Second French Empire

1886: 828: 1581: 2134: 77: 1689: 139: 633: 619: 580: 2289: 2024: 127: 2305: 2383:. Two days later, the Prussians launched an offensive that repulsed the French army. After the first nine days of August, France experienced major losses. The Emperor handed power to the other generals and let them command, then telegrammed his wife, asking if he should return to Paris. His wife refused, and thus he only sent his son home. The French prime minister resigned, being replaced with a more effective military leader, who soldered the disorganised and demoralised French. He forged the 2431: 2476:. All executive power was entrusted to the emperor, who, as head of state, was solely responsible to the people. The people of the Empire, lacking democratic rights, were to rely on the benevolence of the emperor rather than on the benevolence of politicians. He was to nominate the members of the council of state, whose duty it was to prepare the laws, and of the senate, a body permanently established as a constituent part of the empire. 2957: 2236: 63: 1424: 1800:

opening a ladder to sons of peasants and artisans. However, whether through jealousy of or distrust for the higher classes, few working-class families took advantage of education or wished to see their sons move up and out: very few sought admission to the 'grandes écoles.' The elite maintained their position while allowing social ascent through the professions for ambitious sons of wealthy farmers and small-town merchants.

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from public control. The Second Empire continued the system; proposed innovations were stalled by officials. Typically political roles were part of routine administrative duties. Although police forces were indeed strengthened, opponents exaggerated the increase of secret police activity and the imperial police lacked the omnipotence seen in later totalitarian states.

2212:, which had been founded in 1831 and fought well in the Crimea, Italy and Mexico. French overseas territories had tripled in area; in 1870 they covered almost a million square kilometres, and controlled nearly five million inhabitants. While soldiers, administrators, businessmen and missionaries came and left, very few Frenchmen permanently settled in the colonies, 1652:

supported the regime. The emperor's Decree Law of 26 March 1852 led to greater government interference in Protestant church affairs, thus reducing self-regulation in favor of Catholic bureaucrats who misunderstood and mistrusted Protestant doctrine. Their administration affected not only church-state relations but also the internal lives of Protestant communities.

1843:, which took place during these disturbances, inflicted upon the Empire a serious moral defeat. In spite of the government's warning against the "red terror", the conciliatory candidate Ollivier was rejected by Paris, while 40 irreconcilables and 116 members of the Third Party were elected. Concessions had to be made, and by the 2494:

The Legislative Body was not allowed to elect its own president or to regulate its own procedure, or to propose a law or an amendment, or to vote on the budget in detail, or to make its deliberations public. Similarly, universal suffrage was supervised and controlled by means of official candidature,

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practiced by the emperor in Italy. The government majority already showed some signs of independence. The right of voting on the budget by sections, granted by the emperor in 1861, was a new weapon given to his adversaries. Everything conspired in their favour: the anxiety of those candid friends who

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was approved. Formally enacted in January 1852, the new document made Louis-Napoléon president for 10 years, with no restrictions on re-election. It concentrated virtually all governing power in his hands. However, Louis-Napoléon was not content with merely being an authoritarian president. Almost as

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regime. Historians have generally given the Second Empire negative evaluations on its foreign policy, and somewhat more positive assessments of domestic policies, especially after Napoleon III liberalised his rule after 1858. He promoted French business and exports. The greatest achievements included

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on 8 May 1870. The result was a substantial success for Bonaparte, with seven and a half million in favour and only one and a half million against. However, the vote also signified divisions in France. Those affirming were found mainly in rural areas, while the opposition prevailed in the big towns.

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The empire was formally re-established on 2 December 1852, and the Prince-President became "Napoléon III, Emperor of the French". The constitution had already concentrated so much power in his hands that the only substantive changes were to replace the word "president" with the word "emperor" and to

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He had so often, while in prison or in exile, chastised previous oligarchical governments for neglecting social questions that it was imperative France now prioritise their solutions. His answer was to organise a system of government based on the principles of the "Napoleonic Idea". This meant that

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Napoleon III manipulated a range of politicised police powers to censor the media and suppress opposition. Legally he had broad powers but in practice he was limited by legal, customary and moral deterrents. By 1851 political police had a centralised administrative hierarchy and were largely immune

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France was primarily a rural society, in which social class depended on family reputation and land ownership. A limited amount of upward mobility was feasible through the steadily improving educational system. Students from all levels of society were granted admission to public secondary schools,

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Catholicism, longing for close links to the Pope in Rome, played a pivotal role in the democratisation of culture. The pamphlet campaign led by Mgr Gaston de Ségur, at the height of the Italian question in February 1860, made the most of the freedom of expression enjoyed by the Catholic Church in

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Napoleon, in order to restore the prestige of the Empire before the newly awakened hostility of public opinion, tried to gain the support from the Left that he had lost from the Right. After the return from Italy, the general amnesty of 16 August 1859 had marked the evolution of the absolutist or

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Although the Second Empire strongly favoured Catholicism, the official state religion, it tolerated Protestants and Jews, with no persecutions or pogroms. The state dealt with the small Protestant community of Calvinist and Lutheran churches, whose members included many prominent businessmen who

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With almost dictatorial powers, Napoleon III made building a good railway system a high priority. He consolidated three dozen small, incomplete lines into six major companies using Paris as a hub. Paris grew dramatically in terms of population, industry, finance, commercial activity and tourism.

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Napoleon began by removing the gag which was keeping the country in silence. On 24 November 1860, he granted to the Chambers the right to vote an address annually in answer to the speech from the throne, and to the press the right of reporting parliamentary debates. He counted on the latter

1601:, Napoleon spent lavishly to rebuild the city into a world-class showpiece. The financial soundness for all six companies was solidified by government guarantees. Although France had started late, by 1870 it had an excellent railway system, supported as well by good roads, canals and ports. 2564:

The Empress Eugenie created a memorial to the Second Empire in England in the 1880s. Exiled in Farnborough, Hampshire, she turned her house at Farnborough Hill into a Bonapartist shrine, filling the interior with the remnants of the imperial collection (returned to her in early 1881) and

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France. The goal was to mobilise Catholic opinion and encourage the government to support the Pope. A major result of the Catholic ultramontane campaign was to trigger reforms in the cultural sphere, which also granted freedoms to their political enemies the Republicans and freethinkers.

2001:, was a complete fiasco. The Mexicans fought back and after defeating the Confederacy the U.S. demanded the French withdraw from Mexico—sending 50,000 veteran combat troops to the border to ram the point home. The French army went home; the puppet emperor did not leave and was executed. 2098:

The success of the 1870 plebiscite, which should have consolidated the Empire, determined its downfall. It was thought that a diplomatic success would make the country forget liberty in favour of glory. It was in vain that after the parliamentary revolution of 2 January 1870,

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On an adjacent hill she created a spectacular Mausoleum, today St Michael’s Abbey, where the bodies of Napoleon III and the Prince Imperial were interred in 1888. The imperial crypt at Farnborough remains the only official monument to Napoleon III and the Second Empire.

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warned that recognition would mean war. However, the textile industry needed Southern cotton, and Napoleon had imperial ambitions in Mexico, which could be greatly aided by the Confederacy. At the same time, other French political leaders, such as Foreign Minister

1836:. These labour congresses defied official proscriptions, and proclaimed that the social emancipation of the worker was inseparable from his political emancipation. The union between the internationalists and the republican bourgeois became an accomplished fact. 1981:, supported the United States. Napoleon helped finance the Confederacy but refused to intervene actively until Britain agreed, and London always rejected intervention. The Emperor realised that a war with the US without allies would spell disaster for France. 2216:. The colonial trade reached 600 million francs, but the profits were overwhelmed by the expenses. However, a major goal was the 'Mission civilisatrice', the mission to spread French culture, language and religion, and this proved successful. 2445:. Emperor Napoleon III stressed his own imperial role as the foundation of the government; if government was to guide the people toward domestic justice and external peace, it was his role as emperor, holding his power by 2086:

gave their adhesion only on conditions which rendered it futile, i.e. they reserved the vital questions of Venetia and Poland. The Emperor's support of the Polish rebels alienated the Russian leadership. The visit of Tsar

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Napoleon dreamed of building a French economic sphere in Latin America, centered on Mexico. He helped to promote rapid economic modernisation, but his army battled diehard insurgents who had American support. By 1863,

2200:; and a fleet of steam powered troop transports. The French Navy became the second most powerful in the world, after Britain's. He also created a new force of colonial troops, including elite units of naval infantry, 1856:

Although most of the country hailed this reconciliation of liberty and order, the republican party insisted on further reforms and liberties and demanding the overthrow of the Empire. The killing of the journalist

116: 2491:. On 2 December 1852, France, still under the effect of Napoleon's legacy, and the fear of anarchy, conferred almost unanimously by a plebiscite the supreme power, with the title of emperor, upon Napoleon III. 1847:

of 8 September 1869, a parliamentary monarchy was substituted for the Emperor's personal government. On 2 January 1870 Ollivier was placed at the head of the first homogeneous, united and responsible ministry.

