French Third Republic

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families settled in the colonies, and they were too poor in natural resources and trade to significantly benefit the overall economy. Nevertheless, they were second in size only to the British Empire, provided prestige in world affairs, and gave an opportunity for Catholics (under heavy attack by the Republicans in Parliament) to devote their energies to spread French culture and civilization worldwide. An extremely expensive investment in building the Panama Canal was a total failure, in terms of money, many deaths by disease, and political scandal. Bismarck was fired in 1890, and after that German foreign policy was confused and misdirected. For example, Berlin broke its close ties with St. Petersburg, allowing the French to enter through heavy financial investment, and a Paris–St Petersburg military alliance that proved essential and durable. Germany feuded with Britain, which encouraged London and Paris to drop their grievances over Egypt and Africa, reaching a compromise whereby the French recognized British primacy in Egypt, while Britain recognized French primacy in Morocco. This enabled Britain and France to move closer together, finally achieving an

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of Mankind) (LDH). It kept a low profile in the first two years of war, holding its first congress in November 1916 against the background slaughters French soldiers on the Western Front. The theme was the "conditions for a lasting peace." Discussions focused on France's relationship with its autocratic, undemocratic ally, Russia, and in particular how to square support for all that the LDH stood for with Russia's bad treatment of its oppressed minorities, especially the Poles. Secondly, many delegates wanted to issue a demand for a negotiated peace. This was rejected only after a lengthy debate showed how the LDH was divided between a majority that believed that arbitration could be applied only in times of peace, and a minority that demanded an immediate end to the carnage. In spring 1918 the desperate German offensive failed, and the Allies successfully pushed back. The French people of all classes rallied to Prime Minister

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for veterans, were always remembered. France demanded that Germany assume many of the costs incurred from the war through annual reparation payments. French foreign and security policy used the balance of power and alliance politics to compel Germany to comply with its obligations under the Treaty of Versailles. The problem was that the United States and Britain rejected a defensive alliance. Potential allies in Eastern Europe, such as Poland, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia were too weak to confront Germany. Russia had been the long term French ally in the East, but now it was controlled by the Bolsheviks, who were deeply distrusted in Paris. France's transition to a more conciliatory policy in 1924 was a response to pressure from Britain and the United States, as well as to French weakness.

4792:, supported by Daladier, brought in a series of sweeping laws that undid much of the Popular Front's economic policies, most notably ending the 48 hour work week. Blum joined forces with the Communists in opposing the Daladier government's economic policies, and supported the general strike called by the Communists on 30 November 1938. Daladier called out the French Army to operate essential services and had the French police use tear gas to evict striking workers at the Renault works. The use of the military to operate essential services while sending out the police to arrest the strike leaders broke the general strike. In a speech, Blum accused Daladier of using repressive methods to crush the French working class and revert France back to the pre-1936 economic system. 3255: 3070:

information unless the business immediately started advertising in the paper. Foreign governments, especially Russia and Turkey, secretly paid the press hundreds of thousands of francs a year to guarantee favourable coverage of the bonds it was selling in Paris. When the real news was bad about Russia, as during its 1905 Revolution or during its war with Japan, it raised the ante to millions. During the World War, newspapers became more of a propaganda agency on behalf of the war effort and avoided critical commentary. They seldom reported the achievements of the Allies, crediting all the good news to the French army. In a sentence, the newspapers were not independent champions of the truth, but secretly paid advertisements for banking.

3151: 4874:, in case the Germans retaliated. The French mobilisation had called up many essential workers, which disrupted vital French industries in the first weeks of the campaign. Gamelin's vision for France's defence was based upon a static defence along the Franco-German border, which was reinforced by the Maginot Line. However, the Line did not extend along the Belgian frontier. During the winter of 1939–40, which was one of the coldest of the 20th century, work on the extension of the Line along the Belgian frontier was slow and not of the same quality as the original defences. Gamelin, along with many other members of the French High Command, saw the 3467:(where the Foreign Ministry was located), and their style changed little from generation to generation. Most of the diplomats came from high status aristocratic families. Although France was one of the few republics in Europe, its diplomats mingled smoothly with the aristocratic representatives at the royal courts. Prime ministers and leading politicians generally paid little attention to foreign affairs, allowing a handful of senior men to control policy. In the decades before the First World War they dominated the embassies in the 10 major countries where France had an ambassador (elsewhere, they sent lower-ranking ministers). They included 1929: 1925:, to restore unity between the monarchy and the nation. Compromise on this was impossible, Chambord believed, if the nation were to be made whole again. The general population, however, was unwilling to abandon the Tricolour flag. Monarchists therefore resigned themselves to delay the monarchy until the death of the ageing, childless Chambord, then to offer the throne to his more liberal heir, the Comte de Paris. A "temporary" republican government was therefore established. Chambord lived on until 1883, but by that time, enthusiasm for a monarchy had faded, and the Comte de Paris was never offered the French throne. 783: 2022: 797: 2140: 738: 724: 811: 144: 4485:. It was intensely nationalistic, anti-Semitic and reactionary, calling for a return to the monarchy and domination of the state by the Catholic Church. In 1926, Pope Pius XI condemned Action Française because the pope decided that it was folly for the French Church to continue to tie its fortunes to the unlikely dream of a monarchist restoration and distrusted the movement's tendency to defend the Catholic religion in merely utilitarian and nationalistic terms. Action Française never fully recovered from the denunciation, but it was active in the Vichy era. 825: 3323:("popular") to signify this expansion. Membership was open to everyone, not just Catholics. It sought to gather all the "honest people" and to be the melting pot sought by Leo XIII where Catholics and moderate Republicans would unite to support a policy of tolerance and social progress. Its motto summarized its program: "Liberty for all; equality before the law; better conditions for the workers." However, the "old republicans" were few, and it did not manage to regroup all Catholics, as it was shunned by monarchists, Christian democrats, and 3074:

raised the price of newsprint, which was always in short supply. The cover price went up, circulation fell and many of the 242 dailies published outside Paris closed down. The government set up the Interministerial Press Commission to supervise the press closely. A separate agency imposed tight censorship that led to blank spaces where news reports or editorials were disallowed. The dailies sometimes were limited to only two pages instead of the usual four, leading one satirical paper to try to report the war news in the same spirit:

2844: 70: 1838: 4386:, as demanded by the Communists. Culturally, the Popular Front forced the Communists to come to terms with elements of French society they had long ridiculed, such as patriotism, the veterans' sacrifice, the honour of being an army officer, the prestige of the bourgeois, and the leadership of the Socialist Party and the parliamentary Republic. Above all, the Communists portrayed themselves as French nationalists. Young Communists dressed in costumes from the revolutionary period and the scholars glorified the 3492: 1711: 3730: 3479:, in Washington from 1902 to 1924; and Camille Barrère, in Rome from 1897 to 1924. In terms of foreign policy, there was general agreement about the need for high protective tariffs, which kept agricultural prices high. After the defeat by the Germans, there was a strong widespread anti-German sentiment focused on revanchism and regaining Alsace and Lorraine. The Empire was a matter of great pride, and service as administrators, soldiers and missionaries was a high status occupation. 139: 4647:, which had been declared to be a permanent demilitarized zone. With the Rhineland remilitarized, for the first time since 1918 German military forces could menace France directly, and equally importantly the Germans started to build the Siegfried line along the Franco-German border. The assumption behind the French alliance system in Eastern Europe was that the French Army would use the demilitarized status of the Rhineland to launch an offensive into western Germany if the 153: 4917:, many Allied aircraft were attacked while still on the ground. The rest of the air support was concentrated on the French advance, rather than attacking the exposed 150 km (93 mi) column supplying the German advance. Quickly, the French and the British became fearful of being outflanked and they withdrew from the defensive lines drawn up across Belgium. They did not pull back fast enough to prevent them being outflanked by the German Panzer divisions. 3243:, a time in French history most republicans hoped was long behind them. The republicans were strengthened by Protestant and Jewish support. Numerous laws were passed to weaken the Catholic Church. In 1879, priests were excluded from the administrative committees of hospitals and boards of charity; in 1880, new measures were directed against the religious congregations; from 1880 to 1890 came the substitution of lay women for nuns in many hospitals; in 1882, the 710: 2866:

conservatives whose first priority was stability. The workers' demands for strikes threatened such stability and pushed many Radicals toward conservatism. It opposed women's suffrage for fear that women would vote for its opponents or for candidates endorsed by the Catholic Church. It favoured a progressive income tax, economic equality, expanded educational opportunities and cooperatives in domestic policy. In foreign policy, it favoured a strong

3973:. Building on foundations laid in the early months of the war, the Ministry of War matched production to the operational and tactical needs of the army, with an emphasis on meeting the insatiable demands for artillery. The elaborately designed link between industry and the army, and the compromises made to ensure that artillery and shells of the required quantity and quality were supplied, proved crucial to French success on the battlefield. 56: 4921: 3446:

decision came in response to popular demand, and the Army's demand for a strong frontier. It was not necessary since France was much weaker militarily than Germany, but it forced Bismarck to orient German foreign policy to block France from having any major allies. Alsace and Lorraine were a grievance for some years, but by 1890 had largely faded away with the French realization that nostalgia was not as useful as modernization.

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military planning and readiness to fight. Young finds that American reporters in the late 1930s portrayed a calm, united, competent, and confident France. They praised French art, music, literature, theatre, and fashion, and stressed French resilience and pluck in the face of growing Nazi aggression and brutality. Nothing in the tone or content of the articles foretold the crushing military defeat and collapse of June 1940.

4867:, a German staff officer on the Western Front, if France had attacked in September 1939 German forces could not have held out for more than one or two weeks. Gamelin ordered his troops back behind the Maginot Line, but only after telling France's ally, Poland, that France had broken the Siegfried Line and that help was on its way . Before the war, he had expected the Polish Army to hold out against Germany for six months. 2762: 1401: 3617: 766: 696: 2916: 2777: 1416: 185: 4305:

appeased Italy on the Ethiopia question because it could not afford to risk an alliance between Italy and Germany. When Hitler sent troops into the Rhineland—the part of Germany where no troops were allowed—neither Paris nor London would risk war, and nothing was done. The military alliance with Czechoslovakia was sacrificed at Hitler's demand when France and Britain agreed to his terms at

2831:

activists were not as well organized or as influential as in Germany, Britain or the United States. For example, there was a long battle over a public health law which began in the 1880s as a campaign to reorganize the nation's health services, to require the registration of infectious diseases, to mandate quarantines, and to improve the deficient health and housing legislation of 1850.

4006: 4772:: "There is not a woman and a man to refuse MM. Neville Chamberlain and Édouard Daladier their rightful tribute of gratitude. War is avoided. The scourge recedes. Life can become natural again. One can resume one's work and sleep again. One can enjoy the beauty of an autumn sun. How would it be possible for me not to understand this sense of deliverance when I feel it myself?" 10681: 5269:, who was hostile to First and Second Empire, and wrote that France was living and wished to live in a world of illusion. Raudot pointed out the declining birth rate, falling below replacement level, which he considered a cancerous symptom of the national malaise, foretelling an inevitable national decline, while the Russians and the Americans pushed ahead as seen in 4466:. It encouraged young working women to adopt Catholic approaches to morality and to prepare for future roles as mothers at the same time as it promoted notions of spiritual equality and encouraged young women to take active, independent, and public roles in the present. The model of youth groups was expanded to reach adults in the 1957:

prompted resistance and outcry from radical and leftist elements of the republican movement. In Paris, a series of public altercations broke out between the Versailles-aligned Parisian government and the city's radical socialists. The radicals ultimately rejected the authority of Versailles, responding with the foundation of the

4756:

Anglo-French plan called for a transfer to occur after 1 October. For a time in September 1938, it appeared that Europe was on brink of a war again. The fact that the issue at stake was only a secondary issue, namely the timetable for transferring the Sudetenland, after the primary issue had been settled struck many as bizarre.

3524:, initially built by the French, became a joint British-French project in 1875, as both saw it as vital to maintaining their influence and empires in Asia. In 1882, ongoing civil disturbances in Egypt prompted Britain to intervene, extending a hand to France. The government allowed Britain to take effective control of Egypt. 4780:. Bonnet was known to be the advocate of some sort of Franco-German understanding under which France would recognize Eastern Europe as being in the German sphere of influence and abandon all of France's allies in Eastern Europe. Blum focused his criticism on Bonnet as the main advocate of appeasement in the cabinet. 3396:. Church and State were declared separate, though all Church property was confiscated. Religious personnel were no longer paid by the State. Public worship was to be given over to associations of Catholic laymen who controlled access to churches. However, in practice, masses and rituals continued to be performed. 3335:). The ALP was drawn into battle from its very beginnings (its first steps coincided with the beginning of the Combes ministry and its anticlerical combat policy), as religious matters were at the heart of its preoccupations. It defended the Church in the name of liberty and common law. Fiercely fought by the 116: 3276:—indoctrinated anti-republicanism into children. Determined to root this out, republicans insisted they needed control of the schools for France to achieve economic and militaristic progress. (Republicans felt one of the primary reasons for the German victory in 1870 was their superior education system.) 3030:, reached an audience more interested in diverse entertainment and gossip than hard news. It captured a quarter of the Parisian market and forced the rest to lower their prices. The main dailies employed their own journalists who competed for news flashes. All newspapers relied upon the Agence Havas (now 120: 119: 118: 4292:

France tried to create a web of defensive treaties against Germany with Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union. There was little effort to build up the military strength or technological capabilities of these small allies, and they remained weak and divided among themselves.

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In 1931 the well-organized veterans movement demanded and received pensions for their wartime service. This was funded by a lottery—the first one allowed in France since 1836. The lottery immediately became popular, and became a major foundation of the annual budget. Although the Great Depression was

3964:

with controls and rationing. By 1915, the war economy went into high gear, as millions of French women and colonial men replaced the civilian roles of many of the 3 million soldiers. Considerable assistance came with the influx of American food, money and raw materials in 1917. This war economy would

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in 1882. Religious instruction in all schools was forbidden, and religious orders were forbidden to teach in them. Funds were appropriated from religious schools to build more state schools. Later in the century, other laws passed by Ferry's successors further weakened the Church's position in French

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victory of 1936, and so had allowed themselves to fall under the spell of fascism and defeatism. Bloch said that the Third Republic suffered from a deep internal "rot" that generated bitter social tensions, unstable governments, pessimism and defeatism, fearful and incoherent diplomacy, hesitant and

4812:

on 9 December 1938, the Popular Front formally came to an end as Daladier chose to base his majority of the parties of the right and center. Despite the end of the Popular Front, Blum did not press for a vote of no-confidence or new elections. Blum believed that Daladier would win an election if one

4755:

where he agreed that the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia would be transferred to Germany. At a subsequent Anglo-German summit at Bad Godesberg, Hitler rejected Chamberlain's plan over a secondary issue as he demanded that the Sudetenland be transferred to Germany before 1 October 1938 while the

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strongly but unsuccessfully pressed Daladier to renounce the French-Czechoslovak alliance, which led to Britain becoming involved in the crisis. From the British perspective, the problem was not the Sudetenland but the French-Czechoslovak alliance. British military experts were almost unanimous that

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Historians have turned their attention to the right in the interwar period, looking at various categories of conservatives and Catholic groups as well as the far right fascist movement. Conservative supporters of the old order were linked with the "haute bourgeoisie" (upper middle class), as well as

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brought to power a government headed by the Socialists in alliance with the Radicals. The Communists supported its domestic policies, but did not take any seats in the cabinet. The prime minister was Léon Blum, a technocratic socialist who avoided making decisions. In two years in office, it focused

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The entry into war by the United States turned the war around and in the summer and autumn of 1918 led to the defeat of Germany. The most important factors that led to the surrender of Germany were its exhaustion after four years of fighting and the arrival of large numbers of troops from the United

3992:

sought to draw the French people closer to the actual front and thus garner social, political, and economic support for the soldiers. Antiwar sentiment was very weak among the general population. However, among intellectuals there was a pacifistic "Ligue des Droits de l'Homme" (League for the Rights

3968:

The production of munitions proved a striking success, well ahead of Britain or the United States or even Germany. The challenges were monumental: the German seizure of the industrial heartland in the northeast, a shortage of manpower, and a mobilization plan that left France on the brink of defeat.

2033:

The elections of 1876 demonstrated strong public support for the increasingly anti-monarchist republican movement. A decisive Republican majority was elected to the Chamber of Deputies while the monarchist majority in the Senate was maintained by only one seat. President de MacMahon responded in May

5264:

and was a recurring theme of debate during the Third Republic. Each defeat, setback, or national humiliation served to confirm the idea, as France lost its vital essence or even will to exist, while energetic young countries like the United States appeared to be on the upsurge, France and old world

4775:

Blum's contorted position of voting for the Munich Agreement, but being opposed to further appeasement was largely an attempt to hold together the Socialists. In the months that followed, Blum became more critical of the "men of Munich". The principal object of his criticism was not Daladier - whom

4714:

At the Anglo-French summit on 28–29 April 1938, Chamberlain pressured Daladier to renounce the alliance with Czechoslovakia, only to be firmly informed that France would stand by its obligations, which forced the British to be involved very reluctantly in the Sudetenland Crisis. The summit of 28–29

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The nation that France wanted the most as an ally was Great Britain, which had the world's largest navy and provided that Britain made the "continental commitment" of sending another large expeditionary force to France like the BEF of the First World War would allow the French to face any challenge

4367:

in an effort to break the power of the richest 200 families in the country. Farmers received higher prices, and the government purchased surplus wheat, but farmers had to pay higher taxes. Wave after wave of strikes hit French industry in 1936. Wage rates went up 48%, but the work week was cut back

4260:

Foreign policy was of growing concern to France during the inter-war period, with fears of German militarism in the forefront. The horrible devastation of the war, including the death of 1.5 million French soldiers, the devastation of much of the steel and coal regions, and the long-term costs

3449:

France rebuilt its Army, emphasizing modernization in such features as new artillery, and after 1905 invested heavily in military aircraft. Most important in restoring prestige was a strong emphasis on the growing French Empire, which brought prestige, despite large financial costs. Very few French

3422:

law and the 1904 law on religious congregations' freedom of teaching. On 10 February 1905, the Chamber declared that "the attitude of the Vatican" had rendered the separation of Church and State inevitable and the law of the separation of church and state was passed in December 1905. The Church was

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Combes was vigorously opposed by all the Conservative parties, who saw the mass closure of church schools as a persecution of religion. Combes led the anti-clerical coalition on the left, facing opposition primarily organized by the pro-Catholic ALP. The ALP had a stronger popular base, with better

2953:

as the real spy. After high-ranking military officials suppressed the new evidence, a military court unanimously acquitted Esterhazy. In response, the Army brought up additional charges against Dreyfus based on false documents. Word of the military court's attempts to frame Dreyfus began to spread,

2888:

Governing coalitions collapsed with regularity, rarely lasting more than a few months, as radicals, socialists, liberals, conservatives, republicans and monarchists all fought for control. Some historians argue that the collapses were not important because they reflected minor changes in coalitions

2834:

However, the reformers met opposition from bureaucrats, politicians, and physicians. Because it was so threatening to so many interests, the proposal was debated and postponed for 20 years before becoming law in 1902. Implementation finally came when the government realized that contagious diseases

2167:

Revisionist scholars have argued that the Boulangist movement more often represented elements of the radical left rather than the extreme right. Their work is part of an emerging consensus that France's radical right was formed in part during the Dreyfus era by men who had been Boulangist partisans

5193:

One of the most surprising aspects of the Third Republic was that it constituted the first stable republican government in French history and the first to win the support of the majority of the population, but it was intended as an interim, temporary government. Following Thiers's example, most of

4909:

Despite reports of the build-up of German forces, and even knowing the date of the planned German attack, Gamelin did nothing until May 1940, stating that he would "await events". Then, when the Germans attacked, Gamelin insisted on moving 40 of his best divisions, including the BEF, northwards to

4674:

The other major ally the French wanted was the Soviet Union. However, the lack of a common German-Soviet frontier, the unwillingness of Romania and especially Poland to grant the Red Army transit rights, and the strong British dislike of the alliance that the French signed with the Soviet Union in

4614:

center-right party. Reynaud was Prime Minister during the German defeat of France in May and June 1940; he persistently refused to support an armistice with Germany, as premier in June 1940, he unsuccessfully attempted to save France from German occupation in World War II, and resigned on 16 June.

