Franco-Prussian War

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south of France, where it would remain until the German armies captured Paris, eliminated the political usurpers and made room for the legitimate imperial authorities with the support of Bazaine's army. Even ignoring moral issues and potential public outcry, this plan seems completely unrealistic. Bismarck and Moltke answered Bazaine's offer of "cooperation" against the "republican menace" with an indifferent shrug. The German press, undoubtedly at the instigation of Bismarck, widely covered this topic, and reported the details of Bazaine's negotiations. The French press could only remain completely silent on this issue. With whom Bazaine negotiated still raises questions among historians. "For a decade, the French were considered him (M. Edmond Regnier) a sinister figure, almost certainly an agent of Bismarck. They would have been more justified in thinking him a buffoon". Undoubtedly, the politically motivated actions of Commander Bazaine led to the passivity of the encircled army at Metz and contributed to the defeat of not only this army, but the country as a whole. Bazaine's army surrendered on 26 October. 173,000 people surrendered, with the Prussians capturing the huge amount of military equipment located in Metz. After the war, Marshal Bazaine was convicted by a French military court.

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was opposing, it was too late. Seriously flawed communications between Frossard and those in reserve under Bazaine slowed down so much that by the time the reserves received orders to move out to Spicheren, German soldiers from the 1st and 2nd armies had charged up the heights. Because the reserves had not arrived, Frossard erroneously believed that he was in grave danger of being outflanked, as German soldiers under General von Glume were spotted in Forbach. Instead of continuing to defend the heights, by the close of battle after dusk he retreated to the south. The German casualties were relatively high due to the advance and the effectiveness of the Chassepot rifle. They were quite startled in the morning when they had found out that their efforts were not in vain—Frossard had abandoned his position on the heights.

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over 17,000 men, killed or wounded, with 21,000 captured. The Prussians reported their losses at 2,320 killed, 5,980 wounded and 700 captured or missing. By the next day, on 2 September, Napoleon III surrendered and was taken prisoner with 104,000 of his soldiers. It was an overwhelming victory for the Prussians, who had captured an entire French army and the leader of France. They subsequently paraded the defeated French army in view of the besieged army in Metz, which had an impact on the morale of the defenders. The defeat of the French at Sedan had decided the war in Prussia's favour. One French army was now immobilised and besieged in the city of Metz, and nothing was preventing a Prussian invasion. This defeat was humiliating for the already morally defeated French army and opened the paveway for the

3269:, the head of the British cabinet in 1865, wrote: "The current Prussia is too weak to be honest and independent in its actions. And, taking into account the interests of the future, it is highly desirable for Germany as a whole became strong, so she was able to keep the ambitious and warlike nation, France, and Russia, which compress it from the West and the East". English historians criticize the then British policy, pointing out that Palmerston misunderstood Bismarck's policy due to his adherence to outdated ideas. Over time, Britain began to understand that the military defeat of France meant a radical change in the European balance of power. In the future, the development of historical events is characterized by a gradual increase in Anglo-German contradictions. "The colonial quarrels, 1583: 2221: 3581: 2491:

This success was achieved despite the fact that the military industry and warehouses were concentrated mainly in Paris; all supplies in the province—chiefs, weapons, camps, uniforms, ammunition, equipment, baggage—had to be improvised anew. Many branches of the military industry were re-established in the province. Freedom of communication with foreign markets brought significant benefits; it was possible to make large purchases on foreign markets, mainly English, Belgian, and American. The artillery created by Gambetta in four months—238 batteries—was one and a half times larger than the artillery of imperial France. In the end, eight corps participated in the battles, and three were ready only by the end of January, when a truce was already concluded.

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catch the French in a pincer grip. Moltke left the Prussian First and Second Armies besieging Metz, except three corps detached to form the Army of the Meuse under the Crown Prince of Saxony. With this army and the Prussian Third Army, Moltke marched northward and caught up with the French at Beaumont on 30 August. After a sharp fight in which they lost 5,000 men and 40 cannons, the French withdrew toward Sedan. Having reformed in the town, the Army of Châlons was immediately isolated by the converging Prussian armies. Napoleon III ordered the army to break out of the encirclement immediately. With MacMahon wounded on the previous day, General Auguste Ducrot took command of the French troops in the field.

2105: 339: 1549:, declared that France had done all that it could humanly and honorably do to prevent the war, and that he accepted the responsibility "with a light heart". A crowd of 15,000–20,000 people, carrying flags and patriotic banners, marched through the streets of Paris, demanding war. French mobilization was ordered early on 15 July. Upon receiving news of the French mobilization, the North German Confederation mobilized on the night of 15–16 July, while Bavaria and Baden did likewise on 16 July and Württemberg on 17 July. On 19 July 1870, the French sent a declaration of war to the Prussian government. The southern German states immediately sided with Prussia. 1486:

Franco-German war must take place before the construction of a United Germany could be realised." Bismarck also knew that France should be the aggressor in the conflict to bring the four southern German states to side with Prussia, hence giving Germans numerical superiority. He was convinced that France would not find any allies in her war against Germany for the simple reason that "France, the victor, would be a danger to everybody—Prussia to nobody," and he added, "That is our strong point." Many Germans also viewed the French as the traditional destabilizer of Europe, and sought to weaken France to prevent further breaches of the peace.

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were now closing in to complete the destruction of the French forces. The combined German forces, under Field Marshal Count Helmuth von Moltke, were the Prussian First and Second Armies of the North German Confederation numbering about 210 infantry battalions, 133 cavalry squadrons, and 732 heavy cannons totaling 188,332 officers and men. The French Army of the Rhine, commanded by Marshal François-Achille Bazaine, numbering about 183 infantry battalions, 104 cavalry squadrons, backed by 520 heavy cannons, totaling 112,800 officers and men, dug in along high ground with their southern left flank at the town of

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flexible. Companies were formed into columns and attacked in parallel, rather than as a homogeneous battalion-sized block. Attacking in parallel allowed each company to choose its own axis of advance and make the most of local cover. It also permitted the Prussians to fire at oblique angles, raking the French lines with rifle fire. Thus, even though the Prussians had inferior rifles, they still inflicted more casualties with rifle fire than the French, with 53,900 French killed by the Dreyse (70% of their war casualties) versus 25,475 Germans killed by the Chassepot (96% of their war casualties).

8106: 565: 553: 541: 528: 515: 501: 487: 2843: 3176: 359: 326: 250: 2373: 2365: 2269: 3603:. Germany had established itself as a major power in continental Europe, boasting one of the most powerful and professional armies in the world. Although Britain remained the dominant world power overall, British involvement in European affairs during the late 19th century was limited, owing to its focus on colonial empire-building, allowing Germany to exercise great influence over the European mainland. Anglo-German straining of tensions was somewhat mitigated by several prominent relationships between the two powers, such as the Crown Prince's marriage with the daughter of 1884:, with French riflemen regularly outdistancing their Prussian counterparts in the skirmishing around Saarbrücken. However the Prussians resisted strongly, and the French suffered 86 casualties to the Prussian 83 casualties. Saarbrücken also proved to be a major obstacle in terms of logistics. Only one railway there led to the German hinterland but could be easily defended by a single force, and the only river systems in the region ran along the border instead of inland. While the French hailed the invasion as the first step towards the Rhineland and later Berlin, General 8120: 3278:

in the war of 1866 they participated on the side of Austria against Prussia, they were forced to reckon with a broad popular movement in favor of German unity and were also afraid of angering their strong neighbor in the form of Prussia. After the diplomatic provocation in Bad Ems, these states had no room for maneuver, the war was presented by Bismarck as a war for national independence against an external enemy. All these states joined the Prussian war from the very beginning of hostilities. In January 1871, these states became part of the German Empire.

3341:, conducted a charge against a French artillery battery. The attack was a costly success and came to be known as "von Bredow's Death Ride", but which nevertheless was held to prove that cavalry charges could still prevail on the battlefield. Use of traditional cavalry on the battlefields of 1914 proved to be disastrous, due to accurate, long-range rifle fire, machine-guns and artillery. Bredow's attack had succeeded only because of an unusually effective artillery bombardment just before the charge, along with favorable terrain that masked his approach. 1849: 3065: 1776: 3028: 312: 2014: 2922:; pursuit of Prussian ships quickly depleted the coal reserves of the French ships. But the main reason for the only partial success of the naval operation was the fear of the French command to risk political complications with Great Britain. This deterred the French command from trying to interrupt German trade under the British flag. Despite the limited measures of the blockade, it still created noticeable difficulties for German trade. "The actual captures of German ships were eighty in number". 3200:(literally "circle") around the chief city in an area. Reservists rarely lived more than a day's travel from their regiment's depot. By contrast, French regiments generally served far from their depots, which in turn were not in the areas of France from which their soldiers were drawn. Reservists often faced several days' journey to report to their depots, and then another long journey to join their regiments. Large numbers of reservists choked railway stations, vainly seeking rations and orders. 46: 2662: 3253:, partially due to the diplomatic efforts of the Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck. Bismarck had bought Tsar Alexander II's complicity by promising to help restore his naval access to the Black Sea and Mediterranean (cut off by the treaties ending the Crimean War), other powers were less biddable. "Seizing upon the distraction of the Franco-Prussian War, Russia in November 1870 had begun rebuilding its naval bases in the Black Sea, a clear violation of the treaty that had ended the 2567: 8113: 3293:, which could fire its thirty-seven barrels at a range of around 1,100 m (1,200 yd). It was developed in such secrecy that little training with the weapon had occurred, leaving French gunners with little experience; the gun was treated like artillery and in this role it was ineffective. Worse still, once the small number of soldiers who had been trained how to use the new weapon became casualties, there were no replacements who knew how to operate the mitrailleuse. 3094:

strengthened Moltke's ability to control large formations spread out over significant distances. The Chief of the General Staff, effectively the commander in chief of the Prussian army, was independent of the minister of war and answered only to the monarch. The French General Staff—along with those of every other European military—was little better than a collection of assistants for the line commanders. This disorganization hampered the French commanders' ability to

2300: 8099: 3505:. Communards captured with weapons were routinely shot by the army and Government troops killed between 7,000 and 30,000 Communards, both during the fighting and in massacres of men, women, and children during and after the Commune. More recent histories, based on studies of the number buried in Paris cemeteries and in mass graves after the fall of the Commune, put the number killed at between 6,000 and 10,000. Twenty-six courts were established to try more than 2455:. To allow supplies into Paris, one of the perimeter forts had to be handed over. Favre was unaware that Bismarck's real aim in making such extortionate demands was to establish a durable peace on Germany's new western frontier, preferably by a peace with a friendly government, on terms acceptable to French public opinion. An impregnable military frontier was an inferior alternative to him, favoured only by the militant nationalists on the German side. 3637:(literally, "revenge-ism") in France, characterised by a deep sense of bitterness, hatred and demand for revenge against Germany. This was particularly manifested in loose talk of another war with Germany in order to reclaim Alsace and Lorraine. It also led to the development of nationalist ideologies emphasising "the ideal of the guarded, self-referential nation schooled in the imperative of war", an ideology epitomised by figures such as General 433: 414: 396: 2329:, the commander of the French V Corps in reserve, hoped to launch a combined infantry and cavalry attack against the Prussian XI Corps. But by 11:00, Prussian artillery took a toll on the French while more Prussian troops arrived on the battlefield. The struggle in the conditions of encirclement turned out to be absolutely impossible for the French—their front was shot through with artillery fire from three sides. The French cavalry, commanded by 3408: 2041:, the German 1st Army under Steinmetz finished their advance west from Saarbrücken. A patrol from the German 2nd Army under Prince Friedrich Karl of Prussia spotted decoy fires nearby and Frossard's army farther off on a distant plateau south of the town of Spicheren, and took this as a sign of Frossard's retreat. Ignoring Moltke's plan again, both German armies attacked Frossard's French 2nd Corps, fortified between Spicheren and Forbach. 3400: 2731: 2649:, the Army of the North suffered from severe supply difficulties, which depressed morale. In January 1871, Gambetta forced Faidherbe to march his army beyond the fortresses and engage the Prussians in open battle. The army was severely weakened by low morale, supply problems, the terrible winter weather and low troop quality, whilst general Faidherbe was unable to command due to his poor health, the result of decades of campaigning in 2154: 3301:

had 30% more guns than their French counterparts. The Prussian guns typically opened fire at a range of 2–3 kilometres (1.2–1.9 mi), beyond the range of French artillery or the Chassepot rifle. The Prussian batteries could thus destroy French artillery with impunity, before being moved forward to directly support infantry attacks. The Germans fired 30,000,000 rounds of small arms ammunition and 362,662 field artillery rounds.

7974: 2835: 3665: 8021: 1533:, a fierce opponent of Prussia who, as French Ambassador to Austria in 1866, had advocated an Austro-French military alliance against Prussia. Napoleon III's worsening health problems made him less and less capable of reining in Empress Eugénie, Gramont and the other members of the war party, known collectively as the "mameluks". For Bismarck, the nomination of Gramont was seen as "a highly bellicose symptom". 1392: 1636:, one of the most modern mass-produced firearms in the world at the time, with 1,037,555 available in French inventories. With a rubber ring seal and a smaller bullet, the Chassepot had a maximum effective range of some 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) with a short reloading time. French tactics emphasised the defensive use of the Chassepot rifle in trench-warfare style fighting—the so-called 2071:. The Crown Prince of Prussia's 3rd army had, on the quick reaction of his Chief of Staff General von Blumenthal, drawn reinforcements which brought its strength up to 140,000 troops. The French had been slowly reinforced and their force numbered only 35,000. Although badly outnumbered, the French defended their position just outside Frœschwiller. By afternoon, the Germans had suffered 2400:. After the German victory at Sedan, most of the French standing army was either besieged in Metz or held prisoner by the Germans, who hoped for an armistice and an end to the war. Bismarck wanted an early peace but had difficulty finding a legitimate French authority with whom to negotiate. The Emperor was a captive and the Empress in exile, but there had been no abdication 3450:, particularly in the working-class neighbourhoods of Paris, had become highly politicised and units elected officers; many refused to wear uniforms or obey commands from the national government. National guard units tried to seize power in Paris on 31 October 1870 and 22 January 1871. On 18 March 1871, when the regular army tried to remove cannons from an artillery park on 3614:, the German Empire became "a military despotism cloaked in parliamentary forms with a feudal ingredient, influenced by the bourgeoisie, festooned with bureaucrats and guarded by police." Likewise, many historians would see Germany's "escape into war" in 1914 as a flight from all of the internal-political contradictions forged by Bismarck at Versailles in the fall of 1870. 2435:('overwhelming attack'). The Germans continued the war, yet could not pin down any proper military opposition in their vicinity. As the bulk of the remaining French armies was digging in near Paris, the German leaders decided to put pressure upon their enemy by attacking there. By 15 September, German troops had reached the outskirts and Moltke issued the orders to 2555:

on the early start of the bombardment, despite all the objections of the military command. Von Blumenthal, who commanded the siege, was opposed to the bombardment on moral grounds. In this he was backed by other senior military figures such as the Crown Prince and Moltke. Nevertheless, in January, the Germans fired some 12,000 shells (300–400 daily) into the city.

2412:" ("a partisan coup"). This policy was to some extent successful; the European press discussed the legitimacy of the French authorities, and Prussia's aggressive position was to some extent understood. Only the United States and Spain recognized the Government of National Defence immediately after the announcement; other countries refused to do this for some time. 1975:

elements of a Bavarian and two Prussian corps became engaged and were aided by Prussian artillery, which blasted holes in the city defenses. Douay held a very strong position initially, thanks to the accurate long-range rapid fire of the Chassepot rifles, but his force was too thinly stretched to hold it. Douay was killed in the late morning when a

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historians against its commander. It was later stated with derogatory irony that his occupation at that time was writing orders on hygiene and discipline, as well as playing dominoes. Bazaine's surprising inactivity was a great relief to Moltke, who now had time to improve his lines around Metz and intensify the hunt for MacMahon.

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operations continued in the eastern part of the country, in the area of operation of the Bourbaki army. The French side, having no reliable information about the outcome of the struggle, insisted on excluding this area from the truce in the hope of a successful outcome of the struggle. The Germans did not dissuade the French.

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suit either France, which unexpectedly found itself next to the militarily powerful Prussian-led North German Confederation, or Prussia, whose foremost objective was to complete the process of uniting the German states under its control. Thus, war between the two powers since 1866 was only a matter of time.