2418:, with the Prussian king as its emperor and Bismarck as chancellor. The new Germany was now continental Europe's dominant military force. Additionally, France was forced to give up the two border provinces of 2374:

such that France declared war against Prussia on 15 July 1870 after major protests in France (however, Napoleon was reluctant as he had become ill as well as being sceptical of the outcome), thus sparking the

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It would have been difficult for the emperor to mistake the importance of this manifestation of French opinion, and in view of his international failures, impossible to repress it. The sacrifice of minister

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For seven years France had no democratic life. The Empire governed by a series of plebiscites. Up to 1857 the Opposition did not exist; from then until 1860 it was reduced to five members: Alfred Darimon,

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was the eloquent mouthpiece. Thus those who had formerly constituted the governing classes were again showing signs of their ambition to govern. There appeared to be some risk that this movement among the

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without having the constitutional right to do so. He thus became sole ruler of France, and re-established universal suffrage, previously abolished by the Assembly. His decisions were popularly endorsed by

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But though the opposition represented by Thiers was rather constitutional than dynastic, there was another and irreconcilable opposition, that of the amnestied or voluntarily exiled republicans, of whom

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during the 1860s threatened French supremacy in western Europe. Napoleon, growing steadily weaker in body and mind, badly mishandled the situation, and eventually found himself in a war without allies.

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had proved the danger of half-measures. But when a concession, however narrow, had been made to the liberty of one nation, it could hardly be refused to the no less legitimate aspirations of the rest.

2518:) which authorised the internment, exile or deportation of any suspect without trial. In the same way public instruction was strictly supervised, the teaching of philosophy was suppressed in the 114: 138: 2355:, who planned to create a great new German nation, based on Prussian power, as well as resurgent German nationalism based on the systematic humiliation of France. After seeing the 2379:. The French empire made the first move, as the Emperor led a charge that crossed the German border. On August 2, the French defeated a Prussian vanguard and occupied the town of 2020:). The conquest was bloody but successful, and supported by large numbers of French soldiers, missionaries and businessmen, as well as the local Chinese entrepreneurial element. 1556:

soon as he signed the new document into law, he set about restoring the empire. In response to officially inspired requests for the return of the empire, the Senate scheduled a

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the emperor, the elect of the people as the representative of the democracy, ruled supreme. He himself drew power and legitimacy from his role as representative of the great

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might spread to the people. Napoleon believed that he would consolidate his menaced power by again turning to the labouring masses, by whom that power had been established.

115: 2600: 2395:, where the largest French army lay entrapped. The army was repulsed by the Prussians, and retreated to Sedan, where it was surrounded and forced to surrender after the 1743:, an anti-clerical, as minister of public instruction, in reply to those attacks of the Church which were to culminate in the Syllabus of 1864, all indicated a distinct 2410:. Napoleon and Eugénie went into exile in England. Victory produced an onrush of German nationalism that Bismarck immediately seized to unite all of the German states ( 2514:'s attack on the emperor in 1858, though purely Italian in its motive, served as a pretext for increasing the severity of this régime by the law of general security ( 5011: 3653: 2359:, the Emperor demanded a conscription law. The parliament disagreed, maintaining that professionals would be always the better option, and outvoted, he backed down. 6831: 4791: 2043:

Mixed domestic gains and losses resulted from European policies. The support France gave to the Italian cause had aroused the eager hopes of other nations. The

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The Empire, taken by surprise, sought to curb both the middle classes and the labourers, goading both into revolutionary actions. There were multiple strikes.

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of the interior, who was responsible for the elections, the substitution for the ministers without portfolio of a sort of presidency of the council filled by

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threat, and by the end of his reign, the French emperor found himself without allies in the face of overwhelming German forces. His rule was ended during the

3036: 6977: 2078:, the emperor again proposed a congress, with no luck. He was again unsuccessful: Great Britain refused even to admit the principle of a congress, while 1405: 700: 2507:(requests by the authorities to cease publication of certain articles), under sanction of suspension or suppression. Books were subject to censorship. 346: 2972: 2174: 76: 1767:, refused all fresh claims on the part of the Liberals. He was aided by international events such as the reopening of cotton supplies when the 2348:

remained alienated because of the fiasco in Mexico. Napoleon did not know what he wanted or what to do, but the reverse was true for Prussian

1885: 5117: 4683: 1228: 5879: 5707: 5622: 5361: 1723:, a coalition of the Legitimist, Liberal and Republican parties. The Opposition gained forty seats in the elections of May–June 1863, and 6932: 2321: 1939: 1560:, which passed with 97 percent support. As with the December 1851 referendum, most of the "yes" votes were manufactured out of thin air. 158: 2984: 1432: 683:, the period was one of significant achievements in infrastructure and economy, while France reasserted itself as the dominant power in 3118: 2620: 2495:

by forbidding free speech and action in electoral matters to the Opposition, and by a gerrymandering in such a way as to overwhelm the

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as its hub. This stimulated economic growth and brought prosperity to most regions of the country. The Second Empire is credited with

6972: 4456: 3629: 1833: 5776: 1954:, had brought upon French industry the sudden shock of foreign competition. Thus both Catholics and protectionists discovered that 1495: 6094: 4282: 2588: 1467: 1437: 1398: 1621:, outraged French Catholics, who had been the leading supporters of the Empire. A keen Catholic opposition sprang up, voiced in 6967: 5366: 4831: 4816: 4733: 2104: 3534:

Price, Roger (1996). "Napoleon III and the French Second Empire: A Reassessment of a Controversial Period in French History".

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concession to hold in check the growing Catholic opposition, which was becoming more and more alarmed by the policy of

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Anthony Geraghty, The Empress Eugenie in England: Art, Architecture, Collecting, The Burlington Press, London: 2022

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and representing all of the people, to function as supreme leader and safeguard the achievements of the revolution.

6414: 5026: 4867: 4821: 1840: 1638: 1630: 1280: 755: 3303: 3094: 1536: 6997: 6987: 5812: 5356: 2162: 1865:, a member of the imperial family, gave the revolutionaries their long desired opportunity (10 January). But the 1463: 1349: 1067: 1688: 126: 6391: 5894: 5046: 4621: 3199: 2605: 2363: 2257: 1958:

rule could be favourable when it served their ambitions or interests, but not when exercised at their expense.

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throne. France was successful in the diplomatic standoff, but Napoleon wanted to humiliate the Prussian king,

6947: 6927: 6228: 4969: 4589: 4530: 4525: 4245: 2349: 2185: 1969: 1587: 1344: 1337: 1322: 1310: 1295: 1097: 4611: 3001:"'The Apostolate of the Pen': MGR De Ségur and the Mobilization of Catholic Opinion in Second Empire France" 1522: 6882: 5864: 5852: 5371: 5297: 5036: 4515: 4352: 3705:

The Last Gaiter Button. A Study of the Mobilization and Concentration of the French Army in the War of 1870

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Harrigan, Patrick J. (1975). "Secondary education and the professions in France during the Second Empire".

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National Hymns. How They are Written and how They are Not Written: A Lyric and National Study for the Times

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authoritarian empire towards the liberal, and later parliamentary empire, which was to last for ten years.

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Steinhoff, Anthony (1999). "The Administration of Protestant Affairs in France During the Second Empire".

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Burrows, Mathew (1986). "'Mission civilisatrice': French cultural policy in the Middle East, 1860–1914".

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to Paris ended in near-disaster when he was twice attacked by Polish assassins, but escaped. In Berlin,

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Abraham Lincoln and a New Birth of Freedom: The Union and Slavery in the Diplomacy of the Civil War

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to protect the pope from the new Italian government, thus leading to Italian refusal to help. The

1488: 6992: 6182: 5874: 5857: 5847: 5822: 5666: 5392: 5082: 4964: 4911: 4857: 4811: 4500: 2487:. This new political change was rapidly followed by the same consequence as had attended that of 2483:

was elected by universal suffrage but had no right of initiative, all laws being proposed by the

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saw the opportunity to squeeze out the French by forming closer relationships with the Russians.

1784: 1305: 1285: 978: 2165:(1863); and colonised parts of Africa. He joined Britain in sending an army to China during the 2100: 1808:

The ultramontane party grumbled, while the industries formerly protected were dissatisfied with

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Hardy, William E. (2008). "South of the border: Ulysses S. Grant and the French intervention".