4194:

affected France a bit later than other countries, hitting around 1931. While the GDP in the 1920s grew at the very strong rate of 4.43% per year, the 1930s rate fell to only 0.63%. In comparison to countries such as the United States, Great Britain, and Germany, the depression was relatively mild:

3791:

rose from 1,600,000 hectares in 1890 to 2,700,000 hectares in 1940; combined with similar operations in Morocco and Tunisia, the result was that North African agriculture became one of the most efficient in the world. Metropolitan France was a captive market, so large landowners could borrow large

3482:

French foreign policy from 1871 to 1914 showed a dramatic transformation from a humiliated power with no friends and not much of an empire in 1871, to the centerpiece of the European alliance system in 1914, with a flourishing colonial empire that was second in size only to Great Britain. Although

2821:

France lagged behind Bismarckian Germany, as well as Great Britain and Ireland, in developing a welfare state with public health, unemployment insurance and national old age pension plans. There was an accident insurance law for workers in 1898, and in 1910, France created a national pension plan.

2163:

marked a decisive defeat for the Boulangists. They were defeated by the changes in the electoral laws that prevented Boulanger from running in multiple constituencies; by the government's aggressive opposition; and by the absence of the general himself, in self-imposed exile with his mistress. The

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being sent east with the remainder of the Wehrmacht staying on the defensive in the Rhineland to halt any French offensive into Germany, a situation that boded ill for the survival of the French alliance system in Eastern Europe. A further complication for the French was the greater population of

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It vigorously advocated for traditional Catholicism while at the same time innovating with the most modern technology and distribution systems, with regional editions tailored to local taste. Secularists and Republicans recognized the newspaper as their greatest enemy, especially when it took the

2999:

From 1894 to 1906, the scandal divided France deeply and lastingly into two opposing camps: the pro-Army "anti-Dreyfusards" composed of conservatives, Catholic traditionalists and monarchists who generally lost the initiative to the anti-clerical, pro-republican "Dreyfusards", with strong support

121: 5487:

argued that French society was not decadent, that the defeat of 1940 was due to only military factors, not moral failures, and that the Third Republic's leaders had done their best under the difficult conditions of the 1930s. Young argued that the decadence, if it existed, did not impact French

4807:

Daladier responded with a series of resolute speeches on French radio where he rejected all of the Italian demands, which won him much popularity in France. From the viewpoint of Blum, being opposed to Daladier at a time when he won himself many accolades as the defender of France's territorial

3073:

The World War ended a golden era for the press. Their younger staff members were drafted, and male replacements could not be found (female journalists were not considered suitable). Rail transportation was rationed and less paper and ink came in, and fewer copies could be shipped out. Inflation

2903:

The Dreyfus affair was a major political scandal that convulsed France from 1894 until its resolution in 1906, and then had reverberations for decades more. The conduct of the affair has become a modern and universal symbol of injustice. It remains one of the most striking examples of a complex

2865:

in political orientation and opposed the monarchists and clerical elements on the one hand, and the Socialists on the other. Many members had been recruited by the Freemasons. The Radicals were split between activists who called for state intervention to achieve economic and social equality and

4304:

Appeasement was increasingly adopted as Germany grew stronger after 1933, for France suffered a stagnant economy, unrest in its colonies, and bitter internal political fighting. Appeasement, says historian Martin Thomas was not a coherent diplomatic strategy or a copying of the British. France

3445:

Foreign policy of 1871–1914 was based on a slow rebuilding of alliances with Russia and Britain in order to counteract the threat from Germany. Bismarck had made a mistake in taking Alsace and Lorraine in 1871, setting off decades of popular hatred of Germany and demand for revenge. Bismarck's

2066:

again brought a Republican majority to the Chamber of Deputies, reiterating public opinion. The Republicans would go on to gain a majority in the Senate by January 1879, establishing dominance in both houses and effectively ending the potential for a monarchist restoration. De MacMahon himself

1956:

due to the encirclement of Paris by Prussian forces. New representatives were elected in February of that year, constituting the government which would come to evolve into the Third Republic. These representatives – predominantly conservative republicans – enacted a series of legislation which

2830:

was the most dreaded disease of the day, especially striking young people in their twenties. Germany set up vigorous measures of public hygiene and public sanatoria, but France let private physicians handle the problem. The French medical profession guarded its prerogatives, and public health

2058:

to the office. The Chamber of Deputies declared the appointment illegitimate, exceeding the president's powers, and refused to cooperate with either de MacMahon or de Broglie. De MacMahon then dissolved the Chamber and called for a new general election to be held the following October. He was

5577:

1872–73: After the nation faced the immediate political problems, it needed to establish a permanent form of government. Thiers wanted to base it on the constitutional monarchy of Britain, however he realized France would have to remain republican. In expressing this belief, he violated the

4671:

from Germany on more even terms. The need for the "continental commitment" allowed Britain to have a sort of veto power over French foreign policy in the interwar period as the French wanted the "continental commitment" very badly, and thus could not afford to alienate the British too much.

3069:

Banks secretly paid certain newspapers to promote particular financial interests and hide or cover up misbehaviour. They also took payments for favourable notices in news articles of commercial products. Sometimes, a newspaper would blackmail a business by threatening to publish unfavorable

3019:

The democratic political structure was supported by the proliferation of politicized newspapers. The circulation of the daily press in Paris went from 1 million in 1870 to 5 million in 1910; it later reached 6 million in 1939. Advertising grew rapidly, providing a steady financial basis for

3195:

did at the famous department stores in the central city. Like the bourgeois stores, it helped transform consumption from a business transaction into a direct relationship between consumer and sought-after goods. Its advertisements promised the opportunity to participate in the newest, most

5825:, who had been strictly enforcing the 1901 voluntary association law and the 1904 law on religious congregations' freedom of teaching (more than 2,500 private teaching establishments were by then closed by the state, causing bitter opposition from the Catholic and conservative population). 3980:(GDP) of 1913, chiefly the destruction of productive capital and housing. The national debt rose from 66% of GDP in 1913 to 170% in 1919, reflecting the heavy use of bond issues to pay for the war. Inflation was severe, with the franc losing over half its value against the British pound. 3928:("the Tiger"), led a coalition government after 1917 that was determined to defeat Germany. Meanwhile, large swaths of northeastern France fell under the brutal control of German occupiers. The bloodbath of the war of attrition reached its apogee in the Battles of Verdun and the Somme. 3141:

was weak in the provinces. Weber then looked at how the policies of the Third Republic created a sense of French nationality in rural areas. Weber's scholarship was widely praised, but was criticized by some who argued that a sense of Frenchness existed in the provinces before 1870.

4246:, in an attempt to thwart the rise of fascism in France. According to historian Joel Colton, "The consensus among scholars is that there was no concerted or unified design to seize power and that the leagues lacked the coherence, unity, or leadership to accomplish such an end." 1547:). The early governments of the French Third Republic considered re-establishing the monarchy, but disagreement as to the nature of that monarchy and the rightful occupant of the throne could not be resolved. Consequently, the French Third Republic, originally envisioned as a 2996:. The new trial resulted in another conviction and a 10-year sentence, but Dreyfus was given a pardon and set free. Eventually all the accusations against him were demonstrated to be baseless, and in 1906, Dreyfus was exonerated and re-instated as a major in the French Army. 1672:; it extended over 13,500,000 km (5,200,000 sq mi) of land at its height in the 1920s and 1930s. In terms of population however, on the eve of World War II, France and its colonial possessions totaled only 150 million inhabitants, compared with 330 million for 4436:

France's republican government had long been strongly anti-clerical. The Law of Separation of Church and State in 1905 had expelled many religious orders, declared all Church buildings government property, and led to the closing of most Church schools. Since that time, Pope

4399:

nationalism, military power, the maintenance of the empire, and national security. The favourite enemy was the left, especially as represented by socialists. The conservatives were divided on foreign affairs. Several important conservative politicians sustained the journal

4138:. Herriot's party was in fact neither radical nor socialist, rather it represented the interests of small business and the lower middle class. It was intensely anti-clerical and resisted the Catholic Church. The Cartel was occasionally willing to form a coalition with the 3020:

publishing, but it did not cover all of the costs involved and had to be supplemented by secret subsidies from commercial interests that wanted favourable reporting. A new liberal press law of 1881 abandoned the restrictive practices that had been typical for a century.

3407:, the scandal undermined support for the Combes government, and he resigned. It also undermined morale in the army, as officers realized that hostile spies examining their private lives were more important to their careers than their own professional accomplishments. 2889:

of many parties that routinely lost and gained a few allies. Consequently, the change of governments could be seen as little more than a series of ministerial reshuffles, with many individuals carrying forward from one government to the next, often in the same posts.

3238:

middle class, who saw the Church's alliance with the monarchists as a political threat to republicanism, and a threat to the modern spirit of progress. The republicans detested the Church for its political and class affiliations; for them, the Church represented the

4746:

started a correspondence with Blum, sending him a series of letters written in his idiosyncratic French, encouraging him to support rearmament and oppose appeasement. During the Sudetenland crisis of 1938, Daladier accepted the offer of the British Prime Minister

4157:. Taxation policies were inefficient, with widespread evasion, and when the financial crisis grew worse in 1926, Poincaré levied new taxes, reformed the system of tax collection, and drastically reduced government spending to balance the budget and stabilize the 4124:. The Bloc was supported by business and finance and was friendly toward the army and the Church. Its main goals were revenge against Germany, economic prosperity for French business and stability in domestic affairs. On the other hand, there was the left-center 3462:

French diplomacy was largely independent of domestic affairs; economic, cultural and religious interest groups paid little attention to foreign affairs. Permanent professional diplomats and bureaucrats had developed their own traditions of how to operate at the

3706:

Preoccupied with internal problems, France paid little attention to foreign policy in the period between late 1912 and mid-1914, although it did extend military service to three years from two over strong Socialist objections in 1913. The rapidly escalating

4704:

Germany would defeat France in a war unless Britain intervened. The British thought that allowing Germany to defeat France would unacceptably alter the balance of power, and so Britain would have no choice but to intervene if a French-German war broke out.

3499:

French foreign policy was based on a fear of Germany—whose larger size and fast-growing economy could not be matched—combined with a revanchism that demanded the return of Alsace and Lorraine. At the same time, imperialism was a factor. In the midst of the

5680:

1882: Religious instruction was removed from all state schools. The measures were accompanied by the abolition of chaplains in the armed forces and the removal of nuns from hospitals. Due to the fact that France was mainly Roman Catholic, this was greatly

4718:

Unlike Chamberlain, Daladier had no illusions about Hitler's ultimate goals. In fact, he told the British in a late April 1938 meeting that Hitler's real aim was to eventually secure "a domination of the Continent in comparison with which the ambitions of

3512:

arrived. Under heavy pressure the French withdrew, securing Anglo-Egyptian control over the area. The status quo was recognised by an agreement between the two states acknowledging British control over Egypt, while France became the dominant power in

4759:

The Munich Agreement that ended the crisis was a compromise as it was affirmed that the Sudetenland would be transferred to Germany but after only 1 October, albeit on a schedule that favored the German demand to have the Sudetenland "go home to the

3951:

to bypass the censorship. The economy was hurt by the German invasion of major industrial areas in the northeast. Although the occupied area in 1914 contained only 14% of France's industrial workers, it produced 58% of the steel and 40% of the coal.

3088:, which lacked any political agenda and was dedicated to providing a mix of sensational reporting to aid circulation and serious articles to build prestige. By 1939, its circulation was over 1.7 million, double that of its nearest rival the tabloid 3778:

France successfully integrated the colonies into its economic system. By 1939, one third of its exports went to its colonies; Paris businessmen invested heavily in agriculture, mining, and shipping. In Indochina, new plantations were opened for

4288:

into a series of concessions to Germany. In total, France received £1600 million from Germany before reparations ended in 1932, but France had to pay war debts to the United States, and thus the net gain was only about £600 million.

4199:

not yet severe, the lottery appealed to charitable impulses, greed, and respect for veterans. These contradictory impulses produced cash that made possible the French welfare state, at the crossroads of philanthropy, market and public sphere.

3233:

among the republicans, monarchists and the authoritarians (such as the Napoleonists). The French clergy and bishops were closely associated with the monarchists and many of its hierarchy were from noble families. Republicans were based in the

5391:

with Renouvin arguing that French society under the Third Republic was "sorely lacking in initiative and dynamism" and Baumont arguing that French politicians had allowed "personal interests" to override "any sense of the general interest".

5653:

returned triumphant, finally killing off the prospect of a restored French monarchy by gaining control of the Senate on 5 January 1879. MacMahon himself resigned on 30 January 1879, leaving a seriously weakened presidency in the shape of

4795:

Complicating matters was the beginning of a major crisis in Italo-French relations. On 30 November 1938 - the same day as the general strike - a carefully staged "spontaneous" demonstration organized by the Italian Foreign Minister Count

1964:

The principles underpinning the Commune were viewed as morally degenerate by French conservatives at large while the government at Versailles sought to maintain the tenuous post-war stability which it had established. In May, the regular

1694:, and the army. In spite of France's sharply divided electorate and persistent attempts to overthrow it, the Third Republic endured for 70 years, which makes it the longest-lasting system of government in France since the collapse of the 4675:

1935 all presented problems from the French viewpoint. Blum's foreign policy was one of attempting to improve relations with Germany to avoid a war while seeking to strengthen France's alliances and to conclude an alliance with Britain.

3191:. In a neighbourhood with few public spaces, it provided a consumer version of the public square. It educated workers to approach shopping as an exciting social activity, not just a routine exercise in obtaining necessities, just as the 3483:

religion was a hotly contested matter in domestic politics, the Catholic Church made missionary work and church building a speciality in the colonies. Most Frenchmen ignored foreign policy; its issues were a low priority in politics.

2158:

and the establishment of a dictatorship. With his base of support in the working districts of Paris and other cities, plus rural traditionalist Catholics and royalists, he promoted an aggressive nationalism aimed against Germany. The

3184:(1882–83) in the typical department store. Zola represented it as a symbol of the new technology that was both improving society and devouring it. The novel describes merchandising, management techniques, marketing, and consumerism. 2822:

Unlike Germany or Britain, the programs were much smaller – for example, pensions were a voluntary plan. Historian Timothy Smith finds French fears of national public assistance programs were grounded in a widespread disdain for the

4300:

The main goal of foreign policy was the diplomatic response to the demands of the French army in the 1920s and 1930s to form alliances against the German threat, especially with Britain and with smaller countries in central Europe.

2154:. An enormously popular general, he won a series of elections in which he would resign his seat in the Chamber of Deputies and run again in another district. At the apogee of his popularity in January 1889, he posed the threat of a 1887:

Legitimists and Orléanists eventually agreed on the childless Comte de Chambord as king, with the Comte de Paris as his heir. This was the expected line of succession for the Comte de Chambord based on France's traditional rule of

115: 5181:

in the 1870s "the form of government that divides France least." France might have agreed about being a republic, but it never fully accepted the Third Republic. France's longest-lasting governmental system since before the 1789

4906:(BEF) to this strategy. Such a strategy also meant that most of the French Army would leave its one-year-old prepared defensive positions in northern France to be committed to joining battle on an unknown Belgian defensive line. 4734:. When Germany has obtained the oil and wheat it needs, she will turn on the West. Certainly we must multiply our efforts to avoid war. But that will not be obtained unless Great Britain and France stick together, intervening in 4957:

had been left intact and was only lightly defended. It was thus quickly captured and exploited by the Germans. Meanwhile, French guns were ordered to limit their firing in case they ran out of ammunition. German Colonel-General

4768:" ("shameful relief") as he wrote that he was happy that France would not be going to war with Germany, but he felt ashamed of an agreement that favored Germany at the expense of Czechoslovakia. On 1 October 1938, Blue wrote in 4738:

for new concessions but declaring at the same time that they will safeguard the independence of Czechoslovakia. If, on the contrary, the Western Powers capitulate again, they will only precipitate the war they wish to avoid."

5676:

on free, mandatory and secular public education, voted in 1881 and 1882, were one of the first sign of this republican control of the Republic, as public education was not any more in the exclusive control of the Catholic

3164:

in Paris in 1838, and by 1852 it offered a wide variety of goods in "departments inside one building." Goods were sold at fixed prices, with guarantees that allowed exchanges and refunds. By the end of the 19th century,

117: 5014:

Historians have debated two themes regarding the sudden collapse of the French government in 1940. One emphasizes a broad cultural and political interpretation, pointing to failures, internal dissension, and a sense of

5738:, was arrested on charges relating to conspiracy and espionage. Allegedly, Dreyfus had handed over important military documents discussing the designs of a new French artillery piece to a German military attaché named 1848:, held in the aftermath when the regime of Napoleon III collapsed, resulted in a monarchist majority in the French National Assembly that favoured a peace agreement with Prussia. Planning to restore the monarchy, the " 4368:

by 17%, and the cost of living rose 46%, so there was little real gain to the average worker. The higher prices for French products resulted in a decline in overseas sales, which the government tried to neutralize by

4505:. Although his tenure was brief during his two tenures in the 1930s as prime minister, his policies played a key role in French policy during the events leading up to World War II. As Prime Minister in the left-wing 2835:

had a national security impact in weakening military recruits, and keeping the population growth rate well below Germany's. There is no evidence to suggest than French life expectancy was lower than that of Germany.

3375:

in France. Then he had parliament reject authorization of all religious orders. This meant that all fifty-four orders in France were banned and about 20,000 members immediately left France, many for Spain. In 1904,

3215:, opening up prestigious job opportunities for young women. Despite the low pay and long hours, they enjoyed the exciting complex interactions with the newest and most fashionable merchandise and upscale customers. 10125:(12th ed. 1922) comprises the 11th ed., plus three new volumes 30–31–32 that cover events since 1911 with very thorough coverage of the war as well as every country and colony. Included also in 13th ed., (1926) 3886:, a proto-fascist movement based in the lower middle class, had advocated a war of revenge since the 1880s. The strong socialist movement had long opposed war and preparation for war. However, when its leader 2973:

In 1899, Dreyfus was returned to France for another trial. The intense political and judicial scandal that ensued divided French society between those who supported Dreyfus (now called "Dreyfusards"), such as

2018:), who was nominally answerable to both the President of the Republic and the legislature. Throughout the 1870s, the issue of whether a monarchy should replace or oversee the republic dominated public debate. 1793:

head of a provisional government, ("head of the executive branch of the Republic pending a decision on the institutions of France"). The new government negotiated a peace settlement with the newly proclaimed

4878:

as unlikely to be attacked and chose to defend it with only ten reserve divisions and few fortifications. Much of the French army was posted further northwest along the Belgian frontier. According to General

3364:

fought with the Vatican over the appointment of bishops. Chaplains were removed from naval and military hospitals in the years 1903 and 1904, and soldiers were ordered not to frequent Catholic clubs in 1904.

2227: 1998:

sympathies and a noted mistrust of secularists, de MacMahon grew to be increasingly at odds with the French parliament as liberal and secular republicans gained a legislative majority during his presidency.

866: 5286:

stated in one radio broadcast, "The regime led the country to ruin." In another, he said "Our defeat is punishment for our moral failures" that France had "rotted" under the Third Republic. In 1942 the

4359:

law facilitated union growth; membership soared from 1,000,000 to 5,000,000 in one year, and workers' political strength was enhanced when the Communist and non-Communist unions joined. The government

1686:

called republicanism in the 1870s "the form of government that divides France least"; however, politics under the Third Republic were sharply polarized. On the left stood reformist France, heir to the

5570:. In a formal sense, the Paris Commune of 1871 was simply the local authority that exercised power in Paris for two months in the spring of 1871. It was separate from that of the new government under 5828:

1906: It became apparent that the documents handed over to Schwartzkoppen by Dreyfus in 1894 were a forgery and Dreyfus was exonerated after previously being pardoned after serving 5 years in prison.