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At the start of the Franco-Prussian War, 462,000 German soldiers concentrated on the French frontier while only 270,000 French soldiers could be moved to face them, the French army having lost 100,000 stragglers before a shot was fired, through poor planning and administration. This was partly due to

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The quick German victory over the French stunned neutral observers, many of whom had expected a French victory and a long war. The strategic advantages which the Germans had were not appreciated outside Germany until after hostilities had ceased. Other countries quickly discerned the advantages given

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intended for the invasion of northern Germany were dispatched to reinforce the French Army of Châlons and fell into captivity at Sedan along with Napoleon III. A shortage of officers, following the capture of most of the professional French army at the siege of Metz and at the Battle of Sedan, led to

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was available to conduct operations. By the time engine repairs had been completed, the French fleet had already departed. The blockade proved only partially successful due to crucial oversights by the planners in Paris. Reservists that were supposed to be at the ready in case of war, were working in

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Bismarck was an active supporter of the bombardment of the city. He sought to end the war as soon as possible, very much fearing a change in the international situation unfavorable to Prussia, as he himself called it "the intervention of neutrals". Therefore, Bismarck constantly and actively insisted

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About 160,000 French soldiers were besieged in the fortress of Metz following the defeats on the frontier. A retirement from Metz to link up with French forces at Châlons was ordered on 15 August and spotted by a Prussian cavalry patrol under Major Oskar von Blumenthal. Next day a grossly outnumbered

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On the French side, planning after the disaster at Wissembourg had become essential. General Le Bœuf, flushed with anger, was intent upon going on the offensive over the Saar and countering their loss. However, planning for the next encounter was more based upon the reality of unfolding events rather

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After the Peace of Prague in 1866, the nominally independent German states of Saxony, Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt (the southern part that was not included in the North German Union) remained. Despite the fact that there was a strong opposition to Prussia in the ruling circles and

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during his time in Russia. Surrounded by a rigid aristocracy with a "Sacred Social Order" mentality, Jomini's system was equally rigid and inflexible. His system simplified several formations that were meant for an entire army, using battalions as the building blocks. His system was simple, but only

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Although public opinion in Paris was strongly against any form of surrender or concession to the Prussians, the Government realised that it could not hold the city for much longer, and that Gambetta's provincial armies would probably never break through to relieve Paris. President Trochu resigned on

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months, and by the end of the war, six months later, only by 15%, which did not even balance the losses incurred. Prussia was completely unaware of the feverish activity of permanent mobilization. This disparity in forces created a crisis for the Germans at the front in November 1870, which only the

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Bazaine, a well-known Bonapartist, at this time allowed himself to be carried away by illusory plans for a political role in France. Unconventional military plans were put forth, by which the Germans would allow the army under Bazaine's command to withdraw from the fortress of Metz to retreat to the

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With the defeat of Marshal Bazaine's Army of the Rhine at Gravelotte, the French retreated to Metz, where they were besieged by over 150,000 Prussian troops of the First and Second Armies. Further military operations on the part of the army under Bazaine's command have drawn numerous criticisms from

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On 18 August, the battle began when at 08:00 Moltke ordered the First and Second Armies to advance against the French positions. The French were dug in with trenches and rifle pits with their artillery and their mitrailleuses in concealed positions. Backed by artillery fire, Steinmetz's VII and VIII

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of 13 July 1870 had exactly the effect on French public opinion that Bismarck had intended. "This text produced the effect of a red flag on the Gallic bull", Bismarck later wrote. Gramont, the French foreign minister, declared that he felt "he had just received a slap". The leader of the monarchists

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In Prussia, some officials considered a war against France both inevitable and necessary to arouse German nationalism in those states that would allow the unification of a great German empire. This aim was epitomized by Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck's later statement: "I did not doubt that a

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artillery, while the Prussians used new steel breech-loading guns, which had a far longer range and a faster rate of fire. Prussian gunners strove for a high rate of fire, which was discouraged in the French army in the belief that it wasted ammunition. In addition, the Prussian artillery batteries

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had both wished to avenge their recent military defeats against Prussia, they chose not to intervene in the war due to a lack of confidence in the French. These countries did not have a documented alliance with France, and they were too late to start a war. After the rapid and stunning victories of

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on 19 September 1870. Faced with the blockade, the new French government called for the establishment of several large armies in the French provinces. These new bodies of troops were to march towards Paris and attack the Germans there from various directions at the same time. Armed French civilians

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While the Germans had a 2:1 numerical advantage before Napoleon III's surrender, this French recruitment gave them a 2:1 or 3:1 advantage. The French more than tripled their forces during the war, while the Germans did not increase theirs as much; the number of 888,000 mobilized by the North German

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where the Prussian XI Corps was concentrated. Margueritte was mortally wounded leading the very first charge, dying 4 days later, and the two additional charges led to nothing but heavy losses. By the end of the day, with no hope of breaking out, Napoleon III called off the attacks. The French lost

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The Battle of Gravelotte, or Gravelotte–St. Privat (18 August), was the largest battle in the Franco-Prussian War. It was fought about 6 miles (9.7 km) west of Metz, where on the previous day, having intercepted the French army's retreat to the west at the Battle of Mars-La-Tour, the Prussians

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The French were unaware of German numerical superiority at the beginning of the battle as the German 2nd Army did not attack all at once. Treating the oncoming attacks as merely skirmishes, Frossard did not request additional support from other units. By the time he realized what kind of a force he

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than emotion or pride, as Intendant General Wolff told him and his staff that supply beyond the Saar would be impossible. Therefore, the armies of France would take up a defensive position that would protect against every possible attack point, but also left the armies unable to support each other.

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The first action of the Franco-Prussian War took place on 4 August 1870. This battle saw the unsupported division of General Douay of I Corps, with some attached cavalry, which was posted to watch the border, attacked in overwhelming but uncoordinated fashion by the German 3rd Army. During the day,

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Recruitment and organisation of the various armies were almost identical, and based on the concept of conscripting annual classes of men who then served in the regular regiments for a fixed term before being moved to the reserves. This process gave a theoretical peace time strength of 382,000 and a

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The only result of French policy was the consent of Prussia to nominal independence for Saxony, Bavaria, Wurttemberg, Baden, and Hessia-Darmstadt; this was a small victory, and one without appeal to a French public which wanted territory and a French army which wanted revenge. The situation did not

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put up a resistance against a force of Bavarian soldiers. After the initial French resistance was overcome, the Bavarian troops shelled the village with artillery before sending in infantry to continue the assault. In battle, some surrendering soldiers were shot on the spot, and over 400 buildings

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on 24 January to discuss peace terms with Bismarck. Bismarck agreed to end the siege and allow food convoys to immediately enter Paris (including trains carrying millions of German army rations), on condition that the Government of National Defence surrender several key fortresses outside Paris to

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under Gambetta's leadership led to significant success in the formation of a new army. In less than four months, with persistent battles at the front, eleven new corps were formed (Nos. XVI–XXVI). The average success of the formation was equal to six thousand infantrymen and two batteries per day.

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or ceding colonial territories in Africa or Southeast Asia, it would go no further. On behalf of the Government of National Defense, Favre declared on 6 September that France would not "yield an inch of its territory nor a stone of its fortresses". The republic then renewed the declaration of war,

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The next morning the French Army of the Rhine retreated to Metz where they were besieged and forced to surrender two months later. A grand total of 20,163 German troops were killed, wounded or missing in action during the August 18 battle. The French losses were 7,855 killed and wounded along with

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assaulted French-held St. Privat and was pinned down by French fire from rifle pits and trenches. The Second Army under Prince Frederick Charles used its artillery to pulverize the French position at St. Privat. His XII Corps took the town of Roncourt and helped the Guard conquer St. Privat, while

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Despite odds of four to one, the III Corps launched a risky attack. The French were routed and the III Corps captured Vionville, blocking any further escape attempts to the west. Once blocked from retreat, the French in the fortress of Metz had no choice but to engage in a fight that would see the

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taken prisoner, a loss of about 50%. The Germans captured Fröschwiller which sat on a hilltop in the centre of the French line. Having lost any hope for victory and facing a massacre, the French army disengaged and retreated in a westerly direction towards Bitche and Saverne, hoping to join French

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Marshal MacMahon, now closest to Wissembourg, spread his four divisions 20 miles (32 km) to react to any Prussian-Bavarian invasion. This organization was due to a lack of supplies, forcing each division to seek out food and forage from the countryside and from the representatives of the army

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Unfortunately for Frossard's plan, the Prussian army mobilised far more rapidly than expected. The Austro-Hungarians, still reeling after their defeat by Prussia in the Austro-Prussian War, were treading carefully before stating that they would only side with France if the south Germans viewed the

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voted to declare war on Prussia; France invaded German territory on 2 August. The German coalition mobilised its troops much more effectively than the French and invaded northeastern France on 4 August. German forces were superior in numbers, training, and leadership and made more effective use of

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French battle deaths were 77,000, of which 41,000 were killed in action and 36,000 died of wounds. More than 45,000 died of sickness. Total deaths were 138,871, with 136,540 being suffered by the army and 2,331 by the navy. The wounded totaled 137,626; 131,000 for the army and 6,526 for the navy.

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On 16 August, the French had a chance to sweep away the key Prussian defense, and to escape. Two Prussian corps had attacked the French advance guard, thinking that it was the rearguard of the retreat of the French Army of the Meuse. Despite this misjudgment the two Prussian corps held the entire

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The Battle of Spicheren on 5 August was the second of three critical French defeats. Moltke had originally planned to keep Bazaine's army on the Saar River until he could attack it with the 2nd Army in front and the 1st Army on its left flank, while the 3rd Army closed towards the rear. The aging

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The fighting within the town had become extremely intense, becoming a door to door battle of survival. Despite an unceasing attack from Prussian infantry, the soldiers of the 2nd Division kept to their positions. The people of the town of Wissembourg finally surrendered to the Germans. The French

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The events of the Franco-Prussian War had great influence on military thinking over the next forty years. Lessons drawn from the war included the need for a general staff system, the scale and duration of future wars and the tactical use of artillery and cavalry. The bold use of artillery by the

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to march on to Metz to rescue Bazaine. Napoleon III personally led the army with Marshal MacMahon in attendance. The Army of Châlons marched northeast towards the Belgian border to avoid the Prussians before striking south to link up with Bazaine. The Prussians took advantage of this maneuver to

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The German cavalry then failed to pursue the French and lost touch with them. The attackers had an initial superiority of numbers, a broad deployment which made envelopment highly likely but the effectiveness of French Chassepot-rifle fire inflicted costly repulses on infantry attacks, until the

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Revanchism was not a major cause of war in 1914 because it faded after 1880. J.F.V. Keiger says, "By the 1880s Franco-German relations were relatively good." The French public had very little interest in foreign affairs and elite French opinion was strongly opposed to war with its more powerful

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The Germans deployed a total of 33,101 officers and 1,113,254 men into France, of whom they lost 1,046 officers and 16,539 enlisted men killed in action. Another 671 officers and 10,050 men died of their wounds, for total battle deaths of 28,306. Disease killed 207 officers and 11,940 men, with

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The Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71 resulted in numerous war crimes committed by the Prussian army. One notable war crime committed during the conflict was the execution of prisoners of war. Reports indicate that several hundred French prisoners were summarily executed by Prussian soldiers. This

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Prussia's intention was to weaken the political position of France abroad. The defensive position of the new French authorities, who offered Germany an honorable peace and reimbursement of the costs of the war, was presented by Prussia as aggressive; they rejected the conditions put forward and

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Napoleonic France had no documented alliance with other powers and entered the war virtually without allies. The calculation was for a victorious offensive, which, as the French Foreign Minister Gramont stated, was "the only way for France to lure the wary Austrians, Italians and Danes into the

3232:

to prevent a repeat of when Napoleon I had returned to France, and Napoleon III retained the system upon his ascension to power (hence why they became associated with his family name). The Prussians in contrast did not use battalions as their basic tactical unit, and their system was much more

3257:

fourteen years earlier". After the peace of Frankfurt in 1871, a rapprochement between France and Russia was born. "Instead of forging ties with Russia in the east and further crippling France in the west, Bismarck's miscalculation had opened the door to future relations between Paris and St.

3207:

plans using the railway system, which in turn had been partly laid out in response to recommendations of a Railway Section within the General Staff. The French railway system, with competing companies, had developed purely from commercial pressures and many journeys to the front in Alsace and

2814:

On 28 January, a truce was concluded for 21 days, after the exhaustion of food and fuel supplies, the Paris garrison capitulated, the National Guard retained its weapons, while German troops occupied part of the forts of Paris to prevent the possibility of resuming hostilities. But military

3310:

Prussians, to silence French guns at long range and then to directly support infantry attacks at close range, proved to be superior to the defensive doctrine employed by French gunners. Likewise, the war showed that breech-loading cannons were superior to muzzle-loaded cannons, just as the

3093:

The Prussian General Staff developed by Moltke proved to be extremely effective, in contrast to the traditional French school. This was in large part because the Prussian General Staff was created to study previous Prussian operations and learn to avoid mistakes. The structure also greatly

3344:

A third influence was the effect on notions of entrenchment and its limitations. While the American Civil War had famously involved entrenchment in the final years of the war, the Prussian system had overwhelmed French attempts to use similar tactics. With Prussian tactics seeming to make

1525:. A national plebiscite held on 8 May 1870, which returned results overwhelmingly in favor of the Emperor's domestic agenda, gave the impression that the regime was politically popular and in a position to confront Prussia. Within days of the plebiscite, France's pacifist Foreign Minister 3419:

in Paris on 1 March; the city was silent and draped with black and the Germans quickly withdrew. Bismarck honoured the armistice, by allowing train loads of food into Paris and withdrawing Prussian forces to the east of the city, prior to a full withdrawal once France agreed to pay a

1594:

The French Army consisted in peacetime of approximately 426,000 soldiers, some of them regulars, others conscripts who until March 1869 were selected by ballot and served for the comparatively long period of seven years. Some of them were veterans of previous French campaigns in the

3080:

Europe at This Moment (1872) – A Political-Geographic Fantasy: An elaborate satirical map reflecting the European situation following the Franco-Prussian war. France had suffered a crushing defeat: the loss of Alsace and parts of Lorraine; The map contains satirical comments on 14

3121:

from 1859 to 1873, put into effect a series of reforms of the Prussian military system in the 1860s. Among these were two major reforms that substantially increased the military power of Germany. The first was a reorganization of the army that integrated the regular army and the

3048:

were destroyed. The Bavarian troops detained around one hundred civilians, believing they illegally took part in the battle, only to release them unharmed the next day. After the war investigations established that only 39 civilians were killed or wounded during the battle.

2688:

The French troops had a significant advantage (110 thousand soldiers against 40 thousand). The French offensive took the Germans by surprise and by mid-January 1871, the French had reached the Lisaine River, just a few kilometers from the besieged fortress of Belfort.

1619:, urgent reforms were made. Universal conscription and a shorter period of service gave increased numbers of reservists, who would swell the army to a planned strength of 800,000 on mobilisation. Those who for any reason were not conscripted were to be enrolled in the 1826:, which called for the Army of the Rhine to remain in a defensive posture near the German border and repel any Prussian offensive. As Austria, along with Bavaria, Württemberg, and Baden were expected to join in a revenge war against Prussia, I Corps would invade the 1729:, which was by this time showing the age of its 25-year-old design. The rifle had a range of only 600 m (2,000 ft) and lacked the rubber breech seal that permitted aimed shots. The deficiencies of the needle gun were more than compensated for by the famous 1733:(6 kg despite the gun being called a 6-pounder, the rifling technology enabled guns to fire twice the weight of projectiles in the same calibre) steel breech-loading cannons being issued to Prussian artillery batteries. Firing a contact-detonated shell, the 1362:, the war significantly altered the balance of power on the continent, with the new German state supplanting France as the dominant European land power. Bismarck maintained great authority in international affairs for two decades, developing a reputation for 3132:

of every male Prussian of military age in the event of mobilization. Thus, although the population of France was greater than the population of all of the Northern German states that participated in the war, the Germans mobilized more soldiers for battle.

1615:" between Prussia and Austria four years earlier, it had been calculated that, with commitments in Algeria and elsewhere, the French Army could field only 288,000 men to face the Prussian Army, when potentially 1,000,000 would be required. Under Marshal 2408:

demanded the annexation of the French provinces of Alsace and part of Lorraine. Bismarck was dangling the Emperor over the republic's head, calling Napoleon III "the legitimate ruler of France" and dismissing Gambetta's new republic as no more than "

1946:

near the Rhine river town Wissembourg, General Le Bœuf and Napoleon III decided to retreat to defensive positions. General Frossard, without instructions, hastily withdrew his elements of the Army of the Rhine in Saarbrücken back across the river to

3649:

neighbor. The elites were now calm and considered it a minor issue. The Alsace-Lorraine issue remained a minor theme after 1880, and Republicans and Socialists systematically downplayed the issue. Return did not become a French war aim until after

2801:

On 26 January 1871, the Government of National Defence based in Paris negotiated an armistice with the Prussians. With Paris starving, and Gambetta's provincial armies reeling from one disaster after another, French foreign minister Favre went to

1368:

that raised Germany's global stature and influence. In France, it brought a final end to imperial rule and began the first lasting republican government. Resentment over the French government's handling of the war and its aftermath triggered the

3772: 3273:

and disagreement over the European balance of power which drove Britain and Germany apart, were in effect the strategical and geopolitical manifestations of the relative shift in the economic power of these two countries between 1860 and 1914".

1625:, a militia with a nominal strength of 400,000. However, the Franco-Prussian War broke out before these reforms could be completely implemented. The mobilisation of reservists was chaotic and resulted in large numbers of stragglers, while the 3532:

were held in prison hulks until released in 1872 and a great many Communards fled abroad to Britain, Switzerland, Belgium or the United States. The survivors were amnestied by a bill introduced by Gambetta in 1880 and allowed to return.

1512:

French historians François Roth and Pierre Milza argue that Napoleon III was pressured by a bellicose press and public opinion and thus sought war in response to France's diplomatic failures to obtain any territorial gains following the

2716:

The besieged fortress of Belfort continued to resist until the signing of the armistice, repelling a German attempt to capture the fortress on 27 January, which was some consolation for the French in this stubborn and unhappy campaign.

2704:

then drove Bourbaki's army into the mountains near the Swiss border. Bourbaki attempted to commit suicide, but failed to inflict a fatal wound. Facing annihilation, the last intact French army of 87,000 men (now commanded by General

1648:, which could unleash significant, concentrated firepower but nevertheless lacked range and was comparatively immobile, and thus prone to being easily overrun. The mitrailleuse was mounted on an artillery gun carriage and grouped in 1443:

under Prussia's aegis, French public opinion stiffened and now demanded more firmness as well as territorial compensations. As a result, Napoleon demanded from Prussia a return to the French borders of 1814, with the annexation of

1561:

a precondition for the union. But Imperial France was not ready to do this. "Bonaparte did not dare to encroach on the Paris Treaty: the worse things turned out in the present, the more precious the heritage of the past became".

3362:

accounting for 6,965. 4,009 were missing and presumed dead; 290 died in accidents and 29 committed suicide. Among the missing and captured were 103 officers and 10,026 men. The wounded amounted to 3,725 officers and 86,007 men.

2585:

The Germans dispatched some of their troops to the French provinces to detect, attack and disperse the new French armies before they could become a menace. The Germans were not prepared for an occupation of the whole of France.