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ended in 1856, a victory for Napoleon III and a resulting peace that excluded Russia from the

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The constitutions and other select documents illustrative of the history of France, 1789–1901

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One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the

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The structure of the French government during the Second Empire was little changed from the

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were calling attention to the defective budget, the commercial crisis and foreign troubles.

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Napoleon III doubled the area of the French overseas Empire; he established French rule in

2138: 1788: 1772: 853: 519: 391: 302: 3626: 2399:. Napoleon himself became a prisoner and Republican forces quickly took control of Paris. 1978: 8: 6897: 6842: 6679: 6669: 6654: 6644: 6609: 6539: 6454: 6424: 6371: 6088: 5842: 5837: 5736: 5731: 5498: 5453: 5412: 5317: 5220: 5177: 5097: 5051: 4928: 4921: 4901: 4862: 4774: 4566: 4535: 4510: 4476: 4378: 4373: 2687: 2488: 2462: 2442: 2388: 2376: 2356: 2225: 2067: 1614: 1087: 996: 935: 925: 779: 759: 712: 626: 480: 444: 2510:

To counteract the opposition of individuals, a surveillance of suspects was instituted.

2480: 715:, striking public buildings, and elegant residential districts for wealthier Parisians. 421: 62: 6796: 6619: 6614: 6579: 6559: 6534: 6529: 6524: 6519: 6514: 6499: 6494: 6439: 6346: 6192: 6063: 5953: 5933: 5889: 5832: 5827: 5804: 5771: 5761: 5751: 5633: 5132: 5077: 5031: 4879: 4845: 4429: 4111: 4103: 3807: 3587: 3423: 3295: 3287: 3234: 3135: 3086: 3078: 2887: 2879: 2740: 2316: 1965: 1768: 775: 723: 260: 2862:

Pinkney, David H. (1957). "Money and Politics in the Rebuilding of Paris, 1860–1870".

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Colonies and territories held by the Second French Empire in 1867, highlighted in blue

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A Duel of Giants: Bismarck, Napoleon III, and the Origins of the Franco-Prussian War

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reform. The working classes had abandoned their political neutrality. Disregarding

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Jules Simon: Republican anticlericalism and cultural politics in France, 1848–1886

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The French Experience in Mexico, 1821–1861: A History of Constant Misunderstanding

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was credited with the remark, "If there is no war, my son will never be emperor."

2115:. He met with a refusal from Prussia and from the imperial entourage. The Empress 1736: 1727:

urgently gave voice to the opposition parties' demands for "necessary liberties".

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and bring it into the French orbit, but this ended in a fiasco. He mishandled the

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vote in the mass of the rural population. The press was subjected to a system of

2484: 2419: 2411: 2396: 2329: 2297: 2079: 2059: 2017: 1829: 1186: 787: 431: 193: 43: 4633: 2304: 1148: 680: 671:, was the government of France from July 14 1852 to 27 October 1870 between the 6857: 6639: 6624: 6589: 6329: 6324: 6207: 6141: 6013: 5671: 5646: 5551: 5468: 5422: 5210: 5205: 5197: 5021: 4979: 4556: 3441: 2544:. The royalists waited inactive after the new and unsuccessful attempt made at 2325: 2146: 2083: 1947: 1898: 1763:

Assured of support, the emperor, through Rouher, a supporter of the absolutist

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The French Foreign Legion: A Complete History of the Legendary Fighting Force

2988:. Vol. 10 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 869–921. 2979: 2963: 2806: 2583: 2565:

reconstructing elements of the display at the imperial palaces before 1870.

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Franz Joseph and Napoleon III, 1852–1864: A Study of Austro-French Relations

3057:"Theory and Practice of Political Police during the Second Empire in France" 2723:

Martens, Frederick H. (1930). "Music Mirrors of the Second Empire: Part 1".

6594: 6116: 6078: 5978: 5561: 5006: 4711: 4668: 4468: 4439: 4155: 4075: 3929: 3266:"The Diplomacy of Imperialism: France and Spain in Cochin China, 1858–1863" 2736: 2371: 2293: 1776: 1618: 1564:

make the post hereditary. The popular referendum became a distinct sign of

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instituted by Napoleon III on 14 January 1852 was largely a repetition of

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Brown, David (2006). "Palmerston and Anglo-French Relations, 1846–1865".

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in 1870 and dethroned by French republicans. He died in exile in 1873 in

735: 415: 400: 237: 231: 221: 3019: 3000: 2556:, to re-create a living monarchy out of the ruin of two royal families. 2430: 2192:, to head it. A key part of the enterprise was the modernisation of the 1872:

In a concession to democratic currents, the emperor put his policy to a

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St. Petersburg and Moscow: Tsarist and Soviet foreign policy, 1814–1974

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The immediate issue was a trivial controversy regarding control of the

2260: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 2058:

In 1863, these "new rights" again clamoured loudly for recognition: in

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A Velvet Empire: French Informal Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century

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Victor Duruy and French Education: Liberal Reform in the Second Empire

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The Making of the 3rd Republic: Class and Politics in France 1868–1884

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was born the same year, which promised a continuation of the dynasty.

694:, but by the late 20th century it was re-evaluated as an example of a 6740: 6730: 6299: 5606: 5493: 4520: 4250: 4084:

Schnerb, Robert (1936). "Napoleon III and the Second French Empire".

3536: 2545: 2213: 1910: 1825: 1817: 268: 216: 2524:, and the disciplinary powers of the administration were increased. 2235: 1771:

ended in 1865, by the apparent closing of the Roman question by the

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Historians in the 1930s and 1940s disparaged the Second Empire as a

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To carry out his new overseas projects, Napoleon III created a new

1732: 1634: 3666:(1995), pp 438–491. survey of political history by leading scholar 2520: 2503:("caution money", deposited as a guarantee of good behaviour) and 6770: 6725: 6700: 6254: 5963: 5581: 5534: 5473: 5397: 5351: 4434: 4302: 2458: 2201: 2142: 1712: 1708: 910: 791: 655: 248: 226: 4260: 6852: 6765: 6028: 5928: 5571: 5427: 4723: 4291: 2036: 2004:

From 1861 to 1863 France embarked on colonising experiments in

1894: 914: 684: 651: 5309: 4206:

The Second Empire Revisited: A Study in French Historiography

3961:, diplomatic and political origins and the conduct of the war 3762:

Populist Religion and Left-Wing Politics in France, 1830–1852

2173:(1860), but French ventures failed to establish influence in 2070:, now united, with neither frontiers nor capital, and in the 1925: 743: 704: 152: 3830:

French Opinion on War and Diplomacy during the Second Empire

3647:

Historical Dictionary of the French Second Empire, 1852–1870

2712:. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: H. Coleman. pp. vii, 100. 703:

that facilitated commerce and tied the nation together with

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was highly annoyed about French interference in supporting

1929: 1719:. These inconsistencies led opposition leaders to form the 873: 2775: 2457:, "who had sprung armed from the French Revolution like 1703:

Napoleon again disappointed the hopes of Italy, allowed

1696:, one of the new boulevards created by Napoleon III and 4039:

The French Second Empire: An Anatomy of Political Power

3976:

The Police State of Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, 1851–1860

3912:

Napoleon III and Mexico; American triumph over monarchy

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International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)

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and the Colonies, and appointed an energetic minister,

3769:

Bertocci, Philip A.; Bertocci, Peter Anthony (2008) .

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The official declaration of the Second Empire, at the

3037:

Proceedings of the Western Society for French History

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was afraid of French militarism and refused to help.

2907:

Economic development of France and Germany 1815–1914

2763: 2311:: 1870 Five franc coin with the bust of Napoleon III 1548:

later that month that attracted 92 percent support.