3078:

War News. A half-zeppelin threw half its bombs on half-time combatants, resulting in one-quarter damaged. The zeppelin, halfways-attacked by a portion of half-anti aircraft guns, was half destroyed."

4715:

April 1938 represented a British "surrender" to the French, rather than a French "surrender" to the British since Daladier made it clear France would not renounce its alliance with Czechoslovakia.

7169: 3291:

became pope in 1878, he tried to calm Church-State relations. In 1884, he told French bishops not to act in a hostile manner toward the State ('Nobilissima Gallorum Gens'). In 1892, he issued an

1586:, but growing support for the republican form of government among the French populace and a series of republican presidents in the 1880s gradually quashed prospects of a monarchical restoration. 7138: 4804:

had intended to use what he called "Sudeten methods" on France as the Italian media started a violent anti-French campaign demanding that France cede Corsica, Nice, Savoy and Tunisia to Italy.

3856:

France entered World War I because Russia and Germany were going to war, and France honoured its treaty obligations to Russia. Decisions were all made by senior officials, especially president

6925: 3133:

France went from backward and isolated to modern with a sense of national identity during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He emphasized the roles of railroads, republican schools, and

3038:

to provide world service. The staid old papers retained their loyal clientele because of their concentration on serious political issues. While papers usually gave false circulation figures,

4847:, a facility completely devoid of telephonic or any other electronic links to his commanders in the field: a massive oversight in the face of the Wehrmacht's subsequent swift and flexible ' 1983:("moral order") subsequently came to be applied to the budding Third Republic due to the perceived restoration of conservative policies and values following the suppression of the Commune. 773: 5198:

monarchists progressively rallied themselves to the Republican institutions, thus giving support of a large part of the elites to the Republican form of government. On the other hand, the

5186:, the Third Republic was consigned to the history books as being unloved and unwanted in the end. Yet, its longevity showed that it was capable of weathering many storms, particularly the 5011:(the portions of Czechoslovakia with German-speaking majorities). Intensive rearmament programs began in 1936 and were re-doubled in 1938, but they would only bear fruit in 1939 and 1940. 4227:. The police shot and killed 15 demonstrators. It was one of the major political crises during the Third Republic (1870–1940). Frenchmen on the left feared it was an attempt to organize a 3295:

advising French Catholics to rally to the Republic and defend the Church by participating in republican politics ('Au milieu des sollicitudes'). The Liberal Action was founded in 1901 by

3665:

served as the cornerstone of French foreign policy until 1917. A further link with Russia was provided by vast French investments and loans before 1914. In 1904, French foreign minister

5638:. If his hope had been to halt the move towards republicanism, it backfired spectacularly, with the President being accused of having staged a constitutional coup d'état, known as 3792:

sums in Paris to modernize agricultural techniques with tractors and mechanized equipment. The result was a dramatic increase in the export of wheat, corn, peaches, and olive oil.

3187:

The Grands Magasins Dufayel was a huge department store with inexpensive prices built in 1890 in the northern part of Paris, where it reached a very large new customer base in the

4276:. The main goal of French foreign policy was to preserve French power and neutralize the threat posed by Germany. When Germany fell behind in reparations payments in 1923, France 2119:), were voted in 1881 and 1882, one of the first signs of the expanding civic powers of the Republic. From that time onward, the Catholic clergy lost control of public education. 4379:

Most historians judge the Popular Front a failure, although some call it a partial success. There is general agreement that it failed to live up to the expectations of the left.

10157: 5818: 292: 4293:

In the end, the alliances proved worthless. France also constructed a powerful defensive wall in the form of a network of fortresses along its German border. It was called the

4153:

played a central role in strengthening French finances. The government began a large-scale reconstruction program to repair wartime damages, and was burdened with a very large

3403:

The Combes government worked with Masonic lodges to create a secret surveillance of all army officers to make sure that devout Catholics would not be promoted. Exposed as the

3890:, a pacifist, was assassinated at the start of the war, the French socialist movement abandoned its anti-militarist positions and joined the national war effort. President 5764:

The article alleged an anti-Semitic conspiracy in the highest ranks of the military to scapegoat Dreyfus, tacitly supported by the government and the Catholic Church. The

4455:

The Catholic Church expanded its social activities after 1920, especially by forming youth movements. For example, the largest organization of young working women was the

3703:, in which French public opinion was very much on the side of Britain's enemies. Ultimately, the fear of German power was the link that bound Britain and France together. 2912:

and defended by conservatives and Catholic traditionalists against secular centre-left, left and republican forces, including most Jews. In the end, the latter triumphed.

1785:

After the French surrender in January 1871, the provisional Government of National Defence disbanded, and national elections were called to elect a new French government.

5970:

The Americans left their heavy weapons at home in order to use the few available transports to send as many soldiers to front as possible in the shortest amount of time.

3436: 3000:

from intellectuals and teachers. It embittered French politics and facilitated the increasing influence of radical politicians on both sides of the political spectrum.

8761:

Downs, Laura Lee (2009). "'Each and every one of you must become a "chef"': Toward a Social Politics of Working-Class Childhood on the Extreme Right in 1930s France".

5291:

was held bringing several leaders of the Third Republic to trial for declaring war on Germany in 1939 and accusing them of not doing enough to prepare France for war.

5019:

that ran through all French society. A second one blames the poor military planning by the French High Command. According to the British historian Julian Jackson, the

3875:

in September 1914 ensured the failure of Germany's strategy to win quickly. It became a long and very bloody war of attrition, but France emerged on the winning side.

4372:

the franc, a measure that led to a reduction in the value of bonds and savings accounts. The overall result was significant damage to the French economy, and a lower

3868:. Not involved in the decision-making were military leaders, arms manufacturers, the newspapers, pressure groups, party leaders, or spokesmen for French nationalism. 12072: 4173: 3657:

French foreign policy in the years leading up to the First World War was based largely on hostility to and fear of German power. France secured an alliance with the

2870:

after the war, and the maintenance of peace through compulsory arbitration, controlled disarmament, economic sanctions, and perhaps an international military force.

4619:'s administration. Surrendering to German custody in 1942, he was imprisoned in Germany and later Austria until liberation in 1945, where he was released after the 5941: 5276:

Proponents of the concept have argued that the French defeat of 1940 was caused by what they regard as the innate decadence and moral rot of France. The notion of

5143:

Throughout its seventy-year history, the Third Republic stumbled from crisis to crisis, from dissolved parliaments to the appointment of a mentally ill president (

4339:

was made possible with an emphasis on unity against fascism. In 1936, the Socialists and the Radicals formed a coalition, with Communist support, to complete it.

11852: 5951: 5265:

civilization appeared in stasis or on a slow decline, according to this thesis. It first made its appearance in the somewhat bizarre and now obscure writings of

12470: 5916: 1730:

A French propaganda poster from 1917 is captioned with an 18th-century quote: "Even in 1788, Mirabeau was saying that War is the National Industry of Prussia."

4242: 6961: 5508: 5492: 5266: 3415: 3137:. He based his findings on school records, migration patterns, military service documents and economic trends. Weber argued that until 1900 or so a sense of 10525: 7418:

Alexander, Martin S.; Keiger, John F. V. (1999). "Defending France: foreign policy and the quest for security, 1850s–1990s". In Alexander, Martin S. (ed.).

6457: 5946: 1817:, which maintained a radical left-wing regime for two months until the Thiers government bloodily suppressed it in May 1871. The ensuing repression of the 7846:

Hautcoeur, Pierre-Cyrille (2005). "Was the Great War a watershed? The economics of World War I in France". In Broadberry, Stephen; Harrison, Mark (eds.).

6431: 5311:(written in 1940, and published posthumously in 1946) argued that the French upper classes had ceased to believe in the greatness of France following the 4890:

Gamelin's own views had changed from a purely defensive strategy relying on the Maginot Line. French strategists predicted a German drive across northern

3423:

badly hurt and lost half its priests. In the long run, however, it gained autonomy; ever after, the State no longer had a voice in choosing bishops, thus

12465: 8206:

Delalande, Nicolas (2017). "Giving and Gambling: The Gueules Cassées, the National Lottery, and the Moral Economy of the Welfare State in 1930s France".

7161: 5246: 4902:, fitted with Belgian defensive plans and also with British objectives. Gamelin committed much of the motorised forces of the French Army and the entire 2805: 1444: 7130: 5341:

blamed the defeat on the "corrupt" and "decadent" capitalist Third Republic (conveniently hiding its own sabotaging of the French war effort during the

3969:

Nevertheless, by 1918 France was producing more munitions and artillery than its allies, while supplying virtually all of the heavy equipment needed by

3066:

and stirring up anti-Semitism. After Dreyfus was pardoned, the Radical government closed down the entire Assumptionist order and its newspaper in 1900.

6320:

Smith, Timothy B. (1997). "The ideology of charity, the image of the English poor law, and debates over the right to assistance in France, 1830–1905".

5811: 5504: 3676: 3348:(1894–1906). Catholics were for the most part anti-Dreyfusard. The Assumptionists published anti-Semitic and anti-republican articles in their journal 2071:. He promised that he would not use his presidential power of dissolution, and therefore lost his control over the legislature, effectively creating a 3920:, with very high casualty rates. It became a war of attrition. Until spring of 1918 there were almost no territorial gains or losses for either side. 3341:, the movement declined from 1908, when it lost the support of Rome. Nevertheless, the ALP remained until 1914 the most important party on the right. 5376: 4711:

stated at a Cabinet meeting in March 1938, "Whether we liked or not, we had to admit the plain fact that we could not afford to see France overrun."

3224: 743: 4965:

In response, Gamelin withdrew forces in this area so that they could defend Paris, thinking this was the Germans' objective, rather than the coast.

3082:

Regional newspapers flourished after 1900. However the Parisian newspapers were largely stagnant after the war. The major postwar success story was

9976: 4987: 3765:. French administrators, soldiers, and missionaries were dedicated to bringing French civilization to the local populations of these colonies (the 10676:

Lancereau, Guillaume. "For Science and Country: History Writing, Nation Building, and National Embeddedness in Third Republic France, 1870–1914."

10365:

Institutions and Innovation: Voters, Parties, and Interest Groups in the Consolidation of Democracy – France and Germany, 1870–1939

5385:(profound forces) such as the influence of domestic politics on foreign policy. However, Renouvin and his followers still followed the concept of 10882: 10738: 8810:

Whitney, Susan B. (2001). "Gender, Class, and Generation in Interwar French Catholicism: The Case of the Jeunesse Ouvrière Chrétienne Féminine".

5832: 5712: 2934:. He was sentenced to life imprisonment for communicating French military secrets to the German Embassy in Paris and sent to the penal colony at 4654:

With the building of the Siegfried Line, it was possible for Germany to invade any of France's Eastern European allies with the majority of the

12410: 5036: 4832: 4477:

Catholics on the far right supported several shrill, but small, groupings that preached doctrines similar to fascism. The most influential was

4420:

Summer camps and youth groups were organized to promote conservative values in working-class families, and help them design a career path. The

3871:

Britain wanted to remain neutral but entered the war when the German army invaded Belgium on its way to Paris. The Anglo-French victory at the

3654:. This alliance with Britain and Russia against Germany and Austria eventually led Russia, Britain, and France to enter World War I as Allies. 3536: 3532: 3528: 3371:, when elected Prime Minister in 1902, was determined to defeat Catholicism thoroughly. After only a short while in office, he closed down all 7981:

Ingram, Norman (2016). "Le creuset de la guerre: La Ligue des droits de l'homme et le débat sur "les conditions d'une paix durable" en 1916".

12178: 11744: 8644:

Hurcombe, Martin (2011). "Heroes of the Republic, heroes of the revolution: French communist reportage of the Spanish Civil War, 1936–1938".

5936: 5401:

that offered a total condemnation of the entire Third Republic as weak, cowardly and degenerate. Even more so then in France, the concept of

3527:

France had colonies in Asia and looked for alliances and found in Japan a possible ally. At Japan's request, Paris sent military missions in

3508:

of 1898 when French troops tried to claim an area in the Southern Sudan, and a British force purporting to be acting in the interests of the

3307:. From the Church's perspective, its mission was to express the political ideals and new social doctrines embodied in Leo's 1891 encyclical " 2628: 2102: 1802:

signed on 10 May 1871. To prompt the Prussians to leave France, the government passed a variety of financial laws, such as the controversial

1567: 1267: 5775:

is founded and remained the most important party of the Third Republic starting at the end of the 19th century. The same year, followers of

10796: 2094: 2084: 2044: 5626:, himself a monarchist, made one last desperate attempt to salvage the monarchical cause by dismissing the republic-minded Prime Minister 4195:

unemployment peaked under 5%, and the fall in production was at most 20% below the 1929 output. In addition, there was no banking crisis.

3344:

The attempt at improving the relationship with republicans failed. Deep-rooted suspicions remained on both sides and were inflamed by the

1726: 235: 12385: 10791: 8985: 8847:

Newsome, W. Brian (2011). "French Catholics, Women, and the Home: The Founding Generation of the Jeunesse ouvrière chrétienne féminine".

6020: 4840: 10670: 3775:

were unattached men committed to staying permanently, learning local languages and customs, and converting the natives to Christianity.

2861:, founded in 1901 as the "Republican, Radical and Radical-Socialist Party" ("Parti républicain, radical et radical-socialiste"). It was 10691: 10439: 6934: 5931: 5060: 4903: 6095: 2034:

1877, attempting to quell the Republicans' rising popularity and limit their political influence through a series of actions known as

12460: 11517: 10892: 10508: 7195:

Martin, Benjamin F. (1976). "The Creation of the Action Libérale Populaire: An Example of Party Formation in Third Republic France".

5071:, a broken and heavily forested terrain that had been believed to be impassable to armoured units. The Germans also rushed along the 3833: 3691:

of 1905 and 1911, and by secret military and naval staff talks. Delcassé's rapprochement with Britain was controversial in France as

1845: 6408:

Shapiro, Ann-Louise (1980). "Private Rights, Public Interest, and Professional Jurisdiction: The French Public Health Law of 1902".

3771:). Some French businessmen went overseas, but there were few permanent settlements. The Catholic Church became deeply involved. Its 9488: 4083: 4041:

in 1919. Germany was largely disarmed and forced to take full responsibility for the war, meaning that it was expected to pay huge

1668:

During the 19th and 20th centuries, the French colonial empire was the second largest colonial empire in the world only behind the

5519:

had on French rearmament and had nothing to do with French leaders being too "decadent" and cowardly to stand up to Nazi Germany.

4176:. They reported the improvement of financial markets, the brilliance of the post-war literature and the revival of public morale. 3024:, introduced in the 1860s, facilitated quick turnaround time and cheaper publication. New types of popular newspapers, especially 2190:. Plagued by disease, death, inefficiency, and widespread corruption, and its troubles covered up by bribed French officials, the 1613:, all of them acquired during the last two decades of the 19th century. The early years of the 20th century were dominated by the 11343: 10747: 5904: 4532:

became head of government on 10 April 1938, orienting his government towards the centre and ending the Popular Front. Along with

4255: 2798: 1437: 9879:

Jackson, Peter (2006). "Post-War Politics and the Historiography of French Strategy and Diplomacy Before the Second World War".

5661:

1880: The Jesuits and several other religious orders were dissolved, and their members were forbidden to teach in state schools.

5472:

thesis include Talbot Imlay, Anthony Adamthwaite, Serge Berstein, Michael Carely, Nicole Jordan, Igor Lukes, and Richard Crane.

5430:, where the French defeat is explained as the result of the moral weakness and cowardice of the French leaders.Shirer portrayed 12455: 11892: 11877: 11794: 7054:

Rigoulot, Philippe (2009). "Protestants and the French nation under the Third Republic: Between recognition and assimilation".

6547: 4800:

took place in the Italian Chamber of Deputies where on cue all of the deputies rose up to shout "Tunis, Corsica, Nice, Savoy!"

2164:

fall of Boulanger severely undermined the conservative and royalist elements within France; they would not recover until 1940.

90: 6514:

Stone, Judith F. (1988). "The Radicals and the Interventionist State: Attitudes, Ambiguities and Transformations, 1880–1910".

4788:

In an attempt to improve productivity in the French armament industry, especially its aviation industry, the Finance Minister

3932:. A consensus among soldiers agreed to resist any German attacks, but to postpone French attacks until the Americans arrived. 11645: 11087: 10413: 10089: 10051: 10021: 9944: 9914: 9869: 9844: 9809: 9741: 9714: 9413: 9364: 9320: 8899: 8517: 8174: 8059: 7855: 7822: 7755: 7707: 7623: 7308: 7279: 7243: 6899: 6874: 6767: 6738: 6610: 6585: 6071: 5921: 5607:

Feb 1875: Series of parliamentary Acts established the organic or constitutional laws of the new republic. At its apex was a

3878:

French intellectuals welcomed the war to avenge the humiliation of defeat and loss of territory in 1871. At the grass roots,

2448: 1570:

to serve as head of state. Calls for the re-establishment of the monarchy dominated the tenures of the first two presidents,

1087: 5303:

of democracy") had had 103 cabinets with an average length of eight months, and that 15 former prime ministers were living.

3828: 12276: 7879:

Bostrom, Alex (2016). "Fournissant le front: La production de l'artillerie française pendant la Première Guerre mondiale".

7532:

Otte, T. G. (2006). "From "War-in-Sight" to Nearly War: Anglo–French Relations in the Age of High Imperialism, 1875–1898".

4172:

Foreign observers in the 1920s noted the excesses of the French upper classes, but emphasized the rapid re-building of the

1973:

and the Versailles government, marched on Paris and succeeded in dismantling the Commune during what would become known as

10505:

France: 1848–1945: Politics and Anger; Anxiety and Hypocrisy; Taste and Corruption; Intellect and Pride; Ambition and Love

10205: 7584:

Armaments and politics in France on the eve of the First World War: The Introduction of Three-year Conscription, 1913–1914

4707:

The alliance would have turned any German attack on Czechoslovakia into a French–German war. As British Foreign Secretary

3254: 1786: 12400: 11999: 11762: 11418: 11408: 10731: 6129:

Kale, Steven D. (1988). "The Monarchy According to the King: The Ideological Content of the 'Drapeau Blanc,' 1871–1873".

5926: 3440: 2566: 1913: 1205: 9381: 8710: 2059:

subsequently accused by Republicans and their sympathizers of attempting a constitutional coup d'état, which he denied.

11847: 11168: 11044: 10566: 10425: 10179: 8526: 5426: 5352:

called the Third Republic a "weak" regime and argued that if France had a regime headed by a strong-man president like

4513:(1936–1939) to avoid the civil conflict spilling over into France itself. Once out of office in 1938, he denounced the 3965:

have important reverberations after the war, as it would be a first breach of liberal theories of non-interventionism.

2791: 2003: 1555: 1430: 10236: 10126: 8183: 4894:, as in 1914. Gamelin favoured an aggressive advance northward to meet the attacking German forces in Belgium and the 12390: 11819: 11804: 11223: 11151: 11117: 10587: 10339: 10246: 10143: 9994: 8956: 7957: 7017:

McBride, Theresa M. (1978). "A Woman's World: Department Stores and the Evolution of Women's Employment, 1870–1920".