2644:

and was protected by the belt of fortresses in northern France, allowing Faidherbe's men to launch quick attacks against isolated Prussian units, then retreat behind the fortresses. Despite access to the armaments factories of

3553:

to serve in the Franco-Prussian War had weakened France's control of the territory, while reports of defeats undermined French prestige amongst the indigenous population. The most serious native insurrection since the time of

3944: 2470:. Bismarck's demand that France surrender sovereignty over Alsace caused a dramatic shift in that sentiment in Italy, which was best exemplified by the reaction of Garibaldi soon after the revolution in Paris, who told the 2958:

forced the return of more of the French ships, the blockade of the north German ports diminished and in September 1870 the French navy abandoned the blockade for the winter. The rest of the navy retired to ports along the

1478:, which hastened the conclusion of defensive military alliances with these states. France had been strongly opposed to any further alliance of German states, which would have threatened French continental dominance. 1243:. Lasting from 19 July 1870 to 28 January 1871, the conflict was caused primarily by France's determination to reassert its dominant position in continental Europe, which appeared in question following the decisive 3105:. Indeed, this was Moltke's expectation. The French, meanwhile, suffered from an education and promotion system that stifled intellectual development. According to the military historian Dallas Irvine, the system: 1553:

French alliance". The involvement of Russia on the side of France was not considered by her at all, since Russia made the lifting of restrictions on its naval construction on the Black Sea imposed on Russia by the

3345:

entrenchment and prolonged offensive campaigns ineffective, the experience of the American Civil War was seen as that of a musket war, not a rifle war. Many European armies were convinced of the viability of the "

3109:

was almost completely effective in excluding the army's brain power from the staff and high command. To the resulting lack of intelligence at the top can be ascribed all the inexcusable defects of French military

2582:. Rumors about an alleged German "extermination" plan infuriated the French and strengthened their support of the new regime. Within a few weeks, five new armies totalling more than 500,000 troops were recruited. 1431:

were concerned that the power of Prussia might overtake that of France. They unsuccessfully urged Napoleon to mass troops at France's eastern borders while the bulk of the Prussian armies were still engaged in

2937:

batteries with Krupp heavy artillery, which with a range of 4,000 yards (3,700 m), had double the range of French naval guns. The French Navy lacked the heavy guns to engage the coastal defences and the

1545:, spoke for moderation, arguing that France had won the diplomatic battle and there was no reason for war, but he was drowned out by cries that he was a traitor and a Prussian. Napoleon's new prime minister, 2474:

of Genoa on 7 September 1870 that "Yesterday I said to you: war to the death to Bonaparte. Today I say to you: rescue the French Republic by every means." Garibaldi went to France and assumed command of the

3349:" because of this, and focused their attention on aggressive bayonet charges over infantry fire. These would needlessly expose men to artillery fire in 1914, and entrenchment would return with a vengeance. 3330:, usually from a position of cover. The heavy use of fortifications and dugouts in the Russo-Japanese war also greatly undermined the usefulness of field artillery which was not designed for indirect fire. 1860:

Napoleon III was under substantial domestic pressure to launch an offensive before the full might of Moltke's forces was mobilized and deployed. Reconnaissance by Frossard's forces had identified only the

2325:, with 202 infantry battalions, 80 cavalry squadrons and 564 guns, attacking the surrounding Prussian Third and Meuse Armies totaling 222 infantry battalions, 186 cavalry squadrons and 774 guns. General 3432:. At the same time, Prussian forces were concentrated in the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. An exodus occurred from Paris as some 200,000 people, predominantly middle-class, went to the countryside. 2140:

French army for the whole day. Outnumbered 5 to 1, the extraordinary élan of the Prussians prevailed over gross indecision by the French. The French had lost the opportunity to win a decisive victory.

2578:

Dispatched from Paris as the republican government emissary, Léon Gambetta flew over the German lines in a balloon inflated with coal gas from the city's gasworks and organized the recruitment of the

2439:

the city. On 19 September, the Germans surrounded it and erected a blockade, as already established at Metz, completing the encirclement on 20 September. Bismarck met Favre on 18 September at the

1271:; other historians contend that Bismarck exploited the circumstances as they unfolded. All agree that Bismarck recognized the potential for new German alliances, given the situation as a whole. 8541: 3836: 3208:

Lorraine involved long diversions and frequent changes between trains. There was no system of military control of the railways and officers simply commandeered trains as they saw fit. Rail

2241:

Corps launched attacks across the Mance ravine, all of which were defeated by French rifle and mitrailleuse firepower, forcing the two German corps' to withdraw to Rezonville. The Prussian

2451:

in Lorraine, of which Metz was the capital. In return for an armistice for the French to elect a National Assembly, Bismarck demanded the surrender of Strasbourg and the fortress city of

1888:

and Napoleon III were receiving alarming reports from foreign news sources of Prussian and Bavarian armies massing to the southeast in addition to the forces to the north and northeast.

2818:

Several sources claim that in his carriage on the way back to Paris, Favre broke into tears, and collapsed into his daughter's arms as the guns around Paris fell silent at midnight. At

3953:, p. 187, of which 17,585 killed in action, 10,721 died of wounds, 12,147 died from disease, 290 died in accidents, 29 committed suicide and 4,009 were missing and presumed dead. 2929:

of northern Germany as soon as war began. The French expected the invasion to divert German troops and to encourage Denmark to join in the war, with its 50,000-strong army and the

1752:. The Prussian army was unique in Europe for having the only such organisation in existence, whose purpose in peacetime was to prepare the overall war strategy, and in wartime to 1521:, also wanted a victorious war to resolve growing domestic political problems, restore France as the undisputed leading power in Europe, and ensure the long-term survival of the 1663:

in command of the field armies. However, there was no previously arranged plan of campaign in place. The only campaign plan prepared between 1866 and 1870 was a defensive one.

3289:, had a longer range than the German needle gun; 1,400 metres (1,500 yd) compared to 550 m (600 yd). The French also had an early machine-gun type weapon, the 8009: 2653:. At the Battle of St. Quentin, the Army of the North suffered a crushing defeat and was scattered, releasing thousands of Prussian soldiers to be relocated to the East. 3703: 3326:

which suggested that infantry armed with new smokeless-powder rifles could engage gun crews effectively in the open. This forced gunners to fire at longer range using

2404:

and the army was still bound by an oath of allegiance to the defunct imperial regime; on the other hand, the Government of National Defence had no electoral mandate.

7377: 1497:

prince's candidacy was withdrawn under French diplomatic pressure, but Otto von Bismarck goaded the French into declaring war by releasing an altered summary of the

783: 1942:

Upon learning from captured Prussian soldiers and a local area police chief that the Prussian Crown Prince's Third Army was just 30 miles (48 km) north from

2697: 1965:"The information I have received makes me suppose that the enemy has no considerable forces very near his advance posts, and has no desire to take the offensive" 7432: 2889:

and various minor vessels could do little to oppose. For most of the war, the three largest German ironclads were out of service with engine troubles; only the

3265:

Great Britain saw nothing wrong with the strengthening of Prussia on the European continent, viewing France as its traditional rival in international affairs.

1302:

was formed in Paris on 4 September and continued the war for another five months. German forces fought and defeated new French armies in northern France, then

2090:. The German 3rd army did not pursue the French but remained in Alsace and moved slowly south, attacking and destroying the French garrisons in the vicinity. 7393: 1971:. Even though Ducrot shrugged off the possibility of an attack by the Germans, MacMahon tried to warn his other three division commanders, without success. 1934: 1274:

France mobilised its army on 15 July 1870, leading the North German Confederation to respond with its own mobilisation later that day. On 16 July 1870, the

3549:. Afterwards, France colonized the country, setting up its own administration over Algeria. The withdrawal of a large proportion of the army stationed in 2797:

a woman holds up an oak twig as a symbol of hope for the nation's recovery from war and deprivation after the Franco-Prussian War. The Walters Art Museum.

2458:

When the war had begun, European public opinion heavily favoured the Germans; many Italians attempted to sign up as volunteers at the Prussian embassy in

3969: 3036:

included the execution of a group of over 200 French soldiers at the village of Dornach, which was subsequently referred to as the "Dornach atrocities".

2981: 1373:, a revolutionary uprising which seized and held power for two months before its suppression; the event would influence the politics and policies of the 1876:

General Frossard's II Corps and Marshal Bazaine's III Corps crossed the German border on 2 August, and began to force the Prussian 40th Regiment of the

1834:

French positively. This did not materialize as the four South German states had come to Prussia's aid and were mobilizing their armies against France.

1979:

of the divisional mitrailleuse battery exploded near him; the encirclement of the town by the Prussians then threatened the French avenue of retreat.

3845:, p. 184, 33,101 officers and 1,113,254 men were deployed into France. A further 348,057 officers and men were mobilized and stayed in Germany.. 3383: 8002: 7470: 1900: 1762:(War Academy). Moltke embraced new technology, particularly the railroad and telegraph, to coordinate and accelerate mobilisation of large forces. 6465:

Varley, Karine (2008a). "The Taboos of Defeat: Unmentionable Memories of the Franco-Prussian War in France, 1870–1914". In Macleod, Jenny (ed.).

2859: 2811:

25 January and was replaced by Favre, who signed the surrender two days later at Versailles, with the armistice coming into effect at midnight.

3051:

Prussian soldiers were also accused of committing acts of violence against civilians, including murder, rape, and the destruction of property.

3683: 1505:

rejecting French demands that Prussia never again support a Hohenzollern candidacy. Bismarck's summary, as mistranslated by the French press

776: 94: 3889: 1830:

and proceed to "free" the four South German states in concert with Austro-Hungarian forces. VI Corps would reinforce either army as needed.

7987: 2908:, needing 200 short tons (180 t) per day and having a bunker capacity in the fleet of only 250 short tons (230 t). A blockade of 2242: 1787:

and assumed command of the newly titled Army of the Rhine, some 202,448 strong and expected to grow as the French mobilization progressed.

1687:, and the South German states drawn in under the secret clause of the preliminary peace of Nikolsburg, 26 July 1866, and formalised in the 3245:

Prussia, they preferred to abandon any plans to intervene in the war altogether. Napoleon III also failed to cultivate alliances with the

7995: 3250: 3203:

The effect of these differences was accentuated by the peacetime preparations. The Prussian General Staff had drawn up minutely detailed

2380:

When news of Napoleon III's surrender at Sedan arrived in Paris, the Second Empire was overthrown by a popular uprising. On 4 September,

3266: 2681:. In a final attempt to cut the German supply lines in northeast France, Bourbaki's army marched north to attack the Prussian siege of 3318:, an artillery piece optimised to provide direct fire support to advancing infantry. Most European armies ignored the evidence of the 7760: 3966:, (under the direction of Mathilde Benoistel, Sylvie Le Ray-Burimi, Christophe Pommier) Gallimard-Musée de l'Armée, 2017, pp. 49–50. 8440: 3371: 769: 3314:

of 1866 had demonstrated for rifles. The Prussian tactics and designs were adopted by European armies by 1914, exemplified in the

1439:

As a result of Prussia's annexation of several German states which had sided with Austria during the war and the formation of the

7443: 7357: 7324: 3367:

French prisoners of war numbered 383,860. In addition, 90,192 French soldiers were interned in Switzerland and 6,300 in Belgium.

1045: 8526: 7420: 4188:

Vinogradov, V. N. (2005). "Was there a connection between the triumph of France in the Crimean War and its defeat at Sedan?".

3101:

In addition, the Prussian military education system was superior to the French model; Prussian staff officers were trained to

2220: 1955:

supply arm that was supposed to furnish them with provisions. What made a bad situation much worse was the conduct of General

1582: 8536: 7300: 7281: 7258: 7226: 7207: 7155: 7133: 7114: 7071: 7052: 7030: 7011: 6992: 6954: 6930: 6911: 6890: 6852: 6654: 6628: 6609: 6587: 6493: 6474: 6455: 6385: 6366: 6328: 6309: 6290: 6266: 6243: 6185: 6163: 6140: 6091: 6072: 6012: 5993: 5974: 5948: 5910: 5891: 5872: 5850: 5831: 5772: 5633: 3416: 2925:

To relieve pressure from the expected German attack into Alsace-Lorraine, Napoleon III and the French high command planned a

2673:

Following the destruction of the French Army of the Loire, remnants of the Loire army gathered in eastern France to form the

2419:, since Louis-Napoleon himself only overthrew the Second Republic and rose to the imperial throne by means of a coup d'état. 1509:, made it sound as if the king had treated the French envoy in a demeaning fashion, which inflamed public opinion in France. 2601:, more than 100,000 well-trained and experienced German troops joined the German 'Southern Army'. The French were forced to 8435: 8415: 7463: 3454:, National Guard units resisted and killed two army generals. The national government and regular army forces retreated to 2748: 2175: 1714:

that were harder to target by artillery or French defensive fire. The sheer number of soldiers available made encirclement

1608: 1251:

deliberately provoked the French into declaring war on Prussia in order to induce four independent southern German states—

7654: 3698: 3678: 3494: 2822:, Gambetta received word from Paris on 29 January that the Government had surrendered. Furious, he refused to surrender. 1823: 1571: 1490: 1200: 545: 3566:, which spread through much of Algeria. By April 1871, 250 tribes had risen, or nearly a third of Algeria's population. 2108:

Heinrich XVII, Prince Reuss, on the side of the 5th Squadron I Guards Dragoon Regiment at Mars-la-Tour, 16 August 1870.

8430: 7530: 6433: 5929: 3978:, pp. 308–313, highlights three difficulties with the argument that Bismarck planned or provoked a French attack.. 3076: 2916:

or a return to France made the French naval efforts futile. Spotting a blockade-runner became unwelcome because of the

2518: 1641: 1604: 1412: 1030: 3580: 2602: 1085: 5117:"A predisposition to brutality? German practices against civilians and francs-tireurs during the Franco-Prussian war" 4750: 3708: 2770: 2201: 1386: 1040: 749: 2183: 7790: 3216:

became choked with loaded wagons, with nobody responsible for unloading them or directing them to the destination.

2125:

last major cavalry engagement in Western Europe. The battle soon erupted, and III Corps was shattered by incessant

1309:

In the final days of the war, with German victory all but assured, the German states proclaimed their union as the

20: 6813: 6361:. Men-at-Arms. Vol. 2 Republican Troops. Illustrated by Richard and Christa Hook. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. 3424:. The indemnity was proportioned, according to population, to be the exact equivalent to the indemnity imposed by 8516: 8511: 7953: 7795: 7456: 3378:

for prisoners of that war. The holdings of the "Basel Agency" were later transferred to the ICRC headquarters in

8290: 2593:. At first, the Germans were victorious but the French drew reinforcements and defeated a Bavarian force at the 1756:

and organise logistics and communications. The officers of the General Staff were hand-picked from the Prussian

1493:

to the throne of Spain. France feared an encirclement resulting from an alliance between Prussia and Spain. The

8546: 8521: 7780: 7675: 6871: 3733: 3604: 2975: 2752: 2558:

The siege of the city caused great hardships for the population, especially for the poor from cold and hunger.

2531: 2393: 2339: 2179: 2022:

General von Steinmetz made an overzealous, unplanned move, leading the 1st Army south from his position on the

1880:

from the town of Saarbrücken with a series of direct attacks. The Chassepot rifle proved its worth against the

1303: 1299: 924: 86: 71: 8382: 8245: 8105: 7433:

Collection de caricatures et de charges pour servir à l'histoire de la guerre et de la révolution de 1870–1871

7427:

Collection de caricatures et de charges pour servir à l'histoire de la guerre et de la révolution de 1870–1871

5788:

Seager, Frederic H. (1969). "The Alsace-Lorraine Question in France, 1871–1914". In Warner, Charles K. (ed.).

3641:

in the 1880s. Paintings that emphasized the humiliation of the defeat became in high demand, such as those by

8506: 8299: 7805: 7563: 6102: 5624:

Bernard Droz, « Insurrection de 1871: la révolte de Mokrani », dans Jeannine Verdès-Leroux (dir.),

2701: 2104: 1912: 1877: 1862: 1130: 532: 8017: 7200:

Kriegsgreuel: Die Entgrenzung der Gewalt in kriegerischen Konflikten vom Mittelalter bis ins 20. Jahrhundert

2416: 2326: 1796: 8476: 3688: 3270: 2621: 2427:

called for recruits in all parts of the country, and pledged to drive the German troops out of France by a

1929: 1892: 1182: 847: 812: 557: 519: 8154: 8119: 7800: 7744: 3795:

The northern parts and the Army oh the Grand Duchy of Hesse were part of the North German Confederation G

3542: 3470:

and a civil war began between the Commune and the regular army, which attacked and recaptured Paris from

2422:

The Germans expected to negotiate an end to the war, but while the republican government was amenable to

1869:, right before the entire Army of the Rhine. Accordingly, on 31 July the Army marched forward toward the 1322: 1080: 1060: 7765: 6005:

German Strategy and the Path to Verdun: Erich von Falkenhayn and the Development of Attrition, 1870–1916

2933:. They discovered that Prussia had recently built defences around the big North German ports, including 1891:

Moltke had indeed massed three armies in the area—the Prussian First Army with 50,000 men, commanded by

1656: 408: 8501: 8420: 8281: 7835: 7573: 7546: 6556: 6060: 3181: 3006: 2853: 2637: 2118: 1600: 1440: 1330: 1268: 1236: 1100: 1035: 255: 8227: 6805: 6565:. Translated by Maurice, J. F.; Long, Wilfred James; Sonnenschein, A. London: S. Sonnenschein and Co. 3315: 8272: 7870: 7785: 7695: 7023:

Statuswechsel : Kriegserfahrung und nationale Wahrnehmung im Deutsch-Französischen Krieg 1870/71

6789: 2882: 2794: 2440: 1758: 1726: 1502: 1314: 1187: 980: 492: 8112: 7525: 7128:. Men-at-Arms. Vol. 1 Imperial Troops. Illustrated by Jeffrey Burn. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. 3898:, p. 187, of which 41,000 killed in action, 36,000 died of wounds and 45,000 died from disease. 3262:; an alliance that explicitly refers to the perceived threat of Germany and its military response". 1671: 1467: 1411:. France had gained the status of being the dominant power of continental Europe as a result of the 1256: 331: 8496: 8491: 7948: 7825: 3765: 3693: 3638: 3118: 2789: 2617: 2571: 2330: 2234: 2164: 2027: 1956: 1819: 1818:

and into the Prussian Rhineland. This plan was discarded in favour of a defensive plan by Generals

1150: 78: 6747:

Jay, Robert (1984). "Alphonse de Neuville's 'The Spy' and the Legacy of the Franco-Prussian War".