3914:. Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press. 2751: 3568:Spitzer, Alan B. (1962). "The Good Napoleon III". 2787: 2710:National, Patriotic and Typical: Airs of All Lands 2208:, and Algerian sharpshooters, and he expanded the 3671:The Rise and Fall of the Second Empire, 1852–1871 6919: 3945: 3862:A Social History of French Catholicism 1789–1914 3768: 3673:(The Cambridge History of Modern France) (1988) 3547:Documents on the Second French Empire, 1852–1870 2196:; he began the construction of fifteen powerful 1196: 4125:The Shadow Emperor: A Biography of Napoleon III 2047:on 17 March 1861 after the rapid annexation of 3730: 3448:. Cornell University Press. pp. 339–353. 3377:France Overseas: A Study of Modern Imperialism 2841:(in French). Paris: Tempus. pp. 277–279. 2422:, and its humiliation lasted for generations. 6983:States and territories disestablished in 1870 5325: 4276: 4122: 3756:, relations leading up to the French invasion 3513:Mexico and the Foreign Policy of Napoleon III 3354:. HarperCollins Publishers. pp. 57–168. 1399: 758:). Using very harsh methods, he built up the 4652: 4631: 4491: 4021:The French Second Republic. A Social History 3939:The Road to Sedan: The French Army 1866–1870 3733:Napoleon III and His Regime: An Extravaganza 2805: 2340:, but refused the demand for Rome, and kept 1739:, the "Vice-Emperor", and the nomination of 1585: 1453:introducing citations to additional sources 96: 35: 734:. He began his reign with French victories 6978:States and territories established in 1852 5332: 5318: 4283: 4269: 3509: 3467: 3465: 3251: 3119:Comparative Studies in Society and History 2950: 2948: 2946: 2944: 2942: 2940: 2938: 2936: 2666:This was a favorite maxim of Napoleon III. 2621:Freemasonry under the Second French Empire 2425: 2391:and the Emperor, attempted to relieve the 2031:attacks the fort of San Xavier during the 1820:, they had gradually been won over by the 1406: 1392: 137: 125: 3991: 3871:Education in Provincial France, 1800–1914 3818: 3681:Second Empire and Commune: France 1848–71 3669:Plessis, Alain, and Jonathan Mandelbaum. 3440: 3374: 3033: 3018: 2934: 2932: 2930: 2928: 2926: 2924: 2922: 2920: 2918: 2916: 2479:One innovation was made, namely that the 2276:Learn how and when to remove this message 4220: 4132: 3985:Napoleon III and the Rebuilding of Paris 3964: 3900: 3886: 3759: 3711: 3702: 3324: 3155:The History of the Paris Commune of 1871 3115: 2832: 2830: 2429: 2303: 2287: 2132: 2022: 1884: 1832:, as set forth at the congresses of the 1687: 1579: 1531:, who had been elected President of the 1443:Relevant discussion may be found on the 1433:Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition 4257:, describes character of Second Empire. 4083: 3982: 3567: 3471: 3462: 3403: 3263: 2998: 2904: 2861: 2781: 2722: 2589:List of French possessions and colonies 2336:. Napoleon had given strong support to 2074:. To extricate himself from the Polish 1664: 681:Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte (Napoleon III) 6920: 5367:List of current non-sovereign monarchs 4186: 4177: 4055: 3954: 3936: 3868: 3859: 3845: 3839:Napoleon III and the Concert of Europe 3836: 3744:. University of North Carolina Press. 3739: 3475:A Short History of France, Illustrated 2967: 2913: 2315:The rise of the neighbouring state of 1987:French military intervention in Mexico 1787:, which temporarily put an end to the 5597: 5313: 4264: 4036: 4027: 4018: 3973: 3909: 3877: 3787: 3544: 3533: 3486:from the original on 2 September 2022 3349: 3306:from the original on 21 December 2018 3214: 3185: 3152: 3097:from the original on 21 December 2018 3054: 2836: 2827: 2769: 2757: 2704: 2686: 2190:Prosper, Marquis of Chasseloup-Laubat 1968:, 1861–1865 and never recognised the 1922:France to war with Austria over Italy 1851: 1680: 1431:This section based throughout on the 4189:The Political System of Napoleon III 4162: 4138:Louis Napoleon and the Second Empire 3827: 3695: 3598: 2811:Elections in Europe: A data handbook 2793: 2406:, declared the establishment of the 2258:adding citations to reliable sources 2229: 2045:proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy 1417: 3821:Thiers, 1797–1877. A Political Life 3375:Priestley, Herbert Ingram (2018) . 2219: 1924:. France was victorious and gained 1804:Mobilisation of the working classes 1629:, and was not silenced even by the 13: 6933:Former countries in French history 5362:List of current sovereign monarchs 4213: 4030:Napoleon III and the Second Empire 3994:Napoleon III and the German crisis 3640:Napoleon III and the Second Empire 3609: 2559: 2122: 1828:and the revolutionary theories of 1794: 1747:between the emperor and the Left. 728:imperial ventures around the world 16:Empire in France from 1852 to 1870 14: 7009: 4290: 4239: 4197: 3946:Horvath-Peterson, Sandra (1984). 2548:in 1853, by a combination of the 2111:'s plan of disarmament after the 1880: 1633:(1860) in favour of the Catholic 1617:, which would inevitably end the 6973:1870 disestablishments in France 5880:Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 3773:. University of Missouri Press. 2955: 2402:France, under the leadership of 2234: 2161:, established a protectorate in 1436:relies largely or entirely on a 1422: 1375: 1360: 826: 766:. Napoleon III also launched an 631: 617: 603: 578: 564: 131:The Second French Empire in 1861 112: 75: 61: 5357:Imperial, royal and noble ranks 3712:Anderson, Robert David (1975). 3434: 3397: 3368: 3343: 3318: 3257: 3208: 3190:. U of Nebraska Press. p. 3179: 3146: 3109: 3048: 3027: 2992: 2898: 2864:The Journal of Economic History 2855: 2799: 2660: 2245:needs additional citations for 1869:(uprising) ended in a failure. 1516: 5339: 4622:Government of National Defense 3740:Barker, Nancy Nichols (1979). 3714:Education in France, 1848–1870 3664:Revolutionary France 1770–1880 3502: 2716: 2698: 2680: 2648: 2633: 2606:Paris during the Second Empire 1575: 782:, when he was captured by the 1: 6968:1852 establishments in France 4531:Diplomatic Revolution of 1756 4526:War of the Spanish Succession 4172:. Princeton University Press. 3992:Pottinger, Evelyn A. (1966). 3987:. Princeton University Press. 3901:Hallberg, Charles W. (1955). 3688:Dictionnaire du Second Empire 2673: 1970:Confederate States of America 1962:France was officially neutral 1588:Union Cycliste Internationale 1558:second referendum in November 760:French Empire in North Africa 5372:List of monarchy referendums 4123:Strauss-Schom, Alan (2018). 4050:La Vie Parisienne, 1852-1870 3996:. Harvard University Press. 3819:Bury, J.; Tombs, R. (1986). 3510:Cunningham, Michele (2001). 3264:Thomson, R. Stanley (1940). 