6917:"Warenhausunternehmen und ihre Gründer in Frankreich und Deutschland oder: eine diskrete Elite und mancherlei Mythen" 6014: 5844: 5260:

The topic of the "decadence" of French institutions and France arose as a historiographical debate at the end of the

4640: 4457: 2727: 1366: 414: 4509:

government in 1936–1937, he provided a series of major economic and social reforms. Blum declared neutrality in the

3824: 2025:

In France from 1871 to the end of World War I in 1918, schoolchildren were taught not to forget the lost regions of

1766:(19 September 1870 – 28 January 1871). As Paris was cut off from the rest of unoccupied France, the Minister of War 12415: 12087: 11928: 11882: 6395:

Every Child a Lion: The Origins of Maternal & Infant Health Policy in the United States & France, 1890–1920

5635: 4751:

to serve as a "honest broker" in an attempt to find a compromise. Chamberlain met with Adolf Hitler at a summit at

4343: 3679:, the British Foreign Secretary, an agreement that ended a long period of Anglo-French tensions and hostility. The 3638:

In an effort to isolate Germany, France went to great pains to woo Russia and Great Britain, first by means of the

2858: 2680: 2160: 2063: 1918:

Chambord believed the restored monarchy had to eliminate all traces of the Revolution (most famously including the

1319: 6919:[Department store firms and their founders in France and Germany, or: a discreet elite and various myths] 5092: 4327:

In 1920, the socialist movement split, with the majority forming the French Communist Party. The minority, led by

3551:. The treaty ending the war put France in a protectorate over northern and central Vietnam, which it divided into 12480: 12475: 8283: 5889: 5884: 2749: 2467: 1388: 1106: 10549: 6453: 5515:, who argued that French weakness on the international stage was due to structural factors as the impact of the 5462:

as a petty politician controlled by his mistress, Countess Hélène de Portes. Modern historians who subscribe to

5096: 4813:

was called, and the Socialists did not vote for a Communist motion of no-confidence in the Daladier government.

4583:. Daladier remained Minister of Defence until 19 May, when Reynaud took over the portfolio personally after the 4106:, France was governed by two main groupings of political alliances. On the one hand, there was the right-center 2904:

miscarriage of justice in which a central role was played by the press and public opinion. At issue was blatant

1880:

lost legitimacy due to the defeat of Napoléon III and were unable to advance the candidacy of any member of the

12380: 12107: 11682: 11061: 11056: 10724: 10225: 6838: 6427: 5784: 5537: 5159:

in 1944, few called for a restoration of the Third Republic, and a Constituent Assembly was established by the

4651:

should invade any of France's allies in Eastern Europe, namely Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania and Yugoslavia.

4611: 3797: 3388:

protested at this recognition of the Italian State. Combes reacted strongly and recalled his ambassador to the

2882: 1949: 1869: 1755: 1614: 10638: 10467: 8330:

Jordan, Nicole (2002). "The Reorientation of French Diplomacy in the mid-1920s: the Role of Jacques Seydoux".

5500: 2126:

were broken up and sold in 1885. Only a few crowns were kept, their precious gems replaced by coloured glass.

12405: 12030: 11650: 11591: 11586: 11071: 5739: 5316:

shortsighted military strategy, and, finally, facilitated German victory in June 1940. The French journalist

4934: 4742:

Despite being on the opposite sides of the ideological divide, starting on 14 April 1938 the Conservative MP

3970: 3851: 3611: 3352:. This infuriated republican politicians, who were eager to take revenge. Often they worked in alliance with 3284:

society. Civil marriage became compulsory, divorce was introduced, and chaplains were removed from the army.

2744: 2737: 2722: 2710: 2695: 2497: 2186:

of 1892, regarded as the largest financial fraud of the 19th century, involved a failed attempt to build the

1383: 1376: 1361: 1349: 1334: 1136: 489: 69: 11672: 5716: 5102:

The Third Republic officially ended on 10 July 1940, when the French parliament gave full powers to Marshal

4667:, it was the unanimous opinion of all French foreign policy and military experts that France needed allies. 4272:, when his promises that the United States would sign a defence treaty with France and join the League were 12358: 12097: 11576: 11413: 11132: 10977: 10851: 5720: 5612: 5541: 4864: 4764:" as soon as possible. When the Munich Agreement was signed on 30 September 1938, Blum wrote that he felt " 4273: 3907: 3661:

in 1894 after diplomatic talks between Germany and Russia had failed to produce any working agreement. The

3552: 3381: 3026: 2007: 1559: 804: 9857:

The Last Battle: When U.S. and German Soldiers Joined Forces in the Waning Hours of World War II in Europe

5871: 2420: 1629:

to the late 1930s featured sharply polarized politics, between the Democratic Republican Alliance and the

1059: 12215: 11935: 11809: 11799: 11547: 11388: 11336: 11248: 11007: 10938: 9608: 8646: 7914: 5586: 5468:

argument or take a very critical view of France's pre-1940 leadership without necessarily subscribing to

5454:(whom Shirer represented as France's most influential intellectual) as the preacher of "drivel"; Marshal 4096: 3917: 3556: 2717: 2006:. At its head was a President of the Republic. A two-chamber parliament consisting of a directly elected 1356: 10659: 8917:, p. 3. The Blum family has always pronounced its name in a way that indicates its Alsatian origin. 7700:

Revanche and Revision: The Ligue des Patriotes and the Origins of the Radical Right in France, 1882–1900

5442:

as a reactionary soldier more interested in destroying the Third Republic than in defending it; General

5282:

as an explanation for the defeat began almost as soon as the armistice was signed in June 1940. Marshal

4061:, Germany's ally during World War I that also collapsed at the end of the conflict, France acquired the 3200:

at reasonable cost. The latest technology was featured, such as cinemas and exhibits of inventions like

3150: 12126: 12047: 11814: 11724: 11703: 11403: 11393: 11383: 11039: 11012: 9702: 6628: 5622:

May 1877: with public opinion swinging heavily in favour of a republic, the President of the Republic,

5548: 5337:

was widely embraced by different French political fractions as a way of discrediting their rivals. The

4949:

aerial bombardment. Although almost all the crossings over the Meuse were destroyed by the French, one

4185: 4031: 3820: 2950: 2732: 2700: 2675: 2235: 2207: 1799: 1763: 1371: 1339: 1314: 874: 846: 10656:

France reviews its revolutionary origins: social politics and historical opinion in the Third Republic

4859:, who advanced a mere 8 km (5.0 mi). They stopped even before reaching Germany's unfinished 3121:

France was a rural nation, and the peasant farmer was the typical French citizen. In his seminal book

1809:

In Paris, resentment built against the government from late March through May 1871. Paris workers and

12395: 12306: 12062: 11977: 11950: 11867: 11662: 11507: 10877: 9855: 8812: 8763: 7019: 6988:

Wemp, Brian (2011). "Social Space, Technology, and Consumer Culture at the Grands Magasins Dufayel".

6801: 6232: 5512: 4139: 4066: 4014: 3929: 3872: 3230: 3229:

Throughout the lifetime of the Third Republic (1870–1940), there were battles over the status of the

2931: 2301: 2244: 2098: 1974: 1691: 940: 883: 208: 6088:"The Night the Old Regime Ended: August 4, 1789 and the French Revolution By Michael P. Fitzsimmons" 5787:, which became the main center-right party after World War I and the parliamentary disappearance of 5095:, which was signed on 22 June 1940 in the same railway carriage in which the Germans had signed the 4726:

Daladier went on to say, "Today, it is the turn of Czechoslovakia. Tomorrow, it will be the turn of

3988:

To uplift the French national spirit, many intellectuals began to fashion patriotic propaganda. The

3695:

was prominent around the start of the 20th century, sentiments that had been much reinforced by the

1928: 12450: 12445: 12440: 12435: 12430: 12425: 12420: 11887: 11857: 11462: 11238: 10904: 10839: 9932: 9130:

Aulach, Harindar "Britain and the Sudeten Issue, 1938: The Evolution of a Policy" pp. 233–259 from

4603: 4502: 4224: 4046: 3583: 3259: 3212: 3176:

The French gloried in the national prestige brought by the great Parisian stores. The great writer

2263: 2143: 1853: 902: 9658:(1998). "Forgotten Words and Faded Images: American Journalists before the Fall of France, 1940". 5840: 4425: 2194:

went bankrupt. Its stock became worthless, and ordinary investors lost close to a billion francs.

12143: 12025: 11972: 11918: 11872: 11561: 11301: 11291: 11233: 11173: 11019: 10846: 10829: 5799: 5746: 5669: 5650: 5372: 5356:

before 1940, the defeat could have been avoided. In power, they did exactly that and started the

4150: 4062: 3946: 3742: 3734: 3666: 3662: 3639: 3603: 3468: 3357: 2705: 2685: 2378: 1810: 1507:

The early days of the French Third Republic were dominated by political disruption caused by the

1344: 1324: 1017: 143: 9606:

Zahniser, Marvin R. (1987). "The French Connection: Thirty Years of French-American Relations".

9430: 9024: 7598: 6626:

Wilson, Stephen (1976). "Antisemitism and Jewish Response in France during the Dreyfus Affair".

4844: 2410: 1049: 212: 12248: 12210: 12168: 12153: 11945: 11767: 11667: 11329: 11092: 11029: 10812: 10358:

Reconciling France Against Democracy: the Croix de feu and the Parti social français, 1927–1945

8849: 8734: 8536: 8193: 8095: 7814: 7271: 6990: 6730: 6722: 6678:

Collins, Ross F. (2001). "The Business of Journalism in Provincial France during World War I".

5899: 5772: 5724: 5338: 5312: 5168: 5164: 5064: 4620: 4584: 4506: 4318: 4208: 4143: 4135: 4107: 4050: 3977: 3838: 3754: 3724: 3632: 3567: 3504:, French and British interest in Africa came into conflict. The most dangerous episode was the 3314: 3134: 2690: 2638: 2517: 2055: 2021: 1933: 1630: 1590: 1548: 1501: 1329: 1277: 1156: 627: 349: 204: 75: 10378:

Passmore, Kevin (1993). "The French Third Republic: Stalemate Society or Cradle of Fascism?".

10105: 8889: 8732:

Kennedy, Sean (2008). "The End of Immunity? Recent Work on the Far Right in Interwar France".

8293: 8166: 6004: 12173: 12163: 11955: 11779: 11622: 11178: 11034: 10856: 10708:

The constitutions and other select documents illustrative of the history of France, 1789–1901

10436:

Schism and solidarity in social movements: The politics of labor in the French third republic

9391: 9356: 8683:"Fighting for the Unknown Soldier: The Contested Territory of the French Nation in 1934–1938" 7949: 6091: 5357: 5227: 4607: 4452:(1924), many areas of dispute were tacitly settled and a bearable coexistence made possible. 4412: 4401: 4382:

Politically, the Popular Front fell apart over Blum's refusal to intervene vigorously in the

4356: 4331:, kept the name Socialist, and by 1932 greatly outnumbered the disorganized Communists. When 4169:

did not occur. From 1926 to 1929, the French economy prospered and manufacturing flourished.

3767: 3738: 3712: 3684: 3647: 3539:

to help modernize the Japanese army. Conflicts with China over Indochina climaxed during the

3419: 3251:

continued in operation, but in 1881, the government cut off salaries to priests it disliked.

3169:, a French credit merchant, had served up to three million customers and was affiliated with 2648: 2477: 1889: 1534: 1287: 1116: 9799: 8158: 7263: 6916: 6836:

Margadant, Ted W. (1979). "French Rural Society in the Nineteenth Century: A Review Essay".

6061: 5063:

moved in Belgium to meet Army Group B, the German Army Group A outflanked the Allies at the

4663:

could field along with the greater size of the German economy. To even the odds against the

3865: 3040: 2139: 1633:. The government fell less than a year after the outbreak of World War II, when Nazi forces 12198: 11739: 11677: 11566: 11457: 11183: 11102: 11097: 10817: 10457:

The Discovery of France: A Historical Geography, from the Revolution to the First World War

10098: 9937:

Christianity in a Revolutionary Age: A History of Christianity in the 19th and 20th Century

9759: 8093:(2002). "Out of the Ashes: The American Press and France's Postwar Recovery in the 1920s". 7616:

An Empire Divided: Religion, Republicanism, and the Making of French Colonialism, 1880–1914

7099:"Church, State, and Education in France From the Falloux to the Ferry Laws: A Reassessment" 7063: 6959:

Amelinckx, Frans C. (1995). "The Creation of Consumer Society in Zola's Ladies' Paradise".

6230:

Mazgaj, Paul (1987). "The Origins of the French Radical Right: A Historiographical Essay".

6087: 5848: 5788: 5706: 5601: 5529: 5299: 5261: 5156: 4880: 4644: 4220: 4212: 4038: 3940: 3476: 3349: 3056: 3031: 2956: 2862: 2851: 2527: 2253: 2191: 2101:) who supported moderate social and political changes to nurture the new regime, such as a 2072: 1893: 1743: 1544: 1524: 1481: 1166: 892: 701: 549: 459: 358: 346: 131: 10532:

Sexual Moralities in France, 1780–1980: New Ideas on the Family, Divorce and Homosexuality

10093: 5574:. The regime came to an end after a bloody suppression by Thiers's government in May 1871. 5155:

saw much political strife with a growing rift between the right and the left. When France

5087:, the Allies were defeated in stunning fashion. France had to accept the terms imposed by 5027:

was destined for failure, since it drastically miscalculated the ensuing attack by German

3225:

Martin of Tours § Revival of the popular devotion to St. Martin in the Third Republic

1511:

of 1870–1871, which the French Third Republic continued to wage after the fall of Emperor

8: 12281: 12238: 12158: 12112: 11989: 11982: 11962: 11923: 11835: 11627: 11596: 11571: 11537: 11439: 11434: 11163: 10972: 10926: 10897: 10243:

A Mission to Civilize: The Republican Idea of Empire in France and West Africa, 1895–1930

8260:

Colton, Joel (1969). "Politics and economics in the 1930s". In Warner, Charles K. (ed.).

5703:'s bombing at the National Assembly, killing nobody but injuring one, deputies voted the 5623: 5608: 5582:, angering the Monarchists in the Assembly. As a result, he was forced to resign in 1873. 5533: 5007:

and appeased the Germans by giving in to their demands concerning the acquisition of the

4748: 4700: 4628: 4533: 3883: 3879: 3808: 3758: 3683:, which functioned as an informal Anglo-French alliance, was further strengthened by the 3544: 3501: 3021: 2487: 2396: 2335: 2325: 2123: 1987: 1986:

De MacMahon, his popularity bolstered by his victory over the Commune, was later elected

1970: 1966: 1945: 1857: 1735: 1610: 1581: 1508: 1485: 1126: 1035: 974: 964: 604: 372: 196: 10706: 7067: 5780: 5431: 5209: 4529: 4478: 4360: 4117: 3891: 3857: 3337: 3319:

was the parliamentary group from which the ALP political party emerged, adding the word

3173:, a large French department store established in 1870 by a former Bon Marché executive. 2878: 1762:

to serve as its president. This first government of the Third Republic ruled during the

1719: 55: 12193: 12138: 12092: 11940: 11906: 11490: 11296: 11263: 11228: 11107: 11024: 11002: 10982: 10948: 10462:

Sawyer, Stephen W. "A Fiscal Revolution: Statecraft in France's Early Third Republic."

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were pushed out of power, and the Republic was finally governed by republicans, called

5641: 5233: 4720: 4557: 4277: 4125: 4113: 4018: 4010: 3994: 3936: 3921: 3579: 3404: 3400:

financing and a stronger network of newspapers, but had far fewer seats in parliament.

3138: 2983: 2035: 1909: 1900:

was recognised. Consequently, in 1871 the throne was offered to the Comte de Chambord.

1759: 1606: 433: 335: 138: 10716: 10195: 8419:

Schuker, Stephen A. (1986). "France and the Remilitarization of the Rhineland, 1936".

6063:

Religion, Politics and Preferment in France since 1890: La Belle Époque and its Legacy

5455: 5283: 5103: 4887:

commander, France had more and better tanks than Germany, but chose to disperse them.

4683:

Daladier's last government was in power at the time of the negotiations preceding the

4285: 4131: 3912:

After the French army successfully defended Paris in 1914, the conflict became one of

2987: 2150:

In 1889, the Republic was rocked by a sudden political crisis precipitated by General

1789:

at the time did not participate. The resulting conservative National Assembly elected

1652: 445: 12339: 12321: 12316: 12301: 12286: 12225: 12188: 12102: 12035: 12013: 11994: 11862: 11789: 11612: 11512: 11398: 11378: 11355: 11283: 11268: 11144: 11112: 11066: 10606: 10583: 10497: 10421: 10335: 10327: 10319: 10085: 10047: 10017: 10000: 9990: 9940: 9910: 9894: 9865: 9840: 9823: 9815: 9805: 9775: 9767: 9737: 9710: 9409: 9360: 9348: 9316: 9152: 8952: 8895: 8833: 8784: 8706: 8667: 8631:

Léon Blum, French Socialism, and the Popular Front: A Case of Internal Contradictions

8513: 8392:

Salerno, Reynolds M. (1997). "The French Navy and the Appeasement of Italy, 1937–9".

8378: 8246: 8170: 8159: 8055: 8048: 8029: 7953: 7851: 7818: 7795: 7751: 7703: 7650: 7619: 7553: 7304: 7275: 7264: 7239: 7083: 6970: 6895: 6870: 6763: 6734: 6707: 6695: 6649: 6606: 6581: 6543:"The Official Philosophy of the French Third Republic: Leon Bourgeois and Solidarism" 6500: 6479:

Halpern, Avner (2002). "Freemasonry and party building in late 19th-Century France".

6341: 6067: 6010: 5631: 5590: 5496: 5421: 5379:, that started a new type of international history to take into what Renouvin called 5361: 5353: 5317: 5251:

The Representatives of Foreign Powers Coming to Greet the Republic as a Sign of Peace

5223: 5183: 5123: 5119: 5080: 5000: 4914: 4743: 4510: 4383: 4348: 4306: 4284:, who viewed reparations as impossible to pay successfully, pressured French Premier 4265: 3575: 3418:. This law was heavily supported by Combes, who had been strictly enforcing the 1901 3090: 2935: 2867: 2457: 2356: 2216: 2151: 1687: 1638: 1598: 1096: 995: 855: 523: 284: 10563:

Legislating the French Family: Feminism, Theater, and Republican Politics: 1870–1920

10185: 8935: 7329: 5619:, who was nominally answerable to both the President of the Republic and Parliament. 5171:(1946 to 1958) that December, a parliamentary system not unlike the Third Republic. 4297:

and was trusted to compensate for the heavy manpower losses of the First World War.

4232: 2979: 2843: 2155: 1758:

as a provisional government on 4 September 1870. The deputies then selected General

12253: 12205: 12077: 12052: 11542: 11278: 11158: 10953: 10887: 10834: 10776: 10387: 10307: 10165: 10117: 9890: 9617: 9442: 8858: 8821: 8772: 8743: 8694: 8655: 8558: 8490: 8463: 8428: 8401: 8366: 8339: 8242: 8215: 8131: 8017: 7990: 7941: 7923: 7888: 7783: 7771: 7541: 7487: 7204: 7110: 7071: 7028: 6999: 6810: 6691: 6687: 6637: 6556: 6523: 6488: 6329: 6294: 6267: 6241: 6138: 5805: 5765: 5700: 5685: 5673: 5672:

as they were in favour of moderate changes to firmly establish the new regime. The

5579: 5516: 5411:

often described the Third Republic as a tottering regime on the verge of collapse.

5342: 4974: 4826: 4801: 4684: 4591: 4545: 4537: 4446: 4281: 4216: 4191: 4030:

States beginning in the summer of 1918. Peace terms were imposed on Germany by the

3811:

in 1926, and Indochina in 1930, all of which the colonial army quickly suppressed.

3762: 3696: 3671: 3643: 3599: 3587: 3571: 3548: 3509: 3505: 3451: 3372: 3244: 3235: 2823: 2430: 2110: 2106: 2011: 1897: 1881: 1873: 1602: 1594: 1563: 1069: 575: 474: 11715: 11554: 8008:

Stevenson, David (1979). "French war aims and the American challenge, 1914–1918".

