Unification of Germany

3821: 3648: 3711: 3682: 3653: 3709: 3817: 3671: 3667: 3820: 3796: 2661:. Its basic, and equally grandiose idea, was that, as the French Revolution of 1789 had enlarged the concept of individual liberty, another revolution would now be needed for national liberty; and his vision went further because he hoped that in the no doubt distant future free nations might combine to form a loosely federal Europe with some kind of federal assembly to regulate their common interests. His intention was nothing less than to overturn the European settlement agreed in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna, which had reestablished an oppressive hegemony of a few great powers and blocked the emergence of smaller nations. Mazzini hoped, but without much confidence, that his vision of a league or society of independent nations would be realized in his own lifetime. In practice Young Europe lacked the money and popular support for more than a short-term existence. Nevertheless he always remained faithful to the ideal of a united continent for which the creation of individual nations would be an indispensable preliminary. 3692: 3674: 2476:. Instead, modern historians claim 1848 saw specific achievements by the liberal politicians. Many of their ideas and programs were later incorporated into Bismarck's social programs (e.g., social insurance, education programs, and wider definitions of suffrage). In addition, the notion of a distinctive path relies upon the underlying assumption that some other nation's path (in this case, the United Kingdom's) is the accepted norm. This new argument further challenges the norms of the British-centric model of development: studies of national development in Britain and other "normal" states (e.g., France or the United States) have suggested that even in these cases, the modern nation-state did not develop evenly. Nor did it develop particularly early, being rather a largely mid-to-late-19th-century phenomenon. Since the end of the 1990s, this view has become widely accepted, although some historians still find the 3729: 3371:

create an environment in which a rival state would declare war first, thus forcing states allied with the "victim" of external aggression to come to the leader's aid. Finally, as Prussian military capacity far exceeded that of Austria, Prussia was clearly the only state within the Confederation (or among the German states generally) capable of protecting all of them from potential interference or aggression. In 1866, most mid-sized German states had opposed Prussia, but by 1870 these states had been coerced and coaxed into mutually protective alliances with Prussia. If a European state declared war on one of their members, then they all would come to the defense of the attacked state. With skilful manipulation of European politics, Bismarck created a situation in which France would play the role of aggressor in German affairs, while Prussia would play that of the protector of German rights and liberties.

3710: 3706: 3699: 3656: 3485: 3659: 3731: 3684: 3804: 3708: 752: 170: 3714: 3794: 3102: 4115: 4690: 1969: 369: 2385: 230: 3772: 242: 4604:(bureaucratic top officials in charge of such fields as finance, war, foreign affairs, etc.) acted as unofficial portfolio ministers. With the exception of the years 1872–1873 and 1892–1894, the imperial chancellor was always simultaneously the prime minister of the imperial dynasty's hegemonic home-kingdom, Prussia. The Imperial Diet had the power to pass, amend, or reject bills, but it could not initiate legislation. (The power of initiating legislation rested with the chancellor.) The other states retained their own governments, but the military forces of the smaller states came under Prussian control. The militaries of the larger states (such as the Kingdoms of 4003: 2760:"iron and blood" (or "blood and iron", as often attributed), have often been misappropriated as evidence of a German lust for blood and power. First, the phrase from his speech "the great questions of time will not be resolved by speeches and majority decisions" is often interpreted as a repudiation of the political process—a repudiation Bismarck did not himself advocate. Second, his emphasis on blood and iron did not imply simply the unrivaled military might of the Prussian army but rather two important aspects: the ability of the assorted German states to produce iron and other related war materials and the willingness to use those war materials if necessary. 3829: 3800: 4262: 4234: 4206: 2085: 3812: 266: 2646:

path of duty, to lead them toward the brotherhood of nations where all the barriers erected by egoism will be destroyed." Garibaldi looked to Germany for the "kind of leadership , in the true tradition of medieval chivalry, would devote itself to redressing wrongs, supporting the weak, sacrificing momentary gains and material advantage for the much finer and more satisfying achievement of relieving the suffering of our fellow men. We need a nation courageous enough to give us a lead in this direction. It would rally to its cause all those who are suffering wrong or who aspire to a better life and all those who are now enduring foreign oppression."

3691: 278: 4325: 146: 134: 109: 4349: 122: 4800: 3583:, the impact of the 1848 liberals, the importance of von Roon's military reorganization, and von Moltke's strategic brilliance all played a part in political unification. "Einheit – unity – was achieved at the expense of Freiheit – freedom. The German Empire became," in Karl Marx's words, "a military despotism cloaked in parliamentary forms with a feudal ingredient, influenced by the bourgeoisie, festooned with bureaucrats and guarded by police." Indeed, many historians would see Germany's "escape into war" in 1914 as a flight from all of the internal-political contradictions forged by Bismarck at Versailles in the fall of 1870. 381: 1807: 1602: 4787:, in schools and education- and language-related policies. The Catholic Centre Party remained particularly well entrenched in the Catholic strongholds of Bavaria and southern Baden, and in urban areas that held high populations of displaced rural workers seeking jobs in the heavy industry, and sought to protect the rights not only of Catholics, but other minorities, including the Poles, and the French minorities in the Alsatian lands. The May Laws of 1873 brought the appointment of priests, and their education, under the control of the state, resulting in the closure of many seminaries, and a shortage of priests. The 4540: 3940: 1957: 290: 2493: 3427: 84: 4073: 4052: 4024: 357: 218: 314: 302: 2161:– in 1834 with Brunswick and with Oldenburg in 1836. The external tariffs on finished goods and overseas raw materials were below the rates of the Zollverein. Brunswick joined the Zollverein Customs Union in 1842, while Hanover and Oldenburg finally joined in 1854 After the Austro-Prussian war of 1866, Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg were annexed by Prussia and thus annexed also to the Customs Union, while the two Mecklenburg states and the city states of Hamburg and Bremen joined late because they were reliant on international trade. The Mecklenburgs joined in 1867, while Bremen and 4415: 4394: 417: 3718: 3641: 4373: 3968: 3526:. "In the days after Sedan, Prussian envoys met with the French and demanded a large cash indemnity as well as the cession of Alsace and Lorraine. All parties in France rejected the terms, insisting that any armistice be forged "on the basis of territorial integrity." France, in other words, would pay reparations for starting the war, but would, in Jules Favre's famous phrase, "cede neither a clod of our earth nor a stone of our fortresses". The German High Command expected an overture of peace from the French, but the new republic refused to surrender. The Prussian army 1941: 1251: 3660: 4510: 1010: 2674: 345: 206: 36: 3402:, a prince of the Catholic cadet Hohenzollern line. The ensuing furor has been dubbed by historians as the Hohenzollern candidature. Over the next few weeks, the Spanish offer turned into the talk of Europe. Bismarck encouraged Leopold to accept the offer. A successful installment of a Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen king in Spain would mean that two countries on either side of France would both have German kings of Hohenzollern descent. This may have been a pleasing prospect for Bismarck, but it was unacceptable to either Napoleon III or to 3751: 158: 3884: 3669: 3136: 1715: 3912: 254: 4178: 3662: 4621: 4304: 3696: 326: 3406:, his minister of foreign affairs. Gramont wrote a sharply formulated ultimatum to Wilhelm, as head of the Hohenzollern family, stating that if any Hohenzollern prince should accept the crown of Spain, the French government would respond—although he left ambiguous the nature of such response. The prince withdrew as a candidate, thus defusing the crisis, but the French ambassador to Berlin would not let the issue lie. He approached the Prussian king directly while Wilhelm was vacationing in 194: 4436: 3713: 4157: 4094: 3559:

Schleswig-Holstein Question, they both proved equally diligent in doing so. After the victory over Austria in 1866, Prussia began internally asserting its authority to speak for the German states and defend German interests, while Austria began directing more and more of its attention to possessions in the Balkans. The victory over France in 1871 expanded Prussian hegemony in the German states (aside from Austria) to the international level. With the proclamation of Wilhelm as

2372:, a permanent national parliament, and a unified Germany, possibly under the leadership of the Prussian king. This seemed to be the most logical course since Prussia was the strongest of the German states, as well as the largest in geographic size. Meanwhile, center-right revolutionaries sought some kind of expanded suffrage within their states and potentially, a form of loose unification. Finally, the Polish majority living in the share of Polish territory annexed by Prussia 2896:, which emphasized the status of the Kingdom of Denmark as distinct from the three independent duchies. The German Confederation could use the ethnicities of the area as a rallying cry: Holstein and Lauenburg were largely of German origin and spoke German in everyday life, while Schleswig had a significant Danish population and history. Diplomatic attempts to have the November Constitution repealed collapsed, and fighting began when Prussian and Austrian troops crossed the 2944: 2293: 2791: 182: 3687: 393: 405: 4494: 2524:—a federation of German states, excluding Austria—by the free agreement of the German princes. This limited union under Prussia would have almost eliminated Austrian influence on the other German states. Combined diplomatic pressure from Austria and Russia (a guarantor of the 1815 agreements that established European spheres of influence) forced Prussia to relinquish the idea of the Erfurt Union at a meeting in the small town of 9433: 4957: 4478: 3663: 3440:

allies—particularly the southern German states of Baden, Württemberg, and Bavaria—would join in the cause. This hope would prove futile since the 1866 treaty came into effect and united all German states militarily—if not happily—to fight against France. Instead of a war of revenge against Prussia, supported by various German allies, France engaged in a war against all of the German states without any allies of its own.

3698: 3790: 7116:(The Foundation of the Empire, 1871), Lebendiges virtuelles Museum Online, accessed 2008-12-22. German text translated: on the wishes of Wilhelm I, on the 170th anniversary of the elevation of the House of Brandenburg to princely status on January 18, 1701, the assembled German princes and high military officials proclaimed Wilhelm I as German Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at the Versailles Palace. 4854:

German cities in the thousands; considerably less educated and less affluent, their often dismal poverty dismayed many of the Germanized Jews. Many of the problems related to poverty (such as illness, overcrowded housing, unemployment, school absenteeism, refusal to learn German, etc.) emphasized their distinctiveness for not only the Christian Germans, but for the local Jewish populations as well.

3647: 3716: 2592:": Great Britain, France, Russia, and Austria, with each power having a geographic sphere of influence. France's sphere included the Iberian Peninsula and a share of influence in the Italian states. Russia's included the eastern regions of Central Europe and a balancing influence in the Balkans. Austria's sphere expanded throughout much of the Central European territories formerly held by the 2054:: the focus of German nationalism lay in the education of the people; once the populace was educated as to what was needed, they would accomplish it. The Hambach rhetoric emphasized the overall peaceable nature of German nationalism: the point was not to build barricades, a very "French" form of nationalism, but to build emotional bridges between groups. As he had done in 1819, after the 3723: 2076:(the people), if properly educated, would bring about unification on their own. Grand speeches, flags, exuberant students, and picnic lunches did not translate into a new political, bureaucratic, or administrative apparatus. While many spoke about the need for a constitution, no such document appeared from the discussions. In 1848, nationalists sought to remedy that problem. 2422:

held a fundamental distaste for the idea of accepting a crown from a popularly elected parliament: he would not accept a crown of "clay". Despite franchise requirements that often perpetuated many of the problems of sovereignty and political participation liberals sought to overcome, the Frankfurt Parliament did manage to draft a constitution and reach an agreement on the

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Rail travel changed how cities looked and how people traveled. Its impact reached throughout the social order, affecting the highest born to the lowest. Although some of the outlying German provinces were not serviced by rail until the 1890s, the majority of the population, manufacturing centers, and production centers were linked to the rail network by 1865.

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Natural factors included widespread drought in the early 1830s, and again in the 1840s, and a food crisis in the 1840s. Further complications emerged as a result of a shift in industrialization and manufacturing; as people sought jobs, they left their villages and small towns to work during the week in the cities, returning for a day and a half on weekends.

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guarantee the future stability of the international community. Let us hope, then, that you can use your energy to overcome your moth-eaten thirty tyrants of the various German states. Let us hope that in the center of Europe you can then make a unified nation out of your fifty millions. All the rest of us would eagerly and joyfully follow you."

4884:(1817–1895), to name two. Dahlmann himself died before unification, but he laid the groundwork for the nationalist histories to come through his histories of the English and French revolutions, by casting these revolutions as fundamental to the construction of a nation, and Dahlmann himself viewed Prussia as the logical agent of unification. 3776: 2177:, the military roads previously maintained for the ease of moving troops. As German states ceased to be a military crossroads, however, the roads improved; the length of hard–surfaced roads in Prussia increased from 3,800 kilometers (2,400 mi) in 1816 to 16,600 kilometers (10,300 mi) in 1852, helped in part by the invention of 1318:, who established control of the Romanized and Frankish population of Gaul in the 5th century, and began a new process of conquering the peoples east of the Rhine. In subsequent centuries the power of the Franks grew considerably. By the early 9th century AD, large parts of Europe had been united under the rule of the Frankish leader 3651: 1576:. Following the formal secession from the Empire of the majority of its constituent states, the Emperor dissolved the Holy Roman Empire. In his abdication, Francis released all former estates from their duties and obligations to him, and took upon himself solely the title of Emperor of Austria, which had been established since 1804. 4903:

nation-state; only Prussia could protect German liberties from being crushed by French or Russian influence. The story continues by drawing on Prussia's role in saving Germans from the resurgence of Napoleon's power in 1815, at Waterloo, creating some semblance of economic unity, and uniting Germans under one proud flag after 1871.

3786: 3550:); paid an indemnity, calculated (on the basis of population) as the precise equivalent of the indemnity that Napoleon Bonaparte imposed on Prussia in 1807; and accepted German administration of Paris and most of northern France, with "German troops to be withdrawn stage by stage with each installment of the indemnity payment". 2787:

more short-term opportunism and cynicism in Bismarck's manipulation of the circumstances to create a war, rather than a grand scheme to unify a nation-state. Regardless of motivation, by manipulating events of 1866 and 1870, Bismarck demonstrated the political and diplomatic skill that had caused Wilhelm to turn to him in 1862.

3803: 3410:, demanding that the King release a statement saying he would never support the installation of a Hohenzollern on the throne of Spain. Wilhelm refused to give such an encompassing statement, and he sent Bismarck a dispatch by telegram describing the French demands. Bismarck used the king's telegram, called the 3675: 2013:, which hampered intellectual leadership of the nationalist movement. Metternich was able to harness conservative outrage at the assassination to consolidate legislation that would further limit the press and constrain the rising liberal and nationalist movements. Consequently, these decrees drove the 5119:

Within the boundaries of present-day Germany... Germanic peoples such as the eastern Franks, Frisians, Saxons, Thuringians, Alemanni, and Bavarians—all speaking West Germanic dialects—had merged Germanic and borrowed Roman cultural features. It was among these groups that a German language and ethnic

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combined against France to great effect. The speed of Prussian mobilization astonished the French, and the Prussian ability to concentrate power at specific points—reminiscent of Napoleon I's strategies seventy years earlier—overwhelmed French mobilization. Utilizing their efficiently laid rail grid,

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began to focus attention on geographic space, not limiting "Germanness" to a common language. Schneckenburger wrote "The Watch on the Rhine" in a specific patriotic response to French assertions that the Rhine was France's "natural" eastern boundary. In the refrain, "Dear fatherland, dear fatherland,

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Valley without having to unload and reload. Railway lines encouraged economic activity by creating demand for commodities and by facilitating commerce. In 1850, inland shipping carried three times more freight than railroads; by 1870, the situation was reversed, and railroads carried four times more.

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assassination, Metternich used the popular demonstration at Hambach to push conservative social policy. The "Six Articles" of 28 June 1832 primarily reaffirmed the principle of monarchical authority. On 5 July, the Frankfurt Diet voted for an additional 10 articles, which reiterated existing rules on

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laid the groundwork for additional scholarship on the study of the German nation, expanding the notion of "Germany" to mean other areas beyond Prussia. A liberal professor, historian, and theologian, and generally a titan among late 19th-century scholars, Mommsen served as a delegate to the Prussian

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By the years of unification, German Jews played an important role in the intellectual underpinnings of the German professional, intellectual, and social life. The expulsion of Jews from Russia in the 1880s and 1890s complicated integration into the German public sphere. Russian Jews arrived in north

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Opposition to Prussia's strong-armed tactics surfaced in other social and political groups. Throughout the German states, city councils, liberal parliamentary members who favored a unified state, and chambers of commerce—which would see great benefits from unification—opposed any war between Prussia

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to the Budget Committee of the Prussian Chamber of Deputies on 30 September 1862, shortly after he became Minister President: "The great questions of the time will not be resolved by speeches and majority decisions—that was the great mistake of 1848 and 1849—but by iron and blood." Bismarck's words,

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disrupted relations among Great Britain, France, Austria, and Russia. In the aftermath of this disarray, the convergence of von Moltke's operational redesign, von Roon and Wilhelm's army restructure, and Bismarck's diplomacy influenced the realignment of the European balance of power. Their combined

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Crucially, both the Wartburg rally in 1817 and the Hambach Festival in 1832 had lacked any clear-cut program of unification. At Hambach, the positions of the many speakers illustrated their disparate agendas. Held together only by the idea of unification, their notions of how to achieve this did not

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provided for expressions of German unity. Military successes—especially those of Prussia—in three regional wars generated enthusiasm and pride that politicians could harness to promote unification. This experience echoed the memory of mutual accomplishment in the Napoleonic Wars, particularly in the

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Victory in the Franco-Prussian War proved the capstone of the unification process. In the first half of the 1860s, Austria and Prussia both contended to speak for the German states; both maintained they could support German interests abroad and protect German interests at home. In responding to the

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Valley—continued to support Austria. By late spring, most important states opposed Berlin's effort to reorganize the German states by force. The Prussian cabinet saw German unity as an issue of power and a question of who had the strength and will to wield that power. Meanwhile, the liberals in the

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in 1870. Historians have long debated Bismarck's role in the events leading up to the war. The traditional view, promulgated in large part by late 19th- and early 20th-century pro-Prussian historians, maintains that Bismarck's intent was always German unification. Post-1945 historians, however, see

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in 1859. This shuffling of authority within the Prussian military establishment would have important consequences. Von Roon and William (who took an active interest in military structures) began reorganizing the Prussian army, while Moltke redesigned the strategic defense of Prussia by streamlining

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the next month. He refused for a variety of reasons. Publicly, he replied that he could not accept a crown without the consent of the actual states, by which he meant the princes. Privately, he feared opposition from the other German princes and military intervention from Austria or Russia. He also

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In contrast, the coastal states already had barrier free access to international trade and did not want consumers and producers burdened with the import duties they would pay if they were within the Zollverein customs border. Hanover on the north coast formed its own customs union – the "Tax Union"

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on the heights above the small town of Hambach, in the Palatinate province of Bavaria. Carrying flags, beating drums, and singing, the participants took the better part of the morning and mid-day to arrive at the castle grounds, where they listened to speeches by nationalist orators from across the

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A common language may have been seen to serve as the basis of a nation, but as contemporary historians of 19th-century Germany noted, it took more than linguistic similarity to unify these several hundred polities. The experience of German-speaking Central Europe during the years of French hegemony

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held important gatherings in Frankfurt and Berlin during which German intellectuals developed their own form of republican intellectualism. Throughout the subsequent decades, beginning almost immediately after the defeat of the French, reaction against the mixing of Jews and Christians limited the

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River (Baden, Württemberg, and Bavaria) signed separate treaties requiring them to pay indemnities and to form alliances bringing them into Prussia's sphere of influence. Austria's influence over the German states may have been broken, but the war also splintered the spirit of pan-German unity, as

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This sphere of influence system depended upon the fragmentation of the German and Italian states, not their consolidation. Consequently, a German nation united under one banner presented significant questions. There was no readily applicable definition for who the German people would be or how far

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wrote that roads were the "veins and arteries of the body politic..." and predicted that they would promote freedom, independence and prosperity.As people moved around, they came into contact with others, on trains, at hotels, in restaurants, and for some, at fashionable resorts such as the spa in

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valleys. States more distant from the coast joined the Customs Union earlier. Not being a member mattered more for the states of south Germany, since the external tariff of the Customs Union prevented customs-free access to the coast (which gave access to international markets). Thus, by 1836, all

2114:. No amount of censorship, fines, imprisonment, or banishment, it seemed, could stem the criticism. Furthermore, it was becoming increasingly clear that both Austria and Prussia wanted to be the leaders in any resulting unification; each would inhibit the drive of the other to achieve unification. 2097:

in the German states. The man-made factors included political rivalries between members of the German confederation, particularly between the Austrians and the Prussians, and socio-economic competition among the commercial and merchant interests, and the old land-owning and aristocratic interests.

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The first, original, and truly natural boundaries of states are beyond doubt their internal boundaries. Those who speak the same language are joined to each other by a multitude of invisible bonds by nature herself, long before any human art begins; they understand each other and have the power of

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or "Greater German Solution", which would have included Austria. Unifying various states into one nation required more than some military victories, however much these might have boosted morale. It also required a rethinking of political, social, and cultural behaviors and the construction of new

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in 1871. While the conditions of the treaties binding the various German states to one another prohibited Bismarck from taking unilateral action, the politician and diplomat in him realized the impracticality of this. To get the German states to unify, Bismarck needed a single, outside enemy that

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on 10 April 1865, "The progress of humanity seems to have come to a halt, and you with your superior intelligence will know why. The reason is that the world lacks a nation possesses true leadership. Such leadership, of course, is required not to dominate other peoples but to lead them along the

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often called on the German public to sacrifice all for the cause of their great nation, but his regime did not create German nationalism: it merely capitalized on an intrinsic cultural value of German society that still remains prevalent even to this day. Furthermore, this argument maintains, the

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territories. Over the ensuing thirty years (and more) other German states joined. The Union helped to reduce protectionist barriers between the German states, especially improving the transport of raw materials and finished goods, making it both easier to move goods across territorial borders and

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Bismarck had "cut his teeth" on German politics, and German politicians, in Frankfurt: a quintessential politician, Bismarck had built his power-base by absorbing and co-opting measures from throughout the political spectrum. He was first and foremost a politician, and in this lied his strength.