2611:Second Empire (architecture) 306:semi-constitutional monarchy 7: 6943:Former monarchies of Europe 3601:France: 1815 to the Present 2813:. Nomos. pp. 673–683. 2572: 2470:French Constitution of 1852 2053:Kingdom of the Two Sicilies 1717:Schleswig-Holstein question 1619:temporal power of the popes 1608: 1551:At that same referendum, a 722:tried to emulate his uncle 10: 7014: 5012:French subdivisions by GDP 4759:2022 presidential election 4744:2017 presidential election 3614: 3545:Price, Roger, ed. (2015). 3325:Jelavich, Barbara (1974). 2616:Fires at the Paris Commune 2223: 2126: 1775:, which guaranteed to the 1773:convention of 15 September 1520: 797: 754:(before in turn ceding to 18: 6784: 6693: 6407: 6170: 6104: 5916: 5907: 5803: 5785: 5717: 5632: 5590: 5522: 5436: 5380: 5347: 5273: 5163: 5073: 5064: 4960: 4951: 4853: 4844: 4782: 4773: 4694: 4575: 4544: 4516:Second Hundred Years' War 4467: 4420: 4387: 4366: 4358:Liberalism and radicalism 4310: 4301: 4187:Zeldin, Theodore (1958). 4087:Journal of Modern History 4052:. London: Hamish Hamilton 3974:Payne, Howard C. (1966). 3910:Hanna, Alfred J. (1971). 3804:10.1080/09592290600942918 3571:French Historical Studies 3446:Europe reshaped 1848–1868 3420:10.1017/S0018246X00018641 3271:Journal of Modern History 3132:10.1017/S0010417500007891 3062:Journal of Modern History 3055:Payne, Howard C. (1958). 2876:10.1017/S0022050700059866 2809:; Stöver, Philip (2010). 2372:manipulated the situation 1999:Franz Joseph I of Austria 1841:The elections of May 1869 1816:'s impassioned attack on 1785:treaty of 30 October 1864 1655: 1586: 647: 543: 533: 529: 516: 503: 490: 477: 469:• Empire proclaimed 467: 454: 441: 437: 427: 412: 397: 387: 383: 371: 359: 355: 345: 341: 329: 325: 315: 259: 247: 199: 189: 148: 136: 124: 91: 57: 52: 30: 6938:Modern history of France 5509:Self-proclaimed monarchy 4787:Administrative divisions 4058:Napoleon III and Eugenie 3965:McMillan, James (1991). 3955:Howard, Michael (1967). 3791:Diplomacy and Statecraft 3645:Echard, William E., ed. 3642:(1964), scholarly survey 3632:22 December 2018 at the 3480:Encyclopaedia britannica 3350:Porch, Douglas (2010) . 2999:Heywood, Sophie (2012). 2626: 2414:), thereby creating the 2387:, which, led by Marshal 1915:Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte 1889:The French landing near 1599:Georges-Eugène Haussmann 1529:Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte 1185: 1147: 977: 966: 945: 295:(2 December 1852 – 1858) 19:Not to be confused with 5777:Vatican City (Holy See) 5007:Franc (former currency) 4612:Coup of 2 December 1851 4585:Long nineteenth century 4247:The Civil War in France 4221:Anderson, F.M. (1904). 4056:Ridley, Jasper (1980). 3983:Pinkney, David (1958). 3957:The Franco-Prussian War 3731:Baguley, David (2000). 3690:, Paris, Fayard, (1995) 3675:excerpt and text search 3656:11 October 2017 at the 3625:(1940), popular survey 3153:March, Thomas (2019) . 2985:Encyclopædia Britannica 2905:Clapham, J. H. (1936). 2468:The anti-parliamentary 2447:universal male suffrage 2426:Structure of government 2072:Danubian principalities 1639:Druze–Maronite conflict 1523:1851 French coup d'état 726:, engaging in numerous 273:(until 2 December 1852) 190:Official languages 6998:Military dictatorships 6988:19th century in France 6059:Islands of Refreshment 5489:Legitimacy (political) 5027:Science and technology 4684:Provisional Government 4653: 4632: 4492: 4253:'s 3rd address to the 4178:Wetzel, David (2003). 4080:, full-scale biography 3828:Case, Lynn M. (1954). 3599:Wolf, John B. (1963). 3472:Wiriath, Paul (1914). 3407:The Historical Journal 3186:Jones, Howard (1999). 2837:Milza, Pierre (2006). 2655: 2644:Second Empire Français 2643: 2579:French colonial empire 2438: 2312: 2301: 2150: 2129:French colonial empire 2089:Alexander II of Russia 2064:Schleswig and Holstein 2040: 1920:In 1859, Napoleon led 1902: 1814:Pierre-Joseph Proudhon 1700: 1593: 1464:"Second French Empire" 1021:Valois-Angoulême kings 768:intervention in Mexico 732:several wars in Europe 677:Third French Republics 572:French Second Republic 97: 36: 21:French colonial empire 5870:Saint Kitts and Nevis 5459:Criticism of monarchy 5449:Abolition of monarchy 4037:Price, Roger (2001). 4028:Price, Roger (1997). 4019:Price, Roger (1972). 3878:Gooch, G. P. (1960). 3760:Berenson, E. (1984). 3703:Adriance, T. (1987). 3683:(1985) short overview 3379:. Routledge. p. 3231:10.1353/cwh.2008.0008 2725:The Musical Quarterly 2433: 2408:Third French Republic 2342:French troops in Rome 2307: 2291: 2136: 2026: 1991:Second Mexican Empire 1942:in 1860 ratified the 1936:The commercial treaty 1888: 1783:, and finally by the 1691: 1583: 772:Second Mexican Empire 770:seeking to erect the 599:French Third Republic 291:military dictatorship 109:"Departing for Syria" 99:Partant pour la Syrie 83:Imperial coat of arms 6948:Government of France 6928:Second French Empire 5702:United Arab Emirates 4832:World Heritage Sites 4749:Coronavirus pandemic 4163:Todd, David (2021). 3686:Tulard, Jean (ed.), 3549:. Palgrave. p. 3329:. pp. 145–157. 2737:10.1093/mq/XVI.3.415 2688:White, Richard Grant 2455:Napoleon I of France 2254:improve this article 2186:Ministry of the Navy 2113:Battle of Königgrätz 1789:Second Schleswig War 1705:Poland to be crushed 1665:Freedom of the press 1537:staged a coup d'état 1527:On 2 December 1851, 1449:improve this article 1229:Provisional Republic 1011:Valois-Orléans kings 750:, and very briefly, 692:precursor of fascism 665:Second French Empire 458:Constitution adopted 174:48.85639°N 2.35222°E 6898:Trinidad and Tobago 6785:Commonwealth realms 6670:United Baltic Duchy 5813:Antigua and Barbuda 5805:Commonwealth realms 5499:Order of succession 4970:Automotive industry 4754:2021 labor protests 4511:Peace of Westphalia 4379:History of Normandy 4374:History of Brittany 4140:. Pickle Partners. 3937:Holmes, R. (1984). 3869:Gildea, R. (1983). 3860:Gibson, R. (1989). 3846:Elwitt, S. (1975). 3837:Echard, W. (1983). 3716:. Clarendon Press. 2909:. pp. 147–150. 2784:, pp. 308–329. 2420:Alsace and Lorraine 2389:Patrice de MacMahon 2377:Franco-Prussian War 2370:. Bismarck in turn 2226:Franco-Prussian War 2206:Chasseurs d'Afrique 2137:Arrival of Marshal 1897:, then part of the 1615:Italian unification 780:Franco-Prussian War 709:rebuilding of Paris 586:Kingdom of Sardinia 507:Republic proclaimed 481:Franco-Prussian War 170: / 5037:Telecommunications 4739:2015 Paris attacks 4602:Revolution of 1848 4430:Visigothic Kingdom 4046:Richardson, Joanna 2706:Sousa, John Philip 2439: 2313: 2302: 2300:, 1 September 1870 2151: 2041: 1993:headed by Emperor 1966:American Civil War 1903: 1852:Plebiscite of 1870 1779:the protection of 1769:American Civil War 1701: 1594: 1592:on 2 December 1852 1539:by dissolving the 1382:History portal 878: until 50 BC 724:Napoleon Bonaparte 378:Charles de Palikao 6915: 6914: 6911: 6910: 6600:Piedmont-Sardinia 6352:Sip Song Chau Tai 6162:Thirteen Colonies 5903: 5902: 5307: 5306: 5269: 5268: 5060: 5059: 4947: 4946: 4939:Political parties 4875:Foreign relations 4840: 4839: 4769: 4768: 4552:French Revolution 4506:Thirty Years' War 4487:Absolute monarchy 4452:Kingdom of France 4348:Foreign relations 4328:Political history 4174:scholarly reviews 3893:The Second Empire 3880:The Second Empire 3696:Secondary sources 3662:Furet, François. 