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Two years later, evidence came to light that identified a French Army major named

2874: 2597: 2402: 1837: 1767: 1751: 1697: 1236: 1041: 12348: 12311: 12296: 12291: 12233: 12148: 11708: 11449: 11258: 11253: 10921: 10781: 10761: 10481: 10345: 10131: 10039: 10027: 9971: 9950: 9920: 9881: 9783: 9747: 9720: 9655: 9370: 8990: 8090: 7963: 7861: 7828: 7713: 6796: 6755: 6360: 5894: 5878: 5852: 5851:, abandoned its antimilitarist positions and joined the national war effort. The 5759: 5693: 5480: 5451: 5443: 5408: 5365: 5203: 5187: 5079:

coast to catch the Allies in a large pocket that forced them into the disastrous

5076: 5024: 4836: 4822: 4616: 4482: 4373: 4162: 4154: 4121: 4103: 4078: 4042: 3700: 3540: 3464: 3411: 3166: 2992: 2586: 2183: 2177: 2026: 1991: 1861: 1826: 1771: 1747: 1634: 1463: 1225: 270: 107: 36: 11694: 9313:

Britain, France and Appeasement: Anglo-French Relations in the Popular Front Era

5865: 4898:, as far removed from French territory as possible. This strategy, known as the 3895: 3861: 3491: 3377: 3361: 3009: 2548: 1187: 12271: 12266: 12258: 12082: 12040: 11617: 11202: 11049: 10931: 10916: 10824: 10786: 10642: 10613: 10176: 9902: 8825: 8619: 7787: 7231: 6641: 6057: 5735: 5731: 5597: 5571: 5439: 5435: 5270: 5254: 5217: 5174: 5144: 5004: 4959: 4860: 4856: 4797: 4777: 4688: 4518: 4463: 4364: 4269: 4058: 4022: 3913: 3793: 3784: 3658: 3651: 3607: 3393: 3345: 3248: 3170: 3063: 3051: 2975: 2927: 2920: 2898: 2781: 2367: 2015: 1920: 1790: 1715: 1710: 1681: 1669: 1573: 1489: 1420: 1006: 391: 288: 61: 9157:

The Collapse of the Third Republic: An Inquiry into the Fall of France in 1940

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integrity against Italy was politically difficult. At the next session of the

4417:

with its prestigious past and sharp articles, was a major conservative organ.

3887: 3268:

Republicans feared that religious orders in control of schools—especially the

2068: 12374: 12353: 12183: 11967: 11655: 11195: 11190: 10861: 10771: 10311: 10110: 9861: 8986:"World War II's Strangest Battle: When Americans and Germans Fought Together" 8862: 8682: 8659: 8219: 7994: 7892: 7695: 7654: 7641: 7296: 7259: 7003: 6974: 6699: 5909: 5567: 5560: 5297:

in 1940, before the defeat of France, reported that the Third Republic ("the

5178: 5148: 5084: 5072: 5056: 4954: 4752: 4352: 4336: 4088: 3729: 3688: 3624: 3353: 3332: 3308: 3300: 3273: 3188: 3034:), a telegraphic news service with a network of reporters and contracts with 2939: 2926:

The affair began in November 1894 with the conviction for treason of Captain

2905: 2766: 2507: 1958: 1814: 1795: 1673: 1520: 1516: 1405: 1146: 729: 715: 667: 510: 403: 355: 343: 328: 250: 237: 10637:(2 vol. 1999, 2007), 30 chapters 1200pp; comprehensive coverage by scholars 10539:

Women and the Second World War in France, 1939–1948: choices and constraints

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The Divided Path: The German Influence on Social Reform in France After 1870

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indicted the pre-war leadership for what he regarded as total incompetence.

4441:

had sought a rapprochement, but it was not achieved until the reign of Pope

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as a corrupt opportunist even willing to do a deal with the Nazis; Marshal

5294: 5111: 5088: 5048: 5044: 5040: 5028: 4982: 4789: 4708: 4696: 4599: 4580: 4572: 4549: 4541: 4522: 4421: 4347:

on labour law changes sought by the trade unions, especially the mandatory

4294: 4237: 4158: 3368: 3328: 3296: 3099: 2827: 2615: 2346: 2187: 2115: 1877: 1739: 1738:

of 1870–1871 resulted in the defeat of France and the overthrow of Emperor

1656: 1622: 1512: 1497: 1493: 1254: 985: 790: 759: 655: 588: 562: 9827: 9779: 6006:

Colonialism: An International Social, Cultural, and Political Encyclopedia

5407:

was accepted in the English-speaking world, where British historians such

4598:

proposals for the dismemberment of Czechoslovakia. After the outbreak of

4498: 4328: 4322: 3303:, former monarchists who switched to republicanism at the request of Pope 2052: 1944:

Following the French surrender to Prussia in January 1871, concluding the

1865: 11734: 11637: 11482: 11310: 11273: 11243: 11207: 11138: 11123: 10967: 10473: 10391: 10372:

To Be a Citizen: The Political Culture of the Early French Third Republic

9795: 6527: 6142: 5665: 5627: 5345:

and its opposition to the "imperialist war" against Germany in 1939–40).

5127: 5008: 4978: 4929: 4895: 4692: 4624: 4595: 4553: 4514: 4438: 4369: 4335:

told French Communists to collaborate with others on the left in 1934, a

3961: 3750: 3708: 3692: 3563: 3472: 3424: 3385: 3280: 3197: 3126: 3106: 2962: 2909: 2847: 2610: 2048: 1995: 1849: 1642: 1626: 1618: 1249: 818: 536: 483: 468: 303: 10520:

Campbell, Caroline. "Gender and Politics in Interwar and Vichy France."

9671: 9433:[French writers and the notion of decadence from 1870 to 1914]. 8467: 8108: 7115: 7098: 4941:

The German wing that attacked further south was able to cross the River

3699:

of 1898, in which Britain and France had almost gone to war, and by the

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Hanson, Stephen E (2010). "The Founding of the French Third Republic".

9764:

France Under the Republic: The Development of Modern France (1870–1939)

9629: 8143: 6851: 6822: 6180: 5304: 5288: 5199: 4852: 4848: 4576: 4564: 4146:

on the left and royalists on the right, played relatively minor roles.

4057:, were partitioned between France and Britain. From the remains of the 3976:

In the end the damages caused by the war amounted to about 113% of the

3772: 3521: 3292: 3205: 3083: 2283: 2090: 2067:

resigned on 30 January 1879 to be succeeded by the moderate Republican

2014:

was created, along with a ministry under the President of the council (

1953: 1820: 1774:, and established the provisional republican government in the city of 1690:. On the right stood conservative France, rooted in the peasantry, the 922: 152: 10253:

France and the Nazi Threat: The Collapse of French Diplomacy 1932–1939

10181:

The Collapse of the Third Republic: An Inquiry into the Fall of France

9987:

How war came: the immediate origins of the Second World War, 1938-1939

8926:

Sévillia, Jean, Histoire Passionnée de la France, Perrin, 2013, p. 416

8570: 8440: 7216: 7040: 6306: 6272:

The Path Between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal, 1870–1914

6253: 5214:

in 1898. This far-right monarchist movement became influential in the

4855:, apart from a few French divisions crossing the German border in the 4776:

he knew to be a reluctant appeaser - but rather the Foreign Minister,

4594:

of September 1938, when France and the United Kingdom gave way before

4579:

led to Daladier's resignation on 21 March 1940 and his replacement by

2881:, who would become President of the Council in the 1920s, created the 11581: 10958: 10478:

Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural France, 1870–1914

5594: 5589:, a conservative Roman Catholic, was made President of the Republic. 5349: 5195: 5020: 4946: 4899: 4659:

Germany as France could only field a third of the young men that the

4655: 4166: 3628: 3324: 3192: 2857:

The most important party of the early 20th century in France was the

298: 9621: 8135: 3943:

imposed, leading to the creation in 1915 of the satirical newspaper

1990:

in May 1873 and would hold the office until January 1879. A staunch

10667:

The Third Republic in France, 1870–1940: conflicts and continuities

10623:(1940), pp 269–30 summarizes published memoirs by main participants 10601:

French Women and the First World War: War Stories of the Home Front

10556:

Debating the woman question in the French Third Republic, 1870–1920

10140:

The Third Republic in France, 1870–1940: Conflicts and Continuities

8891:

Action Française: Royalism and Reaction in Twentieth Century France

8776: 8562: 8432: 8233:

Millington, Chris (2012). "Political Violence in Interwar France".

7208: 7032: 6298: 6245: 5556: 5321: 5152: 5126:

earlier, exhorting all French not to accept defeat and to rally to

5068: 4920: 4875: 4615:

After unsuccessfully attempting to flee France, he was arrested by

4462:(JOC/F), founded in 1928 by the progressive social activist priest 4174:

regions of northeastern France that had seen warfare and occupation

4161:. Holders of the national debt lost 80% of the face value of their 4037:

Clemenceau demanded the harshest terms and won most of them in the

3924:, whose ferocious energy and determination earned him the nickname 3711:

of July 1914 surprised France, and not much attention was given to

3620: 3389: 3304: 3288: 2885:(ARD), which became the main center-right party after World War I. 2093:

were pushed out of power, and the Republic was finally governed by

1540: 662: 361: 10152:(1995), pp 492–537. survey of political history by leading scholar 8589:

The New Jacobins: The French Communist Party and the Popular Front

8454:

Jordan, Nicole (1991). "Léon Blum and Czechoslovakia, 1936–1938".

3048:

had about 70,000. Advertising only filled 20% or so of the pages.

1903: 11495: 11363: 9431:"Les écrivains français et la notion de décadence de 1870 à 1914" 8357:

Thomas, Martin (2008). "Appeasement in the Late Third Republic".

6892:

Bon Marché: Bourgeois Culture and the Department Store, 1869–1920

5083:. As a result of this brilliant German strategy, embodied in the 5032: 4992: 4962:

disregarded his orders, and attacked aggressively on this front.

4891: 4731: 4568: 4442: 4387: 4228: 4092: 4054: 3804: 3788: 3616: 3514: 3279:

The early anti-Catholic laws were largely the work of republican

3035: 2310: 2002:

In February 1875, a series of parliamentary acts established the

1558:

defined the composition of the Third Republic. It consisted of a

949: 323: 308: 11321: 10610:

Pyrrhic Victory: French Strategy and Operations in the Great War

10075:

A Biographical Dictionary of French Political Leaders since 1870

9907:

France since the Popular Front: Government and People, 1936–1986

9819: 9771: 7912:; Portier, Franck (2002). "The French depression in the 1930s". 7774:(1995). "War and 'Politics': The French Army Mutinies of 1917". 5783:, who became President of the Council in the 1920s, created the 4999:

The looming threat to France of Nazi Germany was delayed at the

3392:. Then, in 1905, a law was introduced that abolished Napoleon's 2970:. Activists put pressure on the government to re-open the case. 2915: 11784: 11352: 10233:

Grandeur and Misery: France's Bid for Power in Europe 1914–1940

9964:

The Third Republic from its Origins to the Great War, 1871–1914

8299: 7748:

The Long Silence: The Tragedy of Occupied France in World War I

6285:

Nord, Philip (1994). "The Welfare State in France, 1870–1914".

5552: 5551:, the peace treaty ending the Franco-Prussian War. France lost 5273:'s writings, and even Brazil was seen as a future rising star. 5110:(the "French State"), commonly known as the "Vichy Regime" or " 5052: 4884: 4735: 4727: 4332: 3327:. In the end, it recruited mostly among the liberal-Catholics ( 3269: 3110:, was modelled on the photojournalism of the American magazine 2314: 1528: 1477: 953: 8791: 7513: 5147:). It fought bitterly through the First World War against the 4870:

Gamelin prohibited any bombing of the industrial areas of the

3054:

revolutionized pressure group media by its national newspaper

3044:

in 1913 probably had a daily circulation of about 100,000 and

2986:, and those who condemned him (the anti-Dreyfusards), such as 2075:

that would be maintained until the end of the Third Republic.

1714:

Proclamation of the abolition of the monarchy in front of the

184: 9939:. Vol. 4: The 20th Century in Europe. New York: Harper. 9837:

Historical Dictionary of the Third French Republic, 1870–1940

8481:

Thomas, Martin (1999). "France and the Czechoslovak crisis".

6380:

Doctors, Bureaucrats & Public Health in France, 1888–1902

5115: 4942: 4045:. France regained Alsace-Lorraine, and the German industrial 3898:" ("Sacred Union"), and in France there were few dissenters. 3796:

became the fourth most important wine producer in the world.

3201: 3130: 1779: 1775: 1551:, instead became the permanent form of government of France. 313: 229: 8869: 6454:"Life expectancy (from birth) in Germany, from 1875 to 2020" 5684:

1889: The Republic was rocked by the sudden but short-timed

5458:

as the senile puppet of Laval and the French royalists, and

3129:

traced the modernization of French villages and argued that

2960:, a vehement open letter published on the liberal newspaper 12057: 11467: 9678: 9587: 9575: 9453: 7317: 5160: 4950: 4925: 4871: 4639:

The most important factor in French foreign policy was the

4005: 3780: 2990:, the director and publisher of the anti-Semitic newspaper 2273: 912: 9565: 9563: 9502: 9500: 9241: 9205: 9162: 8311: 7850:. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 169–205. 7680:

Hamilton, Richard F.; Herwig, Holger H. (2004). "France".

3631:(right) personifying the Triple Entente as opposed to the 3380:, the president of France from 1899 to 1906, visited King 10094:

online review in English by James E. Connolly, Nov. 2013)

9636: 9294: 9292: 9262: 9260: 9258: 9256: 9195: 9193: 9191: 9189: 8510:

The Popular Front in France: Defending Democracy, 1934–38

8122:

Laufenburger, Henry (1936). "France and the Depression".

7468: 7456: 6777: 6723:"The Assumptionist Response to Secularisation, 1870–1900" 6656: 6211: 6199: 5604:

had replaced an absolute monarchy by a parliamentary one.

4634: 4363:

the armaments industry and tried to seize control of the

4000: 2946:, the dry guillotine), where he spent almost five years. 9839:. Vol. 2. London: Aldwych Press. pp. 690–694. 6161: 6149: 5942:

French anti-Southern sentiment during the Third Republic

5395:

In 1979, Duroselle published a well-known book entitled

4351:, down from 48 hours. All workers were given a two-week 189:

Territories and colonies of the French Republic in 1939

10746: 10628:

European Powers in the First World War: An Encyclopedia

10132:

full text of vol 30 Abbe to English History online free

9560: 9548: 9536: 9524: 9512: 9497: 9465: 9090: 9066: 9044: 9042: 9040: 9038: 9005: 8965: 7569:

France and Britain, 1900–1940: Entente and Estrangement

6110: 5952:

Proclamation of the French Republic (September 4, 1870)

5559:, and had to pay a cash indemnity to the new nation of 4049:, a coal and steel region, was occupied by France. The 4034:: Great Britain, France, the United States, and Italy. 3437:

International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)

3211:

Increasingly after 1870, the stores' work force became

10635:

Capital Cities at War: Paris, London, Berlin 1914–1919

9707:

Greater France: A History of French Overseas Expansion

9289: 9279: 9277: 9275: 9253: 9229: 9217: 9186: 9174: 8949:

In Hitlers Hand: die Sonder- und Ehrenhäftlinge der SS

7503: 7501: 5917:

French presidential elections under the Third Republic

2043:

On 16 May 1877, de MacMahon forced the resignation of

1852:" in the National Assembly supported the candidacy of 9329: 8549:

Wall, Irwin M. (1987). "Teaching the Popular Front".

7904: 7902: 7813:. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 7639:

Evans, Martin (2000). "Projecting a Greater France".

6962:

Proceedings of the Western Society for French History

5984: 5847:, the French socialist movement, as the whole of the 5634:

to office. He then dissolved parliament and called a

4560:

in 1939, Britain and France declared war on Germany.

9078: 9054: 9035: 7435:

French public opinion and foreign affairs, 1870–1914

7236:

Religion, society, and politics in France since 1789

5947:

Nomination of Mayors under the French Third Republic

5491:

Young has been followed by other historians such as

4215:

street demonstration in Paris organized by multiple

3517:, but France suffered a humiliating defeat overall. 2850:: 5 francs of France 1876, released under President 2097:(pejoratively labelled "Opportunist Republicans" by 10155: 9272: 8599:

The French Socialist Party in the Popular Front Era

7498: 5833:

SFIO (French Section of the Workers' International)

4783: 4243:

Comité de vigilance des intellectuels antifascistes

3997:'s demand for total victory and harsh peace terms. 3204:machines (that could be used to fit shoes) and the 2129: 1832: 1746:. After Napoleon's capture by the Prussians at the 1566:to form the legislative branch of government and a 10420:. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 1982. 8618: 8586: 8047: 7899: 7661: 7270:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 5138: 4236:. As a result of the actions of that day, several 3713:conditions that led to the outbreak of World War I 3677:Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 5th Marquess of Lansdowne 3258:The first page of the bill, as brought before the 2197: 1621:political alliance, but over time became the main 9962:Mayeur, Jean-Marie; Rebérioux, Madeleine (1984). 9408:. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 11. 7301:Children of the Revolution: The French, 1799–1914 7266:The March to the Marne: The French Army 1871–1914 5222:in the 1930s. It also became a model for various 5035:. The Dyle Plan embodied the primary war plan of 4968: 4610:in March 1940. He was also vice-president of the 4501:was a French socialist politician and three-time 1876:, who replaced his cousin Charles X in 1830. The 12372: 8165:. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 7390:The End of the European Era: 1890 to the Present 7299:(2008). "Secularization and Religious Revival". 5177:, first president of the Third Republic, called 3416:French law on the separation of Church and State 3116: 2596: 1235: 10406: 10291: 9961: 9493:. New York: Harper & Brothers. p. 182. 9025:"Sepp Gangl-Straße in Wörgl • Strassensuche.at" 7684:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 112–129. 7417: 7360: 7335: 5688:, spawning the rise of the modern intellectual 4851:' tactics. France saw little action during the 3829:Diplomatic history of World War I § France 3495:Comparison of Africa in the years 1880 and 1913 3098:sponsored a highly successful women's magazine 1904:Monarchists' republic and constitutional crisis 1637:, and was replaced by the rival governments of 10704: 10578:Audoin-Rouzeau, Stephane, and Annette Becker. 10332:The Politics of Depression in France 1932–1936 10255:(2004); Translation of his highly influential 10219: 8277:The foreign policy of France from 1914 to 1945 7908: 7679: 6673: 6671: 6044:France overseas: A Study of Modern Imperialism 5600:, became prime minister. Unintentionally, the 5528:September 1870: following the collapse of the 5479:concept explicitly was the Canadian historian 5241: 4470:("League of Working Christian Women") and the 3430: 622:13,500,000 km (5,200,000 sq mi) 12471:States and territories disestablished in 1940 11337: 10732: 10447:A Social History of Nineteenth-Century France 10226:French colonial empire § Further reading 9731: 9483: 9355:. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 9353:The Fall of France: The Nazi Invasion of 1940 8936:Paul Reynaud | premier of France | Britannica 8305: 8050:Paris 1919: Six Months That Changed the World 7450:The ideology of French imperialism, 1871–1881 6762:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 492–573. 5937:Purge of the French Civil Service (1879-1884) 5615:was created, along with a ministry under the 5059:. As the French 1st, 7th, 9th armies and the 4431: 2799: 1750:(1 September 1870), Parisian deputies led by 1438: 11713: 11692: 11552: 10648: 10102:The development of modern France (1870–1939) 9977:The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1848–1918 9734:The Decline of the Third Republic, 1914–1938 9477: 9422: 8908: 8121: 7486: 7387: 7229: 5803: 5757: 5704: 5639: 5463: 5415: 5402: 5396: 5386: 5380: 5332: 5277: 5231: 5215: 5207: 5003:of 1938. France and Great Britain abandoned 4699:. In April–May 1938, British Prime Minister 4488: 3944: 1860:, the last king from the senior line of the 1818: 1695: 1679: 1660: 1646: 1579: 1571: 1532: 1471: 105: 88: 28: 10514: 8262:From the Ancien Regime to the Popular Front 8161:The French Economy in the Twentieth Century 6668: 5664:1881: Following the 16 May crisis in 1877, 5161:government of a provisional French Republic 5114:" following its re-location to the town of 5106:, who proclaimed in the following days the 4631:, took a sniper's bullet to save Reynaud. 3825:Home front during World War I § France 1841:Composition of the national Assembly – 1871 12466:States and territories established in 1870 11344: 11330: 10739: 10725: 10271:The War that Ended Peace: The Road to 1914 9931: 9108:Overy, Richard, & Wheatcroft, Andrew. 9102: 8894:. Stanford University Press. p. 249. 8875: 8797: 8232: 7388:Gilbert, Felix; Large, David Clay (2002). 7286:, is the most thorough account in English. 6266: 5932:Freemasonry under the Second French Empire 5696:also were quickly criticized by the press. 4623:in which one of the leaders, German Major 4481:, founded in 1905 by the vitriolic author 4342:The Popular Front's narrow victory in the 3566:, the Third Republic greatly expanded the 3471:, the foreign minister from 1898 to 1905; 2806: 2792: 1476:) was the system of government adopted in 1445: 1431: 183: 151: 10633:Winter, Jay, and Jean-Louis Robert, eds. 9732:Bernard, Philippe; Dubief, Henri (1985). 8680: 8616: 8205: 8042: 8007: 7845: 7730: 7600:France and the Origins of the First World 7190: 7188: 7114: 6958: 6835: 6580:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 6560: 6066:. Cambridge University Press. p. 3. 6041: 5819:law on the separation of Church and State 5536:, the Third Republic was created and the 5202:remained harshly anti-Republicans, while 4521:in 1940, he became a staunch opponent of 4202: 4009:The Council of Four in Versailles, 1919: 3757:. The largest and most important were in 2078: 1543:(the northeastern part, i.e. present-day 614:536,464 km (207,130 sq mi) 10621:Recent Revelations of European Diplomacy 10377: 9736:. New York: Cambridge University Press. 9605: 9403: 8643: 8512:. New York: Cambridge University Press. 8077:The dark valley: A panorama of the 1930s 7613: 7581: 7323: 7238:. London: Hambledon Press. p. 152. 7096: 7053: 6864: 6377: 6354: 5245: 5130:and continue the fight with the Allies. 5097:armistice that ended the First World War 4986: 4945:faster than anticipated, aided by heavy 4919: 4268:in 1919, but felt betrayed by President 4240:organizations were created, such as the 4082: 4004: 3832: 3753:of the day sweeping Europe, developed a 3728: 3615: 3547:destroyed the Chinese fleet anchored at 3490: 3253: 3149: 3145: 2914: 2842: 2138: 2085:Moderate Republicans (France, 1871–1901) 2020: 1952:established a new seat of government at 1927: 1836: 1725: 1709: 1705: 10326: 10192:Democracy in France: The third republic 10084:(Paris: Éditions Belin, 2012) 1152 pp. 9878: 9853: 9701: 9684: 9593: 9581: 9569: 9554: 9542: 9530: 9518: 9506: 9471: 9459: 9387: 9347: 9011: 8983: 8971: 8846: 8809: 8731: 8604: 8507: 8418: 8391: 8317: 8156: 8074: 7948:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 7878: 7808: 7745: 7694: 7507: 7432: 7303:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 7162:"Leo XIII – Au milieu des sollicitudes" 7016: 6914: 6869:. New York: Vendome Press. p. 22. 6677: 6540: 6478: 6407: 5990: 5905:List of French possessions and colonies 5630:and reappointing the monarchist leader 4528:After the fall of the Blum government, 4190:The world economic crisis known as the 4087:French soldiers observing the Rhine at 2029:, which were coloured in black on maps. 2004:constitutional laws of the new republic 1846:The French legislative election of 1871 12373: 10690:(Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2010) 10297: 9970: 9901: 9834: 9794: 9758: 9428: 9310: 9298: 9266: 9247: 9235: 9223: 9211: 9199: 9180: 9168: 8914: 8628: 8612: 8596: 8584: 8532: 8480: 8453: 8356: 8329: 8289: 8259: 8189: 7980: 7667: 7596: 7519: 7474: 7462: 7447: 7402: 7372: 7295: 7194: 7185: 7131:"Leo XIII – Nobilissima Gallorum Gens" 6889: 6783: 6774:Also, pp 522–224 on foreign subsidies. 6754: 6720: 6662: 6625: 6575: 6548:International Review of Social History 6229: 6217: 6205: 6167: 6155: 6116: 6056: 5544:(19 September 1870 – 28 January 1871). 4839:was France's commander in chief, with 4635:Diplomatic situation with Nazi Germany 4493: 4274:rejected by the United States Congress 4142:. Anti-democratic groups, such as the 4001:Peace and revenge in Versailles Treaty 3960:In 1914, the government implemented a 3052:The Roman Catholic Assumptionist order 2966:in January 1898 by the notable writer 2930:, a young French artillery officer of 2168:of the radical left a decade earlier. 1787:French territories occupied by Prussia 1617:, which was originally conceived as a 16:Government of France from 1870 to 1940 12411:Political history of France by period 11325: 10720: 10688:Writing history in the Third Republic 10472: 10184:, New York: Simon and Schuster, 1969 10077:(1990), 400 short articles by experts 10038: 10014:The Hollow Years: France in the 1930s 10011: 9909:. New York: Oxford University Press. 9654: 9642: 9335: 9096: 9084: 9072: 9060: 9048: 8940: 8887: 8760: 8607:The French Radical Party in the 1930s 8089: 7940: 7770: 7638: 7618:. New York: Oxford University Press. 7338:, pp. 155–161, 168–169, 272–278. 7258: 6858: 6795: 6758:(1977). "Newspapers and corruption". 6513: 6428:"Life expectancy in France 1765–2020" 6392: 6319: 6023:from the original on 19 November 2021 5922:France in the long nineteenth century 4816: 4278:seized the industrialized Ruhr region 3749:The Third Republic, in line with the 3741:killed on duty for France during the 3562:Under the leadership of expansionist 2838: 2089:Following the 16 May crisis in 1877, 9984: 9804:. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. 9283: 8946: 8548: 8274: 7566: 7531: 6987: 6600: 6284: 6128: 6002: 5890:Economic history of France#1914–1944 5885:Economic history of France#1789–1914 5817:1905: The government introduced the 5810:with the British Foreign Secretary, 5785:Democratic Republican Alliance (ARD) 5434:as a well-meaning, but weak willed; 5167:for a successor, established as the 4280:. The British Labour Prime Minister 3718: 3646:with Great Britain, and finally the 3410:In December 1905, the government of 1856:, alias "Henry V," grandson of King 1825:had disastrous consequences for the 1625:party. The period from the start of 1589:The Third Republic established many 10748:International relations (1814–1919) 10594:The Great War and the French People 10558:(Cambridge University Press, 2018). 10546:French Feminism in the 19th Century 10438:(Cambridge University Press, 2001) 10398:Roberts, John. "General Boulanger" 9159:, 1969, Da Capo Press, pp. 339–340. 9134:, Vol. 18, No. 2 April 1983. p. 235 9132:The Journal of Contemporary History 8079:. Knopf. pp. 149–174, 576–603. 7480: 6410:Bulletin of the History of Medicine 6098:from the original on 7 October 2021 5927:History of France (1900 to present) 5522: 4678: 4643:on 7 March 1936 in defiance of the 4264:France enthusiastically joined the 4256:International relations (1919–1939) 4179: 3894:called for unity in the form of a " 3803:Opposition to colonial rule led to 3441:History of French foreign relations 3218: 2134: 2122:To discourage the monarchists, the 1914:Alleged military conspiracy of 1877 13: 12386:Former countries in French history 10698: 10658:(Columbia University Press, 1944) 10580:14–18: Understanding the Great War 10402:(Oct 1955) 5#10 pp 657–669, online 10062: 8713:from the original on 18 March 2022 7172:from the original on 16 March 2015 6926:Jahrbuch für Wirtschaftsgeschichte 6729:. Lexington: D.C. Heath. pp. 6042:Priestley, Herbert Ingram (1938). 5768:nearly causes an Anglo-French war. 5427:The Collapse of the Third Republic 4468:Ligue ouvrière chrétienne féminine 4072: 3814: 3737:commemorating the soldiers of the 3094:. In addition to its daily paper, 1556:French Constitutional Laws of 1875 1515:in 1870. Social upheaval and the 1500:. The French Third Republic was a 14: 12492: 11351: 10360:(McGill-Queen's Press-MQUP, 2007) 10264:Franco-German Relations 1871–1914 7702:. Athens: Ohio University Press. 7407:(5th ed.). pp. 288–299. 7141:from the original on 18 June 2015 5133: 4953:60 km (37 mi) north of 4641:Remilitarization of the Rhineland 4249: 4219:that culminated in a riot on the 3841:among the Entente in World War I. 3003: 2892: 2171: 639:• 1938 (including colonies) 96:("Liberty, Equality, Fraternity") 12461:1940 disestablishments in France 10711:. The H. W. Wilson company 1904. 10278:Foreign Policy of France 1914–45 9895:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2006.00344.x 9835:Hutton, Patrick H., ed. (1986). 9648: 9599: 9397: 9341: 9304: 9146: 9137: 9124: 9115: 9112:. London: Macmillan, 1989. p. 86 9017: 8977: 8929: 8920: 8881: 8840: 8803: 8754: 8725: 8674: 8637: 8577: 8542: 8501: 8474: 8447: 8412: 8385: 8247:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2011.00827.x 7733:The French home Front, 1914–1918 6940:from the original on 11 May 2020 6799:(1992). "Eugen Weber's France". 6460:from the original on 14 May 2020 6434:from the original on 14 May 2020 5715:. The following year, President 5646:after the date when it happened. 5475:The first historian to denounce 4784:Military and diplomatic policies 4472:Mouvement populaire des familles 4428:(CF/PSF) was especially active. 4312: 3787:. In Algeria, land held by rich 2775: 2760: 2226: 2130:Politics during the Belle Époque 1833:Attempts to restore the monarchy 1770:succeeded in leaving Paris in a 1527:, annexed the French regions of 1523:, proclaimed by the invaders in 1488:, until 10 July 1940, after the 1480:from 4 September 1870, when the 1414: 1399: 865: 823: 809: 795: 781: 764: 736: 722: 708: 694: 142: 137: 113: 68: 54: 9801:Leon Blum: Humanist in Politics 9315:. Washington: Berg Publishers. 8984:Roberts, Andrew (12 May 2013). 8350: 8323: 8268: 8253: 8226: 8199: 8150: 8115: 8083: 8068: 8036: 8001: 7974: 7934: 7872: 7839: 7802: 7764: 7739: 7724: 7688: 7673: 7632: 7607: 7590: 7575: 7560: 7525: 7441: 7426: 7411: 7396: 7381: 7375:France and the World since 1870 7366: 7341: 7289: 7252: 7223: 7154: 7123: 7090: 7047: 7010: 6981: 6952: 6908: 6883: 6829: 6789: 6747: 6725:. In Bezucha, Robert J. (ed.). 6714: 6619: 6594: 6569: 6534: 6507: 6472: 6446: 6420: 6401: 6386: 6371: 6348: 6313: 6278: 6260: 6223: 6173: 5964: 5320:, who wrote under the pen name 5139:Interpreting the Third Republic 4602:Reynaud became the penultimate 4393: 4344:elections of the spring of 1936 3864:, and the ambassador to Russia 3860:, Premier and Foreign Minister 3135:universal military conscription 2198:Welfare state and public health 1813:revolted and took power as the 1519:preceded the final defeat. The 805:Italian military administration 11683:Government of National Defense 10572: 10507:(2 vol 1979), topical history 10334:. Cambridge University Press. 10150:Revolutionary France 1770–1880 9694: 9121:Overy & Wheatcroft, p. 115 8687:Modern and Contemporary France 7811:The First World War: 1914–1918 7433:Carroll, Eber Malcolm (1964). 6894:. Princeton University Press. 6867:The World of Department Stores 6727:Modern European Social History 6692:10.1080/00947679.2001.12062578 6605:. New York: Bloomsbury Press. 6481:Modern and Contemporary France 6122: 6080: 6050: 6035: 5996: 5798:1904: French foreign minister 5756:published an article entitled 5734:: a Jewish artillery officer, 5713:1881 freedom of the press laws 5538:Government of National Defence 5446:as incompetent and defeatist, 5348:From a different perspective, 4969:Downfall of the Third Republic 4687:during which France pressured 4612:Democratic Republican Alliance 3955: 3798:Nickel mining in New Caledonia 3452:informal military relationship 2883:Democratic Republican Alliance 2113:free, mandatory, and secular ( 1950:Government of National Defence 1870:Louis-Philippe, Comte de Paris 1756:Government of National Defence 1615:Democratic Republican Alliance 1: 12456:1870 establishments in France 11592:Diplomatic Revolution of 1756 11587:War of the Spanish Succession 11118:Kronstadt–Toulon naval visits 11072:1917 Franco-Russian agreement 11062:Japan–Korea Annexation Treaty 10643:vol 2 excerpt and text search 10522:Contemporary European History 10300:Comparative Political Studies 10156:Lucien Edward Henry (1882). " 10082:Les Grandes Guerres 1914–1945 9985:Watt, Donald Cameron (1989). 8157:Dormois, Jean-Pierre (2004). 7420:French History Since Napoleon 7097:Harrigan, Patrick J. (2001). 6003:Page, Melvin E., ed. (2003). 5977: 5450:as a crooked crypto-fascist; 5093:Second Armistice at Compiègne 4913:In the first few days of the 3930:By 1917 mutiny was in the air 3852:French entry into World War I 3837:France sustained the highest 3612:French entry into World War I 3117:Modernization of the peasants 3022:High-speed rotary Hoe presses 3014: 2954:chiefly owing to the polemic 1936:was built as a symbol of the 10978:Second Industrial Revolution 10852:League of the Three Emperors 10407:Culture, economy and society 10367:(U. of Michigan Press, 2001) 10292:Political ideas and practice 7848:The Economics of World War I 7682:Decisions for war, 1914–1917 7363:, pp. 169–173, 291–295. 6378:Hildreth, Martha L. (1987). 5023:conceived by French General 4458:Jeunesse Ouvrière Chrétienne 3908:Western Front of World War I 3593: 3486: 3457: 3382:Victor Emmanuel III of Italy 3331:) and the Social Catholics ( 3249:Napoleon's Concordat of 1801 2146:, nicknamed Général Revanche 1496:led to the formation of the 157:The French Republic in 1939 91:Liberté, égalité, fraternité 7: 11008:Treaty of Versailles (1871) 10678:Modern Intellectual History 10220:Foreign policy and colonies 10202:France: 1815 to the Present 10044:An Uncertain Idea of France 9609:Reviews in American History 8681:Wardhaugh, Jessica (2007). 