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By 1870 three of the important lessons of the Austro-Prussian war had become apparent. The first lesson was that, through force of arms, a powerful state could challenge the old alliances and spheres of influence established in 1815. Second, through diplomatic maneuvering, a skilful leader could

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signed a secret agreement with the Italian government, committing each state to assist the other in a war against Austria. The next day, the Prussian delegate to the Frankfurt assembly presented a plan calling for a national constitution, a directly elected national Diet, and universal suffrage.

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nearly ruined the Central European economy. The invasion of Russia included nearly 125,000 troops from German lands, and the loss of that army encouraged many Germans, both high- and low-born, to envision a Central Europe free of Napoleon's influence. The creation of student militias such as the

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The remainder of the letter exhorts the Germans to unification: "This role of world leadership, left vacant as things are today, might well be occupied by the German nation. You Germans, with your grave and philosophic character, might well be the ones who could win the confidence of others and

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in 1835. Although it was 6 kilometers (3.7 mi) long and only operated in daylight, it proved both profitable and popular. Within three years, 141 kilometers (88 mi) of track had been laid, by 1840, 462 kilometers (287 mi), and by 1860, 11,157 kilometers (6,933 mi). Lacking a

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If the Wartburg and Hambach rallies had lacked a constitution and administrative apparatus, that problem was addressed between 1867 and 1871. Yet, as Germans discovered, grand speeches, flags, and enthusiastic crowds, a constitution, a political reorganization, and the provision of an imperial

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hypothesis attributed their power to the absence of a revolutionary breakthrough by the middle classes, or by peasants in combination with the urban workers, in 1848 and again in 1871. Recent research into the role of the Grand Bourgeoisie—which included bankers, merchants, industrialists, and

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is a simple alternative between Prussia and Austria. In these states, German life has its positive and negative poles—in the former, all the interests are national and reformative, in the latter, all that are dynastic and destructive. The German question is not a constitutional question but a

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the day before, helped to turn the tide of combat against the French. The Prussian cavalry pursued the defeated French in the evening of 18 June, sealing the allied victory. From the German perspective, the actions of Blücher's troops at Waterloo, and the combined efforts at Leipzig, offered a

4891:, published in 1879, has perhaps a misleading title: it privileges the history of Prussia over the history of other German states, and it tells the story of the German-speaking peoples through the guise of Prussia's destiny to unite all German states under its leadership. The creation of this 3210:

There is, in political geography, no Germany proper to speak of. There are Kingdoms and Grand Duchies, and Duchies and Principalities, inhabited by Germans, and each separately ruled by an independent sovereign with all the machinery of State. Yet there is a natural undercurrent tending to a

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The economic, social and cultural dislocation of ordinary people, the economic hardship of an economy in transition, and the pressures of meteorological disasters all contributed to growing problems in Central Europe. The failure of most of the governments to deal with the food crisis of the

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Problematically, the built-in Austrian dominance failed to take into account Prussia's 18th-century emergence in Imperial politics. This impractical solution did not reflect the new status of Prussia in the overall scheme. Although the Prussian army had been dramatically defeated in the 1806

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is the Latin name for Prussia) established Prussia as Germany's savior; it was the destiny of all Germans to be united, this myth maintains, and it was Prussia's destiny to accomplish this. According to this story, Prussia played the dominant role in bringing the German states together as a

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argued that national character reflected geographic influence, linking landscape to people. Concurrent with this idea, movements to preserve old fortresses and historic sites emerged, and these particularly focused on the Rhineland, the site of so many confrontations with France and Spain.

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The humiliating capture of the French emperor and the loss of the French army itself, which marched into captivity at a makeshift camp in the Saarland ("Camp Misery"), threw the French government into turmoil; Napoleon's energetic opponents overthrew his government and proclaimed the

4596:, the federal council of deputies from the states, in and over which Prussia had a powerful influence; Prussia could appoint 17 of 58 delegates with only 14 votes needed for a veto. Prussia thus exercised influence in both bodies, with executive power vested in the Prussian King as 3439:

Napoleon III had tried to secure territorial concessions from both sides before and after the Austro-Prussian War, but despite his role as mediator during the peace negotiations, he ended up with nothing. He then hoped that Austria would join in a war of revenge and that its former

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wrote guidebooks to different cities and regions of Central Europe, indicating places to stay, sites to visit, and giving a short history of castles, battlefields, famous buildings, and famous people. His guides also included distances, roads to avoid, and hiking paths to follow.

3738: 3657: 3844: 2991:, Bismarck created a diplomatic environment in which Austria declared war on Prussia. The dramatic prelude to the war occurred largely in Frankfurt, where the two powers claimed to speak for all the German states in the parliament. In April 1866, the Prussian representative in 1149:

took no account of Prussia's growing strength within and declined to create a second coalition of the German states under Prussia's influence, and so failed to foresee that Prussia (Kingdom of Prussia) would rise to challenge Austria for leadership of the German peoples. This

1491:, outside of those ruled by the emperor directly, identified themselves mainly with their prince rather than with the Empire or the nation as a whole. However, by the 19th century, transportation and communications improvements started to bring these regions closer together. 3814: 3813: 3678: 4600:, who appointed the federal chancellor. The chancellor was accountable solely to, and served entirely at the discretion of, the Emperor. Officially, the chancellor functioned as a one-man cabinet and was responsible for the conduct of all state affairs; in practice, the 2190:. Water transportation also improved. The blockades on the Rhine had been removed by Napoleon's orders, but by the 1820s, steam engines freed riverboats from the cumbersome system of men and animals that towed them upstream. By 1846, 180 steamers plied German rivers and 2110:) and several seasons of bad weather, encouraged many to think that the rich and powerful had no interest in their problems. Those in authority were concerned about the growing unrest, political and social agitation among the working classes, and the disaffection of the 3846: 3775: 3764: 3695: 4731:(1872–78) that followed political, economic, and administrative unification attempted to address, with a remarkable lack of success, some of the contradictions in German society. In particular, it involved a struggle over language, education, and religion. A policy of 3726: 4823:, Jews in the former Habsburg territories had enjoyed considerable economic and legal privileges that their counterparts in other German-speaking territories did not: they could own land, for example, and they did not have to live in a Jewish quarter (also called the 3661: 1588:(1804–1814), popular German nationalism thrived in the reorganized German states. Due in part to the shared experience, albeit under French dominance, various justifications emerged to identify "Germany" as a potential future single state. For the German philosopher 3685: 3676: 3080:

and Austria. They believed any such conflict would only serve the interests of royal dynasties. Their own interests, which they understood as "civil" or "bourgeois", seemed irrelevant. Public opinion also opposed Prussian domination. Catholic populations along the

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geographically central organizing feature (such as a national capital), the rails were laid in webs, linking towns and markets within regions, regions within larger regions, and so on. As the rail network expanded, it became cheaper to transport goods: in 1840, 18

2017:

underground, restricted the publication of nationalist materials, expanded censorship of the press and private correspondence, and limited academic speech by prohibiting university professors from encouraging nationalist discussion. The decrees were the subject of

3797: 3646: 3705: 3307:

offered lenient terms to Austria but its relationship with the new nation-state of Italy underwent major restructuring. Although the Austrians were far more successful in the military field against Italian troops, the monarchy lost the important province of

3060:), supported complete demobilization within the Confederation. These individual governments rejected the potent combination of enticing promises and subtle (or outright) threats Bismarck used to try to gain their support against the Habsburgs. The Prussian 1786:), meaning that large portions of both Prussia and Austria were left outside. In recognition of the imperial position traditionally held by the Habsburgs, the emperors of Austria became the titular presidents of this parliament. Despite the nomenclature of 3736: 3652: 3730: 3624:

Though often characterized as a federation of monarchs, the German Empire, strictly speaking, federated a group of 26 constituent entities with different forms of government, ranging from the main four constitutional monarchies to the three republican

3430:

Emperor Napoleon III (left) at Sedan, on 2 September 1870, seated next to Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, holding Napoleon's surrendered sword. The defeat of the French army destabilized Napoleon's regime; a revolution in Paris established the

3664: 3680: 1924:, shifted political, social, and cultural relationships within the German states. In this context, one can detect its roots in the experience of Germans in the Napoleonic period. Furthermore, implicit and sometimes explicit promises made during the 3780: 3758: 2742:

agendas established Prussia as the leading German power through a combination of foreign diplomatic triumphs—backed up by the possible use of Prussian military might—and an internal conservatism tempered by pragmatism, which came to be known as

2441:

Scholars of German history have engaged in decades of debate over how the successes and failures of the Frankfurt Parliament contribute to the historiographical explanations of German nation building. One school of thought, which emerged after

2636:

Other nationalists had high hopes for the German unification movement, and the frustration with lasting German unification after 1850 seemed to set the national movement back. Revolutionaries associated national unification with progress. As

1414:. Among the German-speaking states, the Holy Roman Empire's administrative and legal mechanisms provided a venue to resolve disputes between peasants and landlords, between jurisdictions, and within jurisdictions. Through the organization of 3315:

The end of Austrian dominance of the German states shifted Austria's attention to the Balkans. The reality of defeat for Austria also caused a reevaluation of internal divisions, local autonomy, and liberalism. In 1867, the Austrian emperor

2464:(distinctive path) of 20th-century German history. Failure to achieve unification in 1848, this argument holds, resulted in the late formation of the nation-state in 1871, which in turn delayed the development of positive national values. 2063:

led half of the Bavarian army to the Palatinate to "subdue" the province. Several hapless Hambach speakers were arrested, tried and imprisoned; one, Karl Heinrich Brüggemann (1810–1887), a law student and representative of the secretive

1997:

in 1817 the first real movements among the students were formed – fraternities and student organizations emerged. The colors black, red and gold were symbolic of this. Agitation by student organizations led such conservative leaders as

3191:

and his troops arrived late, and in the wrong place. Once he arrived, however, he ordered his troops immediately into the fray. The battle was a decisive victory for Prussia and forced the Habsburgs to end the war with the unfavorable

4829:, or "Jews' alley"). They could also attend universities and enter the professions. During the Revolutionary and Napoleonic eras, many of the previously strong barriers between Jews and Christians broke down. Napoleon had ordered the 3816: 3815: 3689: 3000:(State Parliament), a relationship characterized by Bismarck's cajoling and riding roughshod over the representatives. These skeptics saw the proposal as a ploy to enhance Prussian power rather than a progressive agenda of reform. 3769: 3124:. France promised aid, but it came late and was insufficient. Complicating the situation for Austria, the Italian mobilization on Austria's southern border required a diversion of forces away from battle with Prussia to fight the 3801: 3785: 1519:

secularized the ecclesiastical principalities and abolished most free imperial cities and these territories along with their inhabitants were absorbed by dynastic states. This transfer particularly enhanced the territories of

1478:

and the non-German-speaking entire territory of the Prussian partition of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) as well as the German-speaking Swiss cantons were outside of the Imperial borders. This became known as the practice of

3739: 3734: 3672: 1487:("small-statery") As a further consequence, there was no German national identity in development as late as 1800, mainly due to the highly autonomous or semi-independent nature of the princely states; most inhabitants of the 1233:

Despite undergoing in the later years several further changes of its name and borders, overhauls of its constitutional system, periods of limited sovereignty and interrupted unity of its territory or government, and despite

2426:

solution. While the liberals failed to achieve the unification they sought, they did manage to gain a partial victory by working with the German princes on many constitutional issues and collaborating with them on reforms.

3534:, with the city being "ineffectually bombarded". Nevertheless, in January, the Germans fired some 12,000 shells, 300–400 grenades daily into the city. On January 18, 1871, the German princes and senior military commanders 3722: 3693: 2347:

put your mind to rest / The watch stands true on the Rhine", and in such other patriotic poetry as Nicholaus Becker's "Das Rheinlied" ("The Rhine"), Germans were called upon to defend their territorial homeland. In 1807,

1770:. Its borders resembled those of its predecessor, the Holy Roman Empire (though there were some deviations e.g. Prussian territory in the Confederation was extended to include also the formerly Polish territories of the 1129:, reduced competition between and within states. Emerging modes of transportation facilitated business and recreational travel, leading to contact and sometimes conflict between and among German-speakers from throughout 3665: 3016:

in the southern regions; the Italians responded by ordering full mobilization. Despite calls for rational thought and action, Italy, Prussia, and Austria continued to rush toward armed conflict. On 1 May, Wilhelm gave

2088:

This drawing offered a satirical commentary on the prevalence of toll barriers in the many German states, circa 1834. Some states were so small that transporters loaded and reloaded their cargoes two and three times a

3810: 3808: 3807: 3806: 1908:

sought unification under nationalist principles, promoted the transition to capitalism, sought the expansion of male suffrage, among other issues. Their "radicalness" depended upon where they stood on the spectrum of

3390:, and the throne remained empty while Isabella lived in sumptuous exile in Paris. The Spanish, looking for a suitable Catholic successor, had offered the post to three European princes, each of whom was rejected by 1011: 2600:

the borders of a German nation would stretch. There was also uncertainty as to who would best lead and defend "Germany", however it was defined. Different groups offered different solutions to this problem. In the

1790:(Assembly or Parliament), this institution should in no way be construed as a broadly, or popularly, elected group of representatives. Many of the states did not have constitutions, and those that did, such as the 1654:. In October 1813, more than 500,000 combatants engaged in ferocious fighting over three days, making it the largest European land battle of the 19th century. The engagement resulted in a decisive victory for the 3802: 3704: 3658: 1952:

had sought refuge over three centuries earlier, to demonstrate in favor of national unification. Wartburg was chosen for its symbolic connection to German national character. Contemporary colored wood engraving

3811: 3809: 3805: 3683: 1450:

which effectively thwarted for centuries any serious attempts to reinforce the imperial central authority and petrified fragmentation, resulting in the German-speaking territories comprising on the eve of the

3795: 3777: 3700: 3697: 3649: 3823: 3670: 3668: 3666: 3819: 3818: 3679: 3673: 4681:

power had a counterweight in the western provinces in the form of the Grand Bourgeoisie and in the growing professional class of bureaucrats, teachers, professors, doctors, lawyers, scientists, etc.

1446:. Although they initially sought to restore central Imperial power, preserving a weak and fragmented Empire was convenient for France and Sweden, and therefore, their ensuing intervention led to the 3735: 3452:

Prussian troops were delivered to battle areas rested and prepared to fight, whereas French troops had to march for considerable distances to reach combat zones. After a number of battles, notably

2921:

two years later. The rifle enabled a Prussian soldier to fire five shots while lying prone, while its muzzle-loading counterpart could only fire one shot and had to be reloaded while standing. The

2535:

Although seemingly minor events, the Erfurt Union proposal and the Punctation of Olmütz brought the problems of influence in the German states into sharp focus. The question became not a matter of

4592:

of all males who had reached the age of 25. Furthermore, elections were generally free of chicanery, engendering pride in the national parliament. However, legislation required the consent of the

3799: 3378:. Over the following forty years, the great powers supported the Spanish monarchy, but events in 1868 would further test the old system, finally providing the external trigger needed by Bismarck. 3265:

lost some territory but kept its statehood. At the same time, the original East Prussian cradle of the Prussian statehood as well as the Prussian-held Polish- or Kashubian-speaking territories of

4751:), and the attempted creation of standardized curricula for those schools to promote and celebrate the idea of a shared past. Finally, it extended to the religion of the new Empire's population. 3116:

Although several German states initially sided with Austria, they stayed on the defensive and failed to take effective initiatives against Prussian troops. The Austrian army therefore faced the

2528:

in Moravia. In November 1850, the Prussians—specifically Radowitz and Frederick William—agreed to the restoration of the German Confederation under Austrian leadership. This became known as the

2050:

conservative to radical political spectrum. The overall content of the speeches suggested a fundamental difference between the German nationalism of the 1830s and the French nationalism of the

3798: 3831: 3774: 3773: 3733: 1904:("before March"), referring to March 1848. During this period, European liberalism gained momentum; the agenda included economic, social, and political issues. Most European liberals in the 3725: 3690: 2059:

censorship, restricted political organizations, and limited other public activity. Furthermore, the member states agreed to send military assistance to any government threatened by unrest.

3414:, as a template for a short statement to the press. With its wording shortened and sharpened by Bismarck—and further alterations made in the course of its translation by the French agency 1666:

came to an end. Success encouraged the Coalition forces to pursue Napoleon across the Rhine; his army and his government collapsed, and the victorious Coalition incarcerated Napoleon on

1113:

models of social and political organization; its German manifestation emphasized the importance of tradition, education, and linguistic unity. Economically, the creation of the Prussian

3688: 3686: 1642:

The debacle in Russia loosened the French grip on the German princes. In 1813, Napoleon mounted a campaign in the German states to bring them back into the French orbit; the subsequent

3793: 3787: 3842: 3837: 3779: 3778: 3768: 3728: 3703: 2140:

less costly to buy, transport, and sell raw materials. This was particularly important for the emerging industrial centers, most of which were located in the Prussian regions of the

1960:

Pro-nationalist participants march to the ruins of Hambach Castle in 1832. Students and some professionals, and their spouses, predominated. They carried the flag of the underground

3717: 3694: 2368:, for a parliamentary assembly that would have the responsibility to draft a constitution. Ultimately, many of the left-wing revolutionaries hoped this constitution would establish 3792: 3791: 2472:

More recent scholarship has rejected this idea, claiming that Germany did not have an actual "distinctive path" any more than any other nation, a historiographic idea known as

2123:, an institution key to unifying the German states economically, helped to create a larger sense of economic unification. Initially conceived by the Prussian Finance Minister 3845: 3781: 3732: 3727: 1831:

at the beginning of that century, their domains had steadily increased through inheritance and war. Prussia's consolidated strength had become especially apparent during the

3757: 3737: 3650: 2469:"failure" of 1848 reaffirmed latent aristocratic longings among the German middle class; consequently, this group never developed a self-conscious program of modernization. 2162: 4775:

in particular came under scrutiny; some Germans, and especially Bismarck, feared that the Catholics' connection to the papacy might make them less loyal to the nation. As

3575:, he had not done it alone. Unification was achieved by building on a tradition of legal collaboration under the Holy Roman Empire and economic collaboration through the 2722:

beginning in 1860 because both parliament and William—via his minister of war—wanted control over the military budget. William, crowned King Wilhelm I in 1861, appointed

788: 2771:. Bismarck sought to link a unified state to the Hohenzollern dynasty, which for some historians remains one of Bismarck's primary contributions to the creation of the 1873:" among common folk. Even after the end of the Holy Roman Empire, this competition influenced the growth and development of nationalist movements in the 19th century. 3830: 3771: 3770: 3767: 3766: 3765: 3754: 3742: 2338:"), Fallersleben called upon sovereigns throughout the German states to recognize the unifying characteristics of the German people. Such other patriotic songs as " 2400:, which weighted votes based on the amount of taxes paid and therefore gave some electoral groups—chiefly the wealthier, landed ones—greater representative power. 4612:) retained some autonomy, but they underwent major reforms to coordinate with Prussian military principles and came under federal government control in wartime. 974: 3824: 3822: 3284:

Through military victory, Prussia under Bismarck's influence had overcome Austria's active resistance to the idea of a unified Germany. The states south of the

3655: 2173:

By the early 19th century, German roads had deteriorated to an appalling extent. Travelers, both foreign and local, complained bitterly about the state of the

3838: 3836: 3835: 3712: 3755: 3828: 3761: 3707: 3840: 3825: 4868:

Another important element in nation-building, the story of the heroic past, fell to such nationalist German historians as the liberal constitutionalist

2657:

In the spring of 1834, while at Berne, Mazzini and a dozen refugees from Italy, Poland and Germany founded a new association with the grandiose name of

1422:), groups of states consolidated resources and promoted regional and organizational interests, including economic cooperation and military protection. 3833: 3832: 3756: 3721: 3720: 3719: 2030:) (1820), in which he concluded that it was both impossible and undesirable to repress the free utterance of public opinion by reactionary measures. 1560:, provided for the mediatization of over a hundred petty princes and counts and the absorption of their territories, as well as those of hundreds of 4791:

of 1875 abolished religious orders, ended state subsidies to the Catholic Church, and removed religious protections from the Prussian constitution.