3623:The Second Empire 3252:Cunningham (2001) 3218:Civil War History 3159:Swan Sonnenschein 3020:10.1093/fh/crs010 2596:History of France 2461:from the head of 2436:Alexandre Cabanel 2357:defeat of Austria 2353:Otto von Bismarck 2286: 2285: 2278: 2214:except in Algeria 2171:Taiping Rebellion 2103:revived, through 2093:Otto von Bismarck 1979:Édouard Thouvenel 1741:Jean Victor Duruy 1694:Avenue de l'Opéra 1631:Syrian expedition 1572:would later use. 1570:Charles de Gaulle 1541:National Assembly 1514: 1513: 1499: 1416: 1415: 1367:France portal 1260: 1259: 1157: 1156: 1068:Kingdom of France 1058:French Revolution 1049:Long 19th century 1039: 1038: 987: 986: 957:Kingdom of France 892: 891: 718:Internationally, 667:, officially the 661: 660: 643: 642: 639: 638: 591: 590: 361:• 1869–1870 331:• 1852–1870 280:absolute monarchy 207:Roman Catholicism 179:48.85639; 2.35222 117: 7005: 6839:Irish Free State 6605:Poland–Lithuania 5914: 5913: 5865:Papua New Guinea 5595: 5594: 5334: 5327: 5320: 5311: 5310: 5071: 5070: 4987:Economic history 4958: 4957: 4851: 4850: 4780: 4779: 4658: 4637: 4536:Seven Years' War 4501:Wars of Religion 4497: 4482:House of Bourbon 4477:Early modern era 4457:Fundamental laws 4333:Military history 4308: 4307: 4285: 4278: 4271: 4262: 4261: 4234: 4192: 4183: 4173: 4171: 4159: 4128: 4119: 4079: 4060:. Viking Press. 4042: 4033: 4024: 4015: 3988: 3979: 3970: 3960: 3951: 3942: 3933: 3906: 3897: 3888:Guedalla, Philip 3883: 3874: 3865: 3851: 3842: 3833: 3824: 3815: 3784: 3765: 3755: 3736: 3727: 3708: 3604: 3595: 3564: 3541: 3530: 3518: 3496: 3495: 3493: 3491: 3469: 3460: 3459: 3438: 3432: 3431: 3401: 3395: 3394: 3372: 3366: 3365: 3347: 3341: 3340: 3322: 3316: 3315: 3313: 3311: 3261: 3255: 3249: 3243: 3242: 3212: 3206: 3205: 3183: 3177: 3176: 3150: 3144: 3143: 3113: 3107: 3106: 3104: 3102: 3052: 3046: 3045: 3031: 3025: 3024: 3022: 2996: 2990: 2989: 2961: 2959: 2958: 2952: 2911: 2910: 2902: 2896: 2895: 2859: 2853: 2852: 2834: 2825: 2824: 2803: 2797: 2791: 2785: 2779: 2773: 2772:, pp. 4–10. 2767: 2761: 2755: 2749: 2748: 2720: 2714: 2713: 2702: 2696: 2695: 2684: 2667: 2664: 2658: 2652: 2646: 2637: 2481:legislative body 2434:Napoléon III by 2281: 2274: 2270: 2267: 2261: 2238: 2230: 2220:The empire's end 2167:Second Opium War 2010:southern Vietnam 1952:Michel Chevalier 1863:Pierre Bonaparte 1845:senatus-consulte 1711:to triumph over 1591: 1590: 1553:new constitution 1509: 1506: 1500: 1498: 1457: 1426: 1418: 1408: 1401: 1394: 1380: 1379: 1378: 1365: 1364: 1363: 1256: 1172: 1171: 1054: 1053: 1007: 1006: 968:Direct Capetians 907: 906: 850: 849: 830: 820: 802: 801: 764:French Indochina 635: 634: 621: 620: 607: 606: 595: 594: 582: 581: 568: 567: 561: 560: 545: 544: 512:4 September 1870 499:1 September 1870 422:Corps législatif 311: 296: 285: 274: 185: 184: 182: 181: 180: 175: 171: 168: 167: 166: 163: 141: 129: 119: 118: 110: 106: 102: 79: 65: 47: 39: 28: 27: 7013: 7012: 7008: 7007: 7006: 7004: 7003: 7002: 6963:1870s in France 6958:1860s in France 6953:1850s in France 6918: 6917: 6916: 6907: 6832:princely states 6780: 6716:Kingdom of Fiji 6689: 6435:Austria-Hungary 6403: 6166: 6100: 5899: 5885:Solomon Islands 5799: 5781: 5713: 5628: 5586: 5518: 5464:Democratization 5432: 5376: 5343: 5338: 5308: 5303: 5302: 5283: 5265: 5246:Public holidays 5159: 5118:Life expectancy 5056: 4943: 4836: 4765: 4734:Great Recession 4707:Fourth Republic 4702:1900 to present 4690: 4607:Second Republic 4571: 4540: 4463: 4416: 4383: 4362: 4297: 4289: 4242: 4237: 4216: 4214:Primary sources 4211: 4200: 4195: 4169: 4148: 4134:Thompson, J. M. 4068: 4004: 3922: 3781: 3752: 3724: 3698: 3693: 3658:Wayback Machine 3634:Wayback Machine 3621:Aubry, Octave. 3617: 3612: 3610:Further reading 3607: 3561: 3527: 3516: 3505: 3500: 3499: 3489: 3487: 3482:. p. 107. 3470: 3463: 3456: 3442:Grenville, John 3439: 3435: 3402: 3398: 3391: 3373: 3369: 3362: 3348: 3344: 3337: 3323: 3319: 3309: 3307: 3262: 3258: 3250: 3246: 3213: 3209: 3202: 3184: 3180: 3173: 3151: 3147: 3114: 3110: 3100: 3098: 3053: 3049: 3032: 3028: 2997: 2993: 2969:Esmein, Adhémar 2956: 2954: 2953: 2914: 2903: 2899: 2860: 2856: 2849: 2835: 2828: 2821: 2804: 2800: 2792: 2788: 2780: 2776: 2768: 2764: 2756: 2752: 2721: 2717: 2703: 2699: 2685: 2681: 2676: 2671: 2670: 2665: 2661: 2656:Empire Français 2653: 2649: 2638: 2634: 2629: 2575: 2562: 2560:Memorialisation 2516:sûreté générale 2485:executive power 2428: 2397:Battle of Sedan 2385:Army of Châlons 2298:Battle of Sedan 2282: 2271: 2265: 2262: 2251: 2239: 2228: 2222: 2131: 2125: 2123:Overseas empire 2039:, 29 March 1863 2033:siege of Puebla 2018:central Vietnam 1964:throughout the 1883: 1854: 1830:Mikhail Bakunin 1806: 1797: 1795:Social mobility 1698:Baron Haussmann 1686: 1667: 1658: 1611: 1578: 1525: 1519: 1510: 1504: 1501: 1458: 1456: 1442: 1427: 1412: 1376: 1374: 1361: 1359: 1354: 1262: 1261: 1254: 1239:Fourth Republic 1220: 1187:Interwar period 1169: 1159: 1158: 1118:Second Republic 1051: 1041: 1040: 999: 989: 988: 904: 894: 893: 847: 818: 811: 800: 701:railway network 654: 632: 627:Alsace–Lorraine 618: 604: 579: 565: 525:27 October 1870 522: 509: 496: 494:Battle of Sedan 483: 473:2 December 1852 470: 463:14 January 1852 460: 450:2 December 1851 447: 432:New Imperialism 418: 403: 374: 362: 332: 309: 308: 294: 293: 283: 282: 272: 271: 243: 178: 176: 172: 169: 164: 161: 159: 157: 156: 155: 144: 132: 120: 113: 108: 107: 104: 87: 86: 85: 80: 72: 71: 66: 48: 41: 37:Empire Français 33: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 7011: 7001: 7000: 6995: 6993:Former empires 6990: 6985: 6980: 6975: 6970: 6965: 6960: 6955: 6950: 6945: 6940: 6935: 6930: 6913: 6912: 6909: 6908: 6906: 6905: 6900: 6895: 6890: 6885: 6880: 6875: 6870: 6865: 6860: 6855: 6850: 6845: 6836: 6820: 6815: 6810: 6805: 6800: 6794: 6788: 6786: 6782: 6781: 6779: 6778: 6773: 6768: 6763: 6758: 6753: 6748: 6743: 6738: 6733: 6728: 6723: 6718: 6713: 6708: 6703: 6697: 6695: 6691: 6690: 6688: 6687: 6682: 6677: 6672: 6667: 6662: 6657: 6652: 6647: 6642: 6637: 6632: 6627: 6622: 6617: 6612: 6607: 6602: 6597: 6592: 6590:Ottoman Empire 6587: 6582: 6577: 6572: 6567: 6562: 6557: 6552: 6550:Kartli-Kakheti 