6106: 1843: 1436:

as a warning that no territorial changes could be effected in Germany without consulting France.

807: 8486: 8481: 8387: 8098: 7891: 7770: 7704: 7646: 7194:

Stoneman, Mark R (2008). "Die deutschen Greueltaten im Krieg 1870/71 am Beispiel der Bayern". In

7081: 6538: 6534: 6530: 3447: 3259: 3086:

to the Germans by their military system, and adopted many of their innovations, particularly the

2992: 2784: 2741: 2613: 2168: 1827: 1749: 1416: 1055: 1020: 8372: 8083: 7684: 5941:

Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492–2015

1800: 1526: 1105: 970: 8377: 8263: 8207: 8078: 8039: 7840: 7815: 7726: 7479: 6797: 3622: 3595:(which excluded Austria) greatly disturbed the balance of power that had been created with the 3575: 3334: 2678: 2303: 2099: 1969:"a single enemy post ... it looks to me as if the menace of the Bavarians is simply bluff" 1688: 1554: 1530: 1404: 1359: 1177: 1050: 1025: 1000: 960: 862: 733:~250,000 civilians dead, including 162,000 Germans in a smallpox epidemic spread by French POWs 240: 156: 55: 37: 6216: 6131:

The rise and fall of the great powers: economic change and military conflict from 1500 to 2000

5762: 1403:

The causes of the Franco-Prussian War are rooted in the events surrounding the lead up to the

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A pre-war plan laid down by the late Marshal Niel called for a strong French offensive from

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A series of hard-fought Prussian and German victories in eastern France, culminating in the

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the Prussians. Without the forts, the French Army would no longer be able to defend Paris.

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naval officers being sent from their ships to command hastily assembled reservists of the

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and all of their remaining ammunition. The final attack by the Prussian troops also cost

1908: 1660: 1517:. Napoleon III believed he would win a conflict with Prussia. Many in his court, such as 1514: 1396: 1244: 1125: 1075: 1015: 901: 852: 837: 817: 427: 6507: 1706:

and using artillery offensively whenever possible. Rather than advancing in a column or

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Texts and documents about German–French relations and an essay on the Franco-German war

7426: 7182: 7178: 6768: 6760: 6735: 6698: 6513: 6443: 6255: 6180:. Vol. 1: La Guerre franco-prussienne, septembre 1870 – mars 1871. Paris: Perrin. 6152: 5535: 3596: 3429: 3319: 2988: 2926: 2476: 2463: 2389: 2315: 1976: 1684: 1522: 1463: 1260: 1240: 1070: 945: 935: 891: 473: 448: 317: 271: 230: 131: 8063: 8044: 7350: 2322: 2281: 2054: 2038: 1848: 1711: 1518: 1395:

Map of the North German Confederation (red), four southern German states (orange) and

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1870/71 die Geschichte des Deutsch-Französischen Krieges erzählt in Einzelschicksalen

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release of the large forces besieging the fortress of Metz allowed them to overcome.

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was elected, which was dominated by socialists, anarchists and revolutionaries. The

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for over four months before it fell on 28 January 1871, effectively ending the war.

8053: 7636: 7627: 7394:"Cambridge caricatures of the Franco-Prussian War and the Paris Commune (1870–71)". 7273: 7174: 7143: 6752: 6719: 6682: 6638: 6543:. Translated by Whitman, Sidney (English ed.). London: Harper & Brothers. 5790:

From the Ancien Régime to the Popular Front: Essays in the History of Modern France

5128: 3585: 3498: 3421: 3229: 3213: 3027: 2886: 2864: 2706: 2523: 2376:

Course of the second phase of the war (part 2: 1 December until the end of the war)

2334: 1788: 1703: 1462:("tipping policy"). He then communicated Napoleon's written territorial demands to 1140: 1065: 1005: 930: 886: 7195: 5133: 5116: 3196:

the peacetime organisations of the armies. Each Prussian Corps was based within a

2589:

On 10 October, hostilities began between German and French republican forces near

2385: 461: 432: 413: 395: 8455: 8450: 8410: 8192: 7938: 7917: 7904: 7498: 7493: 7416: 6404: 6339: 5958: 3753: 3745: 3600: 3555: 3546: 3237: 2960: 2633: 2423: 2311: 2294: 1853: 1753: 1730: 1699: 1633: 1612: 1424: 1346: 1334: 1287: 1155: 1115: 1095: 985: 907: 842: 827: 175: 19:"Franco-German war" redirects here. For the war between Lothair and Otto II, see 8182: 3219:

France also suffered from an outdated tactical system. Although referred to as "

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While the French army under General MacMahon engaged the German 3rd Army at the

1803:

in northern France as a reserve and to guard against a Prussian advance through

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The German Influence in France after 1870: The Formation of the French Republic

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of the Prussian coast made a seaborne invasion of northern Germany impossible.

2543: 2250:'s II Corps advanced across the Mance ravine. The fighting died down at 22:00. 2126: 2013: 1738: 1546: 1542: 990: 127: 8058: 6280: 3913: 3626:

French students being taught about the provinces taken by Germany, painted by

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or wounded and the French had lost a similar number of casualties and another

1943: 45: 8470: 8144: 7929: 7578: 7337: 7293:

A Duel of Nations: Germany, France, and the diplomacy of the War of 1870–1871

7095: 6975: 6731: 6694: 6548: 6416: 6276: 6226: 6212: 6116: 6052: 5142: 3670: 3592: 3459: 3441: 3327: 3209: 3087: 2909: 2709:) crossed the border and was disarmed and interned by the neutral Swiss near 2661: 2059:

The Battle of Wörth began when the two armies clashed again on 6 August near

1707: 1370: 1310: 1205: 857: 564: 552: 540: 527: 514: 500: 486: 364: 171: 143: 8346: 7253:. Translated by Hughes, Daniel J.; Bell, Harry. Novato, CA: Presidio Press. 7025:. Schriften der Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte (in German). Essen: Klartext. 6521: 6349: 3610:

Einheit—unity—was achieved at the expense of Freiheit—freedom. According to

2612:. A second French army which operated north of Paris was turned back at the 2566: 1683:

The German army comprised that of the North German Confederation led by the

8177: 8139: 7850: 7568: 7040: 6710:

Irvine, D. D. (1938). "The French and Prussian Staff Systems Before 1870".

6570: 6204: 6173: 6124: 3290: 3204: 3129: 2893: 2696:, Bourbaki's men failed to break through German lines commanded by General 1645: 1621: 1616: 1537: 1498: 1494: 1326: 1291: 615: 389: 7415:"Caricatures of the Franco-Prussian War and the Paris Commune (1870–71)": 7378:"Napoleon III meets his nemesis: caricatures from the Franco-Prussian War" 6467:

Defeat and Memory: Cultural Histories of Military Defeat in the Modern Era

6344:. Vol. 3. Translated by Needham, John Layland. Edinburgh: Blackwood. 2443:

and demanded a frontier immune to a French war of revenge, which included

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Course of the second phase of the war (part 1: 1 September to 30 November)

2254:

4,420 prisoners of war (half of them were wounded) for a total of 12,275.

2117:

Prussian force of 30,000 men of III Corps (of the 2nd Army) under General

1999:

French infantry had been extensively bombarded by the Prussian artillery.

1779:

Map of the German and French armies near the common border on 31 July 1870

8425: 8367: 8321: 8149: 8131: 7860: 7448: 7444:

Information and maps on the battles of Wissembourg, Woerth and Gravelotte

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Varley, Karine (August 2020). "Death and sacrifice in the Prussian War".

6985:

The Nest in the Altar or Reminiscences of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870

6426:

Hitler's Lost State: The Fall of Prussia and the Wilhelm Gustloff Tragedy

3650: 3258:

Petersburg. The culmination of this new relationship will finally be the

3254: 2901: 2890: 2823: 2650: 2548: 2381: 2299: 2068: 1911:, and the Prussian Third Army with 120,000 men commanded by Crown Prince 1792: 1596: 1558: 1364: 7410: 7351:"Caricatures from the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 and the Paris Commune" 7186: 6793: 6341:

The War for the Rhine Frontier, 1870: Its Political and Military History

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strong enough to attack in one direction. The system was adopted by the

1570:

For the organization of the two armies at the beginning of the war, see

8313: 8222: 8031: 7557: 7341: 6764: 6739: 6702: 5072: 3634: 3486: 3451: 2939: 2913: 2755: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 2710: 2444: 1960: 1881: 1870: 1811: 1445: 7608: 6395:Свечин (Svechin), А. А. (1928). Военгиз (Voengiz), М.Л. (M.L.) (ed.). 6035:. Vol. 3. Translated by Clarke, F.C.H. London: Clowes & Sons. 6026:. Vol. 1. Translated by Clarke, F.C.H. London: Clowes & Sons. 5304:

British, French and American Relations on the Western Front, 1914–1918

4911: 2590: 2129:, losing over half its soldiers. The German Official History recorded 761: 8351: 8068: 7959: 5886:. Vol. 1 The Campaign of Sedan. Solihull: Helion & Company. 4145: 4068: 3611: 3407: 3286: 3040: 2955: 2900:

the Newfoundland fisheries or in Scotland. Only part of the 470-ship

1948: 1896: 1734: 6756: 6723: 6686: 6197:

L'Europe militaire et diplomatique au dix-neuvième siècle, 1815–1884

5396: 3399: 3090:, universal conscription, and highly detailed mobilization systems. 2730: 2153: 1737:

had a longer range and a higher rate of fire than the French bronze

8392: 8341: 6621:

The Franco-Prussian War: The German Conquest of France in 1870–1871

5845:(Revised and expanded ed.). Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. 3901: 3425: 3411:

Europe after the Franco-Prussian War and the unification of Germany

3220: 3124: 2972: 2878: 2819: 2459: 1449: 1342: 667: 6218:

Cassell's History of the War Between France and Germany, 1870–1871

3964:

France-Allemagne(s) 1870–1871. La guerre, la Commune, les mémoires

2834: 2486:

The energetic actions of a part of the government (delegation) in

2060: 8237: 4133: 3563: 3359: 3241: 2904:

put to sea on 24 July. Before long, the French navy ran short of

2682: 2467: 2023: 1904: 1804: 1433: 1318: 6108:

The Franco-Prussian War: Its Causes, Incidents, and Consequences

6084:

The Franco-Prussian War: The German Invasion of France 1870–1871

6065:

The Franco-Prussian War: The German Invasion of France 1870–1871

4743:

The Franco-Prussian War: The German Invasion of France 1870–1871

4288: 1983:

troops who did not surrender retreated westward, leaving behind

1333:

was signed on 10 May 1871, giving Germany billions of francs in

8164: 7165:

Spencer, Frank (1955). "Bismarck And The Franco-Prussian War".

6486:

Under the shadow of defeat: the war of 1870–71 in French memory

5027:

The development of a modern navy: French naval policy 1871–1904

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The French Army of the East is disarmed at the Swiss border in

2641: 2087: 1456:. Bismarck flatly refused what he disdainfully termed France's 1338: 123: 7004:

The Great Powers, Imperialism and the German Problem 1865–1925

5345:. London ; Boston : Allen & Unwin. 1980. p. 410. 5306:, Canterbury, Kent, UK, 2018, (ISBN 978-3-319-89464-5), p. 31. 2632:

Following the Army of the Loire's defeats, Gambetta turned to

2415:

The question of legitimacy is rather strange for France after

2280:

At this time, Napoleon III and MacMahon formed the new French

2121:, found the French Army near Vionville, east of Mars-la-Tour. 2026:. He moved straight toward the town of Spicheren, cutting off 1644:. The army also possessed a precursor to the machine-gun: the 16:

1870–1871 conflict in Europe during the unification of Germany

8542:

Wars of succession involving the states and peoples of Europe

5425: 5423: 3375: 3003: 2646: 2487: 2480: 1815: 1506: 3934: 3932: 3930: 3928: 2354: 2333:, launched three desperate attacks on the nearby village of 1329:

for the first time. Following an armistice with France, the

7066:. Vol. 2: La commune mars – juin 1871. Paris: Perrin. 4983: 4899: 4528: 4432: 4408: 3867: 3865: 3863: 3811: 3809: 3807: 3805: 3803: 3801: 3497:, and burned down many government buildings, including the 3016: 2905: 2452: 1784: 1587: 1325:, the vast majority of German-speakers were united under a 7438: 6528: 5903:

For the Soul of France: Culture wars in the age of Dreyfus

5505: 5503: 5488: 5420: 5408: 5384: 5161: 4444: 4091: 4056: 3633:

The defeat in the Franco-Prussian War led to the birth of

3458:

and a revolutionary government was proclaimed in Paris. A

3415:

The Prussian Army, under the terms of the armistice, held

3337:, the Prussian 12th Cavalry Brigade, commanded by General 3137:

Population and soldiers mobilized at the start of the war

2017:

Map of the Prussian and German offensives, 5–6 August 1870

1655:

The army was nominally led by Napoleon III, with Marshals

1391: 7150:. Modern Wars (2 ed.). London: Bloomsbury Academic. 6946:

Iron Kingdom: The Rise And Downfall of Prussia, 1600–1947

6804: 5675: 5606: 5478: 5476: 5190: 5188: 5045: 4995: 4815: 4767: 4660: 4648: 4624: 4552: 4504: 4079: 3925: 3509:

who had been arrested, which took until 1875 and imposed

1967:. Two days later, he told MacMahon that he had not found 1899:, the Prussian Second Army with 134,000 men commanded by 5594: 5558: 5372: 5260: 5224: 5200: 5105:, by Michael Howard, published by Routledge, 2001, p. 56 5062: 5060: 4959: 4755: 4540: 4213: 4211: 3860: 3798: 1640:. The artillery was equipped with rifled, muzzle-loaded 1317:

and Chancellor Bismarck. With the notable exceptions of

1279:

modern technology, particularly railways and artillery.

6450:(1st ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 6397:Эволюция военного искусства (Evolution of military art) 5711: 5500: 5348: 5212: 4701: 4699: 4612: 4600: 4588: 4576: 4456: 4230: 4228: 4226: 4034: 4032: 3848: 3704:

International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)

2912:

failed, and conflicting orders about operations in the

5922:

Losses of Life in Modern Wars, Austria-Hungary: France

5473: 5459:

International Committee of the Red Cross – CROSS-files

5435: 5360: 5185: 5084: 4887: 4420: 4372: 4157: 3993: 3826: 3824: 3374:(ICRC) established an international tracing agency in 1718:

and destruction of French formations relatively easy.

1632:

French infantry were equipped with the breech-loading

7311: 7249:

von Moltke, Helmuth (1995). Hughes, Daniel J. (ed.).

6673:

Holborn, H. (1942). "Moltke's Strategical Concepts".