3841: 1819:, it had made a spectacular comeback at Waterloo. Consequently, Prussian leaders expected to play a pivotal role in German politics. Ever since the 8929: 3827: 3826: 3784: 2925:

resulted in victory for the combined armies of Prussia and Austria, and the two countries won control of Schleswig and Holstein in the concluding

9612: 9468: 3571:

of 10 May 1871), which formally ended the war. Although Bismarck had led the transformation of Germany from a loose confederation into a federal

1359: 1087: 674: 4807:

towers 40 meters (131 ft) above the town of Rüdesheim. She holds a crown in her right hand and carries a sword at her side. The Niederwald

2241:

a few hours faster, and Metternich refused to ride in one at all. Others wondered if the railways were an "evil" that threatened the landscape:

5191: 2213:

called the railways and the Customs Union "Siamese Twins", emphasizing their important relationship to one another. He was not alone: the poet

3843: 3834: 3783: 3782: 3701: 2364:

sought unification of Germany under a single constitution. The revolutionaries pressured various state governments, particularly those in the

3759: 3724: 1174:, the greater Germany solution (Germany with Austria or its German-speaking part), ultimately settled in favor of the former solution in the 5164:. Studies Presented to International Commission for the History of Representative and Parliamentary Institutions. Vol. LII. Bruxelles. 2996:

German liberals were justifiably skeptical of this plan, having witnessed Bismarck's difficult and ambiguous relationship with the Prussian

2850:

could guarantee Austria's sphere of influence in Central Europe, thus achieving Prussian hegemony in Germany and ending the dualism debate.

9526: 5059:

Furthermore, since he trusted neither Moltke nor Roon, he was reluctant to enter a military enterprise over which he would have no control.

4725:

is the creation of a national culture, frequently—although not necessarily—through deliberate national policy. In the new German nation, a

751: 9521: 4846:

in which they intentionally adopted German modes of dress and speech, working to insert themselves into the emerging 19th-century German

4776: 2045:, its participants celebrated fraternity, liberty, and national unity. Celebrants gathered in the town below and marched to the ruins of 1744:

Generally, an enlarged Prussia and the 38 other states consolidated from the mediatized territories of 1803 were confederated within the

1734: 1238:, the polity resulting from the unification process continues its existence, surviving until today in its contemporary form known as the 967: 4643:

hypothesis attributed Germany's difficult 20th century to the weak political, legal, and economic basis of the new empire. The Prussian

2296:

German linguistic area (green) and political boundaries around 1841 (grey) in comparison to the text's geographic references (bold blue)

5106: 3340:("Revenge for Sadova"), illustrating anti-Prussian sentiment in France—a problem that would accelerate in the months leading up to the 2885: 3760: 3616:

metaphors about "us" and "them". Who were the new members of this new nation? What did they stand for? How were they to be organized?

9622: 9219: 3753: 3563:, Prussia assumed the leadership of the new empire. The southern states became officially incorporated into a unified Germany at the 3093:

Frankfurt assembly saw German unity as a process of negotiation that would lead to the distribution of power among the many parties.

2677:

The convergence of leadership in politics and diplomacy by Bismarck, left, reorganization of the army and its training techniques by

2321: 2214: 938: 318: 4666:

and the industrial leadership (the latter particularly important in the Rhineland) in the ongoing development of the Second Empire.

3356:

in exchange for its neutrality in the war. These annexations did not happen, resulting in animosity from Napoleon towards Bismarck.

2221:, which he began with a list of commodities that had contributed more to German unity than politics or diplomacy. Historians of the 1980:

Despite considerable conservative reaction, ideas of unity joined with notions of popular sovereignty in German-speaking lands. The

1597:

continuing to make themselves understood more and more clearly; they belong together and are by nature one and an inseparable whole.

2888:

which replaced The Law of Sjælland and The Law of Jutland, which meant the new constitution applied to the Duchy of Schleswig. The

2864:

The first episode in the saga of German unification under Bismarck came with the Schleswig-Holstein Question. On 15 November 1863,

1762: 1679: 9477: 4673:

did, indeed, continue to control the officer corps, they did not dominate social, political, and economic matters as much as the

2312:, also assembled a compendium of folk tales and fables, which highlighted the story-telling parallels between different regions. 1355: 4819:

remained another vulnerable population in the new German nation-state. Since 1780, after emancipation by the Holy Roman Emperor

3418:—the Ems Dispatch raised an angry furor in France. The French public, still aggravated over the defeat at Sadová, demanded war. 2909:, but this proved futile. The Danes were no match for the combined Prussian and Austrian forces and their modern armaments. The 2612: 1086:'s foundation, although the legally meaningful events relevant to the accomplishment of unification occurred on 1 January 1871 ( 960: 306: 8133: 1062:

The process symbolically concluded when most of south German states joined the North German Confederation with the ceremonial

9817: 8864: 8839: 8805: 8787: 8759: 8703: 8499: 8400: 8288: 8264: 8229: 8199: 8177: 8143: 8010: 7983: 7956: 7926: 7899: 7829: 7809: 7790: 7730: 7680: 7661: 7521: 7487: 6958: 6897: 6635: 6575: 6514: 6409: 6244: 6176: 5551: 5470: 5284: 5210: 4975: 3752: 3750: 3748: 3064:

understood that its only supporters among the German states against the Habsburgs were two small principalities bordering on

2573: 1999: 1606: 800: 4669:

Additional studies of different groups in Wilhelmine Germany have all contributed to a new view of the period. Although the

4658:

entrepreneurs—in the construction of the new state has largely refuted the claim of political and economic dominance of the

4588:, which—in contrast to the parliament of Prussia—gave citizens representation on the basis of elections by direct and equal 1932:

and widespread participation in the political process, promises that largely went unfulfilled once peace had been achieved.

1209:

to reorganize their political, economic, military, and diplomatic relationships in the 19th century. Reaction to Danish and

8922: 2577: 1541: 1098: 3789: 3788: 421: 10076: 9461: 9113: 4442: 4079: 4058: 3352:, Bismarck had let it be understood (or Napoleon had thought he understood) that France might annex parts of Belgium and 3321: 3298: 3188: 3106: 3073: 3069: 2624:

debate that had dominated the politics of the German states and Austro-Prussian diplomacy since the 1701 creation of the

1464: 806: 480: 330: 174: 150: 145: 138: 133: 6865: 10066: 9898: 9774: 8989: 3374:

At the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Metternich and his conservative allies had reestablished the Spanish monarchy under

2738: 565: 409: 5662: 3484: 3211:

national feeling and toward a union of the Germans into one great nation, ruled by one common head as a national unit.

10096: 9953: 9881: 9847: 8773: 8739: 8685: 8664: 8639: 8625: 8611: 8597: 8569: 8555: 8541: 8527: 8513: 8476: 8457: 8435: 8359: 8332: 8314: 8112: 8060: 7844: 7760: 7633: 7614: 7332: 7291: 7147: 6131: 6073: 6006: 5984: 5370: 5243: 4581: 3749: 3747: 3746: 3741: 3740: 3516: 3365: 3242: 3241:. Its former leading state, the Austrian Empire, was along with the majority of its allies excluded from the ensuing 3125: 2815: 1741:, which, in some cases, suppressed the aspirations of the various nationalities, including the Germans and Italians. 1091: 1063: 1037: 693: 680: 69: 65: 5098: 2009:

in March 1819 by a radical student seeking unification was followed on 20 September 1819 by the proclamation of the

1614:

contributed to a sense of common cause to remove the French invaders and reassert control over their own lands. The

9249: 4926: 4379: 3504:

appears in white. The Grand Duke of Baden stands beside Wilhelm, leading the cheers. Crown Prince Friedrich, later

1694:(18 June 1815). The critical role played by Blücher's troops, especially after having to retreat from the field at 1194: 824: 485: 294: 289: 7113: 6033: 5103: 1687: 9412: 9254: 8915: 5026:

crushed the pride many Prussians felt in their soldiers. During their Russian exile, several officers, including

3395: 3309: 2859: 2508:

in Frankfurt, during the meeting of the Parliament there, March 1848–49. The sword was intended to symbolize the

2209:

As important as these improvements were, they could not compete with the impact of the railway. German economist

1778:, while Austrian part was extended to include in the years 1818–1850 also the formerly Polish territories of the 3324:) in which he gave his Hungarian holdings equal status with his Austrian domains, creating the Dual Monarchy of 2229:, wrote: "The German empire was founded with the construction of the first railway..." Not everyone greeted the 10071: 9791: 9786: 9454: 9239: 9134: 4863: 4816: 3531: 2397: 2373: 2361: 1895: 1866: 1836: 1545: 234: 1798:

on strict property requirements which effectively limited suffrage to a small portion of the male population.

1101:

in 1806, the German-speaking people of the old Empire had a common linguistic, cultural, and legal tradition.

9801: 9264: 9022: 4908: 4820: 3744: 3743: 3505: 2834:

of 1866. Finally, France—fearing Hohenzollern encirclement—declared war on Prussia in 1870, resulting in the

2727: 2436: 1894:

The period of Austrian and Prussian police-states and vast censorship between the Congress of Vienna and the

1852: 1374:). The states of the Holy Roman Empire ranged in size from the small and complex territories of the princely 1186: 1110: 505: 397: 4833:

throughout territories under French hegemony. Like their French counterparts, wealthy German Jews sponsored

9862: 9707: 9581: 4990: 4869: 3564: 3448: 2843: 2702: 2682: 2649:

German unification had also been viewed as a prerequisite for the creation of a European federation, which

1609:, erected for the centennial in 1913, honors the efforts of the German people in the victory over Napoleon. 1230:, the political and administrative unification in 1871 at least temporarily solved the problem of dualism. 848: 2767:

had shifted from the liberal and democratic character of 1848 to accommodate Bismarck's more conservative

1855:

tried to restore Habsburg hegemony in the Holy Roman Empire, Frederick countered with the creation of the

9978: 9737: 9668: 9259: 9203: 8656: 4662:

as a social group. This newer scholarship has demonstrated the importance of the merchant classes of the

4355: 3179:

A quick peace was essential to keep Russia from entering the conflict on Austria's side. In the day-long

2807: 2396:

Their pressure resulted in a variety of elections, based on different voting qualifications, such as the

1990:

Castle in October 1817, contributed to a growing sense of unity among German speakers of Central Europe.

1615: 1504: 1239: 1071: 1036:' multi-ethnic Austria or its German-speaking part). It commenced on 18 August 1866 with adoption of the 282: 40: 9224: 6836: 3101: 2019: 1771: 1193:

of 1866 to include the remaining independent German states into a single entity or simply to expand the

539: 10091: 10086: 9769: 9742: 9294: 9032: 9005: 7887: 4331: 3568: 3539: 3274: 3008:

The debate over the proposed national constitution became moot when news of Italian troop movements in

1659: 1643: 1553: 1533: 1383: 1366:

to the south and west by the late 15th century, but also to emphasize the new importance of the German

1215: 1190: 1041: 702: 270: 88: 83: 1145:

leadership of the German Confederation, designed to replace the Holy Roman Empire. The negotiators at

9607: 9329: 9244: 9154: 7864:

The History of Europe from 1862–1914: From the Accession of Bismarck to the Outbreak of the Great War

4585: 4577: 4421: 3763: 3762: 3317: 3281:, the new state obtained its own constitution, flag, and governmental and administrative structures. 3278: 3180: 3110: 2694: 2279:. The effects of the railway were immediate. For example, raw materials could travel up and down the 1865:

lay firmly rooted in old Imperial politics. Those balance of power manoeuvers were epitomized by the

1627: 1537: 1056: 684: 8984: 8040: 7710: 5039:

They traced the roots of the German language, and drew its different lines of development together..

3974: 3472:

and the French capital of Paris. They captured Napoleon III and took an entire army as prisoners at

3457: 2763:

By 1862, when Bismarck made his speech, the idea of a German nation-state in the peaceful spirit of

2564:

Unification under these conditions raised a basic diplomatic problem. The possibility of German (or

1528:. In 1806, after a successful invasion of Prussia and the defeat of Prussia at the joint battles of 1521: 1121:(customs union) in 1818, and its subsequent expansion to include other states of the Austria (under 361: 356: 10081: 9968: 9634: 9569: 9407: 9284: 6841: 5823: 5458: 4100: 3535: 3399: 3012:

and near the Venetian border reached Vienna in April 1866. The Austrian government ordered partial

2819: 2714: 2560:

question of power; and the Prussian monarchy is now wholly German, while that of Austria cannot be.

1816: 1810:

Boundaries of the German Confederation. Prussia is blue, Austria-Hungary yellow, and the rest grey.

1529: 1004: 896: 162: 157: 2903:

Initially, the Danes attempted to defend their country using an ancient earthen wall known as the

2124: 776: 10031: 10021: 9963: 9903: 9749: 9576: 9559: 9350: 9229: 9163: 9105: 8902: 7654:

The Peculiarities of German History: Bourgeois Society and Politics in Nineteenth-Century Germany

4913:

House of Representatives from 1863 to 1866 and 1873 to 1879; he also served as a delegate to the

4873: 3018: 2926: 2865: 2823: 2756: 2487: 2324:

expressed not only the linguistic unity of the German people but also their geographic unity. In

2257: 1925: 1338:, along with some adjacent lands, had been in existence for over a thousand years; dating to the 1314:", based upon these ethnic designations, under the dominance of the western Franks starting with 890: 860: 842: 836: 522: 246: 222: 217: 186: 9143: 4980: 4788: 3605: 2529: 1411: 1197:

of the Kingdom of Prussia. They conclude that factors in addition to the strength of Bismarck's

10061: 9759: 9542: 9299: 9274: 9185: 5320: 4689: 4400: 3461: 3403: 3375: 3304: 3258: 3234: 3193: 2893: 2847: 2706: 2572:

system created in 1815 at the Congress of Vienna. The principal architects of this convention,

2516:

After the Frankfurt Parliament disbanded, Frederick William IV, under the influence of General

2409: 2348: 2330: 2225:

later regarded the railways as the first indicator of a unified state; the patriotic novelist,

2107: 2103: 2060: 1779: 1699:

rallying point of pride and enthusiasm. This interpretation became a key building block of the

1589: 1270:(blue), besides a large number of small states (many of them too small to be shown on the map). 1175: 812: 489: 442: 8098: 4516: 1512: 416: 9908: 9764: 9586: 9496: 9279: 7723:

The Nation as a Local Metaphor: Württemberg, Imperial Germany, and National Memory, 1871–1918

6890:

Diglossia and Power: Language Policies and Practice in the Nineteenth Century Habsburg Empire

6437: 6433: 4918: 4784: 4780: 4310: 4240: 3527: 3523: 3432: 3344:. The Austro-Prussian War also damaged relations with the French government. At a meeting in 2877: 2719: 2607: 2581: 2548: 2300:

As travel became easier, faster, and less expensive, Germans started to see unity in factors

2234: 2187: 1920:, stimulated by the experience of Germans in the Napoleonic period and initially allied with 1564:, by the Confederation's member-states. Several states were promoted to kingdoms such as the 1407: 1379: 1141:

in 1814–1815 after the Napoleonic Wars endorsed Austrian dominance in Central Europe through

902: 884: 712: 509: 258: 229: 8897: 5093: 4632: 2616:("Greater Germany") solution, the German states would be united under the leadership of the 9913: 9832: 9827: 9547: 9402: 9324: 9304: 9289: 9172: 9125: 9010: 4121: 4030: 4009: 3497: 3465: 3387: 3312:. The Habsburgs ceded Venetia to France, which then formally transferred control to Italy. 3262: 3238: 3041: 3037: 3021:

command over the Prussian armed forces, and the next day he began full-scale mobilization.

2922: 2889: 2690: 2606:("Lesser Germany") solution, the German states would be united under the leadership of the 2418: 2404: 1968: 1832: 1791: 1775: 1749: 1719: 1525: 1516: 1362:(new title was adopted partly because the Empire lost most of its territories in Italy and 1235: 1134: 1126: 794: 782: 543: 530: 474: 385: 380: 373: 368: 169: 20: 9381: 2685:(right) placed Prussia among the most powerful states in European affairs after the 1860s. 1636: 8: 9893: 9702: 9656: 9627: 9345: 9269: 9194: 9181: 8606:, Contributions to the study of world history, no. 50. Westport, Conn., Greenwood, 1995. 7976:

The Politics of Harmony: Civil Service, Liberalism, and Social Reform in Baden, 1800–1850

5027: 5015: 4970: 4830: 4584:. With this constitution, the new Germany acquired some democratic features: notably the 4546: 3547: 3453: 3394:, who served as regional power-broker. Finally, in 1870 the Regency offered the crown to 3341: 3250: 3117: 2988: 2938: 2918: 2835: 2831: 2827: 2783: 2569: 2565: 2517: 2384: 2343: 2182: 2055: 2006: 1929: 1870: 1844: 1840: 1738: 1622:) at the cost of also Prussian-conquered Polish territories, as well as his campaigns on 1500: 1447: 1219: 1102: 770: 708: 698: 8548:

Blood and Iron: From Bismarck to Hitler the Von Moltke Family's Impact On German History

8430:. American university studies. Series IX, History, vol. 84. New York, Peter Lang, 1990. 7783:

Rethinking German History: Nineteenth-Century Germany and the Origins of the Third Reich

7514:

Germany's Transient Pasts: Preservation and the National Memory in the Twentieth Century

7447: 5928: 2846:'s military strategy, Prussia demonstrated that none of the European signatories of the 1250: 1088:

accession of South German states and constitutional adoption of the name "German Empire"

10026: 9993: 9958: 9837: 9754: 9732: 9712: 9678: 9370: 9057: 8974: 8969: 8964: 8161: 8028: 7698: 6846: 6221: 6213: 6196:(January 1988). "German History before Hitler: The Debate about the German Sonderweg". 6119: 5185: 4881: 4605: 4589: 4184: 3918: 3890: 3246: 3219: 2987:

The second episode in Bismarck's unification efforts occurred in 1866. In concert with

2869: 2799: 2638: 2625: 2481: 2369: 2339: 1956: 1910: 1730: 1691: 1631: 1573: 1565: 1508: 1471: 1443: 1403: 1402:; ecclesiastical territories, also of varying sizes and influence, such as the wealthy 1391: 1387: 1350:

took power to rule East Francia in 919. The realm later in 962 made up the core of the

1335: 1267: 1210: 1138: 1075: 1052: 872: 830: 657: 561: 349: 344: 210: 205: 113: 108: 9446: 7919:

The Making of the Jewish Middle Class: Women, Family, and Identity in Imperial Germany

6630:(New ed.). Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. pp. 90–108, 324–333. 6506: 5324: 3421: 499: 43:

when the Duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg was merged into the Kingdom of Prussia on 1 July 1876

10013: 9998: 9874: 9842: 9796: 9314: 9234: 9077: 8979: 8870: 8860: 8835: 8811: 8801: 8783: 8769: 8755: 8735: 8699: 8681: 8660: 8635: 8621: 8607: 8593: 8579: 8565: 8551: 8537: 8523: 8509: 8495: 8487: 8472: 8453: 8431: 8396: 8365: 8355: 8328: 8310: 8284: 8260: 8235: 8225: 8195: 8173: 8139: 8108: 8056: 8006: 7979: 7952: 7922: 7895: 7867: 7840: 7825: 7805: 7786: 7756: 7726: 7676: 7657: 7629: 7610: 7554: 7527: 7517: 7483: 7338: 7328: 7297: 7287: 7143: 6954: 6893: 6631: 6571: 6510: 6405: 6240: 6225: 6172: 6137: 6127: 6069: 6002: 5980: 5604: 5557: 5547: 5476: 5466: 5376: 5366: 5280: 5249: 5239: 5206: 5165: 4834: 4772: 4628: 4609: 3946: 3501: 3444: 3266: 2914: 2873: 2839: 2803: 2723: 2718:

operational command. Prussian army reforms (especially how to pay for them) caused a

2710: 2678: 2617: 2593: 1994: 1767: 1675: 1651: 1647: 1569: 1488: 1460: 1456: 1435: 1351: 1259: 1255: 1182: 1045: 926: 914: 866: 818: 594: 569: 126: 121: 4842:

intellectual impact of these salons. Beyond the salons, Jews continued a process of

3468:, the Prussians defeated the main French armies and advanced on the primary city of 2260:, which was the first passenger or freight rail line in the German lands, connected 1618:(1806–07) resulting in his decision to re-establish a form of Polish statehood (the 10008: 9888: 9683: 9617: 9564: 9506: 9095: 9086: 8793: 8217: 8187: 8165: 8129: 7778: 7645: 7602: 7320: 7284:

Reshaping the German Right: Radical Nationalism and Political Change After Bismarck

6628:

Absolute Destruction: Military Culture and the Practices of War in Imperial Germany

6365: 6338: 6205: 6061: 5157: 4663: 4649: 4106: 3626: 3509: 3129: 3009: 2650: 2602: 2450:, maintains that the failure of German liberals in the Frankfurt Parliament led to 2034: 2010: 1973: 1475: 1439: 1415: 1363: 1347: 1339: 1275: 878: 854: 8678:

Schooling and Society: The Politics of Education in Prussia and Bavaria, 1750–1900

2814:

Three episodes proved fundamental to the unification of Germany. First, the death

2068:, was sent to Prussia, where he was first condemned to death, but later pardoned. 9988: 9983: 9651: 9511: 9491: 9397: 9376: 9363: 8957: 8952: 8878: 8819: 8709: 8696:

The Course of German Nationalism: From Frederick the Great to Bismarck, 1763–1867

8428:

Modernizing Germany: Karl Biedermann's career in the kingdom of Saxony, 1835–1901

8406: 8373: 8338: 8294: 8276: 8243: 8205: 8149: 8102: 8083: 8066: 8016: 7989: 7962: 7944: 7932: 7905: 7875: 7850: 7766: 7748: 7736: 7686: 7562: 7535: 7493: 7346: 7305: 7153: 6964: 6903: 6641: 6581: 6415: 6397: 6250: 6232: 6182: 6145: 6110: 6079: 6012: 5612: 5565: 5484: 5384: 5290: 5257: 5216: 5173: 4877: 4744: 4601: 4163: 3611: 3493: 3473: 3325: 3057: 2585: 2556: 2051: 1945: 1828: 1753: 1745: 1695: 1655: 1619: 1601: 1561: 1452: 1371: 1367: 1323: 1263: 1262:(HRE) in 1789. The two biggest lands of the HRE were the German-speaking part of 1227: 1223: 1155: 1122: 992: 494: 456: 448: 198: 35: 6369: 6349: 6326: 6193: 6164: 4937:

and the vitriolic text that Treitschke often employed in the publication of his

3135: 2430: 1706:

expounded by the pro-Prussian nationalist historians later in the 19th century.