6547: 6542: 6537: 6532: 6527: 6522: 6517: 6512: 6507: 6502: 6497: 6492: 6487: 6482: 6477: 6472: 6467: 6462: 6457: 6452: 6447: 6442: 6437: 6432: 6427: 6422: 6417: 6411: 6409: 6405: 6404: 6402: 6401: 6389: 6384: 6379: 6374: 6369: 6364: 6359: 6354: 6349: 6344: 6339: 6332: 6327: 6322: 6317: 6312: 6307: 6302: 6297: 6292: 6287: 6282: 6277: 6272: 6267: 6262: 6257: 6252: 6247: 6242: 6232: 6225: 6220: 6215: 6210: 6205: 6200: 6195: 6190: 6185: 6180: 6174: 6172: 6168: 6167: 6165: 6164: 6159: 6154: 6149: 6144: 6139: 6134: 6129: 6124: 6119: 6114: 6108: 6106: 6102: 6101: 6099: 6098: 6091: 6086: 6081: 6076: 6071: 6066: 6061: 6056: 6051: 6046: 6041: 6036: 6031: 6026: 6021: 6016: 6011: 6006: 6001: 5996: 5991: 5986: 5981: 5976: 5971: 5966: 5961: 5959:Central Africa 5956: 5951: 5946: 5941: 5936: 5931: 5926: 5920: 5918: 5911: 5905: 5904: 5901: 5900: 5898: 5897: 5895:United Kingdom 5892: 5887: 5882: 5877: 5872: 5867: 5862: 5861: 5860: 5855: 5845: 5840: 5835: 5830: 5825: 5820: 5815: 5809: 5807: 5801: 5800: 5798: 5797: 5791: 5789: 5783: 5782: 5780: 5779: 5774: 5769: 5764: 5759: 5754: 5749: 5744: 5739: 5734: 5729: 5723: 5721: 5715: 5714: 5712: 5711: 5704: 5699: 5694: 5689: 5684: 5679: 5674: 5669: 5664: 5659: 5654: 5649: 5644: 5638: 5636: 5630: 5629: 5627: 5626: 5619: 5614: 5609: 5603: 5601: 5592: 5588: 5587: 5585: 5584: 5579: 5574: 5569: 5564: 5559: 5554: 5552:Prince regnant 5549: 5548: 5547: 5537: 5532: 5526: 5524: 5520: 5519: 5517: 5516: 5511: 5506: 5501: 5496: 5491: 5486: 5481: 5476: 5471: 5469:Decolonization 5466: 5461: 5456: 5451: 5446: 5440: 5438: 5434: 5433: 5431: 5430: 5425: 5423:Personal union 5420: 5415: 5410: 5405: 5400: 5395: 5393:Constitutional 5390: 5384: 5382: 5378: 5377: 5375: 5374: 5369: 5364: 5359: 5354: 5348: 5345: 5344: 5337: 5336: 5329: 5322: 5314: 5305: 5304: 5301: 5300: 5295: 5290: 5284: 5282: 5281: 5275: 5274: 5271: 5270: 5267: 5266: 5264: 5263: 5258: 5253: 5248: 5243: 5238: 5233: 5228: 5223: 5218: 5213: 5208: 5203: 5202:Cultural icons 5200: 5195: 5190: 5185: 5180: 5175: 5169: 5167: 5161: 5160: 5158: 5157: 5152: 5147: 5142: 5141: 5140: 5130: 5125: 5120: 5115: 5110: 5105: 5100: 5095: 5090: 5085: 5080: 5074: 5068: 5062: 5061: 5058: 5057: 5055: 5054: 5049: 5044: 5039: 5034: 5029: 5024: 5022:Stock exchange 5019: 5014: 5009: 5004: 4999: 4994: 4989: 4984: 4983: 4982: 4972: 4967: 4961: 4955: 4949: 4948: 4945: 4944: 4942: 4941: 4936: 4931: 4926: 4925: 4924: 4919: 4914: 4904: 4899: 4898: 4897: 4892: 4882: 4877: 4872: 4871: 4870: 4860: 4854: 4848: 4842: 4841: 4838: 4837: 4835: 4834: 4829: 4824: 4822:National parks 4819: 4814: 4809: 4804: 4799: 4797:Climate change 4794: 4789: 4783: 4777: 4771: 4770: 4767: 4766: 4764: 4763: 4762: 4761: 4756: 4751: 4746: 4741: 4736: 4731: 4726: 4719:Fifth Republic 4716: 4715: 4714: 4704: 4698: 4696: 4692: 4691: 4689: 4688: 4687: 4686: 4681: 4676: 4671: 4661: 4660: 4659: 4645: 4640: 4639: 4638: 4627:Third Republic 4624: 4619: 4614: 4609: 4604: 4598: 4597: 4592: 4587: 4581: 4579: 4573: 4572: 4570: 4569: 4564: 4562:First Republic 4559: 4557:Napoleonic era 4554: 4548: 4546: 4542: 4541: 4539: 4538: 4533: 4528: 4523: 4518: 4513: 4508: 4503: 4498: 4489: 4484: 4479: 4473: 4471: 4465: 4464: 4462: 4461: 4460: 4459: 4449: 4444: 4443: 4442: 4432: 4426: 4424: 4418: 4417: 4415: 4414: 4409: 4404: 4402:Greek colonies 4399: 4393: 4391: 4385: 4384: 4382: 4381: 4376: 4370: 4368: 4364: 4363: 4361: 4360: 4355: 4350: 4345: 4340: 4335: 4330: 4325: 4320: 4314: 4312: 4305: 4299: 4298: 4288: 4287: 4280: 4273: 4265: 4259: 4258: 4241: 4240:External links 4238: 4236: 4235: 4217: 4215: 4212: 4210: 4209: 4201: 4199: 4198:Historiography 4196: 4194: 4193: 4184: 4175: 4160: 4146: 4130: 4120: 4100:10.1086/468454 4094:(3): 338–355. 4081: 4066: 4053: 4043: 4034: 4025: 4016: 4002: 3989: 3980: 3971: 3962: 3952: 3943: 3934: 3920: 3907: 3898: 3884: 3875: 3866: 3853: 3852: 3843: 3834: 3825: 3816: 3798:(4): 675–692. 3785: 3779: 3766: 3757: 3750: 3737: 3728: 3722: 3709: 3699: 3697: 3694: 3692: 3691: 3684: 3679:Smith, W.H.C. 3677: 3667: 3660: 3643: 3636: 3618: 3616: 3613: 3611: 3608: 3606: 3605: 3596: 3584:10.2307/285884 3578:(3): 308–329. 3565: 3559: 3542: 3531: 3525: 3506: 3504: 3501: 3498: 3497: 3461: 3454: 3433: 3414:(1): 109–135. 3396: 3389: 3367: 3360: 3342: 3335: 3317: 3284:10.1086/236488 3278:(3): 334–356. 3256: 3244: 3207: 3200: 3178: 3171: 3145: 3126:(3): 349–371. 3108: 3075:10.1086/238159 3047: 3026: 3013:(2): 203–221. 3006:French History 2991: 2980:Chisholm, Hugh 2912: 2897: 2854: 2847: 2826: 2819: 2807:Nohlen, Dieter 2798: 2796:, p. 275. 2786: 2782:Spitzer (1962) 2774: 2762: 2760:, p. 272. 2750: 2715: 2697: 2678: 2677: 2675: 2672: 2669: 2668: 2659: 2647: 2631: 2630: 2628: 2625: 2624: 2623: 2618: 2613: 2608: 2603: 2598: 2593: 2592: 2591: 2586: 2574: 2571: 2561: 2558: 2530:Émile Ollivier 2505:avertissements 2501:cautionnements 2427: 2424: 2412:except Austria 2350:Prime Minister 2332:rebels in the 2284: 2283: 2242: 2240: 2233: 2224:Main article: 2221: 2218: 2210:Foreign Legion 2198:screw steamers 2147:French Algeria 2127:Main article: 2124: 2121: 2105:Lord Clarendon 2082:, Prussia and 1948:Richard Cobden 1899:Russian Empire 1882: 1881:Foreign policy 1879: 1853: 1850: 1805: 1802: 1796: 1793: 1725:Adolphe Thiers 1721:Union libérale 1715:regarding the 1707:, and allowed 1685: 1683:Union libérale 1679: 1666: 1663: 1657: 1654: 1623:Louis Veuillot 1610: 1607: 1577: 1574: 1521:Main article: 1518: 1515: 1512: 1511: 1447:. Please help 1430: 1428: 1421: 1414: 1413: 1411: 1410: 1403: 1396: 1388: 1385: 1384: 1356: 1355: 1353: 1352: 1347: 1342: 1341: 1340: 1335: 1330: 1320: 1315: 1314: 1313: 1303: 1298: 1293: 1288: 1283: 1278: 1272: 1269: 1268: 1264: 1263: 1258: 1257: 1251: 1249:Fifth Republic 1245: 1244: 1241: 1235: 1234: 1231: 1225: 1224: 1221: 1219: 1218: 1213: 1207: 1204: 1203: 1200: 1193: 1192: 1189: 1182: 1181: 1178: 1176:Third Republic 1170: 1165: 1164: 1161: 1160: 1155: 1154: 1151: 1144: 1143: 1140: 1138:Third Republic 1134: 1133: 1130: 1124: 1123: 1120: 1114: 1113: 1110: 1104: 1103: 1100: 1094: 1093: 1090: 1084: 1083: 1080: 1078:First Republic 1074: 1073: 1070: 1064: 1063: 1060: 1052: 1047: 1046: 1043: 1042: 1037: 1036: 1033: 1027: 1026: 1023: 1017: 1016: 1013: 1000: 995: 994: 991: 990: 985: 984: 981: 974: 973: 970: 963: 962: 959: 953: 952: 949: 942: 941: 938: 932: 931: 928: 922: 921: 918: 905: 900: 899: 896: 895: 890: 889: 888:50 BC – 486 AD 886: 880: 879: 876: 870: 869: 868:600 BC – 49 BC 866: 864:Greek colonies 860: 859: 856: 848: 843: 842: 839: 838: 832: 831: 823: 822: 813: 812: 805: 799: 796: 659: 658: 649: 645: 644: 641: 640: 637: 636: 629: 623: 622: 615: 609: 608: 601: 592: 589: 588: 583: 575: 574: 569: 557: 556: 551: 541: 540: 535: 531: 530: 527: 526: 523: 517: 514: 513: 510: 