6100: 5663: 5582: 5570: 5546: 5284: 5272: 5248: 5236: 5173: 5057: 5007: 4947: 4935: 4923: 4917: 4875: 4827: 4803: 4636: 4516: 4208: 4196: 3962:Éric Anceau, "Aux origines de la Guerre de 1870", in 3072:

and an infantryman escorting captured French soldiers

1358:

The war had a lasting impact on Europe. By hastening

6221:. Vol. 2. London: Cassell Petter & Galpin. 6045:

The Fall of Paris; The siege and the Commune 1870–71

6030: 6021: 5805:

French Public Opinion and Foreign Affairs: 1870–1914

5687: 5638: 5402: 5158:, by Brian Bond, published by Routledge, 1988, p. 89 5029:. Annapolis (Maryland): Naval Institute Press, 1987 4971: 4863: 4779: 4723: 4711: 4696: 4684: 4672: 4564: 4480: 4396: 4348: 4336: 4324: 4300: 4264: 4240: 4223: 4151: 4139: 4109: 4097: 4029: 4005: 3907: 3660: 2877:

When the war began, the French government ordered a

2224:

The "Rifle Battalion 9 from Lauenburg" at Gravelotte

1938:

Bavarian infantry at the Battle of Wissembourg, 1870

1791:

took command of I Corps (4 infantry divisions) near

1489:

The immediate cause of the war was the candidacy of

1247:. According to some historians, Prussian chancellor 6866:(1st History Book Club ed.). London: Cassell. 6555: 6448:

Supplying War: Logistics from Wallenstein to Patton

5078: 4791: 4492: 4468: 4384: 4360: 4312: 4276: 4252: 4169: 4121: 4044: 4017: 3981: 3877: 3821: 3394: 7295:. Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press. 6970:. Vol. IV. London: Longmans, Green & Co. 6254: 6151: 6128: 5983: 5962: 5699: 5343:The rise of the Anglo-German antagonism, 1860–1914 4294: 2700:. Bringing in the German 'Southern Army', General 1963:, commander of the 2nd Division, on 1 August that 1586:French soldiers drill at IIe Chambrière camp near 8352:8 mm Lebel smokeless powder cartridge (1886) 7219:Citizenship and Wars: France in Turmoil 1870–1871 5658:The Evolution of Prussia: The Making of an Empire 5042:. London: Low, Marston and Company, 1896. p. 274 3617: 3517:inflicted. Forced labour for life was imposed on 2359: 1959:, commander of the 1st Division. He told General 1770: 8468: 6394: 4857: 4845: 2605:on 4 December, and were finally defeated at the 2321:On 1 September 1870, the battle opened with the 1290:, resulted in the capture of the French Emperor 6712:The Journal of the American Military Foundation 5984:Elliot-Wright, Philipp; Shann, Stephen (1993). 3569: 3128:reserves. The second was the provision for the 2392:proclaimed a provisional government called the 2030:from his forward cavalry units in the process. 1852:Course of the first phase of the war up to the 8383:Du Temple high-circulation steam engine (1876) 6356: 6238:. Minneapolis: MBI Pub. Co. and Zenith Press. 5760: 4905: 3584:Proclamation of the German Empire, painted by 3304: 2963:and remained in port for the rest of the war. 2541:were to create a guerilla force—the so-called 8003: 7464: 7202:(in German). Paderborn: Ferdinand Schöningh. 6257:Germany, 1789–1919 : a political history 6236:The German Wars: A Concise History, 1859–1945 6199:(in French). Paris: E. Plon, Nourrit et Cie. 3684:British ambulances in the Franco-Prussian War 3296:The French were equipped with bronze, rifled 1915:, poised to cross the border at Wissembourg. 1629:were generally untrained and often mutinous. 777: 322: 6788: 6502: 6423: 5824:A Day of Battle: Mars-La-Tour 16 August 1870 4965: 4062: 3871: 3524:were transported to "a fortified place" and 3475: 2917: 2881:of the North German coasts, which the small 2428: 1837: 1783:On 28 July 1870 Napoleon III left Paris for 1457: 1350: 610:492,585 active, including 300,000 reservists 114:(6 months, 1 week and 2 days) 8150:Mitrailleuse Gatling modèle APX 1895 (1895) 7251:Moltke on the Art of War: Selected Writings 7006:. Hoboken NY: Florence Taylor and Francis. 6949:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 6442: 6323:. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. 5167: 3103:exhibit initiative and independent thinking 2495:Union in August increased by only 2% after 2182:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1799:brought VI Corps (4 infantry divisions) to 1294:and the decisive defeat of the army of the 65:Lauenburg 9th Jäger Battalion at Gravelotte 8010: 7996: 7478: 7471: 7457: 6847:(in German). Hamburg: Osburg Verlag GmbH. 6111:. Vol. 2. London: William Mackenzie. 5943:(4th ed.). Jefferson, NC: McFarland. 5938: 5628:, Paris, Robert Laffont 2009, pp. 474–475 4187: 3950: 3938: 3895: 3842: 3815: 784: 770: 7124:Shann, Stephen; Delperier, Louis (1991). 6623:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 6357:Shann, Stephen; Delperier, Louis (1991). 6158:. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. 5132: 3922:, p. 148, At least 370,000 captured. 2771:Learn how and when to remove this message 2355:War of the Government of National Defence 2202:Learn how and when to remove this message 2093: 1345:, which became the Imperial Territory of 308: 262: 8441:French weapons in the American Civil War 8327:Pauly-Prélat integrated cartridge (1808) 6602:Warfare and Society in Europe, 1792–1914 6580:Warfare and Society in Europe, 1792–1914 6557:von Pflugk-Harttung, Julius Albert Georg 6375: 6318: 6299: 6135:(1st ed.). New York: Random House. 5600: 5564: 5521: 4989: 3621: 3579: 3406: 3398: 3372:International Committee of the Red Cross 3075: 3063: 3026: 2995:took place between the Prussian gunboat 2966: 2841: 2833: 2788: 2660: 2574:, which took place from 2–3 January 1871 2565: 2517: 2371: 2363: 2298: 2267: 2219: 2103: 2012: 1933: 1923: 1918: 1847: 1774: 1765: 1744:The Prussian army was controlled by the 1670: 1581: 1466:and the other southern German states of 1390: 277: 8388:Krebs naval electric gyrocompass (1880) 7348: 7126:French Army 1870–71 Franco-Prussian War 6861: 6672: 6637: 6483: 6464: 6359:French Army 1870–71 Franco-Prussian War 6149: 6123: 5988:. Campaign. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. 5859: 5802: 5693: 5681: 5644: 5509: 5218: 5114: 4761: 4378: 4217: 4202: 3223:tactics", this system was developed by 2143: 791: 8469: 7375: 7318: 7235: 6709: 6403: 6337: 6275: 6233: 6211: 6081: 6059: 5919: 5881: 5867:. London: London New English Library. 5840: 5821: 5787: 5745: 5729: 5482: 5441: 5429: 5414: 5390: 5378: 5366: 5266: 5254: 5242: 5230: 5206: 5194: 5179: 5115:Scianna, Bastian Matteo (2019-07-29). 5090: 5001: 4953: 4941: 4929: 4881: 4833: 4821: 4809: 4773: 4666: 4654: 4642: 4630: 4618: 4606: 4594: 4582: 4558: 4522: 4510: 4486: 4438: 4414: 4402: 4342: 4306: 4282: 4270: 4258: 4103: 4092:von Bismarck & von Poschinger 1900 4038: 4011: 3919: 3830: 2597:on 9 November. After the surrender of 2002: 8155:Mle 1897 Hotchkiss Machine gun (1897) 7991: 7452: 6923:Moltke and the German wars, 1864–1871 6835: 6618: 6596: 6577: 6509:Bismarck: The Man & the Statesman 6424:Heath, Tim; Cocolin, Michela (2020). 6194: 6172: 6039: 6033:The Franco-German War 1870–71: Part 2 6024:The Franco-German War 1870–71: Part 1 6002: 5957: 5900: 5705: 5669: 5612: 5588: 5576: 5552: 5494: 5354: 5290: 5278: 5066: 5051: 5013: 4977: 4893: 4869: 4797: 4785: 4729: 4717: 4705: 4690: 4678: 4570: 4546: 4534: 4498: 4474: 4462: 4450: 4426: 4390: 4366: 4354: 4330: 4318: 4246: 4234: 4175: 4163: 4127: 4115: 4050: 4023: 3999: 3987: 3883: 3854: 3764: 3536: 2547:—for the purpose of attacking German 2310:talk after Napoleon's capture at the 1695:wartime strength of about 1,189,000. 1245:Prussian victory over Austria in 1866 1227:, often referred to in France as the 765: 95:The Proclamation of the German Empire 6883:1870 : la France dans la guerre 6649:. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. 6252: 3975: 3489:killed around 500 people, including 3389: 2753:adding citations to reliable sources 2724: 2627: 2345: 2233:, and their northern right flank at 2180:adding citations to reliable sources 2147: 1741:cannon, which relied on time fuses. 1666: 6964:Jerrold, William Blanchard (1882). 6746: 6529:von Bismarck, Otto Eduard Leopold; 6516:. New York: Harper & Brothers. 6488:. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. 6469:. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. 6409:Bismarck: The Man and the Statesman 5969:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 5717: 5156:War and Society in Europe 1870–1970 3699:History of French foreign relations 3679:Belgium and the Franco-Prussian War 3386:, where they are accessible today. 2656: 2067:, about 10 miles (16 km) from 1675:Prussian field artillery column at 1572:Franco-Prussian War order of battle 1491:Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen 112:19 July 1870 – 28 January 1871 13: 8431:Second Italian War of Independence 8025:French weapons of the 19th century 7531:States of the German Confederation 7312:Caricatures and editorial cartoons 7179:10.1111/j.1468-229X.1955.tb00309.x 6885:(in French). Paris: Armand Colin. 6830: 6540:Conversations with Prince Bismarck 3766:[dɔʏtʃfʁanˌtsøːzɪʃɐˈkʁiːk] 2288: 2048: 1565: 14: 8558: 8373:Marié-Davy naval periscope (1854) 8145:Hotchkiss "Canon-Revolver" (1872) 7401: 7325:The Fight at Dame Europa's School 6881:Audoin-Rouzeau, Stéphane (1989). 6504:von Bismarck, Otto Eduard Leopold 6302:Paris Insurgé: La Commune de 1871 6007:(pbk. ed.). Cambridge: CUP. 5750:(5th ed.). pp. 288–299. 4918:Hozier & Davenport Adams 1872 3709:List of Franco-Prussian War films 3043:, near Sedan, French marines and 2561: 2513: 1387:Causes of the Franco-Prussian War 159:and founding of the German Empire 8393:Smokeless powder Poudre B (1886) 8378:De Bange breech obturator (1872) 8118: 8111: 8104: 8097: 8019: 7972: 7270:The Franco-German war of 1870–71 6906:. New York: Carroll & Graf. 6154:The Art of War: Waterloo to Mons 5796: 5781: 5767:. UNC Press Books. p. 190. 5754: 5739: 5723: 5650: 5618: 5515: 5447: 5335: 5332:(Batchworth Press, 1954) p. 332 5322: 5309: 5296: 5149: 5108: 5096: 5032: 5019: 3663: 3435: 3422:five billion franc war indemnity 3403:Prussian parade in Paris in 1871 3395:Prussian reaction and withdrawal 3174: 3153: 2729: 2479:, with which he operated around 2462:and a Prussian diplomat visited 2257: 2152: 2086:forces on the other side of the 1652:in a similar fashion to cannon. 1405:unification of the German states 563: 551: 539: 526: 513: 499: 485: 467: 455: 441: 431: 421: 412: 402: 394: 382: 357: 337: 324: 310: 293: 279: 264: 248: 216: 198: 44: 8368:Lepage percussion system (1807) 7435:(Heidelberg University Library) 7392:Fabry-Tehranchi, Irene (2019), 7376:Vernon, Teresa (23 June 2014). 7363:from the original on 2015-01-20 6150:McElwee, William Lloyd (1974). 5884:The Franco-Prussian War 1870–71 5841:Bailey, Jonathan B. A. (2004). 5732:France and the World since 1870 4735: 4181: 3956: 3750:Guerre franco-allemande de 1870 3739: 3260:Franco-Russian Alliance of 1894 2740:needs additional citations for 1863:Prussian 16th Infantry Division 1721:The army was equipped with the 662:730,274 regulars and reservists 7429:(Cambridge University Library) 7423:, Cambridge University Library 7411:La guerre de 1870–71 en images 7148:The wars of German unification 6864:The fall of the third Napoleon 6647:Napoleonic Wars to World War I 6562:The Franco-German War, 1870–71 5656:John Arthur Ransome Marriott, 5524:"When Germany Occupied France" 4295:Elliot-Wright & Shann 1993 3789: 3734:Government of National Defense 3726: 3618:French reaction and Revanchism 2980:blockaded the German corvette 2954:. As the autumn storms of the 2838:French warships at sea in 1870 2536:Prussian forces commenced the 2394:Government of National Defence 2360:Government of National Defence 1771:Preparations for the offensive 1300:Government of National Defense 1: 8436:French Intervention in Mexico 8273:Mechanical powered submarine 7806:Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust 7396:Cambridge University Library. 7332:. New York: Francis B. Felt. 6814:Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 6067:. London: Rupert Hart-Davis. 6031:German General Staff (1884). 6022:German General Staff (1881). 5843:Field Artillery and Firepower 5134:10.1080/09592318.2019.1638551 5121:Small Wars & Insurgencies 4080:Britannica: Franco-German War 3783: 3352: 3022: 2829: 2667:the monumental 1881 depiction 2079: 2072: 1992: 1231:, was a conflict between the 1031:Chat Chateauneuf-en-Thimerais 8416:French Intervention in Spain 8332:Prélat percussion cap (1818) 7268:von Moltke, Helmuth (1992). 5939:Clodfelter, Micheal (2017). 5803:Carroll, E. Malcolm (1931). 3689:Foreign relations of Germany 3570:German unification and power 3054: 2720: 2522:Troops quarter in Paris, by 2243:1st Guards Infantry Division 1930:Battle of Wissembourg (1870) 1865:guarding the border town of 1725:renowned for its use at the 708:474,414 captured or interned 21:Franco-German war of 978–980 7: 8337:Lefaucheux cartridge (1836) 8208:Lahitolle 95 mm (1873) 7954:Schleswig–Holstein question 7801:Friedrich Daniel Bassermann 7328:(Pamphlet). Illustrated by 7276:. London: Greenhill Books. 6781: 6749:Metropolitan Museum Journal 6665: 6411:. London: Hamish Hamilton. 6399:(in Russian). Vol. II. 6376:Sondhaus, Lawrence (2001). 6234:Palmer, Michael A. (2010). 5522:Lauzanne, Stephane (1923). 3758:Deutsch-Französischer Krieg 3656: 3305:Effects on military thought 3188: 3185: 3167: 3164: 3059: 2971:Outside Europe, the French 2872: 2685:and relieve the defenders. 1754:direct operational movement 1413:Franco-Austrian War of 1859 1352:Reichsland Elsaß-Lothringen 50:(clockwise from top right) 10: 8563: 8527:Wars involving Württemberg 8421:French conquest of Algeria 8322:Lepage fulminate (1807–10) 8255:Ironclad floating battery 8188:Canon obusier de 12 (1853) 8140:Reffye mitrailleuse (1866) 7836:Karl August von Hardenberg 7574:North German Confederation 7547:Confederation of the Rhine 7047:. Paris: Editions Perrin. 6790:de Chavannes, Pierre Puvis 6537:; Whitman, Sidney (eds.). 6428:. Pen and Sword Military. 6319:Rougerie, Jacques (2014). 6300:Rougerie, Jacques (1995). 6285:. New York: Viking Press. 5328:William Baring Pemberton, 4906:Shann & Delperier 1991 3591:The creation of a unified 3573: 3439: 3182:North German Confederation 2782: 2532:Siege of Paris (1870–1871) 2529: 2483:until the end of the war. 2447:, Alsace, and most of the 2327:Emmanuel Félix de Wimpffen 2292: 2261: 2213: 2119:Constantin von Alvensleben 2097: 2052: 2006: 1927: 1893:General Karl von Steinmetz 1841: 1698:German tactics emphasised 1611:. However, following the " 1569: 1441:North German Confederation 1384: 1269:North German Confederation 1237:North German Confederation 726:10,129 missing or captured 256:North German Confederation 18: 8401: 8360: 8312: 8236: 8163: 8130: 8090: 8054:Lefaucheux M1858 revolver 8030: 7969: 7879: 7753: 7587: 7564:German Empire (1848–1849) 7539: 7486: 7217:Taithe, Bertrand (2001). 7198:; Daniel Hohrath (eds.). 7103:Séguin, Philippe (1996). 6983:Lowe, William J. (1999). 6925:. Basingstoke: Palgrave. 6195:Nolte, Frédérick (1884). 6082:Howard, Michael (1991) . 6003:Foley, Robert T. (2007). 5986:Gravelotte-St-Privat 1870 5901:Brown, Frederick (2010). 5528:The North American Review 5403:German General Staff 1884 4741:Howard, Michael (2001) . 4152:German General Staff 1881 4140:German General Staff 1881 3908:German General Staff 1884 3541:In 1830, the French army 3528:were transported . About 3485:During the fighting, the 3146: 3143: 2883:North German Federal Navy 2795:Pierre Puvis de Chavannes 2620:(3 January 1871) and the 2133:and French casualties of 1838:Occupation of Saarbrücken 1577: 1380: 803: 737: 732: 689: 578: 372: 185: 104: 43: 35: 30: 8537:France–Prussia relations 8223:Canet 320 mm (1880) 7949:Greater Austria proposal 7082:Robertson, Charles Grant 7021:Mehrkens, Heidi (2008). 6967:The Life of Napoleon III 6900:Bresler, Fenton (1999). 6619:Wawro, Geoffrey (2003). 6578:Wawro, Geoffrey (2000). 6531:von Poschinger, Heinrich 6484:Varley, Karine (2008b). 6378:Naval Warfare, 1815–1914 5882:Barry, Quintin (2009a). 5814: 5079:von Pflugk-Harttung 1900 3872:Heath & Cocolin 2020 3719: 3639:Georges Ernest Boulanger 3382:and integrated into the 3119:Prussian Minister of War 2028:Prince Frederick Charles 1996: 1,000 casualties. 1987:and wounded and another 1957:Auguste-Alexandre Ducrot 1657:François Achille Bazaine 1459:politique des pourboires 1313:under the Prussian king 677:Peak field army strength 625:Peak field army strength 193:Before 4 September 1870: 79:The Defense of Champigny 7892:Austro-Prussian rivalry 7705:"Blood and Iron" speech 7676:Greater Poland uprising 7647:Frankfurter Wachensturm 7349:Daniels, Morna (2005). 7173:(140). Wiley: 319–325. 7106:Louis Napoléon Le Grand 7090:. New York: H. Fertig. 6987:. London: Chapter Two. 6921:Bucholz, Arden (2001). 6604:. New York: Routledge. 6535:von Poschinge, Heinrich 6101:Hozier, Henry Montagu; 6086:. New York: Routledge. 5920:Bodart, Gaston (1916). 5761:Allan Mitchell (2018). 5746:Wright, Gordon (1995). 5730:Keiger, J.F.V. (2001). 5103:The Franco-Prussian War 4745:. New York: Routledge. 2785:Armistice of Versailles 2677:, commanded by general 2417:the coup d'état of 1851 742:Until 4 September 1870. 211:After 4 September 1870: 8517:Wars involving Germany 8512:Wars involving Bavaria 8193:La Hitte system (1858) 8069:Chassepot rifle (1866) 8064:Tabatière rifle (1864) 7905:Das Lied der Deutschen 7841:Klemens von Metternich 7816:Johann Gottlieb Fichte 7526:Kingdom of Württemberg 7480:Unification of Germany 7291:Wetzel, David (2012). 7062:Milza, Pierre (2009). 6862:Aronson, Theo (1970). 6843:Arand, Tobias (2018). 6798:The Walters Art Museum 6103:Davenport Adams, W. H. 5826:. Edinburgh: Birlinn. 5822:Ascoli, David (2001). 5748:France in Modern Times 5660:, OUP 1937, pp.400–402 5626:L'Algérie et la France 4537:, pp. 97–98, 101. 4190:New and Recent History 3757: 3749: 3630: 3588: 3576:Unification of Germany 3476: 3417:a brief victory parade 3412: 3404: 3335:Battle of Mars-La-Tour 3112: 3082: 3073: 3032: 2918: 2869: 2839: 2798: 2679:Charles-Denis Bourbaki 2670: 2575: 2527: 2429: 2377: 2369: 2318: 2273: 2225: 2113: 2100:Battle of Mars-La-Tour 2094:Battle of Mars-La-Tour 2018: 1939: 1878:16th Infantry Division 1873:to seize Saarbrücken. 1857: 1780: 1680: 1591: 1531:Agenor, duc de Gramont 1458: 1400: 1351: 745:From 4 September 1870. 533:Crown Prince Friedrich 373:Commanders and leaders 352:After 18 January 1871: 157:Unification of Germany 56:Battle of Mars-la-Tour 38:unification of Germany 8547:Wars involving France 8522:Wars involving Saxony 8300:Electrical submarine 8218:de Bange 90 mm (1877) 8213:de Bange 80 mm (1877) 8173:Year XI system (1803) 8040:Delvigne rifle (1826) 7821:Johann Gustav Droysen 7791:Frederick William III 7320:Pullen, Henry William 7221:. London: Routledge. 6941:Clark, Christopher M. 6582:. London: Routledge. 6380:. London: Routledge. 6253:Ramm, Agetha (1967). 6047:. London: Macmillan. 5040:Battleships in battle 4858:Свечин (Svechin) 1928 4846:Свечин (Svechin) 1928 4453:, pp. 85–86, 90. 4441:, pp. 47–48, 60. 4417:, pp. 69, 78–79. 