1326:(Francia) in several directions including east of the Rhine, where he conquered 1082:

on 18 January 1871; the event was later celebrated as the customary date of the

9932: 9779: 9661: 9646: 9554: 9516: 9437: 9392: 9356: 8852: 8442:

German History, 1789–1871: From the Holy Roman Empire to the Bismarckian Reich.

8320: 7164: 6623: 6209: 4962: 4892: 4714:

superstructure; and the revised Customs Union of 1867–68, still did not make a

4484: 4268: 4212: 3254: 3049: 2881: 2621: 2473: 2392:

in Frankfurt, where they laid the groundwork for electing a National Parliament

2305: 2242: 2210: 2191: 2111: 2046: 1982: 1862: 1820: 1783: 1700: 1623: 1482: 1431: 1399: 1358:

and was called the "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation" from 1512 with the

1161: 1151: 1130: 1029: 908: 688: 653: 437: 392: 241: 6499: 5831:

Economic and Social History Series, Nuffield College, Oxford, Nuffield College

3033: 2547:

was contingent upon strength. One of the former Frankfurt Parliament members,

2488:

Problem of spheres of influence: The Erfurt Union and the Punctation of Olmütz

1940: 1857: 1346:

from eastern Frankish Empire in east of the Rhine in 843, especially when the

10055: 9925: 9920: 9591: 9501: 9388: 9037: 8691: 8388: 8305:

Victoria and Albert Museum, Dept. of Prints and Drawings, and Susan Lambert.

8104:

One Europe, Many Nations: A Historical Dictionary of European National Groups

6352:(February 1999). "Asymmetrical Historical Comparison: The Case of the German 5608: 5561: 5539: 5480: 5089: 4985: 4847: 4843: 4799: 4748: 4740: 4736: 4732: 4706: 4698: 4427: 3592: 3489: 2897: 2782:

to rally all Germans behind. This opportunity arose with the outbreak of the

2772: 2764: 2698: 2313: 2253:) bemoaned the way trains destroyed the pristine quietude of German forests. 2226: 2222: 2153:

states to the south of Prussia had joined the Customs Union, except Austria.

2128: 1949: 1935: 1848: 1663: 1585: 1169: 1083: 1079: 920: 720: 716: 665: 661: 636: 632: 623: 602: 598: 581: 577: 551: 547: 518: 468: 8874: 8823: 8815: 8369: 8239: 8070: 8020: 7770: 7566: 7531: 7350: 7157: 6342: 6149: 5388: 5380: 5261: 4653:, retained a substantial share of political power in the unified state. The 2693:

suffered a stroke in 1857 and could no longer rule. This led to his brother

2653:

and other European patriots had been promoting for more than three decades:

2588:), had conceived of and organized a Europe balanced and guaranteed by four " 2492: 9309: 9027: 8782:, Studies in Jewish history. New York, Wayne State University Press, 1987. 8713: 8410: 8377: 8298: 8257:

Rhineland Radicals: The Democratic Movement and the Revolution of 1848–1849

8247: 8209: 8153: 8087: 7993: 7966: 7936: 7909: 7879: 7871: 7854: 7740: 7718: 7690: 7578: 7497: 7342: 7309: 7301: 6968: 6907: 6645: 6585: 6419: 6254: 6186: 6083: 6016: 5616: 5596: 5569: 5488: 5294: 5253: 5177: 5169: 4930: 4722: 4644: 4197: 3572: 3411: 3391: 3349: 3285: 3270: 3068:

that had little military strength or political clout: the Grand Duchies of

3013: 2658: 2589: 2521: 2501: 2465: 2447: 2158: 2149: 2136: 1671: 1630:

in 1812 disillusioned many Germans, princes and peasants alike. Napoleon's

1549: 1468: 1343: 1311: 1067: 1017: 573: 514: 8732:

Railroads and Rifles: Soldiers, Technology, and the Unification of Germany

8342: 7558: 7539: 6676: 6141: 5220: 5162:

The Swabian Kreis: Institutional Growth in the Holy Roman Empire 1648–1715

4385: 3609:("Lesser German Solution", with the exclusion of Austria) as opposed to a 2838:. Through a combination of Bismarck's diplomacy and political leadership, 1806: 1097:

Despite the legal, administrative, and political disruption caused by the

10040: 10003: 9973: 9937: 9868: 9853: 9697: 9319: 8907: 8882: 8618:

The Berlin Jewish Community: Enlightenment, Family, and Crisis, 1770–1830

8508:. Contributions in military studies, no. 123. New York: Greenwood, 1992. 5198: 4850:. The religious reform movement among German Jews reflected this effort. 4762: 4727: 4702: 4085: 3538:

in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles. Under the subsequent

3426: 3065: 3061: 3053: 3045: 2778: 2744: 2734: 2505: 2451: 2443: 2389: 2094: 2042: 2041:) in May 1832 was attended by a crowd of more than 30,000. Promoted as a 1917: 1824: 1319: 1279: 1274:

Germans emerged in medieval times among the descendants of the Romanized

1200: 944: 932: 743: 728: 460: 8583: 8506:

For King and Kaiser!: The Making of the Prussian Army Officer, 1860–1914

4620: 2943: 2790: 2292: 2072:

include specific plans but instead rested on the nebulous idea that the

1986:

student organizations and popular demonstrations, such as those held at

1714: 1467:

and the Austrian partition of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) or of the

1455:

still more than 300 political entities, most of them being parts of the

9673: 9639: 9016: 8832:

The German Idea of Militarism: Radical and Socialist Critics, 1866–1914

7649: 7279: 4615: 4559: 4406: 3353: 2910: 2642: 2145: 2119: 1921: 1116: 1025: 585: 555: 534: 464: 9067: 8653:

Germany's Rude Awakening: Censorship in the Land of the Brothers Grimm

8620:. Studies in Jewish history. New York, Oxford University Press, 1994. 8138:. Translated by Nolan, Daniel. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 7802:

Death in Hamburg: Society and Politics in the Cholera Years, 1830–1910

6237:

Modern Germany: Society, Economy and Politics in the Twentieth Century

6217: 5236:

Reich and Nation. The Holy Roman Empire as Idea and Reality, 1763–1806

2776:

would declare war on one of the German states first, thus providing a

2681:(center), and the redesign of operational and strategic principles by 2355: 1900: 1889: 1548:

from the nominal reign over it. Napoleon established instead a German

9688: 9418: 8634:. Cambridge, New York & Paris, Cambridge University Press, 1989. 8048: 7546: 6439:

Modern History Sourcebook: Documents of German Unification, 1848–1871

5068:

Many modern historians describe this myth, without subscribing to it.

5023: 4281: 4225: 4043: 4015: 3980: 3228: 2917:

to be used in conflict, aided the Prussians in both this war and the

2905: 2673: 2460: 2365: 2261: 2141: 2084: 1375: 1307: 1299: 1033: 645: 614: 606: 526: 452: 8194:. Oxford History of Modern Europe. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 6126:(in German). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. pp. 10–14. 4779:, Bismarck tried without much success to limit the influence of the 3586: 3184: 2730:

in 1862. Bismarck resolved the crisis in favor of the war minister.

1733:

established a new European political-diplomatic system based on the

1709: 517:

cradle of Prussian statehood made part of Germany under intensified

8562:

Nineteenth-Century German Protestantism: The Church As Social Model

7411: 6295: 4803:

In this close-up of the Niederwald Monument (see long shot above),

4684: 4064: 3595:

included 26 political entities: twenty-five constituent states (or

3553: 3422:

Open hostilities and the disastrous end of the Second French Empire

3345: 2992: 2596:. Britain's sphere was the rest of the world, especially the seas. 2532:, but among Prussians it was known as the "Humiliation of Olmütz." 1987: 1795: 1395: 1331: 1315: 1303: 1291: 1206: 1142: 1106: 649: 640: 8800:. New Approaches to European History. Cambridge University Press. 8494:

Cambridge, Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2006, 2009.

5642: 5640: 5638: 5508: 5203:

German Home Towns: Community, State, and General Estate, 1648–1871

3076:. They also understood that Prussia's only ally abroad was Italy. 2512:

and to mark the renewal of the people and their triumphant spirit.

2265: 1658:

of Austria, Prussia, Russia, Saxony, and Sweden. As a result, the

7892:

The Franco-Prussian War: The German invasion of France, 1870–1871

6307: 5546:. Translated by Simpson, C.A. New York: Longman. pp. 96–97. 4694: 4500: 4455: 4316: 3959: 3407: 3085: 3029: 2795: 2525: 2271: 2238: 2178: 1683: 1507:(1798–1802) resulted in crushing the Empire and allied forces by 1378:

family branches to sizable, well-defined territories such as the

1021: 619: 590: 404: 16:

1866–1871 unification of most German states into the German Reich

8576:

German Student Jargon in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries

7822:

Remembering the Alamo: Memory, Modernity, and the Master Symbol.

7607:

Marpingen: Apparitions of the Virgin Mary in Bismarckian Germany

6604: 6592: 6283: 3542:, France relinquished most of its traditionally German regions ( 3292: 8646:

Germany: A New Social and Economic History Volume 3: Since 1800

8393:

Rites of Peace: The Fall of Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna

7837:

Crises of Political Development in Europe and the United States

7480:

The Other Prussia: Royal Prussia, Poland and Liberty, 1569–1772

6570:. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. pp. 16–18. 5635: 4825: 4735:

of non-German people of the empire's population, including the

4715: 4253: 4169: 4134: 3931: 3903: 3543: 3121: 2455: 2195: 1327: 1295: 1287: 1146: 610: 193: 8307:

The Franco-Prussian War and the Commune in Caricature, 1870–71

8000: 7675:(New ed.). Columbia, South Carolina: Camden House Press. 7584: 7459: 7399: 7385: 7366: 7239: 7176: 7392:

Alexandre Escudier, Brigitte Sauzay, and Rudolf von Thadden.

6781: 6547: 6465: 6091: 6042: 5687: 5685: 5672: 5670: 4364: 3415: 3336:

The French public resented the Prussian victory and demanded

3081: 2631: 2431:

The aborted 1848–1849 German Empire in retrospective analysis

2413:(Constitution of St. Paul's Church) and offered the title of 2199: 1964:, which later became the basis of the flag of modern Germany. 1105:

offered an intellectual basis for unification by challenging

669: 627: 7626:

The Long Nineteenth Century: A History of Germany, 1780–1918

7394:

Gedenken im Zwiespalt: Konfliktlinien europäischen Erinnerns

6535: 5279:. Los Angeles: University of California Press. p. 221. 5014:

Although the Prussian army had gained its reputation in the

4945:), which encouraged assimilation and Germanization of Jews. 1766:, an assembly of appointed leaders) that met in the city of 1579: 6453: 5019: 4340: 3469: 3089: 2454:

compromise with conservatives (especially the conservative

2280: 2203: 1667: 1283: 1166:, the small Germany solution (Germany without Austria), or 8766:

Politics and the Sciences of Culture in Germany, 1840–1920

8492:

Iron Kingdom: The Rise and Downfall of Prussia, 1600–1947.

7227: 7095: 7059: 7047: 6930: 6817: 6757: 5909: 5861: 5733: 5682: 5667: 5520: 5419: 5395: 2665: 2628:, would come to a head during the following twenty years. 1936:

Emergence of liberal nationalism and conservative response

1913:: the wider the definition of suffrage, the more radical. 1678:, including an Anglo-Allied army under the command of the 1430:

Since the 15th century, with few exceptions, the Empire's

1425: 1310:. The region was divided into long-lasting divisions, or " 7862:

Holt, Lucious Hudson; Chilton, Alexander Wheeler (1917).

6951:

The Great Powers and the European States System 1814–1914

6720: 6523: 5769: 5125: 3200:(little Germany) solution, or "Germany without Austria." 1748:'s sphere of influence. The Congress established a loose 19:

For the 1990 reunification of East and West Germany, see

8698:. Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press. 8680:. Oxford & New York, Oxford University Press, 1989. 7673:

Heimat: A Critical Theory of the German Idea of Homeland

7035: 7023: 7011: 6999: 5963:. Band 1, Duncker & Humblot, Berlin, 1953, p. 516 f. 5623: 5120:

identity would gradually develop during the Middle Ages.

3024:

In the Diet, the group of middle-sized states, known as

2932: 1944:

In October, 1817, approximately 500 students rallied at

1463:(exclusively its large non-German-speaking territories: 1055:

which was subsequently deepened through adoption of the

9476: 8564:. Washington, D.C., University Press of America, 1982. 8003:

The role of historical memory in (ethno)nation-building

7978:. Cranbury, New Jersey: Associated University Presses. 7205: 7203: 6987: 6805: 6688: 6664: 6383:

For a representative analysis of this perspective, see

5030:, contemplated reorganization and new training methods. 1670:. During the brief Napoleonic restoration known as the 8352:

The Franco-Prussian War: The German Conquest of France

7119: 7083: 6975: 6853: 6793: 6769: 5897: 5885: 5873: 5849: 5837: 5745: 5721: 5709: 5697: 5407: 4743:

minorities, started with language, in particular, the

2458:

landholders), which subsequently led to the so-called

7188: 7071: 6487:, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1969, p. 76. 5824:"The Zollverein and the Formation of a Customs Union" 5342: 3289:

many German states resented Prussian power politics.

2982: Under joint administration (Schleswig-Holstein) 2287: 2217:

wrote a poem in which he extolled the virtues of the

7423: 7200: 6652: 5757: 5465:. London & New York: Longman. pp. 329–361. 4952: 4616:

Historical arguments and the Empire's social anatomy

4571: 3479: 1236:

dissolution of its dominant founding federated state

1090:) and 4 May 1871 (entry into force of the permanent 7725:. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. 7516:. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. 7482:. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 5. 7435: 7215: 5811:. Boulder: University of Colorado. pp. 10, 18. 5577: 4876:(1834–1896), and others less conservative, such as 4794: 3619: 2356:

German revolutions and Polish uprising of 1848–1849

1278:in the area of modern western Germany, between the 576:) annexed into the German Empire under intensified 7656:. Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press. 6498: 6001:. Bloomington: Indiana University. pp. 3–41. 4857: 3229:Peace of Prague and the North German Confederation 3109:ordering his enthusiastic troops to attack at the 2947:Situation at the time of the outbreak of the war: 2853: 711:") eventually annexed into the German Empire from 8752:Decline and Fall of the Habsburg Empire 1815–1918 8222:Popular Catholicism in Nineteenth-Century Germany 5301: 4580:became (with some semantic adjustments) the 1871 3587:Internal political and administrative unification 3174: Neutral members of the German Confederation 2976: Neutral members of the German Confederation 1710:Congress of Vienna and the rise of German dualism 10053: 8053:Deutsche Geschichte des 19. und 20. Jahrhunderts 7396:, Genshagener Gespräche; vol. 4. Göttingen: 2001 5807:Keller, Wolfgang; Shiue, Carol (March 5, 2013). 4685:Beyond the political mechanism: forming a nation 3567:(signed 26 February 1871; later ratified in the 3554:War as ″the capstone of the unification process″ 2830:provided Prussia an ally against Austria in the 2480:analysis helpful in understanding the period of 2079: 1752:(1815–1866), headed by Austria, with a "Federal 1494: 1394:, also of different sizes, such as the powerful 1218:of 1813–1814. By establishing a Germany without 8834:. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1994. 8160: 8001:Llobera, Josep R.; Goldsmiths' College (1996). 7265: 5496: 3643: 675:Constitution of the German Confederation (1871) 8592:. London & New York, Edward Arnold, 1988. 7644: 7465: 7257: 6598: 6313: 6301: 6289: 6277: 6169:Bourgeois Society in Nineteenth Century Europe 5437: 5238:. Indiana University Press. pp. 278–279. 2701:of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1858. Meanwhile, 2093:Several other factors complicated the rise of 1861:(Union of Princes) in 1785. Austrian-Prussian 9462: 8923: 8780:The Transformation of German Jewry, 1780–1840 8450:Moltke, Schlieffen, and Prussian War Planning 6163: 3293:Unified Italy and Austro-Hungarian Compromise 2568:) unification would overturn the overlapping 2308:, who compiled a massive dictionary known as 2237:saw no advantage in traveling from Berlin to 1801: 968: 8536:. Harlow, England, New York: Longman, 2001. 8135:Germany from Napoleon to Bismarck, 1800–1866 6948: 6402:The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1848–1918 4889:History of Germany in the Nineteenth Century 4551: 4528: 4466: 4447: 4292: 4273: 4245: 4217: 4189: 4145: 4126: 4035: 3991: 3951: 3923: 3895: 3872: 3508:, stands on his father's right. Painting by 3245:sponsored by Prussia which directly annexed 3084:—especially in such cosmopolitan regions as 2620:. This controversy, the latest phase of the 2194:, and a network of canals extended from the 1480: 1198: 1167: 1159: 1114: 8768:. New York, Oxford University Press, 1991. 8590:Nationalism and Society: Germany, 1800–1945 8522:. New York, Oxford University Press, 1990. 7861: 7327:. London and New York: Barnes & Noble. 7142:. New York: The Viking Press. p. 299. 6726: 6714: 6541: 6529: 5806: 3203: 1156:two solutions to the problem of unification 9469: 9455: 8937: 8930: 8916: 8518:Cocks, Geoffrey and Konrad Hugo Jarausch. 8170:Germany: A New Social and Economic History 7747: 7623: 7601: 7417: 7405: 7372: 7325:Society and politics in Wilhelmine Germany 7245: 7233: 7182: 7173:, pp. 432–456, Chapter XI: the Peace. 6871: 6553: 6496: 6471: 6329:(February 2003). "Comparison and Beyond". 6097: 6048: 5791: 5775: 5751: 5544:A History of the Habsburg Empire 1700–1918 5190:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 3488:January 18, 1871: The proclamation of the 3277:, thus Germany. Following adoption of the 2810:was about the status of those territories. 2632:External expectations of a unified Germany 2555:We cannot conceal the fact that the whole 2002:, to fear the rise of national sentiment. 975: 961: 34: 8729: 8720: 8354:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 8128: 7572: 7477: 7356: 7137: 5802: 5800: 5629: 5441: 5361:Walter, Jakob (1996). Raeff, Marc (ed.). 5277:History of the Habsburg Empire: 1526–1918 5233: 2388:Pre-parliament delegates processing into 2322:August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben 2215:August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben 1626:, in western Germany, and his disastrous 1580:Rise of German nationalism under Napoleon 1499:Invasion of the Holy Roman Empire by the 1390:. Their governance varied: they included 1336:A confederated realm of German princedoms 1266:(orange) and the German-speaking part of 319:Principality of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen 8857:Warfare and Society in Europe, 1792–1914 8604:Frederick III: Germany's Liberal Emperor 8387: 7834: 7456:, in particular, pp. 4–7 and Conclusion. 6892:. Berlin: De Gruyter. pp. 199–200. 6887: 6565: 6459: 6231: 6159: 6032:Badische Heimat/Landeskunde online 2006 5996: 5538: 5514: 4798: 4688: 4619: 3483: 3425: 3134: 3100: 2942: 2794:From north to south: The Danish part of 2789: 2672: 2491: 2446:and gained momentum in the aftermath of 2383: 2291: 2275:per ton per kilometer and in 1870, five 2083: 1976:, which suppressed freedom of expression 1967: 1955: 1939: 1805: 1713: 1600: 1249: 8903:Bismarck and the Unification of Germany 8792: 8690: 8466: 8447: 8254: 8216: 8186: 8096: 7943: 7717: 7670: 7429: 7360: 7261: 7209: 6936: 6920: 6859: 6823: 6775: 6763: 6747: 6706: 6155: 6060: 5915: 5903: 5891: 5879: 5867: 5855: 5843: 5821: 5787: 5763: 5739: 5727: 5715: 5703: 5691: 5676: 5658: 5646: 5583: 5526: 5453: 5425: 5413: 5401: 5348: 5143: 5131: 2504:, was created to hide the organ of the 2379: 1426:Early modern era and Eighteenth century 10054: 8644:Ogilvie, Sheilagh, and Richard Overy. 8632:Police and State in Prussia, 1815–1850 8275: 7916: 7886: 7835:Grew, Raymond; Bien, David D. (1978). 7585:Llobera & Goldsmiths' College 1996 7511: 7453: 7441: 7386:Llobera & Goldsmiths' College 1996 7170: 7125: 7101: 7089: 7065: 7053: 7041: 7029: 7017: 7005: 6993: 6981: 6811: 6694: 6682: 6658: 6396: 6118: 5797: 5595: 5363:The diary of a Napoleonic foot soldier 5360: 5319: 5197: 5082: 4872:(1785–1860), his conservative student 3443:The reorganization of the military by 2005:The assassination of German dramatist 1737:. This system reorganized Europe into 1016:) was a process of building the first 307:Principality of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt 9450: 8911: 8851: 8671:The Unification of Germany, 1848–1871 8578:. Berlin & NY, de Gruyter, 1983. 8349: 8319: 7921:. New York: Oxford University Press. 7804:. New York: Oxford University Press. 7799: 7777: 7628:. New York: Oxford University Press. 7551:German History; Some New German Views 7319: 7315: 7221: 7194: 7077: 6924: 6799: 6787: 6751: 6710: 6384: 6348: 6325: 6192: 5999:The Environmental Movement in Germany 5975:Peter Rühmkorf, Heinz Ludwig Arnold, 5457: 3532:held it under siege until mid-January 3120:Prussian army with support only from 2933:War between Austria and Prussia, 1866 2884:. On 18 November 1863, he signed the 2520:, supported the establishment of the 2168: 2000:Klemens Wenzel, Prince von Metternich 1003: 8469:Moltke and the German Wars 1864–1871 8077: 8047: 7545: 7286:. New Haven: Yale University Press. 7278: 6670: 6622: 6610: 6276:For a summary of this argument, see 5307: 5274: 5205:. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. 5156: 4783:and of its party-political arm, the 4767:For some Germans, the definition of 4677:theorists had hypothesized. Eastern 3150: Territories annexed by Prussia 1542:dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire 1099:dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire 9478:International relations (1814–1919) 8798:The European Revolutions, 1848–1851 8574:Henne, Helmut, and Georg Objartel. 8281:Bismarck: The Man and the Statesman 7973: 7824:Austin: University of Texas, 2002. 6949:Bridge, Roy; Bullen, Roger (2004). 6432: 6124:Das Deutsche Kaiserreich, 1871–1918 5603:. New York: Macmillan. p. 34. 5502: 5109:from the original on March 31, 2019 5088: 4917:from 1881 to 1884, for the liberal 3536:proclaimed Wilhelm "German Emperor" 3322:Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 3299:Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 3096: 2892:saw this act as a violation of the 2868:became king of Denmark and duke of 2374:pursued their own liberation agenda 2326:Deutschland, Deutschland über Alles 2233:with enthusiasm. The Prussian king 1586:hegemony of the First French Empire 1465:Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen 1459:, though portions of the extensive 1434:had chosen successive heads of the 481:Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 331:Principality of Waldeck and Pyrmont 175:Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach 151:Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz 139:Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin 13: 8990:States of the German Confederation 8534:Modern Prussian history, 1830–1947 6505:. Yale University Press. pp. 5809:The Trade Impact of the Zollverein 3639: 3381: 3331: 2751:Bismarck expressed the essence of 2584:(with his foreign secretary Count 2288:Geography, patriotism and language 410:Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg 14: 10108: 8891: 8080:The History of Germany Since 1789 6888:Schjerve, Rosita Rindler (2003). 6566:Hollyday, Frederic B. M. (1970). 6404:. Oxford: Clarendon. p. 37. 5463:The Birth of a Great Power System 4991:Qin's wars of Chinese unification 4582:Constitution of the German Empire 4572:Political structure of the Empire 3599:) and one Imperial Territory (or 3517:Proclamation of the German Empire 3480:Proclamation of the German Empire 3366:Causes of the Franco-Prussian War 3243:North German Confederation Treaty 3126:Third Italian War of Independence 3003: 1898:later became widely known as the 1474:(both the German-speaking former 1205:led a collection of early modern 1189:—had a master plan to expand the 1092:Constitution of the German Empire 1064:proclamation of the German Empire 1038:North German Confederation Treaty 694:Constitution of the German Empire 681:Proclamation of the German Empire 422:Free and Hanseatic City of Lübeck 9431: 8471:. New York: Palgrave MacMillan. 7753:Society and Democracy in Germany 7504: 7471: 7378: 7271: 7251: 7131: 7107: 6485:Garibaldi (Great Lives Observed) 5822:Ploeckl, Florian (August 2010). 5062: 4955: 4837:; in particular, several Jewish 4795:Integrating the Jewish community 4538: 4508: 4492: 4476: 4434: 4413: 4392: 4371: 4347: 4323: 4302: 4260: 4232: 4204: 4176: 4155: 4113: 4092: 4071: 4050: 4022: 4001: 3966: 3938: 3910: 3882: 3620:Constituent states of the Empire 3546:and the German-speaking part of 3447:and the operational strategy of 3386:A revolution in Spain overthrew 3196:, laying the groundwork for the 2880:, which the Danish king held in 2842:'s military reorganization, and 2342:" ("The Watch on the Rhine") by 1972:A German caricature mocking the 1370:in ruling the Empire due to the 1245: 939:Assassination of Franz Ferdinand 750: 415: 403: 391: 379: 367: 355: 343: 324: 312: 300: 295:Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe 288: 276: 264: 252: 240: 228: 216: 204: 192: 180: 168: 156: 144: 132: 120: 107: 82: 8898:Documents of German Unification 8734:. Hamden, Connecticut: Hailer. 7951:. University of Chicago Press. 6942: 6914: 6881: 6874:, pp. 225–269, Chapter V: 6829: 6741: 6732: 6700: 6616: 6559: 6490: 6477: 6426: 6390: 6377: 6319: 6270: 6261: 6198:Journal of Contemporary History 6103: 6066:Revolutionary Europe, 1780–1850 6054: 6023: 5990: 5966: 5946: 5921: 5815: 5781: 5652: 5589: 5532: 5447: 5431: 5354: 5052: 5042: 5033: 5008: 4906:Mommsen's contributions to the 4858:Writing the story of the nation 4771:did not include pluralism, and 4693:Monument to Kaiser Wilhelm, at 3273:were formally annexed into the 2854:The Schleswig-Holstein Question 2417:(Emperor) to the Prussian king 2024:Teutschland und die Revolution 707:The territories (later called " 677:and second phase of unification 8723:The Wars of German Unification 8327:. Cambridge University Press. 8259:. Princeton University Press. 8224:. Princeton University Press. 8172:. London: Arnold Publication. 8107:. Greenwood Publishing Group. 8005:. London: Goldsmiths College. 7839:. Princeton University Press. 6613:, pp. 316–395, Chapter 6. 6267:World Encyclopedia V.3 p. 542. 6239:. Cambridge University Press. 5997:Dominick, Raymond III (1992). 5961:Neue Deutsche Biographie (NDB) 5325:"Address to the German Nation" 5313: 5268: 5227: 5149: 5137: 5099:Encyclopædia Britannica Online 4943:Studies of the Jewish Question 4864:Historiography and nationalism 4754: 3237:sealed the dissolution of the 2641:wrote to German revolutionary 2398:Prussian three-class franchise 1896:Revolutions of 1848 in Germany 1867:War of the Bavarian Succession 1837:War of the Austrian Succession 1616:Napoleon's campaigns in Poland 1607:Battle of the Nations monument 1410:; and dynastic states such as 235:Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha 1: 9848:Kronstadt–Toulon naval visits 9802:1917 Franco-Russian agreement 9792:Japan–Korea Annexation Treaty 9265:Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust 8721:Showalter, Dennis E. (2015). 8520:German Professions, 1800–1950 5104:Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 4996: 4909:Monumenta Germaniae Historica 3359: 3088:and in the heavily populated 2929:, signed on 30 October 1864. 2728:Minister-President of Prussia 2543:unification would occur, and 2360:The widespread—mainly German— 2135:linked the many Prussian and 2080:Economy and the customs union 1928:engendered an expectation of 1729:After Napoleon's defeat, the 1495:Dissolution of the Old Empire 1187:Minister President of Prussia 506:Minister President of Prussia 398:Free Hanseatic City of Bremen 9708:Second Industrial Revolution 9582:League of the Three Emperors 8673:(1979), essays by historians 6876:From Reaction to Unification 5979:Göttingen: Wallstein, 2001, 5018:, its humiliating defeat at 4631:, was erected in 1877–83 at 3565:Treaty of Versailles of 1871 2886:Danish November Constitution 2666:Prussia's growing strength: 849:Anglo-German naval arms race 7: 9738:Treaty of Versailles (1871) 9413:Schleswig–Holstein question 9260:Friedrich Daniel Bassermann 8657:Ohio State University Press 8395:. New York: HarperCollins. 7266:Scribner & Ogilvie 1996 6685:, Chapter 1 and Conclusion. 6370:10.1111/0018-2656.751999075 6171:. Oxford University Press. 5929:"The Brothers Grimm online" 5663:German Historical Institute 5234:Gagliardo, John G. (1980). 4948: 4939:Studien über die Judenfrage 4923:Deutsche Fortschrittspartei 3320:accepted a settlement (the 2860:Schleswig–Holstein question 2808:Schleswig-Holstein Question 2755:in his subsequently famous 1639:exemplified this tendency. 1505:War of the Second Coalition 1240:Federal Republic of Germany 283:Principality of Reuss-Greiz 41:States of the German Empire 10: 10113: 10077:North German Confederation 9787:Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905 9295:Karl August von Hardenberg 9033:North German Confederation 9006:Confederation of the Rhine 8550:. New York, Harper, 1995. 7949:The German Idea of Freedom 7466:Blackbourn & Eley 1984 7258:Blackbourn & Eley 1984 7138:Crankshaw, Edward (1981). 6599:Blackbourn & Eley 1984 6497:Mack Smith, Denis (1994). 6314:Blackbourn & Eley 1984 6302:Blackbourn & Eley 1984 6290:Blackbourn & Eley 1984 6278:Blackbourn & Eley 1984 6210:10.1177/002200948802300101 6167:; Mitchell, Allan (1993). 5833:(Discussion Paper 84): 23. 5517:, pp. 98–115, 239–40. 5438:Blackbourn & Eley 1984 5094:"Germany: Ancient History" 4887:Heinrich von Treitschke's 4861: 4760: 4705:(lower river), called the 3514: 3363: 3296: 3275:North German Confederation 2936: 2857: 2798:in purple and terracotta, 2434: 2028:Germany and the Revolution 1887: 1881: 1876: 1802:Problems of reorganization 1686:army under the command of 1660:Confederation of the Rhine 1554:Confederation of the Rhine 1540:which included the formal 1534:War of the Third Coalition 1384:Margraviate of Brandenburg 1354:, which at times included 1342:i.e. the establishment of 1191:North German Confederation 1181:Historians debate whether 1133:. The model of diplomatic 1042:North German Confederation 1005:[ˈdɔʏtʃəˈʔaɪnɪɡʊŋ] 471:) did not join new Germany 271:Principality of Reuss-Gera 89:North German Confederation 18: 10067:Modern history of Germany 9946: 9810: 9723: 9608:European balance of power 9600: 9535: 9484: 9428: 9338: 9212: 9046: 9023:German Empire (1848–1849) 8998: 8945: 8754:. London, Longman, 2001. 8055:(in German). S. Fischer. 7478:Friedrich, Karin (2000). 6953:(2nd ed.). Longman. 6837:The Situation of Germany. 6483:Mack Smith, Denis (ed.). 5933:Grimm Brothers' Home Page 4578:North German Constitution 4523: 4514: 4498: 4482: 4463:Free and Hanseatic Cities 4461: 4422:Schwarzburg-Sondershausen 4287: 4140: 3986: 3867: 3859: 3279:North German Constitution 3223:published on July 1, 1866 3132:and on the Adriatic sea. 2551:, summed up the problem: 2518:Joseph Maria von Radowitz 2437:German Empire (1848–1849) 2304:than their language. The 2102:mid-1840s, caused by the 1286:rivers, particularly the 1057:North German Constitution 431: 95: 76: 60: 52: 48: 33: 10097:19th century in politics 9899:Venezuela Naval Blockade 9570:Anglo-Russian Convention 9408:Greater Austria proposal 8192:German History 1770–1866 7420:, pp. 283, 285–300. 