8647:Journal of European Studies 7915:Review of Economic Dynamics 7731:Fridenson, Patrick (1992). 7597:Keiger, John F. V. (1983). 7361:Mayeur & Rebérioux 1984 7336:Mayeur & Rebérioux 1984 7103:Canadian Journal of History 6890:Miller, Michael B. (1981). 6092:Penn State University Press 5859: 5587:Marshal Patrice de MacMahon 5501:Jean-Louis Crémieux-Brilhac 5331:After 1945, the concept of 5242:Historiography of decadence 5061:British Expeditionary Force 4904:British Expeditionary Force 4097:Occupation of the Rhineland 3901: 3431:Foreign policy 1871 to 1914 3160:Aristide Boucicaut founded 2161:elections of September 1889 1892:if the renunciation of the 1605:, and large territories in 1591:French colonial possessions 10: 12497: 12401:Former countries in Europe 12073:French subdivisions by GDP 11820:2022 presidential election 11805:2017 presidential election 11057:Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905 10464:American Historical Review 10285:The French Overseas Empire 10251:Duroselle, Jean-Baptiste. 10223: 10162:The Royal Family of France 10067: 9709:. Basingstoke: Macmillan. 8826:10.1177/036319900102600403 8597:Greene, Nathanael (1969). 8359:Diplomacy & Statecraft 8054:. New York: Random House. 7788:10.1177/096834459500200203 7492:The Fall of Imperial China 7373:Keiger, John F.V. (2001). 7349:A History of Modern France 6642:10.1177/026569147600600203 6541:Hayward, J. E. S. (1961). 5845:German invasion of Belgium 5699:1893: Following anarchist 5549:Treaty of Frankfurt (1871) 5326:The Gravediggers of France 4972: 4910:conform to the Dyle Plan. 4865:General Siegfried Westphal 4820: 4567:, France's failure to aid 4432:Relations with Catholicism 4316: 4253: 4186:Great Depression in France 4183: 4076: 3971:the arriving American army 3905: 3849: 3821:French Army in World War I 3818: 3722: 3597: 3434: 3222: 3180:(1840–1902) set his novel 3007: 2951:Ferdinand Walsin Esterhazy 2896: 2175: 2103:purge of the civil service 2082: 2010:and an indirectly elected 1907: 611:1894 (Metropolitan France) 273:(official), several others 173: French protectorates 12334: 12224: 12134: 12125: 12021: 12012: 11914: 11905: 11843: 11834: 11755: 11636: 11605: 11577:Second Hundred Years' War 11528: 11481: 11448: 11427: 11419:Liberalism and radicalism 11371: 11362: 11216: 11080: 10993: 10878:European balance of power 10870: 10805: 10754: 10686:Noronha-DiVanna, Isabel. 10669:(Psychology Press, 2000) 10649:Historiography and memory 10466:121.4 (2016): 1141–1166. 10215:(5th ed. 1995) pp 205–382 10158:Current History of France 9933:Latourette, Kenneth Scott 9854:Harding, Stephen (2013). 8813:Journal of Family History 8764:Journal of Modern History 8699:10.1080/09639480701300018 8495:10.1080/09592299908406127 8421:French Historical Studies 8394:English Historical Review 8371:10.1080/09592290802345001 8332:English Historical Review 8306:Bernard & Dubief 1985 8208:French Historical Studies 8022:10.1017/S0018246X00017167 7983:French Historical Studies 7881:French Historical Studies 7546:10.1080/09592290600943064 7351:(4th ed. 2012) pp 170–71. 7197:French Historical Studies 7076:10.1080/14608940802680961 7020:French Historical Studies 6915:Homburg, Heidrun (1992). 6802:Journal of Social History 6601:Read, Piers Paul (2012). 6576:Keiger, J. F. V. (1997). 6562:10.1017/S0020859000001759 6493:10.1080/09639480220126134 6334:10.1017/S0018246X97007553 6287:French Historical Studies 6233:French Historical Studies 6009:. ABC-CLIO. p. 218. 5872:Paris in the Belle Époque 5609:President of the Republic 5414:A notable example of the 5226:that participated to the 4627:, declared a hero by the 4517:of Germany. When Germany 4489:World War II and downfall 4015:Vittorio Emanuele Orlando 3983: 3650:in 1907 which became the 3362:Combes Ministry (1902–05) 3358:Waldeck-Rousseau Ministry 3231:Catholic Church in France 1988:President of the Republic 1680: 1580: 1572: 1533: 673: 661: 651: 647: 637: 633: 626: 619:1938 (including colonies) 618: 610: 603: 599: 585: 572: 559: 546: 535:• France enters the 533: 520: 507: 503: 495: 480: 465: 455: 451: 439: 429:• 1870–1871 (first) 427: 423: 413: 409: 397: 387:• 1871–1873 (first) 385: 381: 371: 334: 322: 277: 266: 222: 182: 150: 129: 100: 84: 50: 45: 23: 12391:Modern history of France 11848:Administrative divisions 11169:Venezuela Naval Blockade 10840:Anglo-Russian Convention 10515:Women, sexuality, gender 10312:10.1177/0010414010370435 9406:Modern France: 1880–2002 9404:McMillan, James (2003). 8863:10.3167/hrrh.2011.370102 8660:10.1177/0047244110391038 8617:Lacouture, Jean (1982). 8508:Jackson, Julian (1990). 8483:Diplomacy and Statecraft 8220:10.1215/00161071-3946492 7995:10.1215/00161071-3438055 7946:France and the Great War 7893:10.1215/00161071-3438019 7614:Daughton, J. P. (2006). 7534:Diplomacy and Statecraft 7522:, pp. 345, 403–426. 7004:10.3167/hrrh.2011.370101 6355:Mitchell, Allan (1991). 5957: 5617:President of the Council 5483:, who, in his 1978 book 5230:that toppled the Second 5051:with their much revered 4503:Prime Minister of France 4390:as heroic predecessors. 4225:French National Assembly 4151:reparations from Germany 3845: 3475:, in London, 1890–1920; 2585: 2547: 2377: 2366: 2345: 2144:Georges Ernest Boulanger 1854:Henri, Comte de Chambord 1224: 1186: 1016: 1005: 984: 399:• 1932–1940 (last) 12416:Republicanism in France 12068:Franc (former currency) 11673:Coup of 2 December 1851 11646:Long nineteenth century 11174:Alaska boundary dispute 10847:Anglo-Japanese Alliance 10830:Franco-Russian Alliance 10705:Anderson, F.M. (1904). 10614:excerpt and text search 10567:excerpt and text search 10550:excerpt and text search 10541:(Harlow: Longman, 1999) 10434:Ansell, Christopher K. 10257:La décadence, 1932–1939 10247:excerpt and text search 10237:excerpt and text search 10144:excerpt and text search 10123:Encyclopædia Britannica 9447:10.3406/roman.1983.4673 9429:Guiral, Pierre (1983). 9311:Thomas, Martin (1996). 8748:10.3167/hrrh2008.340203 8629:Gruber, Helmut (1986). 8605:Larmour, Peter (1964). 8585:Brower, Daniel (1968). 8406:10.1093/ehr/CXII.445.66 8344:10.1093/ehr/117.473.867 8075:Brendon, Piers (2000). 7746:McPhail, Helen (2014). 7582:Krumeich, Gerd (1984). 7567:Bell, P. M. H. (2014). 7403:Wright, Gordon (1995). 6721:Mather, Judson (1972). 6629:European Studies Review 6181:"Jules Grévy 1879–1887" 5821:, heavily supported by 5773:Radical-Socialist Party 5747:Franco-Russian Alliance 5670:Opportunist Republicans 5373:Jean-Baptiste Duroselle 5065:Battle of Sedan of 1940 5039:to stave off Wehrmacht 4575:'s invasion during the 4223:, near the seat of the 4136:Radical Socialist party 4051:German African colonies 3663:Franco-Russian Alliance 3642:of 1894, then the 1904 3640:Franco-Russian Alliance 3604:Franco-Russian Alliance 3123:Peasants into Frenchmen 2932:Alsatian Jewish descent 1969:, under the command of 1635:occupied much of France 1470:, sometimes written as 509:• Proclamation by 12481:20th century in France 12476:19th century in France 12088:Science and technology 11745:Provisional Government 11714: 11693: 11553: 11093:Unification of Germany 11040:Taft–Katsura agreement 10713:, complete text online 10592:Becker, Jean Jacques. 10524:27.3 (2018): 482–499. 10231:Adamthwaite, Anthony. 10213:France in Modern Times 9660:Historical Reflections 8850:Historical Reflections 8735:Historical Reflections 8275:Néré, Jacques (1975). 8096:Historical Reflections 7944:; et al. (2003). 7928:10.1006/redy.2001.0143 7809:Hardach, Gerd (1977). 7488:Wakeman, Jr., Frederic 7448:Murphy, Agnes (1968). 7405:France in Modern Times 6991:Historical Reflections 6865:Whitaker, Jan (2011). 5900:French colonial empire 5843:a few days before the 5804: 5758: 5740:Max von Schwartzkoppen 5705: 5640: 5613:two-chamber parliament 5530:Empire of Napoleon III 5464: 5416: 5403: 5397: 5387: 5381: 5360:. Then was a group of 5339:French Communist Party 5333: 5278: 5257: 5232: 5216: 5208: 5067:by coming through the 4996: 4995:tank destroyed in 1940 4938: 4621:Battle of Itter Castle 4585:French defeat at Sedan 4544:, Daladier signed the 4450:Maximam Gravissimamque 4319:Popular Front (France) 4209:6 February 1934 crisis 4203:6 February 1934 crisis 4099: 4026: 3978:Gross Domestic Product 3945: 3842: 3755:French colonial empire 3746: 3743:South-oranais campaign 3725:French colonial empire 3689:Second Moroccan crises 3635: 3578:, vast territories in 3568:French colonial empire 3496: 3265: 3157: 2923: 2854: 2421:Valois-Angoulême kings 2147: 2079:Republicans take power 2030: 1941: 1842: 1819: 1806:, to pay reparations. 1731: 1723: 1696: 1661: 1647: 1549:provisional government 1502:parliamentary republic 1472: 1467: 1060:Valois-Angoulême kings 350:provisional government 197:Metropolitan territory 106: 89: 29: 12381:French Third Republic 11179:First Moroccan Crisis 10893:Spread of nationalism 10857:Eight-Nation Alliance 10680:20.1 (2023): 88–115. 10626:Tucker, Spencer, ed. 10494:France, Fin de Siècle 10269:MacMillan, Margaret. 10186:online free to borrow 10046:. New York: P. Lang. 10012:Weber, Eugen (1994). 9989:. London: Heinemann. 8951:(in German). Böhlau. 8947:Koop, Volker (2010). 8888:Weber, Eugen (1962). 8124:International Affairs 7750:. London: IB Tauris. 6393:Klaus, Alisa (1993). 5723:by Italian anarchist 5249: 5228:6 February 1934 riots 5099:on 11 November 1918. 4990: 4923: 4426:Parti social français 4413:Revue des deux Mondes 4357:collective bargaining 4254:Further information: 4086: 4008: 3906:Further information: 3836: 3805:rebellions in Morocco 3768:mission civilisatrice 3739:French Foreign Legion 3732: 3648:Anglo-Russian Entente 3619: 3494: 3420:voluntary association 3257: 3153: 3146:City department store 2918: 2846: 2142: 2083:Further information: 2024: 1931: 1908:Further information: 1890:agnatic primogeniture 1840: 1729: 1722:, on 4 September 1870 1713: 1706:Origins and formation 1545:department of Moselle 1535:Territoire de Belfort 1484:collapsed during the 1460:French Third Republic 581:10 May – 25 June 1940 561:• France enters 267:Common languages 12406:Government of France 11893:World Heritage Sites 11810:Coronavirus pandemic 11184:Algeciras Conference 11164:Annexation of Hawaii 11103:Great Eastern Crisis 11098:Unification of Italy 11088:Formation of Romania 10905:French–German enmity 10665:Fortescue, William. 10599:Darrow, Margaret H. 10138:Fortescue, William. 10073:Bell, David, et al. 6839:Agricultural History 6815:10.1353/jsh/25.4.879 6359:. pp. 252–275. 5849:Second International 5485:In Command of France 5300:reductio ad absurdum 4881:Hasso von Manteuffel 4845:Château de Vincennes 4645:Treaty of Versailles 4590:Reynaud opposed the 4548:in 1938, which gave 4406:foremost among them 4221:Place de la Concorde 4213:anti-parliamentarist 4039:Treaty of Versailles 4025:of the United States 3839:number of casualties 3800:was also important. 3360:(1899–1902) and the 3182:Au Bonheur des Dames 3104:. Another magazine, 3064:Dreyfus as a traitor 3032:Agence France-Presse 2908:as practised by the 2852:Patrice de Mac Mahon 2629:Provisional Republic 2411:Valois-Orléans kings 2192:Panama Canal Company 2095:Moderate Republicans 2073:parliamentary system 1744:Second French Empire 1525:Palace of Versailles 1482:Second French Empire 1468:Troisième République 1268:Provisional Republic 1050:Valois-Orléans kings 745:Occupation of France 702:Second French Empire 550:Treaty of Versailles 251:48.87028°N 2.31639°E 132:Great Seal of France 30:République française 12031:Automotive industry 11815:2021 labor protests 11572:Peace of Westphalia 11440:History of Normandy 11435:History of Brittany 11249:Philippine–American 11234:First Sino-Japanese 11067:Racconigi agreement 11013:Treaty of Frankfurt 10973:Great Rapprochement 10927:Scramble for Africa 10370:Lehning, James R.; 9687:, pp. 880–883. 9645:, pp. 259–261. 9596:, pp. 874–880. 9584:, pp. 885–886. 9462:, pp. 871–872. 9250:, pp. 325–327. 9214:, pp. 318–319. 9171:, pp. 306–307. 8800:, pp. 129–153. 8320:, pp. 247–280. 8044:MacMillan, Margaret 7494:. pp. 189–191. 7477:, pp. 286–292. 7465:, pp. 321–326. 7422:. pp. 266–292. 7326:, pp. 104–108. 7116:10.3138/cjh.36.1.51 7068:2009NatId..11...45R 7056:National Identities 6786:, pp. 692–694. 6665:, pp. 690–694. 6220:, pp. 183–213. 6208:, pp. 144–179. 6170:, pp. 127–143. 6158:, pp. 106–113. 6046:. pp. 440–441. 5624:Patrice de MacMahon 5534:Franco-Prussian War 5509:Eugenia C. Kiesling 5493:Robert Frankenstein 5267:Claude-Marie Raudot 5253:, 1907 painting by 5118:in central France. 4810:Chambre des députés 4766:soulagement honteux 4749:Neville Chamberlain 4701:Neville Chamberlain 4629:Austrian resistance 4534:Neville Chamberlain 4494:National government 3939:was proclaimed and 3873:Battle of the Marne 3759:French North Africa 3751:imperialistic ethos 3502:Scramble for Africa 3261:Chambre des Députés 3046:Le Petit Meridional 2944:la guillotine sèche 2863:classically liberal 2124:French Crown Jewels 2099:Radical Republicans 2045:Moderate Republican 2008:Chamber of Deputies 1971:Patrice de MacMahon 1967:French Armed Forces 1948:, the transitional 1946:Franco-Prussian War 1934:Sacré-Cœur Basilica 1872:a grandson of King 1800:Treaty of Frankfurt 1736:Franco-Prussian War 1611:Scramble for Africa 1582:Patrice de MacMahon 1560:Chamber of Deputies 1509:Franco-Prussian War 1486:Franco-Prussian War 490:Chamber of Deputies 441:• 1940 (last) 247: / 12098:Telecommunications 11800:2015 Paris attacks 11663:Revolution of 1848 11491:Visigothic Kingdom 11108:Congress of Berlin 11025:Reinsurance Treaty 11003:Congress of Vienna 10983:Industrial warfare 10949:Scramble for China 10616:, military history 10607:Doughty, Robert A. 10503:Zeldin, Theodore. 10392:10.1093/fh/7.4.417 10328:Jackson, Julian T. 10306:(8–9): 1023–1058. 10283:Quinn, Frederick. 10241:Conklin, Alice L. 10177:Shirer, William L. 10080:Beaupré, Nicolas. 9349:Jackson, Julian T. 8308:, pp. 78–127. 8010:Historical Journal 7347:Jeremy D. Popkin, 6680:Journalism History 6603:The Dreyfus Affair 6528:10.1093/fh/2.2.173 6322:Historical Journal 6274:. pp. 45–242. 6187:. 15 November 2018 6143:10.1093/fh/2.4.399 6119:, pp. 77–105. 5800:Théophile Delcassé 5711:which limited the 5364:, centered around 5324:in his 1943 book, 5258: 5234:Cartel des gauches 5075:valley toward the 4997: 4939: 4935:Divide and Conquer 4817:Strategic missteps 4558:invasion of Poland 4445:(1922–39). In the 4127:Cartel des gauches 4114:Georges Clemenceau 4100: 4067:Mandate of Lebanon 4027: 4019:Georges Clemenceau 4011:David Lloyd George 3995:Georges Clemenceau 3947:Le Canard enchaîné 3937:state of emergency 3922:Georges Clemenceau 3884:League of Patriots 3866:Maurice Paléologue 3843: 3747: 3667:Théophile Delcassé 3636: 3570:. France acquired 3497: 3469:Théophile Delcassé 3405:Affaire Des Fiches 3266: 3158: 3125:(1976), historian 3062:lead in attacking 3041:Le Petit Provençal 2984:Georges Clemenceau 2924: 2855: 2839:Radicals' republic 2782:History portal 2278: until 50 BC 2148: 2051:and appointed the 2031: 1994:conservative with 1942: 1910:16 May 1877 crisis 1843: 1760:Louis-Jules Trochu 1732: 1724: 1421:History portal 917: until 50 BC 434:Louis Jules Trochu 12368: 12367: 12330: 12329: 12121: 12120: 12008: 12007: 12000:Political parties 11936:Foreign relations 11901: 11900: 11830: 11829: 11613:French Revolution 11567:Thirty Years' War 11548:Absolute monarchy 11513:Kingdom of France 11409:Foreign relations 11389:Political history 11319: 11318: 11288:Albanian Revolts 11145:German Naval Laws 11129:Naval arms races 11113:Berlin Conference 11045:Hague Conventions 10530:Copley, A. R. H. 10363:Kreuzer, Marcus. 10148:Furet, François. 10114:France, 1814–1940 10090:978-2-7011-3387-4 10053:978-0-8204-7481-6 10023:978-0-3930-3671-8 9946:978-0-8536-4110-0 9916:978-0-1987-3034-7 9871:978-0-3068-2209-4 9846:978-0-8617-2046-0 9811:978-0-3078-3089-0 9743:978-0-5212-5240-9 9716:978-0-3335-6739-5 9415:978-0-19-870058-6 9366:978-0-19-280300-9 9322:978-1-85973-187-1 9099:, pp. 41–43. 9075:, pp. 40–41. 8901:978-0-8047-0134-1 8878:, pp. 37–38. 8519:978-0-521-31252-3 8468:10.1093/fh/5.1.48 8279:. pp. 11–99. 8176:978-0-521-66787-6 8061:978-0-375-76052-5 7942:Smith, Leonard V. 7857:978-0-521-85212-8 7824:978-0-520-03060-2 7772:Smith, Leonard V. 7757:978-1-78453-053-2 7709:978-0-8214-0589-5 7696:Rutkoff, Peter M. 7625:978-0-19-537401-8 7392:. pp. 64–65. 7377:. pp. 25–47. 