Between Japan and the Republic of Vietnam (1959)
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Treaty of Peace with Japan Signed at San Francisco on 8 September 1951
1060:"România sărăcită. Jaful, politică de stat a URSS faţă de cei învinşi"
61:. Payment of reparations often occur as part of a condition to remove
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101:
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Treaty of Peace Between Japan and the Republic of Indonesia (1958)
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Treaty on Basic Relations between Japan and the Republic of Korea
568:
516:
442:
385:
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For the Soul of France : culture wars in the age of Dreyfus
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held between July 17 and August 2, 1945, Germany was to pay the
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564:
472:
425:
421:
377:
16:
Compensation payments made after a war by one side to the other
325:. Dismantling in the West stopped in 1950. Reparations to the
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Agreement of 21st September, 1967, Between Japan and Malaysia
552:
369:
1388:
Treaty of Peace Between Japan and the Union of Burma (1954)
605:
134:
380:, US$ 100 million to the Soviet Union, US$ 25 million to
84:(1791–1804), French reparations to Germany following the
46:
637:. However, there has been little international support.
1114:"Japan PM Abe ends Sri Lanka trip with visit to temple"
916:(1st ed.). New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p. 88.
531:(25 million Malaysian dollars/2.94 billion yen 1967),
372:
agreed to pay reparations of about US$ 125 million to
668:
Reparations Agreement between Israel and West Germany
49:
by one side to the other. They are intended to cover
1294:. In Durlauf, Steven N.; Blume, Lawrence E. (eds.).
1030:"Spolierea României la Tratatul de Pace de la Paris"
137:in reparations imposed on defeated China after the
833:"War Torts: Accountability for Autonomous Weapons"
980:"Germany makes final payment for WWI reparations"
504:, and US$ 39 million (14.04 billion yen 1959) to
1497:
627:
1376:Treaty of Peace Between Japan and India (1952)
610:United Nations Security Council Resolution 687
133:There was also the case of 230 million silver
88:(1870–1871), and German reparations following
80:, Haiti's reparations to France following the
454:
209:
1289:
853:
438:Finnish war reparations to the Soviet Union
302:World War II reparations towards Yugoslavia
294:Forced labor of Germans in the Soviet Union
1352:The United Nations Compensation Commission
1211:"US reparations for Iraq are long overdue"
748:
352:. By 1947, approximately 4,000,000 German
232:Russians agreed to pay reparations to the
104:is a common practice with a long history.
1111:
882:
577:Soviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956
258:agreed to pay reparations of 132 billion
1297:The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics
510:International Committee of the Red Cross
329:stopped in 1953 (only paid by the GDR).
18:
830:
794:"Tort Liability for Belligerent Wrongs"
791:
587:, declined war reparations from Japan.
431:
406:
391:
321:US$ 23 billion mainly in machinery and
281:
1498:
1189:United Nations Compensation Commission
1066:from the original on 23 September 2015
618:United Nations Compensation Commission
177:
911:
837:University of Pennsylvania Law Review
595:
482:
359:
1233:
1095:"60 years after the war reparations"
1040:from the original on 3 February 2016
990:from the original on 24 October 2012
744:
742:
740:
738:
736:
900:Bismarck: The Man and the Statesman
863:European Review of Economic History
288:German reparations for World War II
76:, French reparations following the
13:
1124:from the original on 23 March 2018
677:Reparations (transitional justice)
276:Agreement on German External Debts
236:when Russia exited the war in the
14:
1522:
1333:
733:
583:(now Sri Lanka), under President
157:
141:led Japan to a similar decision.
424:, it was coerced to pay through
366:Treaty of Peace with Italy, 1947
244:government eight months later).
1227:
1203:
1174:
1162:from the original on 2017-05-05
1152:U.S. Department of the Treasury
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1105:
1087:
1078:
1052:
1022:
1002:
972:
947:
831:Crootof, Rebecca (2016-01-01).
798:Oxford Journal of Legal Studies
487:According to Article 14 of the
1112:migration (8 September 2014).
984:The Jerusalem Post - JPost.com
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905:
892:
847:
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785:
776:
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753:. Cambridge University Press.
221:
1:
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628:Invasion by the United States
519:(US$ 20 million 1954, 1963),
298:POW labor in the Soviet Union
240:(which was repudiated by the
186:, according to conditions of
792:Abraham, Haim (2019-12-01).
146:International Criminal Court
7:
1491:, vol. 21(1999) pp. 231–259
1234:Hawa, Kaleem (2021-09-01).
653:Haiti indemnity controversy
640:
100:Making one party pay a war
82:Haitian War of Independence
10:
1527:
1310:10.1057/9780230226203.1920
749:Hinrichsen, Simon (2024).
693:Treaty of Frankfurt (1871)
435:
291:
285:
225:
95:
1345:29 September 2017 at the
1290:Oosterlinck, Kim (2009).
1263:Wheeler-Bennett, Sir John
912:Brown, Frederick (2010).