6790:, pp. 50–60, 75–79. 6039:. Retrieved 5 June 2009. 5649:, pp. 407–408, 444. 5275:Kann, Robert A. (1974). 4747:, compulsory schooling ( 4701:(upper river) meets the 4247:Sachsen-Coburg und Gotha 3579:The difficulties of the 3435:, and the war continued. 3400:Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen 3204:Founding a unified state 3118:technologically superior 2820:Frederick VII of Denmark 2715:Prussian Minister of War 2705:had become chief of the 2020:Johann Joseph von Görres 1817:Battle of Jena-Auerstedt 1772:Lauenburg and Bütow Land 1646:culminated in the great 1536:, Napoleon dictated the 1408:Archbishopric of Cologne 1356:more than 1,000 entities 1028:based on the concept of 897:Anglo-Russian Convention 777:Second Concert of Europe 540:Lauenburg and Bütow Land 508:simultaneously also the 451:being popular or led by 163:Grand Duchy of Oldenburg 9904:Alaska boundary dispute 9577:Anglo-Japanese Alliance 9560:Franco-Russian Alliance 9351:Austro-Prussian rivalry 9164:"Blood and Iron" speech 9135:Greater Poland uprising 9106:Frankfurter Wachensturm 8448:Bucholz, Arden (1991). 8325:The Austro-Prussian War 8097:Minahan, James (2000). 7917:Kaplan, Marion (1991). 7894:. New York: Routledge. 7866:. New York: MacMillan. 7671:Blickle, Peter (2004). 7114:Die Reichsgründung 1871 6727:Holt & Chilton 1917 6715:Holt & Chilton 1917 6542:Holt & Chilton 1917 6530:Holt & Chilton 1917 6343:10.1111/1468-2303.00228 5321:Fichte, Johann Gottlieb 4933:programs of Bismarck's 4874:Heinrich von Treitschke 4128:Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach 3348:in September 1865 with 3036:, the grand duchies of 2894:London Protocol of 1852 2824:Second War of Schleswig 2757:"Blood and Iron" speech 2370:universal male suffrage 2336:The Song of the Germans 2258:Bavarian Ludwig Railway 1926:German Campaign of 1813 1674:of 1815, forces of the 1552:of France known as the 861:Anglo-Japanese Alliance 843:First Sino-Japanese War 837:Franco-Russian Alliance 807:Austro–Serbian Alliance 447:4 German states having 247:Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen 223:Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg 187:Duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg 9823:Unification of Germany 9770:Taft–Katsura agreement 9364:Das Lied der Deutschen 9300:Klemens von Metternich 9275:Johann Gottlieb Fichte 8985:Kingdom of Württemberg 8939:Unification of Germany 8616:Lowenstein, Steven M. 8426:Bazillion, Richard J. 6434:Droysen, Johann Gustav 5977:Das Lied der Deutschen 4927:National Liberal Party 4812: 4811:was erected 1877–1883. 4710: 4709:, or the German corner 4636: 4552: 4529: 4467: 4448: 4401:Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt 4293: 4274: 4246: 4218: 4190: 4146: 4127: 4036: 3992: 3952: 3924: 3896: 3873: 3849: 3512: 3436: 3404:Agenor, duc de Gramont 3226: 3183:, near the village of 3176: 3168: Austria's allies 3156: Prussia's allies 3139:Aftermath of the war: 3113: 2989:the newly formed Italy 2984: 2970: Austria's allies 2964: Prussia's allies 2811: 2802:in red and brown, and 2707:Prussian General Staff 2686: 2663: 2608:Prussian Hohenzollerns 2562: 2513: 2410:Paulskirchenverfassung 2403:On 27 March 1849, the 2393: 2362:revolutions of 1848–49 2349:Alexander von Humboldt 2331:Das Lied der Deutschen 2297: 2163:Hamburg joined in 1888 2090: 1977: 1965: 1953: 1811: 1726: 1610: 1599: 1590:Johann Gottlieb Fichte 1544:and the abdication of 1481: 1271: 1199: 1168: 1160: 1115: 996: 989:unification of Germany 921:Second Moroccan Crisis 765:Unification of Germany 685:William I Hohenzollern 490:Kingdom of Netherlands 443:Peace of Prague (1866) 362:Kingdom of Württemberg 29:Unification of Germany 10072:National unifications 9909:First Moroccan Crisis 9623:Spread of nationalism 9587:Eight-Nation Alliance 9280:Johann Gustav Droysen 9250:Frederick William III 8844:Steinberg, Jonathan. 8830:Stargardt, Nicholas. 8602:Kollander, Patricia. 8283:. Oxford: Clarendon. 7888:Howard, Michael Eliot 7785:. London: Routledge. 7512:Koshar, Rudy (1998). 6738:Sheehan, pp. 900–906. 6117:, (1968), pp. 25–32; 6068:. New York: Longman. 4919:German Progress Party 4862:Further information: 4802: 4785:Catholic Centre Party 4781:Roman Catholic Church 4721:A key element of the 4692: 4623: 4468:Freie und Hansestädte 4241:Saxe-Coburg and Gotha 3848: 3487: 3476:on 1 September 1870. 3433:Third French Republic 3429: 3297:Further information: 3207: 3138: 3128:on a second front in 3104: 3044:, and the duchies of 2946: 2826:in 1864. Second, the 2793: 2720:constitutional crisis 2676: 2655: 2553: 2549:Johann Gustav Droysen 2495: 2435:Further information: 2387: 2295: 2235:Frederick William III 2125:Hans, Count von Bülow 2087: 1971: 1959: 1943: 1809: 1717: 1690:, were victorious at 1604: 1594: 1517:Mediatization of 1803 1442:to hold the title of 1380:Electorate of Bavaria 1253: 903:Young Turk Revolution 885:First Moroccan Crisis 259:Principality of Lippe 9914:Algeciras Conference 9894:Annexation of Hawaii 9833:Great Eastern Crisis 9828:Unification of Italy 9818:Formation of Romania 9635:French–German enmity 9403:German reunification 9325:Wilhelm von Humboldt 9290:John, King of Saxony 9255:Frederick William IV 9204:Treaty of Versailles 9173:Second Schleswig War 9144:Punctation of Olmütz 9126:Frankfurt Parliament 9011:German Confederation 8504:Clemente, Steven E. 8166:Ogilvie, Sheilagh C. 6923:, pp. 909–910; 6709:, pp. 900–904; 6162:, pp. 312–345; 6160:Grew & Bien 1978 6034:Veit's Pauls Church 5790:, pp. 465–467; 5661:, pp. 460–470; 5456:, pp. 398–410; 5329:www.historyman.co.uk 4981:Reichsbürgerbewegung 4976:Formation of Romania 4925:) and later for the 4831:emancipation of Jews 4525:Imperial Territories 4122:Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach 4080:Mecklenburg-Strelitz 4059:Mecklenburg-Schwerin 3606:Kleindeutsche Lösung 3498:Palace of Versailles 3338:Revanche pour Sadová 3239:German Confederation 3181:Battle of Königgrätz 3111:Battle of Königgrätz 3074:Mecklenburg-Strelitz 3070:Mecklenburg-Schwerin 2923:Second Schleswig War 2900:on 1 February 1864. 2890:German Confederation 2828:unification of Italy 2806:in lime yellow. The 2691:Frederick William IV 2570:spheres of influence 2530:Punctation of Olmütz 2419:Frederick William IV 2405:Frankfurt Parliament 2380:Frankfurt Parliament 2328:, officially called 1916:The surge of German 1833:Partitions of Poland 1776:Starostwo of Draheim 1750:German Confederation 1739:spheres of influence 1720:German Confederation 1718:Coat of arms of the 1650:, also known as the 1392:free imperial cities 1254:Map of the Austrian 1228:German-speaking part 1162:Kleindeutsche Lösung 1135:spheres of influence 1127:German Confederation 783:Great Eastern Crisis 544:Starostwo of Draheim 531:Prussian Lithuanians 475:German Confederation 386:Grand Duchy of Hesse 374:Grand Duchy of Baden 21:German reunification 9979:Philippine–American 9964:First Sino-Japanese 9797:Racconigi agreement 9743:Treaty of Frankfurt 9703:Great Rapprochement 9657:Scramble for Africa 9270:Heinrich von Gagern 9195:Franco-Prussian War 9182:Austro-Prussian War 8764:Smith, Woodruff D. 8676:Schleunes, Karl A. 8162:Scribner, Robert W. 7974:Lee, Lloyd (1980). 7820:Flores, Richard R. 7609:. New York: Knopf. 7408:, pp. 243–282. 7375:, pp. 240–290. 7248:, pp. 225–301. 7185:, pp. 255–257. 7104:, pp. 357–370. 7068:, pp. 222–230. 7056:, pp. 218–222. 6939:, pp. 905–910. 6826:, pp. 908–909. 6766:, pp. 905–906. 6673:, pp. 390–395. 6556:, pp. 175–179. 6474:, pp. 160–175. 6462:, pp. 100–115. 6316:, pp. 286–293. 6120:Wehler, Hans-Ulrich 6100:, pp. 176–179. 6051:, pp. 138–164. 5918:, pp. 466–467. 5870:, pp. 467–468. 5742:, pp. 610–615. 5694:, pp. 610–613. 5679:, pp. 442–445. 5529:, pp. 398–410. 5428:, pp. 322–323. 5404:, pp. 384–387. 5134:, pp. 288–289. 5028:Carl von Clausewitz 5002:Informational notes 4971:Italian unification 4629:Niederwald Monument 4449:Waldeck und Pyrmont 4443:Waldeck and Pyrmont 3856: 3612:Großdeutsche Lösung 3603:). It realized the 3569:Treaty of Frankfurt 3540:Treaty of Frankfurt 3342:Franco-Prussian War 2939:Austro-Prussian War 2919:Austro-Prussian War 2913:, one of the first 2836:Franco-Prussian War 2832:Austro-Prussian War 2784:Franco-Prussian War 2739:Italian War of 1859 2737:of 1854–55 and the 2726:to the position of 2344:Max Schneckenburger 2183:Heinrich von Gagern 2007:August von Kotzebue 1930:popular sovereignty 1845:Frederick the Great 1688:Gebhard von Blücher 1538:Treaty of Pressburg 1501:First French Empire 1448:Peace of Westphalia 1322:, who expanded the 1170:Großdeutsche Lösung 1137:resulting from the 1103:European liberalism 771:Franco-Prussian War 703:Treaty of Frankfurt 699:Franco-Prussian War 30: 9838:Congress of Berlin 9755:Reinsurance Treaty 9733:Congress of Vienna 9713:Industrial warfare 9679:Scramble for China 9438:Germany portal 9371:Die Wacht am Rhein 9155:Dresden Conference 9058:Congress of Vienna 8975:Kingdom of Prussia 8970:Kingdom of Hanover 8965:Kingdom of Bavaria 8669:Pflanze Otto, ed. 8488:Clark, Christopher 8452:. New York: Berg. 8440:Brose, Eric Dorn. 7553:. Boston: Beacon. 6847:The New York Times 6358:History and Theory 6331:History and Theory 5794:, pp. 106–107 5601:Avenues of History 5365:. Windrush Press. 5155:See, for example: 5146:, pp. 288–289 4882:Heinrich von Sybel 4870:Friedrich Dahlmann 4813: 4711: 4637: 4627:, also called the 3855: 3850: 3513: 3437: 3376:King Ferdinand VII 3220:The New York Times 3177: 3114: 2985: 2915:bolt action rifles 2816:without male heirs 2812: 2703:Helmuth von Moltke 2687: 2683:Helmuth von Moltke 2639:Giuseppe Garibaldi 2626:Kingdom of Prussia 2618:Austrian Habsburgs 2514: 2496:This depiction of 2482:National Socialism 2394: 2340:Die Wacht am Rhein 2298: 2169:Roads and railways 2108:Great Irish Famine 2091: 1978: 1966: 1954: 1812: 1731:Congress of Vienna 1727: 1722:, also called the 1680:Duke of Wellington 1662:collapsed and the 1632:Continental System 1628:invasion of Russia 1611: 1574:Kingdom of Hanover 1566:Kingdom of Bavaria 1546:Emperor Francis II 1511:. The treaties of 1509:Napoleon Bonaparte 1472:Kingdom of Prussia 1444:Holy Roman Emperor 1404:Abbey of Reichenau 1398:and the minuscule 1388:Kingdom of Bohemia 1272: 1211:French nationalism 1139:Congress of Vienna 1076:Kingdom of Prussia 873:Russo-Japanese War 831:Reinsurance Treaty 789:Campaign in Bosnia 742:Events leading to 715:under intensified 664:under intensified 635:under intensified 622:under intensified 597:under intensified 562:Prussian Partition 546:under intensified 529:, and Powiślans), 510:Federal Chancellor 350:Kingdom of Bavaria 211:Duchy of Brunswick 114:Kingdom of Prussia 28: 10092:Conflicts in 1871 10087:Conflicts in 1866 10049: 10048: 10018:Albanian Revolts 9875:German Naval Laws 9859:Naval arms races 9843:Berlin Conference 9775:Hague Conventions 9444: 9443: 9382:Lützow Free Corps 9315:Otto von Bismarck 9235:Eduard von Simson 9078:Wartburg Festival 8980:Kingdom of Saxony 8866:978-0-4152-1445-2 8840:978-0-5214-6692-9 8807:978-0-5215-4779-6 8794:Sperber, Jonathan 8788:978-0-8143-2828-6 8760:978-0-5823-5666-5 8705:978-0-5213-7759-1 8651:Ohles, Frederik. 8588:Hughes, Michael. 8546:Friedrich, Otto. 8532:Dwyer, Philip G. 8500:978-0-674-03196-8 8402:978-0-0607-7518-6 8290:978-0-3947-0387-9 8266:978-0-6910-0866-0 8231:978-0-6910-5432-2 8218:Sperber, Jonathan 8201:978-0-1982-0432-9 8188:Sheehan, James J. 8179:978-0-3405-1332-3 8145:978-0-6916-3611-5 8130:Nipperdey, Thomas 8012:978-0-9029-8606-0 7985:978-0-8741-3143-7 7958:978-0-2264-5347-7 7928:978-0-1950-9396-4 7901:978-0-4150-2787-8 7830:978-0-2927-2540-9 7811:978-0-1430-3636-4 7792:978-0-0030-2090-8 7779:Evans, Richard J. 7732:978-0-8078-4665-0 7682:978-1-5711-3303-8 7663:978-0-1987-3057-6 7646:Blackbourn, David 7603:Blackbourn, David 7523:978-0-8078-4701-5 7489:978-0-5210-2775-5 7321:Evans, Richard J. 7044:, pp. 64–68. 7032:, pp. 55–59. 7020:, pp. 56–57. 7008:, pp. 55–56. 6996:, pp. 50–57. 6960:978-0-5827-8458-1 6899:978-3-1101-7654-4 6814:, pp. 87–88. 6802:, pp. 57–75. 6754:, pp. 82–84. 6713:, pp. 4–32; 6697:, pp. 40–57. 6637:978-0-8014-7293-0 6577:978-0-1307-7362-3 6544:, pp. 13–14. 6516:978-0-300-05884-0 6411:978-0-1988-1270-8 6246:978-0-5213-4748-8 6178:978-0-8549-6414-7 6062:Sperber, Jonathan 5553:978-0-5820-9007-1 5472:978-0-5822-1717-1 5286:978-0-5200-4206-3 5212:978-0-8014-8508-4 5158:Vann, James Allen 4929:. He opposed the 4789:Congregations Law 4602:State Secretaries 4569: 4568: 4565: 4564: 4553:Elsass-Lothringen 4359: 4335: 4275:Sachsen-Meiningen 4219:Sachsen-Altenburg 3388:Queen Isabella II 3267:Province of Posen 3259:city of Frankfurt 2848:1815 peace treaty 2724:Otto von Bismarck 2711:Albrecht von Roon 2679:Albrecht von Roon 2594:Holy Roman Empire 2117:Formation of the 1995:Wartburg Festival 1827:had made himself 1780:Duchy of Oświęcim 1768:Frankfurt am Main 1763:Bundesversammlung 1676:Seventh Coalition 1652:Battle of Nations 1648:Battle of Leipzig 1644:War of Liberation 1637:Lützow Free Corps 1624:Iberian Peninsula 1570:Kingdom of Saxony 1489:Holy Roman Empire 1461:Habsburg Monarchy 1457:Holy Roman Empire 1436:House of Habsburg 1406:and the powerful 1352:Holy Roman Empire 1260:Holy Roman Empire 1256:Habsburg monarchy 1216:War of Liberation 1183:Otto von Bismarck 1046:military alliance 1040:establishing the 997:Deutsche Einigung 985: 984: 927:Italo-Turkish War 915:Racconigi Bargain 819:Berlin Conference 737: 736: 570:Province of Posen 560:Remainder of the 127:Kingdom of Saxony 54:Deutsche Einigung 10104: 9969:Spanish–American 9889:Fashoda Incident 9765:Treaty of Björkö 9750:Treaty of Berlin 9684:Open Door Policy 9618:Eastern question 9565:Entente Cordiale 9471: 9464: 9457: 9448: 9447: 9436: 9435: 9434: 9385: 9201: 9192: 9179: 9170: 9161: 9152: 9141: 9132: 9123: 9116: 9102: 9096:Hambach Festival 9093: 9087:Carlsbad Decrees 9084: 9075: 9064: 9055: 8961: 8932: 8925: 8918: 8909: 8908: 8886: 8846:Bismarck: A Life 8827: 8745: 8730:— (1975). 8726: 8717: 8482: 8467:— (2001). 8463: 8414: 8381: 8350:— (2003). 8346: 8309:. London, 1971. 8302: 8277:Taylor, A. J. P. 8270: 8255:— (1993). 8251: 8213: 8183: 8157: 8125: 8123: 8121: 8091: 8078:— (1968). 8074: 8044: 8038: 8034: 8032: 8024: 7997: 7970: 7945:Krieger, Leonard 7940: 7913: 7883: 7858: 7815: 7800:— (2005). 7796: 7774: 7749:Dahrendorf, Ralf 7744: 7714: 7708: 7704: 7702: 7694: 7667: 7639: 7624:— (1998). 7620: 7588: 7582: 7576: 7570: 7543: 7508: 7502: 7501: 7475: 7469: 7463: 7457: 7451: 7445: 7439: 7433: 7427: 7421: 7415: 7409: 7403: 7397: 7391: 7382: 7376: 7370: 7364: 7354: 7313: 7275: 7269: 7255: 7249: 7243: 7237: 7231: 7225: 7219: 7213: 7207: 7198: 7192: 7186: 7180: 7174: 7168: 7162: 7161: 7135: 7129: 7123: 7117: 7111: 7105: 7099: 7093: 7087: 7081: 7075: 7069: 7063: 7057: 7051: 7045: 7039: 7033: 7027: 7021: 7015: 7009: 7003: 6997: 6991: 6985: 6984:, pp. 4–60. 6979: 6973: 6972: 6946: 6940: 6934: 6928: 6918: 6912: 6911: 6885: 6879: 6869: 6863: 6857: 6851: 6833: 6827: 6821: 6815: 6809: 6803: 6797: 6791: 6785: 6779: 6773: 6767: 6761: 6755: 6745: 6739: 6736: 6730: 6724: 6718: 6704: 6698: 6692: 6686: 6680: 6674: 6668: 6662: 6656: 6650: 6649: 6620: 6614: 6608: 6602: 6596: 6590: 6589: 6563: 6557: 6551: 6545: 6539: 6533: 6527: 6521: 6520: 6504: 6494: 6488: 6481: 6475: 6469: 6463: 6457: 6451: 6450: 6448: 6446: 6430: 6424: 6423: 6398:Taylor, A. J. P. 6394: 6388: 6381: 6375: 6373: 6346: 6323: 6317: 6311: 6305: 6299: 6293: 6287: 6281: 6274: 6268: 6265: 6259: 6258: 6233:Berghahn, Volker 6229: 6190: 6153: 6107: 6101: 6095: 6089: 6087: 6058: 6052: 6046: 6040: 6031: 6027: 6021: 6020: 5994: 5988: 5974: 5970: 5964: 5954: 5950: 5944: 5943: 5941: 5939: 5925: 5919: 5913: 5907: 5901: 5895: 5889: 5883: 5877: 5871: 5865: 5859: 5853: 5847: 5841: 5835: 5834: 5828: 5819: 5813: 5812: 5804: 5795: 5785: 5779: 5773: 5767: 5761: 5755: 5749: 5743: 5737: 5731: 5725: 5719: 5713: 5707: 5701: 5695: 5689: 5680: 5674: 5665: 5656: 5650: 5644: 5633: 5627: 5621: 5620: 5593: 5587: 5581: 5575: 5573: 5536: 5530: 5524: 5518: 5512: 5506: 5500: 5494: 5492: 5459:Scott, Hamish M. 5451: 5445: 5435: 5429: 5423: 5417: 5411: 5405: 5399: 5393: 5392: 5358: 5352: 5346: 5340: 5339: 5337: 5335: 5317: 5311: 5305: 5299: 5298: 5272: 5266: 5265: 5231: 5225: 5224: 5195: 5189: 5181: 5153: 5147: 5141: 5135: 5129: 5123: 5122: 5116: 5114: 5086: 5069: 5066: 5060: 5056: 5050: 5046: 5040: 5037: 5031: 5016:Seven Years' War 5012: 4965: 4960: 4959: 4958: 4880:(1817–1903) and 4664:Hanseatic cities 4555: 4542: 4541: 4532: 4512: 4511: 4496: 4495: 4480: 4479: 4470: 4451: 4438: 4437: 4417: 4416: 4396: 4395: 4380:Schaumburg-Lippe 4375: 4374: 4357: 4351: 4350: 4333: 4327: 4326: 4306: 4305: 4296: 4277: 4264: 4263: 4249: 4236: 4235: 4221: 4208: 4207: 4193: 4180: 4179: 4159: 4158: 4149: 4130: 4117: 4116: 4096: 4095: 4075: 4074: 4054: 4053: 4039: 4026: 4025: 4005: 4004: 3995: 3970: 3969: 3955: 3942: 3941: 3927: 3914: 3913: 3899: 3886: 3885: 3876: 3857: 3854: 3642: 3635: 3634: 3510:Anton von Werner 3224: 3198:Kleindeutschland 3173: 3167: 3161: 3155: 3149: 3143: 3105:Prussian Prince 3097:Austria isolated 3050:Saxony–Meiningen 2981: 2975: 2969: 2963: 2957: 2951: 2651:Giuseppe Mazzini 2613:Grossdeutschland 2603:Kleindeutschland 2127:, as a Prussian 2106:(related to the 2035:Hambach Festival 2015:Burschenschaften 2011:Carlsbad Decrees 1974:Carlsbad Decrees 1841:Seven Years' War 1735:balance of power 1562:imperial knights 1532:1806 during the 1486: 1476:Duchy of Prussia 1440:Duchy of Austria 1416:imperial circles 1368:Imperial Estates 1348:Ottonian dynasty 1340:Treaty of Verdun 1276:Germanic peoples 1204: 1173: 1165: 1120: 1072:25 member states 1026:federal features 1015: 1014: 1013: 1007: 1002: 977: 970: 963: 879:Entente Cordiale 855:Fashoda Incident 825:Bulgarian Crisis 754: 739: 738: 488:integrated into 486:Duchy of Limburg 420: 419: 408: 407: 396: 395: 384: 383: 372: 371: 360: 359: 348: 347: 329: 328: 327: 317: 316: 315: 305: 304: 303: 293: 292: 281: 280: 279: 269: 268: 267: 257: 256: 255: 245: 244: 233: 232: 221: 220: 209: 208: 197: 196: 185: 184: 183: 173: 172: 161: 160: 149: 148: 137: 136: 125: 124: 116:(leading member) 112: 111: 91: 87: 86: 72: 56: 49:Native name 38: 31: 27: 10112: 10111: 10107: 10106: 10105: 10103: 10102: 10101: 10082:1871 in Germany 10052: 10051: 10050: 10045: 9984:Boxer Rebellion 9942: 9806: 9760:Treaty of Paris 9725: 9719: 9652:New Imperialism 9613:Ottoman decline 9596: 9543:Triple Alliance 9531: 9492:Austria-Hungary 9480: 9475: 9445: 9440: 9432: 9430: 9424: 9398:German question 9379: 9377:Flag of Germany 9346:Alsace–Lorraine 9334: 9220:Baron von Stein 9208: 9199: 9190: 9186:Peace of Prague 9177: 9168: 9159: 9150: 9139: 9130: 9121: 9114: 9100: 9091: 9082: 9073: 9062: 9053: 9042: 8994: 8958:Austria-Hungary 8955: 8953:Austrian Empire 8941: 8936: 8894: 8889: 8867: 8853:Wawro, Geoffrey 8808: 8778:Sorkin, David, 8742: 8725:(2nd ed.). 