504: 501: 500: 497: 491: 488: 487: 484: 478: 475: 474: 471: 468: 465: 464: 461: 455: 452: 451: 448: 442: 439: 438: 435: 434: 429: 428:Historical era 425: 424: 419: 413: 410: 409: 404: 398: 395: 394: 389: 385: 384: 381: 380: 375: 372: 369: 368: 366:Émile Ollivier 363: 360: 357: 356: 353: 352: 349: 343: 342: 339: 338: 333: 330: 327: 326: 323: 322: 319: 313: 312: 298: 297: 263: 257: 256: 251: 245: 244: 242: 241: 235: 229: 224: 219: 214: 211:state religion 203: 201: 197: 196: 191: 187: 186: 150: 146: 145: 142: 134: 133: 130: 122: 121: 111: 89: 88: 81: 74: 73: 67: 60: 59: 58: 55: 54: 50: 49: 34: 31: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7010: 6999: 6996: 6994: 6991: 6989: 6986: 6984: 6981: 6979: 6976: 6974: 6971: 6969: 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6113: 6110: 6109: 6107: 6103: 6097: 6096: 6092: 6090: 6087: 6085: 6082: 6080: 6077: 6075: 6072: 6070: 6067: 6065: 6062: 6060: 6057: 6055: 6052: 6050: 6047: 6045: 6042: 6040: 6037: 6035: 6032: 6030: 6027: 6025: 6022: 6020: 6017: 6015: 6012: 6010: 6007: 6005: 6002: 6000: 5997: 5995: 5992: 5990: 5987: 5985: 5982: 5980: 5977: 5975: 5972: 5970: 5967: 5965: 5962: 5960: 5957: 5955: 5952: 5950: 5947: 5945: 5942: 5940: 5937: 5935: 5932: 5930: 5927: 5925: 5922: 5921: 5919: 5915: 5912: 5910: 5906: 5896: 5893: 5891: 5888: 5886: 5883: 5881: 5878: 5876: 5873: 5871: 5868: 5866: 5863: 5859: 5856: 5854: 5851: 5850: 5849: 5846: 5844: 5841: 5839: 5836: 5834: 5831: 5829: 5826: 5824: 5821: 5819: 5816: 5814: 5811: 5810: 5808: 5806: 5802: 5796: 5793: 5792: 5790: 5788: 5784: 5778: 5775: 5773: 5770: 5768: 5765: 5763: 5760: 5758: 5755: 5753: 5750: 5748: 5745: 5743: 5742:Liechtenstein 5740: 5738: 5735: 5733: 5730: 5728: 5725: 5724: 5722: 5720: 5716: 5710: 5709: 5705: 5703: 5700: 5698: 5695: 5693: 5690: 5688: 5685: 5683: 5680: 5678: 5675: 5673: 5670: 5668: 5665: 5663: 5660: 5658: 5655: 5653: 5650: 5648: 5645: 5643: 5640: 5639: 5637: 5635: 5631: 5625: 5624: 5620: 5618: 5615: 5613: 5610: 5608: 5605: 5604: 5602: 5600: 5596: 5593: 5589: 5583: 5580: 5578: 5575: 5573: 5570: 5568: 5565: 5563: 5560: 5558: 5555: 5553: 5550: 5546: 5545:Queen regnant 5543: 5542: 5541: 5538: 5536: 5533: 5531: 5528: 5527: 5525: 5521: 5515: 5512: 5510: 5507: 5505: 5504:Republicanism 5502: 5500: 5497: 5495: 5492: 5490: 5487: 5485: 5484:Head of state 5482: 5480: 5477: 5475: 5472: 5470: 5467: 5465: 5462: 5460: 5457: 5455: 5452: 5450: 5447: 5445: 5442: 5441: 5439: 5435: 5429: 5426: 5424: 5421: 5419: 5418:Non-sovereign 5416: 5414: 5411: 5409: 5406: 5404: 5401: 5399: 5396: 5394: 5391: 5389: 5386: 5385: 5383: 5379: 5373: 5370: 5368: 5365: 5363: 5360: 5358: 5355: 5353: 5350: 5349: 5346: 5342: 5335: 5330: 5328: 5323: 5321: 5316: 5315: 5312: 5299: 5296: 5294: 5291: 5289: 5286: 5285: 5280: 5277: 5276: 5272: 5262: 5259: 5257: 5254: 5252: 5249: 5247: 5244: 5242: 5239: 5237: 5234: 5232: 5229: 5227: 5224: 5222: 5219: 5217: 5214: 5212: 5209: 5207: 5204: 5201: 5199: 5196: 5194: 5191: 5189: 5186: 5184: 5181: 5179: 5176: 5174: 5171: 5170: 5168: 5166: 5162: 5156: 5153: 5151: 5148: 5146: 5143: 5139: 5136: 5135: 5134: 5131: 5129: 5126: 5124: 5121: 5119: 5116: 5114: 5111: 5109: 5106: 5104: 5101: 5099: 5096: 5094: 5091: 5089: 5086: 5084: 5083:Birth control 5081: 5079: 5076: 5075: 5072: 5069: 5067: 5063: 5053: 5050: 5048: 5045: 5043: 5040: 5038: 5035: 5033: 5030: 5028: 5025: 5023: 5020: 5018: 5015: 5013: 5010: 5008: 5005: 5003: 5000: 4998: 4995: 4993: 4990: 4988: 4985: 4981: 4978: 4977: 4976: 4973: 4971: 4968: 4966: 4963: 4962: 4959: 4956: 4954: 4950: 4940: 4937: 4935: 4932: 4930: 4927: 4923: 4920: 4918: 4915: 4913: 4910: 4909: 4908: 4905: 4903: 4900: 4896: 4893: 4891: 4888: 4887: 4886: 4883: 4881: 4878: 4876: 4873: 4869: 4866: 4865: 4864: 4861: 4859: 4858:Constitutions 4856: 4855: 4852: 4849: 4847: 4843: 4833: 4830: 4828: 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1957: 1956:authoritarian 1953: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1940:Great Britain 1937: 1933: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1918: 1916: 1912: 1908: 1900: 1896: 1892: 1887: 1878: 1875: 1870: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1849: 1846: 1842: 1837: 1835: 1834:International 1831: 1827: 1823: 1819: 1815: 1811: 1801: 1792: 1790: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1774: 1770: 1766: 1761: 1759: 1754: 1748: 1746: 1745:rapprochement 1742: 1738: 1737:Eugène Rouher 1734: 1728: 1726: 1722: 1718: 1714: 1710: 1706: 1699: 1695: 1690: 1684: 1678: 1675: 1674: 1673:laissez-faire 1662: 1653: 1649: 1646: 1642: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1625:'s paper the 1624: 1620: 1616: 1606: 1602: 1600: 1597:Working with 1589: 1582: 1573: 1571: 1567: 1561: 1559: 1554: 1549: 1547: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1524: 1508: 1505:December 2023 1497: 1494: 1490: 1487: 1483: 1480: 1476: 1473: 1469: 1466: – 1465: 1461: 1460:Find sources: 1454: 1450: 1446: 1440: 1439: 1438:single source 1434: 1429: 1425: 1420: 1419: 1409: 1404: 1402: 1397: 1395: 1390: 1389: 1387: 1386: 1383: 1372: 1368: 1358: 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Ruled by 549:Preceded by 416:Lower house 401:Upper house 388:Legislature 310:(1869–1870) 284:(1852–1869) 238:Ibadi Islam 232:Sunni Islam 222:Lutheranism 177: / 6922:Categories 6893:Tanganyika 6808:The Gambia 6736:Niuē-Fekai 6675:Yugoslavia 6575:Montenegro 6382:Upper Yafa 6377:Upper Asir 6014:Madagascar 5747:Luxembourg 5479:Government 5444:Abdication 5413:Hereditary 5341:Monarchies 5241:Philosophy 5226:Literature 5138:secularism 4934:Parliament 4729:2005 riots 4679:Liberation 4545:Revolution 4412:Roman Gaul 4397:Prehistory 4353:Journalism 3478:. London: 3201:0803225822 3161:. p. 3044:: 192–203. 2731:(3): 426. 2674:References 2554:Orléanists 2296:after the 2101:Comte Daru 1995:Maximilian 1946:policy of 1944:free trade 1913:. His son 1891:Yevpatoria 1874:plebiscite 1810:free trade 1475:newspapers 917:settlement 884:Roman Gaul 854:Prehistory 742:, gaining 713:boulevards 392:Parliament 261:Government 249:Demonym(s) 165:02°21′08″E 162:48°51′23″N 105:(de facto) 6863:Mauritius 6756:Rarotonga 6741:Nuku Hiva 6731:Mangareva 6706:Bora Bora 6585:Neuchâtel 6555:Lithuania 6460:Catalonia 6347:Sri Lanka 6300:Manchukuo 6275:Kurdistan 6229:Indonesia 6152:Talamanca 6112:Araucanía 6095:and other 6074:Wassoulou 5818:Australia 5494:Oligarchy 5098:Education 5052:Transport 4902:Judiciary 4863:Elections 4817:Mountains 4775:Geography 4521:Louis XIV 4311:Overviews 4251:Karl Marx 4231:23386272M 4116:144162251 4012:26613287M 3812:154025726 3638:Bury, J. 3537:Historian 3428:154801621 3300:145650836 3239:144122281 3140:144555736 3091:154226182 2973:France § 2971:(1911). 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