3625: 3599:after the end of the 3583: 3574:Further information: 3410: 3402: 3347:cult of the offensive 3107: 3079: 3067: 3039:In the small town of 3030: 2967:Pacific and Caribbean 2845: 2837: 2792: 2694:battle of the Lisaine 2664: 2622:Battle of St. Quentin 2569: 2521: 2375: 2367: 2302: 2271: 2223: 2107: 2016: 1937: 1924:Battle of Wissembourg 1919:Prussian Army advance 1901:Prince Friedrich Karl 1851: 1844:Battle of Saarbrücken 1778: 1766:French Army incursion 1712:moved in small groups 1674: 1607:in Italy, and in the 1585: 1501:, a telegram sent by 1394: 1337:, as well as most of 690:Casualties and losses 558:Karl F. von Steinmetz 546:Prince Friedrich Karl 304:and 19 smaller states 8507:Wars involving Baden 8342:Tamisier ball (1841) 8084:Modèle 1892 revolver 7944:German reunification 7866:Wilhelm von Humboldt 7831:John, King of Saxony 7796:Frederick William IV 7745:Treaty of Versailles 7714:Second Schleswig War 7685:Punctation of Olmütz 7667:Frankfurt Parliament 7552:German Confederation 7144:Showalter, Dennis E. 6903:Napoleon III: A Life 6304:. Paris: Gallimard. 5497:, pp. 301, 310. 3714:Crimes de la commune 3694:French–German enmity 3643:Alphonse de Neuville 3513:sentences, of which 3448:Paris National Guard 3446:During the war, the 3283:breech-loading rifle 3225:Antoine-Henri Jomini 3161:Second French Empire 3019:, in November 1870. 2793:In this painting by 2749:improve this article 2441:Château de Ferrières 2264:Siege of Metz (1870) 2248:Eduard von Fransecky 2216:Battle of Gravelotte 2176:improve this section 2144:Battle of Gravelotte 2076: 10,500 killed 1727:Battle of Königgrätz 1710:, Prussian infantry 1700:encirclement battles 1527:Napoléon, comte Daru 1429:Jacques Louis Randon 1233:Second French Empire 152:Second French Empire 8477:Franco-Prussian War 8446:Franco-Prussian War 8203:Reffye 75 mm (1873) 8198:Reffye 85 mm (1870) 8183:Valée system (1828) 8178:Paixhans gun (1823) 7811:Heinrich von Gagern 7736:Franco-Prussian War 7723:Austro-Prussian War 7356:. British Library. 7002:Lowe, John (2013). 6806:"Franco-German War" 6444:van Creveld, Martin 6338:Rüstow, W. (1872). 6261:. London: Methuen. 5924:. Clarendon Press. 5905:. New York: Knopf. 5792:. pp. 111–126. 5734:. pp. 112–120. 5720:, pp. 151–162. 5615:, pp. 422–424. 5432:, pp. 156–157. 5417:, pp. 218–219. 5393:, pp. 216–217. 5081:, pp. 587–588. 5054:, pp. 190–192. 5004:, pp. 229–235. 4992:, pp. 101–102. 4824:, pp. 230–233. 4776:, pp. 228–231. 4669:, pp. 160–163. 4657:, pp. 152–161. 4633:, pp. 108–117. 4561:, pp. 101–103. 4549:, pp. 101–103. 4513:, pp. 100–101. 3857:, pp. 526–527. 3495:Archbishop of Paris 3370:During the war the 3339:Adalbert von Bredow 3312:Austro-Prussian War 3144:Population in 1870 3138: 2919:question du charbon 2616:(27 November), the 2595:Battle of Coulmiers 2331:General Margueritte 2009:Battle of Spicheren 2003:Battle of Spicheren 1856:on 1 September 1870 1828:Bavarian Palatinate 1661:Patrice de MacMahon 1605:Franco-Austrian War 1515:Austro-Prussian War 1454:Bavarian Palatinate 1423:, Foreign Minister 1417:Austro-Prussian War 1331:Treaty of Frankfurt 1221:Franco-Prussian War 1131:Nuits Saint Georges 795:Franco-Prussian War 428:Patrice de MacMahon 72:The Last Cartridges 31:Franco-Prussian War 8228:Canon de 75 (1897) 8079:Lebel rifle (1886) 8059:Minié rifle (1849) 7979:Germany portal 7912:Die Wacht am Rhein 7696:Dresden Conference 7599:Congress of Vienna 7516:Kingdom of Prussia 7511:Kingdom of Hanover 7506:Kingdom of Bavaria 7417:Virtual exhibition 7109:. Paris: Grasset. 6836:Books and journals 6751:. 19/20: 151–162. 6514:Arthur John Butler 6321:La Commune de 1871 5965:Germany: 1866–1945 5865:The Siege of Paris 4465:, pp. 87, 90. 3631: 3597:Congress of Vienna 3589: 3545:and conquered the 3537:1871 Kabyle revolt 3413: 3405: 3320:Russo-Japanese War 3136: 3083: 3074: 3033: 3031:Ruins of Bazeilles 2870: 2840: 2799: 2671: 2576: 2528: 2477:Army of the Vosges 2464:Giuseppe Garibaldi 2449:Moselle department 2390:Louis-Jules Trochu 2378: 2370: 2319: 2316:Wilhelm Camphausen 2274: 2226: 2114: 2019: 1940: 1903:opposite the line 1858: 1797:François Canrobert 1781: 1750:Helmuth von Moltke 1691:, 23 August 1866. 1685:Kingdom of Prussia 1681: 1592: 1529:, was replaced by 1523:House of Bonaparte 1401: 1360:German unification 1323:German Switzerland 1241:Kingdom of Prussia 520:Helmuth von Moltke 474:Giuseppe Garibaldi 449:Louis-Jules Trochu 231:Foreign volunteers 8502:Conflicts in 1870 8464: 8463: 8347:Minié ball (1847) 8291:Armoured cruiser 8282:Steel battleship 8246:Steam battleship 8074:Gras rifle (1874) 7985: 7984: 7923:Lützow Free Corps 7856:Otto von Bismarck 7776:Eduard von Simson 7619:Wartburg Festival 7521:Kingdom of Saxony 7380:. British Library 7302:978-0-299-29133-4 7283:978-1-85367-131-9 7274:Forbes, Archibald 7260:978-0-891414-84-1 7228:978-0-415-23927-1 7209:978-3-50676-375-4 7157:978-1-78093-808-0 7135:978-1-85532-121-2 7116:978-2-246-42951-7 7073:978-2-262-03073-5 7054:978-2-262-02607-3 7032:978-3-89861-565-5 7013:978-1-136-15228-3 6994:978-1-85307-123-2 6956:978-0-674-02385-7 6932:978-0-333-68758-1 6913:978-0-7867-0660-0 6892:978-2-20037-165-4 6854:978-3-95510-167-1 6656:978-1-59114-990-3 6639:Zabecki, David T. 6630:978-0-521-58436-4 6611:978-0-203-17183-7 6589:978-0-415-21445-2 6495:978-0-230-00519-8 6476:978-0-230-51740-0 6457:978-0-521-29793-6 6387:978-0-415-21478-0 6368:978-1-85532-135-9 6330:978-2-13-062078-5 6311:978-2-07-053289-6 6292:978-0-670-33548-0 6268:978-0-416-33990-1 6245:978-1-61673-985-0 6187:978-2-262-02498-7 6165:978-0-253-20214-7 6142:978-0-394-54674-2 6093:978-0-415-02787-8 6074:978-0-246-63587-7 6014:978-0-521-04436-3 5995:978-1-85532-286-8 5976:978-0-19-502724-2 5950:978-0-7864-7470-7 5912:978-0-307-26631-6 5893:978-1-906033-45-3 5874:978-0-450-02190-9 5852:978-1-59114-029-0 5833:978-1-84158-121-7 5807:. pp. 47–48. 5774:978-1-4696-2292-7 5684:, pp. 62–80. 5634:978-2-221-10946-5 5455:"Agency Archives" 5381:, pp. 35–36. 5357:, pp. 52–53. 5341:Paul M. Kennedy. 5302:Chris Kempshall, 5269:, pp. 70–71. 5233:, pp. 19–20. 5209:, pp. 23–24. 4966:de Chavannes 1872 4896:, pp. 19–20. 4764:, pp. 20–21. 4621:, pp. 98–99. 4609:, pp. 92–93. 4597:, pp. 89–90. 4585:, pp. 87–88. 4429:, pp. 66–67. 4192:(in Russian) (5). 4166:, pp. 57–59. 4154:, pp. 34–35. 4063:von Bismarck 1899 4002:, pp. 40–41. 3628:Albert Bettannier 3547:Beylik of Algiers 3530:20,000 Communards 3482:("bloody week"). 3478:Semaine Sanglante 3390:Subsequent events 3214:marshalling yards 3193: 3192: 3115:Albrecht von Roon 3098:of their forces. 2935:coastal artillery 2931:Royal Danish Navy 2927:seaborne invasion 2781: 2780: 2773: 2698:August von Werder 2638:Army of the North 2634:General Faidherbe 2628:Northern campaign 2618:Battle of Bapaume 2607:Battle of Le Mans 2580:Armée de la Loire 2572:Battle of Bapaume 2431:guerre à outrance 2346:Surrender of Metz 2272:Surrender of Metz 2212: 2211: 2204: 2131:15,780 casualties 1913:Friedrich Wilhelm 1801:Châlons-sur-Marne 1723:Dreyse needle gun 1679:in September 1870 1667:Prussians/Germans 1427:and War Minister 1409:Otto von Bismarck 1276:French parliament 1249:Otto von Bismarck 1225:Franco-German War 1214: 1213: 1061:Beaune-la-Rolande 760: 759: 570:Albrecht von Roon 507:Otto von Bismarck 181: 180: 8554: 8122: 8115: 8108: 8101: 8024: 8023: 8022: 8012: 8005: 7998: 7989: 7988: 7977: 7976: 7975: 7926: 7742: 7733: 7720: 7711: 7702: 7693: 7682: 7673: 7664: 7657: 7643: 7637:Hambach Festival 7634: 7628:Carlsbad Decrees 7625: 7616: 7605: 7596: 7502: 7473: 7466: 7459: 7450: 7449: 7409: 7389: 7387: 7385: 7372: 7370: 7368: 7362: 7355: 7345: 7306: 7287: 7272:. Translated by 7264: 7245: 7232: 7213: 7190: 7161: 7139: 7120: 7099: 7077: 7064:L'Année terrible 7058: 7036: 7017: 6998: 6979: 6960: 6936: 6917: 6896: 6877: 6858: 6825: 6823: 6821: 6816:30 December 2013 6801: 6776: 6743: 6706: 6675:Military Affairs 6660: 6634: 6615: 6593: 6574: 6552: 6525: 6512:. Translated by 6499: 6480: 6461: 6439: 6420: 6405:Taylor, A. J. P. 6400: 6391: 6372: 6353: 6334: 6315: 6296: 6272: 6260: 6249: 6230: 6208: 6191: 6178:L'Année terrible 6169: 6157: 6146: 6134: 6125:Kennedy, Paul M. 6120: 6097: 6078: 6056: 6036: 6027: 6018: 5999: 5980: 5968: 5954: 5935: 5916: 5897: 5878: 5856: 5837: 5809: 5808: 5800: 5794: 5793: 5785: 5779: 5778: 5758: 5752: 5751: 5743: 5737: 5736:, quoting p 113. 5735: 5727: 5721: 5715: 5709: 5703: 5697: 5691: 5685: 5679: 5673: 5667: 5661: 5654: 5648: 5642: 5636: 5622: 5616: 5610: 5604: 5598: 5592: 5586: 5580: 5574: 5568: 5562: 5556: 5550: 5544: 5543: 5534:(810): 594–600. 5519: 5513: 5507: 5498: 5492: 5486: 5480: 5471: 5470: 5468: 5466: 5451: 5445: 5439: 5433: 5427: 5418: 5412: 5406: 5400: 5394: 5388: 5382: 5376: 5370: 5364: 5358: 5352: 5346: 5339: 5333: 5326: 5320: 5313: 5307: 5300: 5294: 5288: 5282: 5276: 5270: 5264: 5258: 5252: 5246: 5240: 5234: 5228: 5222: 5216: 5210: 5204: 5198: 5192: 5183: 5177: 5171: 5168:van Creveld 1977 5165: 5159: 5153: 5147: 5146: 5136: 5127:(4–5): 968–993. 5112: 5106: 5100: 5094: 5088: 5082: 5076: 5070: 5064: 5055: 5049: 5043: 5036: 5030: 5023: 5017: 5011: 5005: 4999: 4993: 4987: 4981: 4975: 4969: 4963: 4957: 4951: 4945: 4939: 4933: 4927: 4921: 4920:, p. 217ff. 4915: 4909: 4903: 4897: 4891: 4885: 4879: 4873: 4867: 4861: 4855: 4849: 4843: 4837: 4831: 4825: 4819: 4813: 4807: 4801: 4795: 4789: 4783: 4777: 4771: 4765: 4759: 4753: 4739: 4733: 4727: 4721: 4715: 4709: 4703: 4694: 4688: 4682: 4676: 4670: 4664: 4658: 4652: 4646: 4640: 4634: 4628: 4622: 4616: 4610: 4604: 4598: 4592: 4586: 4580: 4574: 4568: 4562: 4556: 4550: 4544: 4538: 4532: 4526: 4520: 4514: 4508: 4502: 4496: 4490: 4484: 4478: 4472: 4466: 4460: 4454: 4448: 4442: 4436: 4430: 4424: 4418: 4412: 4406: 4400: 4394: 4388: 4382: 4376: 4370: 4364: 4358: 4352: 4346: 4340: 4334: 4328: 4322: 4316: 4310: 4304: 4298: 4292: 4286: 4280: 4274: 4268: 4262: 4256: 4250: 4244: 4238: 4232: 4221: 4215: 4206: 4200: 4194: 4193: 4185: 4179: 4173: 4167: 4161: 4155: 4149: 4143: 4137: 4131: 4125: 4119: 4113: 4107: 4101: 4095: 4089: 4083: 4077: 4066: 4060: 4054: 4048: 4042: 4036: 4027: 4021: 4015: 4009: 4003: 3997: 3991: 3985: 3979: 3973: 3967: 3960: 3954: 3948: 3942: 3936: 3923: 3917: 3911: 3905: 3899: 3893: 3887: 3881: 3875: 3869: 3858: 3852: 3846: 3840: 3834: 3828: 3819: 3813: 3796: 3793: 3777: 3776: 3775: 3774: 3768: 3763: 3743: 3737: 3730: 3673: 3668: 3667: 3666: 3586:Anton von Werner 3531: 3527: 3523: 3520: 3516: 3512: 3508: 3499:Tuileries Palace 3481: 3473: 3468:French tricolour 3325: 3180: 3178: 3177: 3159: 3157: 3156: 3139: 3135: 3096:exercise control 2993:Battle of Havana 2921: 2868: 2776: 2769: 2765: 2762: 2756: 2733: 2725: 2707:Justin Clinchant 2675:Army of the East 2657:Eastern campaign 2614:Battle of Amiens 2611: 2524:Anton von Werner 2508: 2507: 2503: 2500: 2434: 2410:un coup de parti 2207: 2200: 2196: 2193: 2187: 2156: 2148: 2136: 2132: 2088:Vosges mountains 2084: 2083: 9,200 men 2081: 2077: 2074: 1997: 1994: 1990: 1986: 1824:Bartélemy Lebrun 1820:Charles Frossard 1789:Marshal MacMahon 1748:, under General 1689:Treaty of Prague 1638:feu de bataillon 1609:Mexican campaign 1461: 1354: 1201:Belgian reaction 798: 796: 786: 779: 772: 763: 762: 649:Initial strength 638:Total deployment 597:Initial strength 586:Total deployment 568: 567: 556: 555: 544: 543: 535: 531: 530: 518: 517: 504: 503: 490: 489: 472: 471: 460: 459: 446: 445: 436: 435: 426: 425: 416: 409:François Bazaine 407: 406: 398: 387: 386: 368: 363: 361: 360: 343: 341: 340: 334: 330: 328: 327: 320: 316: 314: 313: 298: 297: 296: 289: 285: 283: 282: 274: 270: 268: 267: 254: 252: 251: 227: 222: 220: 219: 204: 202: 201: 106: 105: 58:, 16 August 1870 48: 28: 27: 8562: 8561: 8557: 8556: 8555: 8553: 8552: 8551: 8497:1871 in Germany 8492:1870 in Germany 8467: 8466: 8465: 8460: 8456:Sino-French War 8451:Tonkin Campaign 8411:Napoleonic Wars 8403: 8397: 8356: 8308: 8232: 8159: 8126: 8125: 8088: 8047:Carabine à tige 8026: 8020: 8018: 8016: 7986: 7981: 7973: 7971: 7965: 7939:German question 7920: 7918:Flag of Germany 7887:Alsace–Lorraine 7875: 7761:Baron von Stein 7749: 7740: 7731: 7727:Peace of Prague 7718: 7709: 7700: 7691: 7680: 7671: 7662: 7655: 7641: 7632: 7623: 7614: 7603: 7594: 7583: 7535: 7499:Austria-Hungary 7496: 7494:Austrian Empire 7482: 7477: 7407: 7404: 7399: 7383: 7381: 7366: 7364: 7360: 7353: 7314: 7309: 7303: 7290: 7284: 7267: 7261: 7248: 7229: 7216: 7210: 7193: 7164: 7158: 7142: 7136: 7123: 7117: 7102: 7080: 7074: 7061: 7055: 7039: 7033: 7020: 7014: 7001: 6995: 6982: 6963: 6957: 6939: 6933: 6920: 6914: 6899: 6893: 6880: 6874: 6855: 6842: 6838: 6833: 6831:Further reading 6828: 6819: 6817: 6784: 6779: 6757:10.2307/1512817 6724:10.2307/3038792 6687:10.2307/1982846 6668: 6663: 6657: 6645:. Vol. 1: 6631: 6612: 6598:Wawro, Geoffrey 6590: 6496: 6477: 6458: 6436: 6388: 6369: 6331: 6312: 6293: 6269: 6246: 6188: 6166: 6143: 6094: 6075: 6061:Howard, Michael 6041:Horne, Alistair 6015: 5996: 5977: 5951: 5932: 5913: 5894: 5875: 5861:Baldick, Robert 5853: 5834: 5817: 5812: 5801: 5797: 5786: 5782: 5775: 5759: 5755: 5744: 5740: 5728: 5724: 5716: 5712: 5704: 5700: 5692: 5688: 5680: 5676: 5668: 5664: 5655: 5651: 5643: 5639: 5623: 5619: 5611: 5607: 5599: 5595: 5587: 5583: 5575: 5571: 5563: 5559: 5551: 5547: 5520: 5516: 5508: 5501: 5493: 5489: 5481: 5474: 5464: 5462: 5461:. 30 April 2016 5453: 5452: 5448: 5440: 5436: 5428: 5421: 5413: 5409: 5401: 5397: 5389: 5385: 5377: 5373: 5365: 5361: 5353: 5349: 5340: 5336: 5330:Lord Palmerston 5327: 5323: 5317:Lord Palmerston 5315:Jasper Ridley, 5314: 5310: 5301: 5297: 5289: 5285: 5277: 5273: 5265: 5261: 5253: 5249: 5241: 5237: 5229: 5225: 5217: 5213: 5205: 5201: 5193: 5186: 5178: 5174: 5166: 5162: 5154: 5150: 5113: 5109: 5101: 5097: 5089: 5085: 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Châlons 2312:Battle of Sedan 2297: 2295:Battle of Sedan 2291: 2289:Battle of Sedan 2282:Army of Châlons 2266: 2260: 2218: 2208: 2197: 2191: 2188: 2173: 2157: 2146: 2134: 2130: 2127:cavalry charges 2102: 2096: 2082: 2075: 2063:in the town of 2057: 2055:Battle of Wörth 2051: 2049:Battle of Wörth 2039:Battle of Wörth 2011: 2005: 1995: 1989:1,000 prisoners 1988: 1984: 1932: 1926: 1921: 1854:Battle of Sedan 1846: 1840: 1773: 1768: 1731:Krupp 6-pounder 1669: 1634:Chassepot rifle 1613:Seven Weeks War 1580: 1575: 1568: 1566:Opposing forces 1555:Treaty of Paris 1541:in Parliament, 1519:Empress Eugénie 1476:Hesse-Darmstadt 1425:Drouyn de Lhuys 1421:Empress Eugénie 1397:Alsace–Lorraine 1389: 1383: 1347:Alsace-Lorraine 1288:Battle of Sedan 1265:Hesse-Darmstadt 1217: 1216: 1215: 1210: 1197: 799: 794: 792: 790: 756: 755: 750:18 January 1871 705:143,000 wounded 574: 562: 550: 538: 525: 524: 512: 498: 484: 478: 466: 454: 440: 437: 420: 419: 401: 381: 358: 356: 354: 350: 349: 347: 338: 336: 335: 325: 323: 321: 311: 309: 294: 292: 280: 278: 265: 263: 249: 247: 245: 241:18 January 1871 224:French Republic 217: 215: 213: 209: 199: 197: 195: 191: 176:Alsace-Lorraine 167: 134: 113: 100: 49: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 8560: 8550: 8549: 8544: 8539: 8534: 8529: 8524: 8519: 8514: 8509: 8504: 8499: 8494: 8489: 8487:1871 in France 8484: 8482:1870 in France 8479: 8462: 8461: 8459: 8458: 8453: 8448: 8443: 8438: 8433: 8428: 8423: 8418: 8413: 8407: 8405: 8399: 8398: 8396: 8395: 8390: 8385: 8380: 8375: 8370: 8364: 8362: 8358: 8357: 8355: 8354: 8349: 8344: 8339: 8334: 8329: 8324: 8318: 8316: 8310: 8309: 8307: 8306: 8297: 8288: 8279: 8270: 8261: 8252: 8242: 8240: 8234: 8233: 8231: 8230: 8225: 8220: 8215: 8210: 8205: 8200: 8195: 8190: 8185: 8180: 8175: 8169: 8167: 8161: 8160: 8158: 8157: 8152: 8147: 8142: 8136: 8134: 8128: 8127: 8124: 8123: 8116: 8109: 8102: 8095: 8092: 8091: 8089: 8087: 8086: 8081: 8076: 8071: 8066: 8061: 8056: 8051: 8042: 8036: 8034: 8028: 8027: 8015: 8014: 8007: 8000: 7992: 7983: 7982: 7970: 7967: 7966: 7964: 7963: 7956: 7951: 7946: 7941: 7936: 7934:Lesser Germany 7927: 7915: 7908: 7901: 7898:Burschenschaft 7894: 7889: 7883: 7881: 7877: 7876: 7874: 7873: 7868: 7863: 7858: 7853: 7848: 7843: 7838: 7833: 7828: 7823: 7818: 7813: 7808: 7803: 7798: 7793: 7788: 7786:Franz Joseph I 7783: 7778: 7773: 7768: 7763: 7757: 7755: 7751: 7750: 7748: 7747: 7738: 7729: 7716: 7707: 7698: 7689: 7688: 7687: 7678: 7669: 7652: 7651: 7650: 7639: 7630: 7621: 7601: 7591: 7589: 7585: 7584: 7582: 7581: 7576: 7571: 7566: 7561: 7554: 7549: 7543: 7541: 7537: 7536: 7534: 7533: 7528: 7523: 7518: 7513: 7508: 7503: 7490: 7488: 7484: 7483: 7476: 7475: 7468: 7461: 7453: 7447: 7446: 7441: 7436: 7430: 7424: 7413: 7403: 7402:External links 7400: 7398: 7397: 7390: 7373: 7346: 7315: 7313: 7310: 7308: 7307: 7301: 7288: 7282: 7265: 7259: 7246: 7233: 7227: 7214: 7208: 7196:Neitzel, Sönke 7191: 7162: 7156: 7140: 7134: 7121: 7115: 7100: 7078: 7072: 7059: 7053: 7037: 7031: 7018: 7012: 6999: 6993: 6980: 6961: 6955: 6937: 6931: 6918: 6912: 6897: 6891: 6878: 6872: 6859: 6853: 6839: 6837: 6834: 6832: 6829: 6827: 6826: 6810:Britannica.com 6802: 6785: 6783: 6780: 6778: 6777: 6744: 6718:(4): 192–203. 6707: 6681:(3): 153–168. 6669: 6667: 6664: 6662: 6661: 6655: 6643:Chief of Staff 6635: 6629: 6616: 6610: 6594: 6588: 6575: 6553: 6526: 6500: 6494: 6481: 6475: 6462: 6456: 6440: 6435:978-1526756107 6434: 6421: 6401: 6392: 6386: 6373: 6367: 6354: 6335: 6329: 6316: 6310: 6297: 6291: 6277:Ridley, Jasper 6273: 6267: 6250: 6244: 6231: 6213:Ollier, Edmund 6209: 6192: 6186: 6170: 6164: 6147: 6141: 6121: 6098: 6092: 6079: 6073: 6057: 6037: 6028: 6019: 6013: 6000: 5994: 5981: 5975: 5955: 5949: 5936: 5931:978-1112270444 5930: 5917: 5911: 5898: 5892: 5879: 5873: 5857: 5851: 5838: 5832: 5818: 5816: 5813: 5811: 5810: 5795: 5780: 5773: 5753: 5738: 5722: 5710: 5698: 5686: 5674: 5672:, p. 302. 5662: 5649: 5637: 5617: 5605: 5603:, p. 118. 5593: 5591:, p. 301. 5581: 5579:, p. 122. 5569: 5567:, p. 118. 5557: 5555:, p. 416. 