8706: 8479: 8460: 8420:Further reading 8417: 8403: 8362: 8335: 8321:Wawro, Geoffrey 8291: 8267: 8232: 8202: 8180: 8168:, eds. (1996). 8146: 8119: 8117: 8115: 8063: 8036: 8035: 8026: 8025: 8013: 7986: 7959: 7929: 7902: 7847: 7812: 7793: 7763: 7733: 7706: 7705: 7696: 7695: 7683: 7664: 7636: 7617: 7592: 7591: 7583: 7579: 7524: 7509: 7505: 7490: 7476: 7472: 7464: 7460: 7452: 7448: 7440: 7436: 7428: 7424: 7418:Blackbourn 1998 7416: 7412: 7406:Blackbourn 1998 7404: 7400: 7389: 7383: 7379: 7373:Blackbourn 1998 7371: 7367: 7335: 7294: 7276: 7272: 7256: 7252: 7246:Blackbourn 1998 7244: 7240: 7234:Blackbourn 1998 7232: 7228: 7220: 7216: 7208: 7201: 7193: 7189: 7183:Blackbourn 1998 7181: 7177: 7169: 7165: 7150: 7136: 7132: 7124: 7120: 7112: 7108: 7100: 7096: 7088: 7084: 7076: 7072: 7064: 7060: 7052: 7048: 7040: 7036: 7028: 7024: 7016: 7012: 7004: 7000: 6992: 6988: 6980: 6976: 6961: 6947: 6943: 6935: 6931: 6919: 6915: 6900: 6886: 6882: 6872:Blackbourn 1998 6870: 6866: 6858: 6854: 6850:, July 1, 1866. 6834: 6830: 6822: 6818: 6810: 6806: 6798: 6794: 6786: 6782: 6774: 6770: 6762: 6758: 6746: 6742: 6737: 6733: 6725: 6721: 6705: 6701: 6693: 6689: 6681: 6677: 6669: 6665: 6657: 6653: 6638: 6624:Hull, Isabel V. 6621: 6617: 6609: 6605: 6597: 6593: 6578: 6564: 6560: 6554:Blackbourn 1998 6552: 6548: 6540: 6536: 6528: 6524: 6517: 6495: 6491: 6482: 6478: 6472:Blackbourn 1998 6470: 6466: 6458: 6454: 6444: 6442: 6431: 6427: 6412: 6395: 6391: 6382: 6378: 6324: 6320: 6312: 6308: 6300: 6296: 6288: 6284: 6275: 6271: 6266: 6262: 6247: 6179: 6134: 6111:Ralf Dahrendorf 6108: 6104: 6098:Blackbourn 1998 6096: 6092: 6076: 6059: 6055: 6049:Blackbourn 1998 6047: 6043: 6029: 6028: 6024: 6009: 5995: 5991: 5972: 5971: 5967: 5957:Baedecker, Karl 5955:Hans Lulfing, 5952: 5951: 5947: 5937: 5935: 5927: 5926: 5922: 5914: 5910: 5902: 5898: 5890: 5886: 5878: 5874: 5866: 5862: 5854: 5850: 5842: 5838: 5826: 5820: 5816: 5805: 5798: 5792:Blackbourn 1998 5786: 5782: 5776:Blackbourn 1998 5774: 5770: 5762: 5758: 5752:Blackbourn 1994 5750: 5746: 5738: 5734: 5726: 5722: 5714: 5710: 5702: 5698: 5690: 5683: 5675: 5668: 5657: 5653: 5645: 5636: 5632:, pp. 1–3. 5628: 5624: 5594: 5590: 5582: 5578: 5554: 5537: 5533: 5525: 5521: 5513: 5509: 5501: 5497: 5473: 5452: 5448: 5436: 5432: 5424: 5420: 5412: 5408: 5400: 5396: 5373: 5359: 5355: 5347: 5343: 5333: 5331: 5318: 5314: 5306: 5302: 5287: 5273: 5269: 5246: 5232: 5228: 5213: 5183: 5182: 5154: 5150: 5142: 5138: 5130: 5126: 5112: 5110: 5087: 5083: 5073: 5072: 5067: 5063: 5057: 5053: 5047: 5043: 5038: 5034: 5013: 5009: 4999: 4961: 4956: 4954: 4951: 4878:Theodor Mommsen 4866: 4860: 4817:Germanized Jews 4797: 4765: 4759: 4745:German language 4687: 4618: 4574: 4547:Alsace–Lorraine 4539: 4509: 4493: 4477: 4435: 4414: 4393: 4372: 4348: 4324: 4303: 4261: 4233: 4205: 4177: 4156: 4114: 4093: 4072: 4051: 4023: 4002: 3993:Großherzogtümer 3967: 3939: 3911: 3883: 3851: 3847: 3640: 3632: 3622: 3589: 3556: 3519: 3494:Hall of Mirrors 3482: 3424: 3384: 3382:Spanish prelude 3368: 3362: 3334: 3332:War with France 3326:Austria-Hungary 3305:Peace of Prague 3301: 3295: 3263:Hesse Darmstadt 3235:Peace of Prague 3231: 3225: 3216: 3206: 3194:Peace of Prague 3175: 3171: 3169: 3165: 3163: 3159: 3157: 3153: 3151: 3147: 3145: 3141: 3099: 3006: 2983: 2979: 2977: 2973: 2971: 2967: 2965: 2961: 2959: 2955: 2953: 2949: 2941: 2935: 2927:peace of Vienna 2862: 2856: 2671: 2634: 2586:Karl Nesselrode 2557:German question 2490: 2439: 2433: 2382: 2358: 2290: 2247:An den Frühling 2171: 2082: 2052:July Revolution 1946:Wartburg Castle 1938: 1892: 1886: 1879: 1829:King in Prussia 1804: 1774:and the former 1746:Austrian Empire 1712: 1620:Duchy of Warsaw 1582: 1515:(1801) and the 1497: 1453:Napoleonic Wars 1432:Prince-electors 1428: 1372:Imperial Reform 1360:Diet of Cologne 1324:Frankish Empire 1248: 1224:Austria-Hungary 1222:Austria (under 1176:Peace of Prague 1123:Austrian Empire 1074:and led by the 1009: 1008: 1000: 981: 952: 813:Triple Alliance 709:Alsace–Lorraine 595:County of Glatz 500:Bundespräsidium 495:King of Prussia 453:German monarchy 414: 402: 390: 378: 366: 354: 342: 325: 323: 313: 311: 301: 299: 287: 277: 275: 265: 263: 253: 251: 239: 227: 215: 203: 199:Duchy of Anhalt 191: 181: 179: 167: 155: 143: 131: 119: 106: 81: 80: 70:18 January 1871 64: 44: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 10110: 10100: 10099: 10094: 10089: 10084: 10079: 10074: 10069: 10064: 10047: 10046: 10044: 10043: 10038: 10037: 10036: 10035: 10034: 10029: 10024: 10016: 10011: 10001: 9996: 9994:Russo-Japanese 9991: 9986: 9981: 9976: 9971: 9966: 9961: 9959:Anglo-Egyptian 9956: 9950: 9948: 9944: 9943: 9941: 9940: 9935: 9933:Bosnian Crisis 9930: 9929: 9928: 9918: 9917: 9916: 9906: 9901: 9896: 9891: 9886: 9885: 9884: 9882:Austro-Italian 9879: 9878: 9877: 9872: 9857: 9850: 9845: 9840: 9835: 9830: 9825: 9820: 9814: 9812: 9808: 9807: 9805: 9804: 9799: 9794: 9789: 9784: 9783: 9782: 9780:Martens Clause 9772: 9767: 9762: 9757: 9752: 9747: 9746: 9745: 9735: 9729: 9727: 9721: 9720: 9718: 9717: 9716: 9715: 9705: 9700: 9695: 9694: 9693: 9692: 9691: 9686: 9681: 9676: 9666: 9665: 9664: 9662:Egyptian Lever 9649: 9647:Pax Britannica 9644: 9643: 9642: 9632: 9631: 9630: 9628:Sovereign debt 9625: 9620: 9610: 9604: 9602: 9598: 9597: 9595: 9594: 9589: 9584: 9579: 9574: 9573: 9572: 9567: 9562: 9555:Triple Entente 9552: 9551: 9550: 9539: 9537: 9533: 9532: 9530: 9529: 9524: 9522:United Kingdom 9519: 9514: 9509: 9504: 9499: 9494: 9488: 9486: 9482: 9481: 9474: 9473: 9466: 9459: 9451: 9442: 9441: 9429: 9426: 9425: 9423: 9422: 9415: 9410: 9405: 9400: 9395: 9393:Lesser Germany 9386: 9374: 9367: 9360: 9357:Burschenschaft 9353: 9348: 9342: 9340: 9336: 9335: 9333: 9332: 9327: 9322: 9317: 9312: 9307: 9302: 9297: 9292: 9287: 9282: 9277: 9272: 9267: 9262: 9257: 9252: 9247: 9245:Franz Joseph I 9242: 9237: 9232: 9227: 9222: 9216: 9214: 9210: 9209: 9207: 9206: 9197: 9188: 9175: 9166: 9157: 9148: 9147: 9146: 9137: 9128: 9111: 9110: 9109: 9098: 9089: 9080: 9060: 9050: 9048: 9044: 9043: 9041: 9040: 9035: 9030: 9025: 9020: 9013: 9008: 9002: 9000: 8996: 8995: 8993: 8992: 8987: 8982: 8977: 8972: 8967: 8962: 8949: 8947: 8943: 8942: 8935: 8934: 8927: 8920: 8912: 8906: 8905: 8900: 8893: 8892:External links 8890: 8888: 8887: 8865: 8849: 8842: 8828: 8806: 8790: 8776: 8762: 8748: 8747: 8746: 8740: 8718: 8704: 8692:Schulze, Hagen 8688: 8674: 8667: 8655:. Kent, Ohio, 8649: 8642: 8628: 8614: 8600: 8586: 8572: 8560:Groh, John E. 8558: 8544: 8530: 8516: 8502: 8485: 8484: 8483: 8477: 8458: 8445: 8438: 8423: 8416: 8415: 8401: 8389:Zamoyski, Adam 8385: 8384: 8383: 8360: 8333: 8317: 8303: 8289: 8273: 8272: 8271: 8265: 8230: 8214: 8200: 8184: 8178: 8158: 8144: 8126: 8113: 8094: 8093: 8092: 8061: 8045: 8011: 7998: 7984: 7971: 7957: 7941: 7927: 7914: 7900: 7884: 7859: 7845: 7832: 7818: 7817: 7816: 7810: 7791: 7775: 7761: 7745: 7731: 7715: 7681: 7668: 7662: 7642: 7641: 7640: 7634: 7615: 7598: 7590: 7589: 7577: 7573:Nipperdey 1996 7522: 7503: 7488: 7470: 7468:, p. 241. 7458: 7446: 7434: 7422: 7410: 7398: 7377: 7365: 7357:Nipperdey 1996 7333: 7292: 7270: 7250: 7238: 7236:, p. 267. 7226: 7214: 7199: 7197:, p. 302. 7187: 7175: 7163: 7148: 7130: 7128:, p. 133. 7118: 7106: 7094: 7092:, p. 126. 7082: 7080:, p. 235. 7070: 7058: 7046: 7034: 7022: 7010: 6998: 6986: 6974: 6959: 6941: 6929: 6913: 6898: 6880: 6864: 6862:, p. 910. 6852: 6828: 6816: 6804: 6792: 6780: 6778:, p. 909. 6768: 6756: 6750:, p. 96; 6740: 6731: 6719: 6699: 6687: 6675: 6663: 6651: 6636: 6615: 6603: 6591: 6576: 6558: 6546: 6534: 6522: 6515: 6489: 6476: 6464: 6452: 6425: 6410: 6389: 6376: 6318: 6306: 6294: 6282: 6269: 6260: 6245: 6177: 6132: 6115:German History 6102: 6090: 6074: 6053: 6041: 6022: 6007: 5989: 5965: 5945: 5920: 5908: 5906:, p. 458. 5896: 5894:, p. 469. 5884: 5882:, p. 502. 5872: 5860: 5858:, p. 466. 5848: 5846:, p. 465. 5836: 5814: 5796: 5780: 5778:, p. 127. 5768: 5756: 5744: 5732: 5730:, p. 613. 5720: 5718:, p. 612. 5708: 5706:, p. 610. 5696: 5681: 5666: 5651: 5634: 5630:Nipperdey 1996 5622: 5588: 5576: 5552: 5540:Berenger, Jean 5531: 5519: 5507: 5495: 5471: 5446: 5442:Nipperdey 1996 5430: 5418: 5416:, p. 323. 5406: 5394: 5371: 5353: 5351:, p. 434. 5341: 5312: 5300: 5285: 5267: 5244: 5226: 5211: 5148: 5136: 5124: 5090:Heather, Peter 5080: 5079: 5071: 5070: 5061: 5051: 5041: 5032: 5006: 5005: 4998: 4995: 4994: 4993: 4988: 4983: 4978: 4973: 4967: 4966: 4963:Germany portal 4950: 4947: 4859: 4856: 4796: 4793: 4761:Main article: 4758: 4753: 4686: 4683: 4617: 4614: 4573: 4570: 4567: 4566: 4563: 4562: 4557: 4543: 4535: 4534: 4521: 4520: 4513: 4505: 4504: 4497: 4489: 4488: 4481: 4473: 4472: 4459: 4458: 4453: 4439: 4431: 4430: 4425: 4418: 4410: 4409: 4404: 4397: 4389: 4388: 4383: 4376: 4368: 4367: 4362: 4352: 4344: 4343: 4338: 4328: 4320: 4319: 4314: 4307: 4299: 4298: 4289:Principalities 4285: 4284: 4279: 4269:Saxe-Meiningen 4265: 4257: 4256: 4251: 4237: 4229: 4228: 4223: 4213:Saxe-Altenburg 4209: 4201: 4200: 4195: 4181: 4173: 4172: 4167: 4160: 4152: 4151: 4138: 4137: 4132: 4118: 4110: 4109: 4104: 4097: 4089: 4088: 4083: 4076: 4068: 4067: 4062: 4055: 4047: 4046: 4041: 4027: 4019: 4018: 4013: 4006: 3998: 3997: 3984: 3983: 3978: 3971: 3963: 3962: 3957: 3943: 3935: 3934: 3929: 3915: 3907: 3906: 3901: 3887: 3879: 3878: 3865: 3864: 3861: 3852: 3638: 3621: 3618: 3588: 3585: 3555: 3552: 3524:Third Republic 3515:Main article: 3481: 3478: 3423: 3420: 3383: 3380: 3364:Main article: 3361: 3358: 3333: 3330: 3294: 3291: 3230: 3227: 3214: 3205: 3202: 3189:Friedrich Carl 3170: 3164: 3158: 3152: 3146: 3140: 3107:Friedrich Carl 3098: 3095: 3005: 3004:Choosing sides 3002: 2978: 2972: 2966: 2960: 2954: 2948: 2937:Main article: 2934: 2931: 2882:personal union 2858:Main article: 2855: 2852: 2670: 2664: 2633: 2630: 2622:German dualism 2582:Tsar Alexander 2489: 2486: 2474:exceptionalism 2432: 2429: 2381: 2378: 2357: 2354: 2306:Brothers Grimm 2289: 2286: 2243:Nikolaus Lenau 2211:Friedrich List 2192:Lake Constance 2170: 2167: 2112:intelligentsia 2081: 2078: 2066:Burschenschaft 2047:Hambach Castle 2039:Hambacher Fest 1983:Burschenschaft 1962:Burschenschaft 1937: 1934: 1888:Main article: 1885: 1880: 1878: 1875: 1821:Prince-Elector 1803: 1800: 1792:Duchy of Baden 1784:Duchy of Zator 1756:" (called the 1724:Deutscher Bund 1711: 1708: 1581: 1578: 1530:Jena-Auerstedt 1496: 1493: 1483:Kleinstaaterei 1427: 1424: 1400:Weil der Stadt 1247: 1244: 1152:German dualism 1131:Central Europe 1044:, initially a 1030:Lesser Germany 983: 982: 980: 979: 972: 965: 957: 954: 953: 951: 950: 949: 948: 942: 936: 930: 924: 918: 912: 909:Bosnian Crisis 906: 900: 894: 888: 882: 876: 870: 864: 858: 852: 846: 840: 834: 828: 822: 816: 810: 804: 798: 792: 786: 780: 774: 768: 759: 756: 755: 747: 746: 735: 734: 733: 732: 725: 724: 723: 696: 691: 689:German Emperor 678: 672: 654:Saxe-Lauenburg 643: 630: 617: 588: 558: 537: 512: 503: 497:holder of the 492: 483: 478: 472: 445: 440: 438:Lesser Germany 433: 429: 428: 427: 426: 425: 424: 412: 400: 388: 376: 364: 352: 335: 334: 333: 321: 309: 297: 285: 273: 261: 249: 237: 225: 213: 201: 189: 177: 165: 153: 141: 129: 117: 97: 93: 92: 78: 74: 73: 66:18 August 1866 62: 58: 57: 50: 46: 45: 39: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10109: 10098: 10095: 10093: 10090: 10088: 10085: 10083: 10080: 10078: 10075: 10073: 10070: 10068: 10065: 10063: 10062:Pan-Germanism 10060: 10059: 10057: 10042: 10039: 10033: 10030: 10028: 10025: 10023: 10020: 10019: 10017: 10015: 10012: 10010: 10007: 10006: 10005: 10002: 10000: 9999:Italo-Turkish 9997: 9995: 9992: 9990: 9987: 9985: 9982: 9980: 9977: 9975: 9972: 9970: 9967: 9965: 9962: 9960: 9957: 9955: 9954:Russo-Turkish 9952: 9951: 9949: 9945: 9939: 9936: 9934: 9931: 9927: 9926:Treaty of Fes 9924: 9923: 9922: 9921:Agadir Crisis 9919: 9915: 9912: 9911: 9910: 9907: 9905: 9902: 9900: 9897: 9895: 9892: 9890: 9887: 9883: 9880: 9876: 9873: 9871: 9870: 9866: 9865: 9864: 9861: 9860: 9858: 9856: 9855: 9851: 9849: 9846: 9844: 9841: 9839: 9836: 9834: 9831: 9829: 9826: 9824: 9821: 9819: 9816: 9815: 9813: 9809: 9803: 9800: 9798: 9795: 9793: 9790: 9788: 9785: 9781: 9778: 9777: 9776: 9773: 9771: 9768: 9766: 9763: 9761: 9758: 9756: 9753: 9751: 9748: 9744: 9741: 9740: 9739: 9736: 9734: 9731: 9730: 9728: 9722: 9714: 9711: 9710: 9709: 9706: 9704: 9701: 9699: 9696: 9690: 9687: 9685: 9682: 9680: 9677: 9675: 9672: 9671: 9670: 9667: 9663: 9660: 9659: 9658: 9655: 9654: 9653: 9650: 9648: 9645: 9641: 9638: 9637: 9636: 9633: 9629: 9626: 9624: 9621: 9619: 9616: 9615: 9614: 9611: 9609: 9606: 9605: 9603: 9599: 9593: 9592:Balkan League 9590: 9588: 9585: 9583: 9580: 9578: 9575: 9571: 9568: 9566: 9563: 9561: 9558: 9557: 9556: 9553: 9549: 9548:Dual Alliance 9546: 9545: 9544: 9541: 9540: 9538: 9534: 9528: 9527:United States 9525: 9523: 9520: 9518: 9515: 9513: 9510: 9508: 9505: 9503: 9500: 9498: 9495: 9493: 9490: 9489: 9487: 9483: 9479: 9472: 9467: 9465: 9460: 9458: 9453: 9452: 9449: 9439: 9427: 9421: 9420: 9416: 9414: 9411: 9409: 9406: 9404: 9401: 9399: 9396: 9394: 9390: 9389:Pan-Germanism 9387: 9383: 9378: 9375: 9373: 9372: 9368: 9366: 9365: 9361: 9359: 9358: 9354: 9352: 9349: 9347: 9344: 9343: 9341: 9337: 9331: 9328: 9326: 9323: 9321: 9318: 9316: 9313: 9311: 9308: 9306: 9303: 9301: 9298: 9296: 9293: 9291: 9288: 9286: 9285:Archduke John 9283: 9281: 9278: 9276: 9273: 9271: 9268: 9266: 9263: 9261: 9258: 9256: 9253: 9251: 9248: 9246: 9243: 9241: 9238: 9236: 9233: 9231: 9228: 9226: 9223: 9221: 9218: 9217: 9215: 9211: 9205: 9198: 9196: 9189: 9187: 9183: 9176: 9174: 9167: 9165: 9158: 9156: 9149: 9145: 9138: 9136: 9129: 9127: 9120: 9119: 9118: 9112: 9108: 9107: 9099: 9097: 9090: 9088: 9081: 9079: 9072: 9071: 9070: 9069: 9061: 9059: 9052: 9051: 9049: 9045: 9039: 9038:German Empire 9036: 9034: 9031: 9029: 9026: 9024: 9021: 9019: 9018: 9014: 9012: 9009: 9007: 9004: 9003: 9001: 8997: 8991: 8988: 8986: 8983: 8981: 8978: 8976: 8973: 8971: 8968: 8966: 8963: 8959: 8954: 8951: 8950: 8948: 8944: 8940: 8933: 8928: 8926: 8921: 8919: 8914: 8913: 8910: 8904: 8901: 8899: 8896: 8895: 8884: 8880: 8876: 8872: 8868: 8862: 8859:. Routledge. 8858: 8854: 8850: 8847: 8843: 8841: 8837: 8833: 8829: 8825: 8821: 8817: 8813: 8809: 8803: 8799: 8795: 8791: 8789: 8785: 8781: 8777: 8775: 8774:0-1950-6536-0 8771: 8767: 8763: 8761: 8757: 8753: 8749: 8743: 8741:0-9798-5009-6 8737: 8733: 8728: 8727: 8724: 8719: 8715: 8711: 8707: 8701: 8697: 8693: 8689: 8687: 8686:0-8549-6267-0 8683: 8679: 8675: 8672: 8668: 8666: 8665:0-8733-8460-1 8662: 8658: 8654: 8650: 8647: 8643: 8641: 8640:0-5211-1187-0 8637: 8633: 8630:Lüdtke, Alf. 8629: 8627: 8626:0-1950-8326-1 8623: 8619: 8615: 8613: 8612:0-3132-9483-6 8609: 8605: 8601: 8599: 8598:0-7131-6522-7 8595: 8591: 8587: 8585: 8581: 8577: 8573: 8571: 8570:0-8191-2078-2 8567: 8563: 8559: 8557: 8556:0-0601-6866-8 8553: 8549: 8545: 8543: 8542:0-5822-9270-0 8539: 8535: 8531: 8529: 8528:0-1950-5596-9 8525: 8521: 8517: 8515: 8514:0-3132-8004-5 8511: 8507: 8503: 8501: 8497: 8493: 8489: 8486: 8480: 8478:0-3336-8758-2 8474: 8470: 8465: 8464: 8461: 8459:0-8549-6653-6 8455: 8451: 8446: 8443: 8439: 8437: 8436:0-8204-1185-X 8433: 8429: 8425: 8424: 8422: 8421: 8412: 8408: 8404: 8398: 8394: 8390: 8386: 8379: 8375: 8371: 8367: 8363: 8361:0-5215-8436-1 8357: 8353: 8348: 8347: 8344: 8340: 8336: 8334:0-5215-6059-4 8330: 8326: 8322: 8318: 8316: 8315:0-9014-8630-2 8312: 8308: 8304: 8300: 8296: 8292: 8286: 8282: 8278: 8274: 8268: 8262: 8258: 8253: 8252: 8249: 8245: 8241: 8237: 8233: 8227: 8223: 8219: 8215: 8211: 8207: 8203: 8197: 8193: 8189: 8185: 8181: 8175: 8171: 8167: 8163: 8159: 8155: 8151: 8147: 8141: 8137: 8136: 8131: 8127: 8116: 8114:0-313-30984-1 8110: 8106: 8105: 8100: 8095: 8089: 8085: 8081: 8076: 8075: 8072: 8068: 8064: 8062:3-1034-7901-8 8058: 8054: 8050: 8046: 8042: 8030: 8022: 8018: 8014: 8008: 8004: 7999: 7995: 7991: 7987: 7981: 7977: 7972: 7968: 7964: 7960: 7954: 7950: 7946: 7942: 7938: 7934: 7930: 7924: 7920: 7915: 7911: 7907: 7903: 7897: 7893: 7889: 7885: 7881: 7877: 7873: 7869: 7865: 7860: 7856: 7852: 7848: 7846:0-6910-7598-0 7842: 7838: 7833: 7831: 7827: 7823: 7819: 7813: 7807: 7803: 7798: 7797: 7794: 7788: 7784: 7780: 7776: 7772: 7768: 7764: 7762:0-3850-6304-0 7758: 7755:. Doubleday. 