875:10.1017/S1361491601000132
455:Sino-Japanese War of 1895
210:Greco-Turkish War of 1897
194:was obliged to pay a war
152:
726:
535:(5.4 billion yen 1955),
523:(US$ 300 million 1965),
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216:Greco-Turkish War (1897)
67:Hague Convention of 1907
1144:"RESOLUTION 687 (1991)"
1010:The Russians in Germany
719:World War I reparations
698:Treaty of San Francisco
590:
489:Treaty of San Francisco
384:, and US$ 5 million to
238:Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
228:World War I reparations
139:First Sino-Japanese War
1236:"Reparations for Iraq"
555:($ 5.5 million 1957),
498:
172:Treaty of Paris (1815)
35:
1215:america.aljazeera.com
955:"Lausanne Conference"
672:Holocaust reparations
563:($ 10 million 1956),
493:
461:Treaty of Shimonoseki
376:, US$ 105 million to
286:Further information:
166:'s final loss at the
43:compensation payments
22:
854:E. N. White (2001).
704:Treaty of Versailles
432:World War II Finland
407:World War II Romania
392:World War II Hungary
323:manufacturing plants
282:World War II Germany
268:Treaty of Versailles
1300:(Online ed.).
810:10.1093/ojls/gqz025
479:to Japanese trade.
338:Operation Paperclip
313:, according to the
272:Lausanne Conference
188:Treaty of Frankfurt
184:Franco-Prussian War
178:Franco-Prussian War
86:Franco-Prussian War
30:, built in 1936 as
1465:2016-03-21 at the
1453:2016-03-23 at the
1441:2015-09-24 at the
1429:2015-09-24 at the
1417:2016-10-13 at the
1405:2018-05-24 at the
1393:2016-03-23 at the
1381:2018-05-24 at the
1369:2011-07-08 at the
1357:2008-09-14 at the
1302:Palgrave Macmillan
1269:Ilaria Bottigliero
1062:. 23 August 2013.
1008:Norman M. Naimark
709:Potsdam Conference
663:Reparation (legal)
596:Invasion of Kuwait
483:World War II Japan
360:World War II Italy
315:Potsdam conference
168:Battle of Waterloo
124:Treaty of Lutatius
36:
1489:Sydney Law Review
1099:valtioneuvosto.fi
898:A. J. P. Taylor,
760:978-1-009-34397-8
585:J. R. Jayewardene
508:; payment to the
364:According to the
250:Treaty of Neuilly
128:Second Punic Wars
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1506:Aftermath of war
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1123:
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1061:
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985:
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428:$ 2 billion.
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45:made after a
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311:World War II
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170:, under the
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71:
56:
38:
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32:Horst Wessel
31:
26:
1511:Reparations
884:10419/94257
682:Restitution
561:Netherlands
557:Switzerland
521:South Korea
502:Philippines
342:John Gimbel
222:World War I
112:indemnities
90:World War I
1500:Categories
1257:References
1245:2021-11-12
1220:2021-11-12
1070:3 February
1044:3 February
994:3 February
964:7 November
843:(6): 1347.
600:After the
537:Micronesia
374:Yugoslavia
292:See also:
260:gold marks
182:After the
162:Following
118:after the
1240:nymag.com
1166:23 August
932:419798763
818:0143-6503
624:program.
608:accepted
525:Indonesia
469:Chongqing
242:Bolshevik
196:indemnity
102:indemnity
1463:Archived
1451:Archived
1439:Archived
1427:Archived
1415:Archived
1403:Archived
1391:Archived
1379:Archived
1367:Archived
1355:Archived
1343:Archived
1195:6 August
1157:Archived
1128:30 April
1122:Archived
1064:Archived
1038:Archived
1034:Historia
988:Archived
641:See also
635:Iraq War
602:Gulf War
551:(1977),
549:Mongolia
547:(1959),
545:Cambodia
543:(1958),
539:(1969),
533:Thailand
529:Malaysia
491:(1951):
477:Hangzhou
382:Ethiopia
246:Bulgaria
200:Napoleon
164:Napoleon
116:Carthage
1019:pg. 206
569:Denmark
443:Finland
412:Romania
397:Hungary
386:Albania
266:in the
262:to the
256:Germany
96:History
1316:
1015:
930:
920:
816:
757:
700:(1951)
689:(1965)
616:. The
614:Kuwait
581:Ceylon
565:Sweden
559:, the
473:Suzhou
465:Shashi
426:SovRom
422:Digi24
378:Greece
319:Allies
309:After
300:, and
192:France
153:Europe
25:USCGC
1185:(PDF)
1160:(PDF)
1147:(PDF)
859:(PDF)
727:Notes
553:Spain
517:Burma
450:Japan
370:Italy
135:taels
120:First
27:Eagle
1314:ISBN
1197:2019
1168:2017
1130:2018
1072:2016
1046:2016
1013:ISBN
996:2016
966:2023
928:OCLC
918:ISBN
814:ISSN
755:ISBN
606:Iraq
591:Iraq
567:and
541:Laos
475:and
459:The
354:POWs
204:1807
108:Rome
41:are
23:The
1306:doi
879:hdl
871:doi
841:164
806:doi
114:on
47:war
1502::
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735:^
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808::
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122:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