5545: 5514: 5512:, p. 209. 5499: 5487: 5485:, p. 133. 5472: 5446: 5444:, p. 218. 5434: 5419: 5407: 5405:, p. 195. 5395: 5383: 5371: 5369:, p. 217. 5359: 5347: 5334: 5321: 5319:(1970), p. 582 5308: 5295: 5293:, p. 290. 5283: 5281:, p. 238. 5271: 5259: 5247: 5235: 5223: 5221:, p. 159. 5211: 5199: 5197:, p. 192. 5184: 5172: 5160: 5148: 5107: 5095: 5093:, p. 243. 5083: 5071: 5069:, p. 192. 5056: 5044: 5031: 5018: 5016:, p. 191. 5006: 4994: 4982: 4980:, p. 298. 4970: 4958: 4956:, p. 421. 4946: 4944:, p. 429. 4934: 4932:, p. 210. 4922: 4910: 4898: 4886: 4884:, p. 286. 4874: 4872:, p. 280. 4862: 4860:, p. 332. 4850: 4848:, p. 327. 4838: 4836:, p. 602. 4826: 4814: 4812:, p. 234. 4802: 4790: 4788:, p. 239. 4778: 4766: 4754: 4734: 4732:, p. 247. 4722: 4720:, p. 244. 4710: 4708:, p. 240. 4695: 4693:, p. 201. 4683: 4681:, p. 196. 4671: 4659: 4647: 4645:, p. 145. 4635: 4623: 4611: 4599: 4587: 4575: 4573:, p. 108. 4563: 4551: 4539: 4527: 4525:, p. 101. 4515: 4503: 4491: 4479: 4467: 4455: 4443: 4431: 4419: 4407: 4395: 4383: 4371: 4359: 4357:, p. 113. 4347: 4335: 4333:, p. 110. 4323: 4311: 4299: 4287: 4275: 4263: 4251: 4249:, p. 103. 4239: 4237:, p. 102. 4222: 4207: 4195: 4180: 4168: 4156: 4144: 4132: 4120: 4118:, p. 101. 4108: 4096: 4084: 4067: 4055: 4043: 4028: 4016: 4004: 3992: 3980: 3968: 3955: 3943: 3941:, p. 187. 3924: 3912: 3910:, p. 247. 3900: 3888: 3886:, p. 527. 3876: 3859: 3847: 3835: 3820: 3818:, p. 184. 3797: 3787: 3785: 3782: 3779: 3778: 3738: 3724: 3723: 3721: 3718: 3717: 3716: 3711: 3706: 3701: 3696: 3691: 3686: 3681: 3675: 3674: 3658: 3655: 3619: 3616: 3605:Queen Victoria 3571: 3568: 3560:Mokrani Revolt 3551:French Algeria 3538: 3535: 3503:Hotel de Ville 3491:Georges Darboy 3437: 3434: 3428:on Prussia in 3396: 3393: 3391: 3388: 3354: 3351: 3306: 3303: 3298:muzzle-loading 3251:United Kingdom 3247:Russian Empire 3191: 3190: 3187: 3184: 3170: 3169: 3166: 3163: 3149: 3148: 3145: 3142: 3061: 3058: 3056: 3053: 3024: 3021: 2968: 2965: 2947:French Marines 2874: 2871: 2831: 2828: 2783:Main article: 2779: 2778: 2737: 2735: 2728: 2722: 2719: 2713:(1 February). 2702:von Manteuffel 2658: 2655: 2629: 2626: 2624:(13 January). 2563: 2562:Loire campaign 2560: 2544:Francs-tireurs 2538:siege of Paris 2530:Main article: 2515: 2514:Siege of Paris 2512: 2398:Third Republic 2388:, and General 2361: 2358: 2356: 2353: 2347: 2344: 2340:Siege of Paris 2293:Main article: 2290: 2287: 2262:Main article: 2259: 2256: 2214:Main article: 2210: 2209: 2160: 2158: 2151: 2145: 2142: 2098:Main article: 2095: 2092: 2053:Main article: 2050: 2047: 2007:Main article: 2004: 2001: 1928:Main article: 1925: 1922: 1920: 1917: 1886:Edmond Le Bœuf 1842:Main article: 1839: 1836: 1772: 1769: 1767: 1764: 1759:Kriegsakademie 1739:muzzle loading 1708:line formation 1668: 1665: 1579: 1576: 1567: 1564: 1557:following the 1547:Emile Ollivier 1543:Adolphe Thiers 1385:Main article: 1382: 1379: 1375:Third Republic 1304:besieged Paris 1212: 1211: 1209: 1208: 1203: 1196: 1195: 1190: 1185: 1180: 1175: 1170: 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115: 110: 102: 101: 99: 98: 91: 87:Siege of Paris 82: 75: 68: 60: 51: 41: 40: 33: 32: 26: 25: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8559: 8548: 8545: 8543: 8540: 8538: 8535: 8533: 8530: 8528: 8525: 8523: 8520: 8518: 8515: 8513: 8510: 8508: 8505: 8503: 8500: 8498: 8495: 8493: 8490: 8488: 8485: 8483: 8480: 8478: 8475: 8474: 8472: 8457: 8454: 8452: 8449: 8447: 8444: 8442: 8439: 8437: 8434: 8432: 8429: 8427: 8424: 8422: 8419: 8417: 8414: 8412: 8409: 8408: 8406: 8400: 8394: 8391: 8389: 8386: 8384: 8381: 8379: 8376: 8374: 8371: 8369: 8366: 8365: 8363: 8359: 8353: 8350: 8348: 8345: 8343: 8340: 8338: 8335: 8333: 8330: 8328: 8325: 8323: 8320: 8319: 8317: 8315: 8311: 8305: 8303: 8298: 8296: 8294: 8293:Dupuy de Lôme 8289: 8287: 8285: 8280: 8278: 8276: 8271: 8269: 8267: 8262: 8260: 8258: 8253: 8251: 8249: 8244: 8243: 8241: 8239: 8235: 8229: 8226: 8224: 8221: 8219: 8216: 8214: 8211: 8209: 8206: 8204: 8201: 8199: 8196: 8194: 8191: 8189: 8186: 8184: 8181: 8179: 8176: 8174: 8171: 8170: 8168: 8166: 8162: 8156: 8153: 8151: 8148: 8146: 8143: 8141: 8138: 8137: 8135: 8133: 8129: 8121: 8117: 8114: 8110: 8107: 8103: 8100: 8096: 8094: 8093: 8085: 8082: 8080: 8077: 8075: 8072: 8070: 8067: 8065: 8062: 8060: 8057: 8055: 8052: 8050: 8048: 8043: 8041: 8038: 8037: 8035: 8033: 8029: 8013: 8008: 8006: 8001: 7999: 7994: 7993: 7990: 7980: 7968: 7962: 7961: 7957: 7955: 7952: 7950: 7947: 7945: 7942: 7940: 7937: 7935: 7931: 7930:Pan-Germanism 7928: 7924: 7919: 7916: 7914: 7913: 7909: 7907: 7906: 7902: 7900: 7899: 7895: 7893: 7890: 7888: 7885: 7884: 7882: 7878: 7872: 7869: 7867: 7864: 7862: 7859: 7857: 7854: 7852: 7849: 7847: 7844: 7842: 7839: 7837: 7834: 7832: 7829: 7827: 7826:Archduke John 7824: 7822: 7819: 7817: 7814: 7812: 7809: 7807: 7804: 7802: 7799: 7797: 7794: 7792: 7789: 7787: 7784: 7782: 7779: 7777: 7774: 7772: 7769: 7767: 7764: 7762: 7759: 7758: 7756: 7752: 7746: 7739: 7737: 7730: 7728: 7724: 7717: 7715: 7708: 7706: 7699: 7697: 7690: 7686: 7679: 7677: 7670: 7668: 7661: 7660: 7659: 7653: 7649: 7648: 7640: 7638: 7631: 7629: 7622: 7620: 7613: 7612: 7611: 7610: 7602: 7600: 7593: 7592: 7590: 7586: 7580: 7579:German Empire 7577: 7575: 7572: 7570: 7567: 7565: 7562: 7560: 7559: 7555: 7553: 7550: 7548: 7545: 7544: 7542: 7538: 7532: 7529: 7527: 7524: 7522: 7519: 7517: 7514: 7512: 7509: 7507: 7504: 7500: 7495: 7492: 7491: 7489: 7485: 7481: 7474: 7469: 7467: 7462: 7460: 7455: 7454: 7451: 7445: 7442: 7440: 7437: 7434: 7431: 7428: 7425: 7422: 7418: 7414: 7412: 7406: 7405: 7395: 7391: 7379: 7374: 7359: 7352: 7347: 7343: 7339: 7335: 7331: 7327: 7326: 7321: 7317: 7316: 7304: 7298: 7294: 7289: 7285: 7279: 7275: 7271: 7266: 7262: 7256: 7252: 7247: 7243: 7239: 7238:History Today 7234: 7230: 7224: 7220: 7215: 7211: 7205: 7201: 7197: 7192: 7188: 7184: 7180: 7176: 7172: 7168: 7163: 7159: 7153: 7149: 7145: 7141: 7137: 7131: 7127: 7122: 7118: 7112: 7108: 7107: 7101: 7097: 7093: 7089: 7088: 7083: 7079: 7075: 7069: 7065: 7060: 7056: 7050: 7046: 7042: 7041:Milza, Pierre 7038: 7034: 7028: 7024: 7019: 7015: 7009: 7005: 7000: 6996: 6990: 6986: 6981: 6977: 6973: 6969: 6968: 6962: 6958: 6952: 6948: 6947: 6942: 6938: 6934: 6928: 6924: 6919: 6915: 6909: 6905: 6904: 6898: 6894: 6888: 6884: 6879: 6875: 6869: 6865: 6860: 6856: 6850: 6846: 6841: 6840: 6815: 6811: 6807: 6803: 6799: 6795: 6791: 6787: 6786: 6774: 6770: 6766: 6762: 6758: 6754: 6750: 6745: 6741: 6737: 6733: 6729: 6725: 6721: 6717: 6713: 6708: 6704: 6700: 6696: 6692: 6688: 6684: 6680: 6676: 6671: 6670: 6658: 6652: 6648: 6644: 6640: 6636: 6632: 6626: 6622: 6617: 6613: 6607: 6603: 6599: 6595: 6591: 6585: 6581: 6576: 6572: 6568: 6564: 6563: 6558: 6554: 6550: 6546: 6542: 6541: 6536: 6532: 6527: 6523: 6519: 6515: 6511: 6510: 6505: 6501: 6497: 6491: 6487: 6482: 6478: 6472: 6468: 6463: 6459: 6453: 6449: 6445: 6441: 6437: 6431: 6427: 6422: 6418: 6414: 6410: 6406: 6402: 6398: 6393: 6389: 6383: 6379: 6374: 6370: 6364: 6360: 6355: 6351: 6347: 6343: 6342: 6336: 6332: 6326: 6322: 6317: 6313: 6307: 6303: 6298: 6294: 6288: 6284: 6283: 6278: 6274: 6270: 6264: 6259: 6258: 6251: 6247: 6241: 6237: 6232: 6228: 6224: 6220: 6219: 6214: 6210: 6206: 6202: 6198: 6193: 6189: 6183: 6179: 6175: 6174:Milza, Pierre 6171: 6167: 6161: 6156: 6155: 6148: 6144: 6138: 6133: 6132: 6126: 6122: 6118: 6114: 6110: 6109: 6104: 6099: 6095: 6089: 6085: 6080: 6076: 6070: 6066: 6062: 6058: 6054: 6050: 6046: 6042: 6038: 6034: 6029: 6025: 6020: 6016: 6010: 6006: 6001: 5997: 5991: 5987: 5982: 5978: 5972: 5967: 5966: 5960: 5956: 5952: 5946: 5942: 5937: 5933: 5927: 5923: 5918: 5914: 5908: 5904: 5899: 5895: 5889: 5885: 5880: 5876: 5870: 5866: 5862: 5858: 5854: 5848: 5844: 5839: 5835: 5829: 5825: 5820: 5819: 5806: 5799: 5791: 5784: 5776: 5770: 5766: 5765: 5757: 5749: 5742: 5733: 5726: 5719: 5714: 5707: 5702: 5695: 5690: 5683: 5678: 5671: 5666: 5659: 5653: 5646: 5641: 5635: 5631: 5627: 5621: 5614: 5609: 5602: 5601:Rougerie 2014 5597: 5590: 5585: 5578: 5573: 5566: 5565:Rougerie 1995 5561: 5554: 5549: 5541: 5537: 5533: 5529: 5525: 5518: 5511: 5506: 5504: 5496: 5491: 5484: 5479: 5477: 5460: 5456: 5450: 5443: 5438: 5431: 5426: 5424: 5416: 5411: 5404: 5399: 5392: 5387: 5380: 5375: 5368: 5363: 5356: 5351: 5344: 5338: 5331: 5325: 5318: 5312: 5305: 5299: 5292: 5287: 5280: 5275: 5268: 5263: 5257:, p. 68. 5256: 5251: 5245:, p. 21. 5244: 5239: 5232: 5227: 5220: 5215: 5208: 5203: 5196: 5191: 5189: 5182:, p. 23. 5181: 5176: 5170:, p. 96. 5169: 5164: 5157: 5152: 5144: 5140: 5135: 5130: 5126: 5122: 5118: 5111: 5104: 5099: 5092: 5087: 5080: 5075: 5068: 5063: 5061: 5053: 5048: 5041: 5035: 5028: 5022: 5015: 5010: 5003: 4998: 4991: 4990:Sondhaus 2001 4986: 4979: 4974: 4967: 4962: 4955: 4950: 4943: 4938: 4931: 4926: 4919: 4914: 4907: 4902: 4895: 4890: 4883: 4878: 4871: 4866: 4859: 4854: 4847: 4842: 4835: 4830: 4823: 4818: 4811: 4806: 4800:, p. 31. 4799: 4794: 4787: 4782: 4775: 4770: 4763: 4758: 4752: 4751:0-415-26671-8 4748: 4744: 4738: 4731: 4726: 4719: 4714: 4707: 4702: 4700: 4692: 4687: 4680: 4675: 4668: 4663: 4656: 4651: 4644: 4639: 4632: 4627: 4620: 4615: 4608: 4603: 4596: 4591: 4584: 4579: 4572: 4567: 4560: 4555: 4548: 4543: 4536: 4531: 4524: 4519: 4512: 4507: 4501:, p. 95. 4500: 4495: 4489:, p. 82. 4488: 4483: 4477:, p. 94. 4476: 4471: 4464: 4459: 4452: 4447: 4440: 4435: 4428: 4423: 4416: 4411: 4405:, p. 78. 4404: 4399: 4393:, p. 47. 4392: 4387: 4380: 4375: 4369:, p. 58. 4368: 4363: 4356: 4351: 4345:, p. 30. 4344: 4339: 4332: 4327: 4321:, p. 89. 4320: 4315: 4309:, p. 43. 4308: 4303: 4297:, p. 29. 4296: 4291: 4284: 4279: 4273:, p. 20. 4272: 4267: 4260: 4255: 4248: 4243: 4236: 4231: 4229: 4227: 4220:, p. 46. 4219: 4214: 4212: 4205:, p. 43. 4204: 4199: 4191: 4184: 4178:, p. 85. 4177: 4172: 4165: 4160: 4153: 4148: 4141: 4136: 4130:, p. 49. 4129: 4124: 4117: 4112: 4106:, p. 41. 4105: 4100: 4094:, p. 87. 4093: 4088: 4081: 4076: 4074: 4072: 4065:, p. 58. 4064: 4059: 4053:, p. 18. 4052: 4047: 4041:, p. 45. 4040: 4035: 4033: 4026:, p. 41. 4025: 4020: 4014:, p. 40. 4013: 4008: 4001: 3996: 3990:, p. 39. 3989: 3984: 3977: 3972: 3965: 3959: 3952: 3947: 3940: 3935: 3933: 3931: 3929: 3921: 3916: 3909: 3904: 3897: 3892: 3885: 3880: 3874:, pp. 8. 3873: 3868: 3866: 3864: 3856: 3851: 3844: 3839: 3833:, p. 39. 3832: 3827: 3825: 3817: 3812: 3810: 3808: 3806: 3804: 3802: 3792: 3788: 3773: 3767: 3759: 3755: 3751: 3747: 3742: 3735: 3729: 3725: 3715: 3712: 3710: 3707: 3705: 3702: 3700: 3697: 3695: 3692: 3690: 3687: 3685: 3682: 3680: 3677: 3676: 3672: 3671:France portal 3661: 3654: 3652: 3646: 3644: 3640: 3636: 3629: 3624: 3615: 3613: 3608: 3606: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3593:German Empire 3587: 3582: 3577: 3567: 3565: 3561: 3558:was the 1871 3557: 3552: 3548: 3544: 3534: 3507:40,000 people 3504: 3500: 3496: 3492: 3488: 3483: 3480: 3479: 3469: 3466:replaced the 3465: 3461: 3457: 3453: 3449: 3443: 3442:Paris Commune 3436:Paris Commune 3433: 3431: 3427: 3423: 3418: 3409: 3401: 3387: 3385: 3384:ICRC archives 3381: 3377: 3373: 3368: 3364: 3361: 3350: 3348: 3342: 3340: 3336: 3331: 3329: 3328:indirect fire 3321: 3317: 3313: 3302: 3299: 3294: 3292: 3288: 3284: 3279: 3275: 3272: 3271:naval rivalry 3268: 3263: 3261: 3256: 3252: 3248: 3243: 3239: 3234: 3231: 3226: 3222: 3217: 3215: 3211: 3206: 3201: 3199: 3183: 3172: 3171: 3162: 3151: 3150: 3141: 3140: 3134: 3131: 3127: 3126: 3120: 3116: 3111: 3106: 3104: 3099: 3097: 3091: 3089: 3088:general staff 3078: 3071: 3066: 3052: 3049: 3046: 3042: 3037: 3029: 3020: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3009: 3005: 3001: 3000: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2985: 2979: 2978: 2974: 2964: 2962: 2957: 2953: 2948: 2943: 2941: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2923: 2920: 2915: 2911: 2910:Wilhelmshaven 2907: 2903: 2898: 2897: 2892: 2888: 2884: 2880: 2866: 2861: 2860:Robert Parlow 2857: 2856: 2851: 2850: 2844: 2836: 2827: 2825: 2821: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2805: 2796: 2791: 2786: 2775: 2772: 2764: 2754: 2750: 2744: 2743: 2738:This section 2736: 2732: 2727: 2726: 2718: 2714: 2712: 2708: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2690: 2686: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2668: 2663: 2654: 2652: 2648: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2625: 2623: 2619: 2615: 2608: 2604: 2600: 2596: 2592: 2587: 2583: 2581: 2573: 2568: 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1755: 1751: 1747: 1746:General Staff 1742: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1728: 1724: 1719: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1696: 1692: 1690: 1686: 1678: 1673: 1664: 1662: 1658: 1653: 1651: 1647: 1643: 1642:La Hitte guns 1639: 1635: 1630: 1628: 1624: 1623: 1618: 1614: 1610: 1606: 1602: 1598: 1589: 1584: 1573: 1563: 1560: 1556: 1550: 1548: 1544: 1539: 1534: 1532: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1510: 1508: 1504: 1500: 1496: 1492: 1487: 1483: 1479: 1477: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1460: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1442: 1437: 1435: 1430: 1426: 1422: 1419:of 1866, the 1418: 1415:. During the 1414: 1410: 1406: 1398: 1393: 1388: 1378: 1376: 1372: 1371:Paris Commune 1367: 1366: 1361: 1356: 1353: 1348: 1344: 1341:and parts of 1340: 1336: 1335:war indemnity 1332: 1328: 1324: 1320: 1316: 1312: 1311:German Empire 1307: 1305: 1301: 1297: 1296:Second Empire 1293: 1289: 1285: 1284:Siege of Metz 1280: 1277: 1272: 1270: 1267:—to join the 1266: 1262: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1226: 1222: 1207: 1206:Paris Commune 1204: 1202: 1199: 1198: 1194: 1191: 1189: 1186: 1184: 1181: 1179: 1176: 1174: 1171: 1169: 1168: 1164: 1162: 1159: 1157: 1154: 1152: 1149: 1147: 1144: 1142: 1139: 1137: 1134: 1132: 1129: 1127: 1124: 1122: 1119: 1117: 1114: 1112: 1109: 1107: 1104: 1102: 1099: 1097: 1094: 1092: 1089: 1087: 1084: 1082: 1081:Loigny–Poupry 1079: 1077: 1074: 1072: 1069: 1067: 1064: 1062: 1059: 1057: 1054: 1052: 1049: 1047: 1044: 1042: 1039: 1037: 1034: 1032: 1029: 1027: 1024: 1022: 1019: 1017: 1014: 1012: 1009: 1007: 1004: 1002: 999: 997: 994: 992: 989: 987: 984: 982: 979: 977: 974: 972: 969: 967: 964: 962: 959: 957: 954: 952: 949: 947: 944: 942: 939: 937: 934: 932: 929: 927: 926: 922: 920: 917: 915: 912: 910: 909: 905: 903: 900: 898: 895: 893: 890: 888: 885: 883: 880: 878: 877: 873: 871: 870: 866: 864: 861: 859: 856: 854: 851: 849: 846: 844: 841: 839: 836: 834: 831: 829: 826: 824: 821: 819: 816: 814: 811: 809: 806: 805: 802: 797: 787: 782: 780: 775: 773: 768: 767: 764: 751: 747: 744: 741: 740: 736: 731: 725: 722: 719: 718: 717: 716: 712: 707: 704: 701: 700: 699: 698: 694: 693: 688: 682: 681: 680: 678: 670: 669: 664: 661: 660: 659: 658: 654: 653: 652: 650: 643: 642: 641: 639: 635: 630: 629: 628: 626: 618: 617: 612: 609: 608: 607: 606: 602: 601: 600: 598: 591: 590: 589: 587: 583: 582: 577: 571: 566: 561: 559: 554: 549: 547: 542: 537: 534: 529: 523: 521: 516: 511: 509: 508: 502: 497: 495: 494: 488: 483: 482: 480: 475: 470: 465: 463: 462:Léon Gambetta 458: 453: 451: 450: 444: 439: 434: 429: 424: 418: 415: 410: 405: 400: 397: 392: 391: 385: 380: 379: 377: 376: 371: 367: 366: 365:German Empire 353: 348: 346: 333: 319: 303: 301: 291: 288: 276: 273: 261: 260: 259: 258: 257: 244: 242: 236: 232: 229: 228: 226: 225: 212: 208: 207: 206:French Empire 194: 190: 189: 184: 177: 173: 170: 165: 164: 158: 155: 153: 149: 148: 147: 145: 141: 138: 137: 133: 129: 125: 121: 118: 117: 111: 108: 107: 103: 97: 96: 92: 90: 88: 83: 81: 80: 76: 74: 73: 69: 67: 66: 61: 59: 57: 53: 52: 47: 42: 39: 34: 29: 22: 8532:1870 in Cuba 8445: 8301: 8292: 8283: 8274: 8265: 8256: 8247: 8132:Machine guns 8046: 7958: 7910: 7903: 7896: 7851:Napoleon III 7771:Christian IX 7735: 7725: / 7645: 7607: 7569:Erfurt Union 7556: 7382:. Retrieved 7365:. Retrieved 7340:– via 7323: 7292: 7269: 7250: 7241: 7237: 7218: 7199: 7170: 7166: 7147: 7125: 7105: 7086: 7063: 7045:Napoleon III 7044: 7022: 7003: 6984: 6966: 6945: 6922: 6902: 6882: 6863: 6844: 6818:. Retrieved 6809: 6748: 6715: 6711: 6678: 6674: 6646: 6642: 6620: 6601: 6579: 6561: 6539: 6508: 6485: 6466: 6447: 6425: 6408: 6396: 6377: 6358: 6340: 6320: 6301: 6281: 6256: 6235: 6217: 6196: 6177: 6153: 6130: 6107: 6083: 6064: 6044: 6032: 6023: 6004: 5985: 5964: 5959:Craig, G. A. 5940: 5921: 5902: 5883: 5864: 5842: 5823: 5804: 5798: 5789: 5783: 5763: 5756: 5747: 5741: 5731: 5725: 5713: 5701: 5694:Varley 2008b 5689: 5682:Varley 2008a 5677: 5665: 5657: 5652: 5645:Kennedy 1987 5640: 5625: 5620: 5608: 5596: 5584: 5572: 5560: 5548: 5531: 5527: 5517: 5510:Baldick 1974 5490: 5463:. 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1161:Villersexel 1091:Chateauneuf 941:Nompatelize 897:Noisseville 833:Lichtenberg 813:Wissembourg 808:Saarbrücken 720:44,700 dead 332:Württemberg 166:Territorial 150:End of the 8471:Categories 8314:Ammunition 8284:Redoutable 8045:Thouvenin 8032:Small arms 7558:Zollverein 7384:16 October 7342:Wikisource 6873:0304934518 5706:Brown 2010 5670:Wawro 2003 5613:Horne 1965 5589:Wawro 2003 5577:Wawro 2000 5553:Horne 1965 5495:Wawro 2003 5355:Wawro 2003 5291:Wawro 2003 5279:Wawro 2003 5067:Wawro 2003 5052:Wawro 2003 5038:Wilson X. 5014:Wawro 2003 4978:Wawro 2003 4894:Foley 2007 4870:Wawro 2003 4798:Craig 1980 4786:Wawro 2003 4730:Wawro 2003 4718:Wawro 2003 4706:Wawro 2003 4691:Wawro 2003 4679:Wawro 2003 4571:Wawro 2003 4547:Wawro 2003 4535:Wawro 2003 4499:Wawro 2003 4475:Wawro 2003 4463:Wawro 2003 4451:Wawro 2003 4427:Wawro 2003 4391:Wawro 2003 4367:Wawro 2003 4355:Wawro 2002 4331:Wawro 2002 4319:Wawro 2002 4247:Wawro 2002 4235:Wawro 2002 4176:Wawro 2003 4164:Milza 2009 4128:Milza 2009 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Franco-Prussian War

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