7754: 7750: 7746: 7742: 7738: 7734: 7728: 7724: 7720: 7719:Confino, Alon 7716: 7712: 7700: 7692: 7688: 7684: 7678: 7674: 7669: 7665: 7659: 7655: 7651: 7647: 7643: 7637: 7635:0-1950-7672-9 7631: 7627: 7622: 7621: 7618: 7616:0-6794-1843-1 7612: 7608: 7604: 7600: 7599: 7597: 7596: 7586: 7581: 7574: 7568: 7564: 7560: 7556: 7552: 7548: 7541: 7537: 7533: 7529: 7525: 7519: 7515: 7507: 7499: 7495: 7491: 7485: 7481: 7474: 7467: 7462: 7455: 7450: 7443: 7438: 7431: 7426: 7419: 7414: 7407: 7402: 7395: 7387: 7381: 7374: 7369: 7362: 7358: 7352: 7348: 7344: 7340: 7336: 7334:0-06-492036-4 7330: 7326: 7322: 7317: 7311: 7307: 7303: 7299: 7295: 7293:0-3000-2386-3 7289: 7285: 7281: 7274: 7267: 7263: 7259: 7254: 7247: 7242: 7235: 7230: 7223: 7218: 7211: 7206: 7204: 7196: 7191: 7184: 7179: 7172: 7167: 7159: 7155: 7151: 7149:0-3333-4038-8 7145: 7141: 7134: 7127: 7122: 7115: 7110: 7103: 7098: 7091: 7086: 7079: 7074: 7067: 7062: 7055: 7050: 7043: 7038: 7031: 7026: 7019: 7014: 7007: 7002: 6995: 6990: 6983: 6978: 6970: 6966: 6962: 6956: 6952: 6945: 6938: 6933: 6927:, Chapter 11. 6926: 6922: 6917: 6909: 6905: 6901: 6895: 6891: 6884: 6877: 6873: 6868: 6861: 6856: 6849: 6848: 6843: 6839: 6838: 6832: 6825: 6820: 6813: 6808: 6801: 6796: 6789: 6784: 6777: 6772: 6765: 6760: 6753: 6749: 6744: 6735: 6729:, p. 75. 6728: 6723: 6716: 6712: 6708: 6703: 6696: 6691: 6684: 6679: 6672: 6667: 6661:, p. 40. 6660: 6655: 6647: 6643: 6639: 6633: 6629: 6625: 6619: 6612: 6607: 6600: 6595: 6587: 6583: 6579: 6573: 6569: 6562: 6555: 6550: 6543: 6538: 6532:, p. 27. 6531: 6526: 6518: 6512: 6508: 6503: 6502: 6493: 6486: 6480: 6473: 6468: 6461: 6460:Zamoyski 2007 6456: 6441: 6440: 6435: 6429: 6421: 6417: 6413: 6407: 6403: 6399: 6393: 6386: 6380: 6371: 6367: 6363: 6359: 6355: 6351: 6350:Kocka, Jürgen 6344: 6340: 6336: 6332: 6328: 6327:Kocka, Jürgen 6322: 6315: 6310: 6303: 6298: 6291: 6286: 6279: 6273: 6264: 6256: 6252: 6248: 6242: 6238: 6234: 6227: 6223: 6219: 6215: 6211: 6207: 6203: 6199: 6195: 6194:Kocka, Jürgen 6188: 6184: 6180: 6174: 6170: 6166: 6165:Kocka, Jürgen 6161: 6157: 6151: 6147: 6143: 6139: 6135: 6133:3-5253-3340-4 6129: 6125: 6121: 6116: 6112: 6106: 6099: 6094: 6085: 6081: 6077: 6075:0-5822-9446-0 6071: 6067: 6063: 6057: 6050: 6045: 6038: 6037: 6026: 6018: 6014: 6010: 6008:0-2533-1819-X 6004: 6000: 5993: 5986: 5985:3-8924-4463-3 5982: 5978: 5969: 5962: 5958: 5949: 5934: 5930: 5924: 5917: 5912: 5905: 5900: 5893: 5888: 5881: 5876: 5869: 5864: 5857: 5852: 5845: 5840: 5832: 5825: 5818: 5810: 5803: 5801: 5793: 5789: 5784: 5777: 5772: 5765: 5760: 5753: 5748: 5741: 5736: 5729: 5724: 5717: 5712: 5705: 5700: 5693: 5688: 5686: 5678: 5673: 5671: 5664: 5660: 5655: 5648: 5643: 5641: 5639: 5631: 5626: 5618: 5614: 5610: 5606: 5602: 5598: 5597:Namier, Lewis 5592: 5585: 5580: 5571: 5567: 5563: 5559: 5555: 5549: 5545: 5541: 5535: 5528: 5523: 5516: 5515:Zamoyski 2007 5511: 5504: 5499: 5490: 5486: 5482: 5478: 5474: 5468: 5464: 5460: 5455: 5450: 5443: 5439: 5434: 5427: 5422: 5415: 5410: 5403: 5398: 5390: 5386: 5382: 5378: 5374: 5372:0-9000-7537-6 5368: 5364: 5357: 5350: 5345: 5330: 5326: 5322: 5316: 5310:, p. 70. 5309: 5304: 5296: 5292: 5288: 5282: 5278: 5271: 5263: 5259: 5255: 5251: 5247: 5245:0-2531-6773-6 5241: 5237: 5230: 5222: 5218: 5214: 5208: 5204: 5200: 5193: 5187: 5179: 5175: 5171: 5167: 5163: 5159: 5152: 5145: 5140: 5133: 5128: 5121: 5108: 5105: 5101: 5100: 5095: 5091: 5085: 5081: 5078: 5077: 5065: 5055: 5045: 5036: 5029: 5025: 5021: 5017: 5011: 5007: 5004: 5003: 4992: 4989: 4987: 4986:Pan-Germanism 4984: 4982: 4979: 4977: 4974: 4972: 4969: 4968: 4964: 4953: 4946: 4944: 4940: 4936: 4932: 4928: 4924: 4920: 4916: 4911: 4910: 4904: 4901: 4897: 4895: 4890: 4885: 4883: 4879: 4875: 4871: 4865: 4855: 4851: 4849: 4848:public sphere 4845: 4844:Germanization 4840: 4836: 4832: 4828: 4827: 4822: 4818: 4810: 4806: 4801: 4792: 4790: 4786: 4782: 4778: 4774: 4770: 4764: 4757: 4752: 4750: 4749:Germanization 4746: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4733:Germanization 4730: 4729: 4724: 4719: 4717: 4708: 4707:Deutsches Eck 4704: 4700: 4699:Moselle River 4696: 4691: 4682: 4680: 4676: 4672: 4667: 4665: 4661: 4656: 4652: 4651: 4646: 4645:landed elites 4642: 4634: 4630: 4626: 4622: 4613: 4611: 4607: 4603: 4599: 4595: 4591: 4587: 4586:Imperial Diet 4583: 4579: 4561: 4558: 4554: 4549: 4548: 4544: 4537: 4536: 4531: 4526: 4522: 4519: 4518: 4507: 4506: 4503: 4502: 4491: 4490: 4487: 4486: 4475: 4474: 4469: 4464: 4460: 4457: 4454: 4450: 4445: 4444: 4440: 4433: 4432: 4429: 4428:Sondershausen 4426: 4424: 4423: 4419: 4412: 4411: 4408: 4405: 4403: 4402: 4398: 4391: 4390: 4387: 4384: 4382: 4381: 4377: 4370: 4369: 4366: 4363: 4361: 4360: 4353: 4346: 4345: 4342: 4339: 4337: 4336: 4334:(Junior Line) 4329: 4322: 4321: 4318: 4315: 4313: 4312: 4308: 4301: 4300: 4295: 4290: 4286: 4283: 4280: 4276: 4271: 4270: 4266: 4259: 4258: 4255: 4252: 4248: 4243: 4242: 4238: 4231: 4230: 4227: 4224: 4220: 4215: 4214: 4210: 4203: 4202: 4199: 4196: 4192: 4187: 4186: 4182: 4175: 4174: 4171: 4168: 4166: 4165: 4161: 4154: 4153: 4148: 4143: 4139: 4136: 4133: 4129: 4124: 4123: 4119: 4112: 4111: 4108: 4105: 4103: 4102: 4098: 4091: 4090: 4087: 4084: 4082: 4081: 4077: 4070: 4069: 4066: 4063: 4061: 4060: 4056: 4049: 4048: 4045: 4042: 4038: 4033: 4032: 4028: 4021: 4020: 4017: 4014: 4012: 4011: 4007: 4000: 3999: 3994: 3989: 3988:Grand Duchies 3985: 3982: 3979: 3977: 3976: 3972: 3965: 3964: 3961: 3958: 3954: 3949: 3948: 3944: 3937: 3936: 3933: 3930: 3926: 3921: 3920: 3916: 3909: 3908: 3905: 3902: 3900:) as a whole 3898: 3893: 3892: 3888: 3881: 3880: 3875: 3870: 3866: 3862: 3858: 3853: 3637: 3636: 3633: 3630: 3628: 3617: 3614: 3613: 3608: 3607: 3602: 3598: 3597:Bundesstaaten 3594: 3593:German Empire 3584: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3551: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3537: 3533: 3529: 3525: 3518: 3511: 3507: 3506:Friedrich III 3503: 3499: 3495: 3491: 3490:German Empire 3486: 3477: 3475: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3450: 3446: 3441: 3434: 3428: 3419: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3405: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3389: 3379: 3377: 3372: 3367: 3357: 3355: 3351: 3347: 3343: 3339: 3329: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3313: 3311: 3306: 3300: 3290: 3287: 3282: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3268: 3264: 3260: 3256: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3240: 3236: 3222: 3221: 3217:article from 3213: 3212: 3201: 3199: 3195: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3162: Austria 3144: Prussia 3137: 3133: 3131: 3127: 3123: 3119: 3112: 3108: 3103: 3094: 3091: 3087: 3083: 3077: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3054:Saxony–Coburg 3051: 3047: 3046:Saxony–Weimar 3043: 3039: 3035: 3031: 3027: 3026:Mittelstaaten 3022: 3020: 3015: 3011: 3001: 2999: 2994: 2990: 2958: Austria 2952: Prussia 2945: 2940: 2930: 2928: 2924: 2920: 2916: 2912: 2908: 2907: 2901: 2899: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2861: 2851: 2849: 2845: 2841: 2837: 2833: 2829: 2825: 2821: 2817: 2809: 2805: 2801: 2797: 2792: 2788: 2785: 2781: 2780: 2774: 2773:German Empire 2770: 2766: 2765:Pan-Germanism 2761: 2758: 2754: 2749: 2747: 2746: 2740: 2736: 2731: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2716: 2713:would become 2712: 2709:in 1857, and 2708: 2704: 2700: 2699:prince regent 2696: 2692: 2684: 2680: 2675: 2669: 2662: 2660: 2654: 2652: 2647: 2644: 2640: 2629: 2627: 2623: 2619: 2615: 2614: 2609: 2605: 2604: 2597: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2561: 2558: 2552: 2550: 2546: 2542: 2538: 2533: 2531: 2527: 2523: 2519: 2511: 2507: 2506:Paul's Church 2503: 2499: 2494: 2485: 2483: 2479: 2475: 2470: 2467: 2463: 2462: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2444:The Great War 2438: 2428: 2425: 2420: 2416: 2412: 2411: 2406: 2401: 2399: 2391: 2390:Paul's Church 2386: 2377: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2363: 2353: 2350: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2332: 2327: 2323: 2320:The words of 2318: 2315: 2314:Karl Baedeker 2311: 2307: 2303: 2294: 2285: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2273: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2254: 2252: 2248: 2245:'s 1838 poem 2244: 2240: 2236: 2232: 2228: 2227:Wilhelm Raabe 2224: 2223:German Empire 2220: 2216: 2212: 2207: 2205: 2201: 2197: 2193: 2189: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2166: 2164: 2160: 2154: 2151: 2147: 2143: 2138: 2134: 2131:in 1818, the 2130: 2129:customs union 2126: 2122: 2121: 2115: 2113: 2109: 2105: 2104:potato blight 2099: 2096: 2086: 2077: 2075: 2069: 2067: 2062: 2057: 2053: 2048: 2044: 2040: 2036: 2031: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2016: 2012: 2008: 2003: 2001: 1996: 1991: 1989: 1985: 1984: 1975: 1970: 1963: 1958: 1951: 1950:Martin Luther 1947: 1942: 1933: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1919: 1914: 1912: 1911:male suffrage 1907: 1903: 1902: 1897: 1891: 1884: 1874: 1872: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1859: 1854: 1850: 1849:Maria Theresa 1846: 1842: 1838: 1834: 1830: 1826: 1822: 1818: 1808: 1799: 1797: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1781: 1777: 1773: 1769: 1765: 1764: 1759: 1755: 1751: 1747: 1742: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1725: 1721: 1716: 1707: 1705: 1703: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1673: 1669: 1665: 1664:French period 1661: 1657: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1640: 1638: 1633: 1629: 1625: 1621: 1617: 1608: 1603: 1598: 1593: 1591: 1587: 1577: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1539: 1535: 1531: 1527: 1523: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1492: 1490: 1485: 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856: 853: 850: 847: 844: 841: 838: 835: 832: 829: 826: 823: 820: 817: 814: 811: 808: 805: 802: 799: 796: 795:Dual Alliance 793: 790: 787: 784: 781: 778: 775: 772: 769: 766: 763: 762: 761: 760: 758: 757: 753: 749: 748: 745: 741: 740: 731: 730: 726: 722: 718: 717:Germanization 714: 710: 706: 705: 704: 700: 697: 695: 692: 690: 686: 682: 679: 676: 673: 671: 667: 666:Germanization 663: 662:German Empire 659: 656:annexed into 655: 651: 647: 644: 642: 638: 637:Germanization 634: 633:Eupen-Malmedy 631: 629: 625: 624:Germanization 621: 618: 616: 612: 608: 604: 600: 599:Germanization 596: 592: 589: 587: 583: 579: 578:Germanization 575: 571: 567: 563: 559: 557: 553: 549: 548:Germanization 545: 541: 538: 536: 532: 528: 524: 520: 519:Germanization 516: 515:East Prussian 513: 511: 507: 504: 502: 501: 496: 493: 491: 487: 484: 482: 479: 476: 473: 470: 469:Liechtenstein 466: 462: 458: 454: 450: 446: 444: 441: 439: 436: 435: 434: 430: 423: 418: 413: 411: 406: 401: 399: 394: 389: 387: 382: 377: 375: 370: 365: 363: 358: 353: 351: 346: 341: 340: 339: 338:Second phase: 336: 332: 322: 320: 310: 308: 298: 296: 291: 286: 284: 274: 272: 262: 260: 250: 248: 243: 238: 236: 231: 226: 224: 219: 214: 212: 207: 202: 200: 195: 190: 188: 178: 176: 171: 166: 164: 159: 154: 152: 147: 142: 140: 135: 130: 128: 123: 118: 115: 110: 105: 104: 103: 100: 99: 98: 94: 90: 85: 79: 75: 71: 67: 63: 59: 55: 51: 47: 42: 37: 32: 26: 22: 9867: 9863:Anglo-German 9852: 9822: 9724:Treaties and 9485:Great powers 9417: 9369: 9362: 9355: 9310:Napoleon III 9230:Christian IX 9184: / 9104: 9066: 9028:Erfurt Union 9015: 8938: 8856: 8845: 8831: 8797: 8779: 8765: 8751: 8750:Sked, Alan. 8731: 8722: 8695: 8677: 8670: 8652: 8645: 8631: 8617: 8603: 8589: 8575: 8561: 8547: 8533: 8519: 8505: 8491: 8468: 8449: 8441: 8427: 8419: 8418: 8392: 8351: 8324: 8306: 8280: 8256: 8221: 8191: 8169: 8134: 8118:. 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By 1835, 2175:Heerstraßen 2095:nationalism 2043:county fair 1918:nationalism 1858:Fürstenbund 1825:Brandenburg 1522:Württemberg 1412:Württemberg 1320:Charlemagne 1201:Realpolitik 945:July Crisis 933:Balkan Wars 744:World War I 729:Kulturkampf 542:and former 461:Switzerland 10056:Categories 9726:agreements 9674:Great Game 9640:Revanchism 9017:Zollverein 8049:Mann, Golo 7547:Kohn, Hans 7316:Evans 2005 7222:Evans 2005 7195:Wawro 2003 7078:Wawro 2003 6925:Wawro 1996 6800:Wawro 1996 6788:Wawro 1996 6752:Wawro 1996 6711:Wawro 1996 6385:Evans 1987 5440:, Part 1; 4997:References 4826:Judengasse 4777:chancellor 4407:Rudolstadt 3601:Reichsland 3530:Paris and 3466:Gravelotte 3360:Background 3354:Luxembourg 3257:, and the 3019:von Moltke 2911:needle gun 2844:von Moltke 2643:Karl Blind 2574:Metternich 2500:, also by 2219:Zollverein 2202:, and the 2148:, and the 2133:Zollverein 2120:Zollverein 1922:liberalism 1871:Potato War 1584:Under the 1558:inter alia 1154:presented 1117:Zollverein 1111:absolutist 1001:pronounced 586:Kashubians 556:Kashubians 535:Kursenieki 521:of Poles ( 465:Luxembourg 9689:Meiji era 9536:Alliances 9419:Sonderweg 9330:Wilhelm I 9305:Ludwig II 9225:Charles I 9191:1870–1871 9151:1850-1851 9122:1848–1849 9063:1815–1848 9054:1814–1815 8824:24776092M 8120:March 11, 8099:"Germans" 8071:15250052M 8039:ignored ( 8029:cite book 8021:17517779M 7771:21335583M 7751:(1979) . 7709:ignored ( 7699:cite book 7567:24208090M 7351:21299242M 7158:28022489M 6844:) – 6671:Mann 1958 6611:Mann 1958 6601:, Part I. 6354:Sonderweg 6292:, Part 1. 6280:, Part 1. 6226:159651458 6150:23130743M 5938:April 27, 5609:422057575 5562:891447020 5542:(1997) . 5481:889270087 5389:20208714M 5308:Mann 1958 5262:22078286M 5186:cite book 5076:Citations 5024:Auerstadt 4915:Reichstag 4894:Borussian 4821:Joseph II 4773:Catholics 4675:Sonderweg 4655:Sonderweg 4641:Sonderweg 4633:Rüdesheim 4594:Bundesrat 4576:The 1866 4560:Straßburg 4386:Bückeburg 4282:Meiningen 4226:Altenburg 4185:Brunswick 4107:Oldenburg 4101:Oldenburg 4044:Darmstadt 4016:Karlsruhe 3981:Stuttgart 3627:Hanseatic 3454:Spicheren 2906:Danevirke 2878:Lauenburg 2870:Schleswig 2800:Schleswig 2697:becoming 2610:; in the 2478:Sonderweg 2461:Sonderweg 2366:Rhineland 2310:The Grimm 2262:Nuremberg 2251:To Spring 2142:Rhineland 1758:Bundestag 1702:Borussian 1656:Coalition 1513:Lunéville 1438:from the 1376:Hohenlohe 1308:Baiuvarii 1300:Thuringii 1226:) or its 1066:i.e. the 1034:Habsburgs 935:1912–1913 929:1911–1912 911:1908–1909 893:1906–1908 887:1905–1906 875:1904–1905 851:1898–1912 845:1894-1895 833:1887–1890 827:1885–1888 809:1881–1903 803:1880–1902 801:Boer Wars 785:1875–1878 773:1870–1871 767:1866–1871 646:Schleswig 615:Moravians 607:Silesians 527:Masurians 477:dissolved 8875:50552980 8855:(2000). 8816:27814087 8796:(1994). 8714:2227160M 8694:(1991). 8659:, 1992. 8411:7281494M 8391:(2007). 8378:3566186M 8370:51305920 8323:(1996). 8299:7461954M 8279:(1988). 8248:2867289M 8240:10559169 8220:(1984). 8210:7397485M 8190:(1989). 8154:1273142M 8132:(1996). 8088:5546196M 8051:(1958). 7994:8381260M 7967:4125447W 7947:(1957). 7937:7387583M 7910:7481175M 7890:(1961). 7880:6604098M 7855:4740623M 7781:(1987). 7741:1011446M 7721:(1997). 7691:8730421M 7652:(1984). 7605:(1994). 7549:(1954). 7532:45729918 7498:7714437M 7323:(1978). 7310:4416729M 7282:(1980). 7140:Bismarck 6969:7882098M 6908:9017475M 6646:7848816M 6626:(2005). 6586:4576160M 6568:Bismarck 6445:April 9, 6420:7402365M 6400:(1954). 6255:2382839M 6235:(1982). 6187:8300088M 6122:(1973). 6084:6779824M 6064:(2000). 6036:Germania 6017:1549008M 5617:6114891M 5599:(1952). 5570:7879682M 5503:Lee 1980 5489:3311839M 5461:(2006). 5381:59977347 5323:(1808). 5295:7708659M 5201:(1998). 5178:4590654M 5160:(1975). 5107:Archived 4949:See also 4900:Borussia 4809:Germania 4805:Germania 4625:Germania 4590:suffrage 4065:Schwerin 3869:Kingdoms 3863:Capital 3629:cities. 3591:The new 3548:Lorraine 3528:invested 3502:Bismarck 3445:von Roon 3346:Biarritz 3261:, while 3215:— 2993:Florence 2874:Holstein 2840:von Roon 2804:Holstein 2498:Germania 2277:Pfennigs 2272:Pfennigs 2206:rivers. 2056:Kotzebue 1988:Wartburg 1948:, where 1839:and the 1796:suffrage 1794:, based 1782:and the 1692:Waterloo 1684:Prussian 1672:100 Days 1396:Augsburg 1364:Burgundy 1332:Frisians 1316:Clovis I 1304:Alemanni 1292:Frisians 1207:polities 1143:Habsburg 1107:dynastic 1049:de facto 867:May Coup 701:and the 650:Holstein 641:Walloons 523:Warmians 77:Location 9669:In Asia 9502:Germany 9339:Related 9240:Franz I 9068:Vormärz 8956:(later 8584:9193308 8343:813265M 7872:1115959 7540:689805M 7343:3934998 7302:5353122 6501:Mazzini 5334:June 6, 5254:5563434 5221:466977M 5170:2276157 4695:Koblenz 4671:Junkers 4660:Junkers 4650:Junkers 4606:Bavaria 4501:Hamburg 4456:Arolsen 4317:Detmold 4142:Duchies 3960:Dresden 3953:Sachsen 3919:Bavaria 3897:Preußen 3891:Prussia 3581:Vormärz 3496:at the 3492:in the 3408:Ems Spa 3396:Leopold 3310:Venetia 3247:Hanover 3130:Venetia 3086:Cologne 3030:Bavaria 2998:Landtag 2796:Jutland 2695:William 2566:Italian 2239:Potsdam 2179:macadam 1993:At the 1906:Vormärz 1901:Vormärz 1890:Vormärz 1883:Vormärz 1877:Prelude 1863:dualism 1572:or the 1556:which, 1503:in the 1386:or the 1268:Prussia 1264:Austria 1070:having 1053:Prussia 1022:Germans 891:Pig War 719:of the 660:of the 658:Prussia 620:Lusatia 591:Silesia 457:Austria 432:Outcome 10027:Second 10014:Second 9811:Events 9601:Trends 9517:Russia 9497:France 9213:People 9202: 9193: 9180: 9171: 9162: 9153: 9142: 9133: 9124: 9103: 9094: 9085: 9076: 9065: 9056: 9047:Events 8999:Unions 8946:States 8883:45213M 8881: 8873: 8863: 8848:(2011) 8838: 8822: 8814: 8804: 8786: 8772: 8758: 8738: 8712: 8702: 8684: 8663: 8648:(2004) 8638: 8624: 8610: 8596: 8582: 8568: 8554: 8540: 8526: 8512: 8498: 8475: 8456: 8444:(1997) 8434: 8409: 8399: 8376: 8368: 8358: 8341: 8331: 8313: 8297: 8287: 8263: 8246: 8238: 8228: 8208: 8198: 8176: 8152: 8142: 8111: 8086: 8069: 8059: 8019: 8009: 7992: 7982: 7965: 7955: 7935: 7925: 7908: 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