7310:978-0-674-03209-5 7281:978-0-521-54592-1 7245:978-1-85285-057-9 6901:978-0-691-05321-9 6876:978-0-86565-264-4 6769:978-0-19-822125-8 6760:France: 1848–1945 6740:978-0-669-61143-4 6612:978-1-60819-432-2 6587:978-0-521-57387-0 6268:McCullough, David 6073:978-0-521-52270-0 5632:Albert de Broglie 5591:Albert de Broglie 5540:ruled during the 5497:Jean-Pierre Azema 5422:William L. Shirer 5362:French historians 5354:Charles de Gaulle 5224:far right leagues 5124:Appeal of 18 June 5120:Charles de Gaulle 5081:Battle of Dunkirk 5055:divisions in the 5001:Munich Conference 4915:Battle of Belgium 4744:Winston Churchill 4556:. After Hitler's 4552:control over the 4511:Spanish Civil War 4384:Spanish Civil War 4349:40-hour work week 4266:League of Nations 4217:far-right leagues 3719:Overseas colonies 3373:parochial schools 3245:Ferry school laws 3139:French nationhood 3091:Le Petit Parisien 2868:League of Nations 2816: 2815: 2767:France portal 2660: 2659: 2557: 2556: 2468:Kingdom of France 2458:French Revolution 2449:Long 19th century 2439: 2438: 2387: 2386: 2357:Kingdom of France 2292: 2291: 2152:Georges Boulanger 2064:October elections 2056:Albert de Broglie 1804:Law of Maturities 1688:French Revolution 1639:Charles de Gaulle 1599:French Madagascar 1473:La III République 1455: 1454: 1406:France portal 1299: 1298: 1196: 1195: 1107:Kingdom of France 1097:French Revolution 1088:Long 19th century 1078: 1077: 1026: 1025: 996:Kingdom of France 931: 930: 839: 838: 835: 834: 831: 830: 752: 751: 524:Berlin Conference 285:Roman Catholicism 256:48.87028; 2.31639 122: 12488: 12396:Former republics 12132: 12131: 12048:Economic history 12019: 12018: 11912: 11911: 11841: 11840: 11719: 11698: 11597:Seven Years' War 11562:Wars of Religion 11558: 11543:House of Bourbon 11538:Early modern era 11518:Fundamental laws 11394:Military history 11369: 11368: 11346: 11339: 11332: 11323: 11322: 11239:Spanish–American 11159:Fashoda Incident 11035:Treaty of Björkö 11020:Treaty of Berlin 10954:Open Door Policy 10888:Eastern question 10835:Entente Cordiale 10741: 10734: 10727: 10718: 10717: 10712: 10561:Pedersen, Jean. 10537:Diamond, Hanna. 10489: 10431: 10395: 10353: 10323: 10211:Wright, Gordon. 10190:Thomson, David. 10173: 10057: 10040:Young, Robert J. 10035: 10008: 9981: 9967: 9958: 9928: 9898: 9875: 9850: 9831: 9791: 9755: 9728: 9688: 9682: 9676: 9675: 9656:Young, Robert J. 9652: 9646: 9640: 9634: 9633: 9603: 9597: 9591: 9585: 9579: 9573: 9567: 9558: 9552: 9546: 9540: 9534: 9528: 9522: 9516: 9510: 9504: 9495: 9494: 9481: 9475: 9469: 9463: 9457: 9451: 9450: 9426: 9420: 9419: 9401: 9395: 9385: 9379: 9378: 9345: 9339: 9333: 9327: 9326: 9308: 9302: 9296: 9287: 9281: 9270: 9264: 9251: 9245: 9239: 9233: 9227: 9221: 9215: 9209: 9203: 9197: 9184: 9178: 9172: 9166: 9160: 9150: 9144: 9141: 9135: 9128: 9122: 9119: 9113: 9106: 9100: 9094: 9088: 9082: 9076: 9070: 9064: 9058: 9052: 9046: 9033: 9032: 9029:Strassensuche.at 9021: 9015: 9009: 9003: 9002: 9000: 8998: 8981: 8975: 8969: 8963: 8962: 8944: 8938: 8933: 8927: 8924: 8918: 8912: 8906: 8905: 8885: 8879: 8873: 8867: 8866: 8844: 8838: 8837: 8807: 8801: 8795: 8789: 8788: 8758: 8752: 8751: 8729: 8723: 8722: 8720: 8718: 8678: 8672: 8671: 8641: 8635: 8634: 8626: 8624: 8610: 8602: 8594: 8592: 8581: 8575: 8574: 8546: 8540: 8530: 8524: 8523: 8505: 8499: 8498: 8478: 8472: 8471: 8451: 8445: 8444: 8416: 8410: 8409: 8389: 8383: 8382: 8354: 8348: 8347: 8338:(473): 867–888. 8327: 8321: 8315: 8309: 8303: 8297: 8287: 8281: 8280: 8272: 8266: 8265: 8257: 8251: 8250: 8230: 8224: 8223: 8203: 8197: 8187: 8181: 8180: 8164: 8154: 8148: 8147: 8119: 8113: 8112: 8091:Young, Robert J. 8087: 8081: 8080: 8072: 8066: 8065: 8053: 8040: 8034: 8033: 8005: 7999: 7998: 7978: 7972: 7971: 7938: 7932: 7931: 7906: 7897: 7896: 7876: 7870: 7869: 7843: 7837: 7836: 7806: 7800: 7799: 7768: 7762: 7761: 7743: 7737: 7736: 7728: 7722: 7721: 7692: 7686: 7685: 7677: 7671: 7665: 7659: 7658: 7636: 7630: 7629: 7611: 7605: 7604: 7594: 7588: 7587: 7579: 7573: 7572: 7564: 7558: 7557: 7529: 7523: 7517: 7511: 7505: 7496: 7495: 7484: 7478: 7472: 7466: 7460: 7454: 7453: 7445: 7439: 7438: 7430: 7424: 7423: 7415: 7409: 7408: 7400: 7394: 7393: 7385: 7379: 7378: 7370: 7364: 7358: 7352: 7345: 7339: 7333: 7327: 7321: 7315: 7314: 7293: 7287: 7285: 7269: 7256: 7250: 7249: 7230:Tallett, Frank; 7227: 7221: 7220: 7192: 7183: 7181: 7179: 7177: 7158: 7152: 7150: 7148: 7146: 7127: 7121: 7120: 7118: 7094: 7088: 7087: 7051: 7045: 7044: 7014: 7008: 7007: 6985: 6979: 6978: 6956: 6950: 6949: 6947: 6945: 6939: 6922: 6912: 6906: 6905: 6887: 6881: 6880: 6862: 6856: 6855: 6833: 6827: 6826: 6793: 6787: 6781: 6775: 6773: 6756:Zeldin, Theodore 6751: 6745: 6744: 6718: 6712: 6711: 6675: 6666: 6660: 6654: 6653: 6623: 6617: 6616: 6598: 6592: 6591: 6578:Raymond Poincare 6573: 6567: 6566: 6564: 6538: 6532: 6531: 6511: 6505: 6504: 6476: 6470: 6469: 6467: 6465: 6450: 6444: 6443: 6441: 6439: 6424: 6418: 6417: 6405: 6399: 6398: 6390: 6384: 6383: 6375: 6369: 6368: 6352: 6346: 6345: 6317: 6311: 6310: 6282: 6276: 6275: 6264: 6258: 6257: 6227: 6221: 6215: 6209: 6203: 6197: 6196: 6194: 6192: 6177: 6171: 6165: 6159: 6153: 6147: 6146: 6126: 6120: 6114: 6108: 6107: 6105: 6103: 6084: 6078: 6077: 6054: 6048: 6047: 6039: 6033: 6032: 6030: 6028: 6000: 5994: 5988: 5971: 5968: 5809: 5806:Entente Cordiale 5781:Raymond Poincaré 5766:Fashoda Incident 5763: 5721:stabbed to death 5710: 5701:Auguste Vaillant 5686:Boulanger crisis 5674:Jules Ferry laws 5645: 5636:general election 5580:Pact of Bordeaux 5523:Timeline to 1914 5517:Great Depression 5505:Martin Alexander 5467: 5432:Édouard Daladier 5419: 5406: 5400: 5390: 5384: 5382:forces profondes 5343:Nazi-Soviet Pact 5336: 5281: 5237: 5221: 5213: 5210:Action française 4975:Battle of France 4841:his headquarters 4833:war was declared 4827:Battle of France 4802:Benito Mussolini 4685:Munich Agreement 4679:Munich agreement 4592:Munich Agreement 4546:Munich Agreement 4538:Benito Mussolini 4530:Édouard Daladier 4479:Action Française 4447:papal encyclical 4282:Ramsay MacDonald 4192:Great Depression 4180:Great Depression 4118:Raymond Poincaré 4063:Mandate of Syria 3950: 3892:Raymond Poincaré 3858:Raymond Poincaré 3763:French Indochina 3697:Fashoda Incident 3681:Entente Cordiale 3672:Entente Cordiale 3644:Entente Cordiale 3600:Entente Cordiale 3510:Khedive of Egypt 3506:Fashoda Incident 3338:Action française 3219:Church and state 3027:Le Petit Journal 2879:Raymond Poincaré 2824:English Poor Law 2808: 2801: 2794: 2780: 2779: 2778: 2765: 2764: 2763: 2656: 2572: 2571: 2454: 2453: 2407: 2406: 2368:Direct Capetians 2307: 2306: 2250: 2249: 2230: 2220: 2202: 2201: 2135:Boulanger crisis 2111:public education 2107:Jules Ferry laws 1898:Peace of Utrecht 1894:Spanish Bourbons 1882:Bonaparte family 1874:Louis Philippe I 1824: 1754:established the 1720:Corps Législatif 1701: 1685: 1684: 1664: 1650: 1603:French Polynesia 1595:French Indochina 1585: 1584: 1577: 1576: 1538: 1537: 1498:Vichy government 1475: 1447: 1440: 1433: 1419: 1418: 1417: 1404: 1403: 1402: 1295: 1211: 1210: 1093: 1092: 1046: 1045: 1007:Direct Capetians 946: 945: 889: 888: 869: 859: 841: 840: 827: 826: 813: 812: 799: 798: 785: 784: 776: 768: 767: 756: 755: 746: 740: 739: 726: 725: 712: 711: 698: 697: 691: 690: 675: 674: 576:Battle of France 568:3 September 1939 529:15 November 1884 516:4 September 1870 262: 261: 259: 258: 257: 252: 248: 245: 244: 243: 240: 225:and largest city 187: 172: 164: 155: 146: 141: 124: 123: 111: 94: 72: 58: 40: 32: 21: 20: 12496: 12495: 12491: 12490: 12489: 12487: 12486: 12485: 12451:1930s in France 12446:1920s in France 12441:1910s in France 12436:1900s in France 12431:1890s in France 12426:1880s in France 12421:1870s in France 12371: 12370: 12369: 12364: 12363: 12344: 12326: 12307:Public holidays 12220: 12179:Life expectancy 12117: 12004: 11897: 11826: 11795:Great Recession 11768:Fourth Republic 11763:1900 to present 11751: 11668:Second Republic 11632: 11601: 11524: 11477: 11444: 11423: 11358: 11350: 11320: 11315: 11254:Boxer Rebellion 11212: 11076: 11030:Treaty of Paris 10995: 10989: 10922:New Imperialism 10883:Ottoman decline 10866: 10813:Triple Alliance 10801: 10762:Austria-Hungary 10750: 10745: 10701: 10699:Primary sources 10651: 10612:(2008), 592pp; 10575: 10544:Moses, Claire. 10517: 10428: 10416:La Belle Époque 10412: 10409: 10356:Kennedy, Sean. 10342: 10294: 10228: 10222: 10116:(2003) ch 9–16 10070: 10065: 10063:Further reading 10060: 10054: 10024: 9997: 9947: 9917: 9903:Larkin, Maurice 9882:History Compass 9872: 9847: 9812: 9744: 9717: 9703:Aldrich, Robert 9697: 9692: 9691: 9683: 9679: 9653: 9649: 9641: 9637: 9622:10.2307/2702049 9616:(3): 486–492 . 9604: 9600: 9592: 9588: 9580: 9576: 9568: 9561: 9553: 9549: 9541: 9537: 9529: 9525: 9517: 9513: 9505: 9498: 9482: 9478: 9474:, pp. 874. 9470: 9466: 9458: 9454: 9427: 9423: 9416: 9402: 9398: 9386: 9382: 9367: 9346: 9342: 9338:, pp. 6–7. 9334: 9330: 9323: 9309: 9305: 9297: 9290: 9282: 9273: 9265: 9254: 9246: 9242: 9234: 9230: 9222: 9218: 9210: 9206: 9198: 9187: 9179: 9175: 9167: 9163: 9153:Shirer, William 9151: 9147: 9142: 9138: 9129: 9125: 9120: 9116: 9110:The Road To War 9107: 9103: 9095: 9091: 9083: 9079: 9071: 9067: 9059: 9055: 9047: 9036: 9023: 9022: 9018: 9010: 9006: 8996: 8994: 8991:The Daily Beast 8982: 8978: 8970: 8966: 8959: 8945: 8941: 8934: 8930: 8925: 8921: 8913: 8909: 8902: 8886: 8882: 8876:Latourette 1961 8874: 8870: 8845: 8841: 8808: 8804: 8798:Latourette 1961 8796: 8792: 8759: 8755: 8730: 8726: 8716: 8714: 8679: 8675: 8642: 8638: 8582: 8578: 8551:History Teacher 8547: 8543: 8531: 8527: 8520: 8506: 8502: 8489:(23): 122–159. 8479: 8475: 8452: 8448: 8417: 8413: 8400:(445): 66–104. 8390: 8386: 8355: 8351: 8328: 8324: 8316: 8312: 8304: 8300: 8288: 8284: 8273: 8269: 8258: 8254: 8235:History Compass 8231: 8227: 8204: 8200: 8188: 8184: 8177: 8155: 8151: 8136:10.2307/2601740 8120: 8116: 8088: 8084: 8073: 8069: 8062: 8041: 8037: 8006: 8002: 7979: 7975: 7960: 7939: 7935: 7907: 7900: 7877: 7873: 7858: 7844: 7840: 7825: 7807: 7803: 7769: 7765: 7758: 7744: 7740: 7729: 7725: 7710: 7693: 7689: 7678: 7674: 7666: 7662: 7637: 7633: 7626: 7612: 7608: 7595: 7591: 7580: 7576: 7565: 7561: 7530: 7526: 7518: 7514: 7506: 7499: 7485: 7481: 7473: 7469: 7461: 7457: 7446: 7442: 7431: 7427: 7416: 7412: 7401: 7397: 7386: 7382: 7371: 7367: 7359: 7355: 7346: 7342: 7334: 7330: 7322: 7318: 7311: 7294: 7290: 7282: 7257: 7253: 7246: 7232:Atkin, Nicholas 7228: 7224: 7193: 7186: 7175: 7173: 7160: 7159: 7155: 7144: 7142: 7129: 7128: 7124: 7095: 7091: 7052: 7048: 7015: 7011: 6986: 6982: 6957: 6953: 6943: 6941: 6937: 6920: 6913: 6909: 6902: 6888: 6884: 6877: 6863: 6859: 6834: 6830: 6794: 6790: 6782: 6778: 6770: 6752: 6748: 6741: 6719: 6715: 6676: 6669: 6661: 6657: 6624: 6620: 6613: 6599: 6595: 6588: 6574: 6570: 6539: 6535: 6512: 6508: 6477: 6473: 6463: 6461: 6452: 6451: 6447: 6437: 6435: 6426: 6425: 6421: 6406: 6402: 6391: 6387: 6376: 6372: 6353: 6349: 6328:(4): 997–1032. 6318: 6314: 6283: 6279: 6265: 6261: 6228: 6224: 6216: 6212: 6204: 6200: 6190: 6188: 6179: 6178: 6174: 6166: 6162: 6154: 6150: 6127: 6123: 6115: 6111: 6101: 6099: 6086: 6085: 6081: 6074: 6058:Larkin, Maurice 6055: 6051: 6040: 6036: 6026: 6024: 6017: 6001: 5997: 5989: 5985: 5980: 5975: 5974: 5969: 5965: 5960: 5895:Women in France 5879:Interwar France 5862: 5853:First World War 5802:negotiated the 5707:lois scélérates 5694:Panama scandals 5525: 5481:Robert J. Young 5456:Philippe Pétain 5452:Charles Maurras 5444:Maurice Gamelin 5409:A. J. P. Taylor 5377:Maurice Baumont 5366:Pierre Renouvin 5284:Philippe Pétain 5244: 5204:Charles Maurras 5188:First World War 5169:Fourth Republic 5153:inter-war years 5141: 5136: 5104:Philippe Pétain 5077:English Channel 5037:the French Army 5025:Maurice Gamelin 4985: 4973:Main articles: 4971: 4863:. According to 4837:Maurice Gamelin 4829: 4823:Maurice Gamelin 4819: 4786: 4681: 4637: 4617:Philippe Petain 4519:defeated France 4496: 4491: 4483:Charles Maurras 4434: 4396: 4325: 4317:Main articles: 4315: 4286:Édouard Herriot 4258: 4252: 4205: 4188: 4182: 4140:Socialist Party 4132:Édouard Herriot 4122:Aristide Briand 4081: 4079:Interwar France 4075: 4073:Interwar period 4043:war reparations 4003: 3986: 3958: 3910: 3904: 3854: 3848: 3831: 3817: 3815:First World War 3727: 3721: 3669:negotiated the 3633:Triple Alliance 3614: 3598:Main articles: 3596: 3545:Admiral Courbet 3541:Sino-French War 3489: 3477:Jules Jusserand 3460: 3443: 3435:Main articles: 3433: 3414:introduced the 3412:Maurice Rouvier 3316:Action libérale 3227: 3221: 3167:Georges Dufayel 3148: 3119: 3017: 3012: 3006: 2993:La Libre Parole 2988:Édouard Drumont 2901: 2895: 2841: 2818: 2812: 2776: 2774: 2761: 2759: 2754: 2662: 2661: 2654: 2639:Fourth Republic 2620: 2587:Interwar period 2569: 2559: 2558: 2518:Second Republic 2451: 2441: 2440: 2399: 2389: 2388: 2304: 2294: 2293: 2247: 2218: 2211: 2200: 2184:Panama scandals 2180: 2178:Panama scandals 2174: 2137: 2132: 2087: 2081: 2047:prime minister 2027:Alsace-Lorraine 1975:The Bloody Week 1916: 1906: 1862:Bourbon dynasty 1835: 1827:labour movement 1811:National Guards 1772:hot air balloon 1748:Battle of Sedan 1708: 1692:Catholic Church 1662:L'État français 1653:Philippe Pétain 1648:La France libre 1457: 1451: 1415: 1413: 1400: 1398: 1393: 1301: 1300: 1293: 1278:Fourth Republic 1259: 1226:Interwar period 1208: 1198: 1197: 1157:Second Republic 1090: 1080: 1079: 1038: 1028: 1027: 943: 933: 932: 886: 857: 850: 824: 810: 796: 782: 775:German military 774: 765: 744: 737: 723: 709: 695: 640: 592: 578: 565: 552: 539: 526: 513: 486: 471: 446:Philippe Pétain 442: 430: 400: 388: 367: 318: 255: 253: 249: 246: 241: 238: 236: 234: 233: 232: 226: 218: 217: 178: 177: 174: 170: 166: 162: 136: 125: 114: 108:La Marseillaise 95: 80: 79: 78: 73: 65: 64: 59: 41: 34: 26: 25:French Republic 17: 12: 11: 5: 12494: 12484: 12483: 12478: 12473: 12468: 12463: 12458: 12453: 12448: 12443: 12438: 12433: 12428: 12423: 12418: 12413: 12408: 12403: 12398: 12393: 12388: 12383: 12366: 12365: 12362: 12361: 12356: 12351: 12345: 12343: 12342: 12336: 12335: 12332: 12331: 12328: 12327: 12325: 12324: 12319: 12314: 12309: 12304: 12299: 12294: 12289: 12284: 12279: 12274: 12269: 12264: 12263:Cultural icons 12261: 12256: 12251: 12246: 12241: 12236: 12230: 12228: 12222: 12221: 12219: 12218: 12213: 12208: 12203: 12202: 12201: 12191: 12186: 12181: 12176: 12171: 12166: 12161: 12156: 12151: 12146: 12141: 12135: 12129: 12123: 12122: 12119: 12118: 12116: 12115: 12110: 12105: 12100: 12095: 12090: 12085: 12083:Stock exchange 12080: 12075: 12070: 12065: 12060: 12055: 12050: 12045: 12044: 12043: 12033: 12028: 12022: 12016: 12010: 12009: 12006: 12005: 12003: 12002: 11997: 11992: 11987: 11986: 11985: 11980: 11975: 11965: 11960: 11959: 11958: 11953: 11943: 11938: 11933: 11932: 11931: 11921: 11915: 11909: 11903: 11902: 11899: 11898: 11896: 11895: 11890: 11885: 11883:National parks 11880: 11875: 11870: 11865: 11860: 11858:Climate change 11855: 11850: 11844: 11838: 11832: 11831: 11828: 11827: 11825: 11824: 11823: 11822: 11817: 11812: 11807: 11802: 11797: 11792: 11787: 11780:Fifth Republic 11777: 11776: 11775: 11765: 11759: 11757: 11753: 11752: 11750: 11749: 11748: 11747: 11742: 11737: 11732: 11722: 11721: 11720: 11706: 11701: 11700: 11699: 11688:Third Republic 11685: 11680: 11675: 11670: 11665: 11659: 11658: 11653: 11648: 11642: 11640: 11634: 11633: 11631: 11630: 11625: 11623:First Republic 11620: 11618:Napoleonic era 11615: 11609: 11607: 11603: 11602: 11600: 11599: 11594: 11589: 11584: 11579: 11574: 11569: 11564: 11559: 11550: 11545: 11540: 11534: 11532: 11526: 11525: 11523: 11522: 11521: 11520: 11510: 11505: 11504: 11503: 11493: 11487: 11485: 11479: 11478: 11476: 11475: 11470: 11465: 11463:Greek colonies 11460: 11454: 11452: 11446: 11445: 11443: 11442: 11437: 11431: 11429: 11425: 11424: 11422: 11421: 11416: 11411: 11406: 11401: 11396: 11391: 11386: 11381: 11375: 11373: 11366: 11360: 11359: 11349: 11348: 11341: 11334: 11326: 11317: 11316: 11314: 11313: 11308: 11307: 11306: 11305: 11304: 11299: 11294: 11286: 11281: 11271: 11266: 11264:Russo-Japanese 11261: 11256: 11251: 11246: 11241: 11236: 11231: 11229:Anglo-Egyptian 11226: 11220: 11218: 11214: 11213: 11211: 11210: 11205: 11203:Bosnian Crisis 11200: 11199: 11198: 11188: 11187: 11186: 11176: 11171: 11166: 11161: 11156: 11155: 11154: 11152:Austro-Italian 11149: 11148: 11147: 11142: 11127: 11120: 11115: 11110: 11105: 11100: 11095: 11090: 11084: 11082: 11078: 11077: 11075: 11074: 11069: 11064: 11059: 11054: 11053: 11052: 11050:Martens Clause 11042: 11037: 11032: 11027: 11022: 11017: 11016: 11015: 11005: 10999: 10997: 10991: 10990: 10988: 10987: 10986: 10985: 10975: 10970: 10965: 10964: 10963: 10962: 10961: 10956: 10951: 10946: 10936: 10935: 10934: 10932:Egyptian Lever 10919: 10917:Pax Britannica 10914: 10913: 10912: 10902: 10901: 10900: 10898:Sovereign debt 10895: 10890: 10880: 10874: 10872: 10868: 10867: 10865: 10864: 10859: 10854: 10849: 10844: 10843: 10842: 10837: 10832: 10825:Triple Entente 10822: 10821: 10820: 10809: 10807: 10803: 10802: 10800: 10799: 10794: 10792:United Kingdom 10789: 10784: 10779: 10774: 10769: 10764: 10758: 10756: 10752: 10751: 10744: 10743: 10736: 10729: 10721: 10715: 10714: 10700: 10697: 10696: 10695: 10684: 10674: 10663: 10654:Farmer, Paul. 10650: 10647: 10646: 10645: 10631: 10624: 10617: 10604: 10597: 10590: 10574: 10571: 10570: 10569: 10559: 10554:Offen, Karen. 10552: 10542: 10535: 10528: 10516: 10513: 10512: 10511: 10501: 10500:, on 1880–1900 10492:Weber, Eugen. 10490: 10470: 10460: 10455:Robb, Graham. 10453: 10445:Price, Roger. 10443: 10432: 10427:978-0870993299 10426: 10408: 10405: 10404: 10403: 10396: 10386:(4): 417–449. 10380:French History 10375: 10368: 10361: 10354: 10340: 10324: 10293: 10290: 10289: 10288: 10281: 10274: 10267: 10260: 10249: 10239: 10224:Main article: 10221: 10218: 10217: 10216: 10209: 10200:Wolf, John B. 10198: 10188: 10174: 10153: 10146: 10136: 10135: 10134: 10120: 10111:Bury, J. P. T. 10108: 10096: 10078: 10069: 10066: 10064: 10061: 10059: 10058: 10052: 10036: 10022: 10009: 9995: 9982: 9972:Taylor, A.J.P. 9968: 9959: 9945: 9929: 9915: 9899: 9889:(5): 870–905. 9876: 9870: 9851: 9845: 9832: 9810: 9792: 9756: 9742: 9729: 9715: 9698: 9696: 9693: 9690: 9689: 9677: 9666:(2): 205–229. 9647: 9635: 9598: 9586: 9574: 9572:, p. 876. 9559: 9557:, p. 884. 9547: 9545:, p. 878. 9535: 9533:, p. 877. 9523: 9521:, p. 875. 9511: 9509:, p. 873. 9496: 9476: 9464: 9452: 9421: 9414: 9396: 9380: 9365: 9340: 9328: 9321: 9303: 9301:, p. 328. 9288: 9271: 9269:, p. 327. 9252: 9240: 9238:, p. 319. 9228: 9226:, p. 320. 9216: 9204: 9202:, p. 317. 9185: 9183:, p. 316. 9173: 9161: 9145: 9143:Aulach, p. 238 9136: 9123: 9114: 9101: 9089: 9077: 9065: 9053: 9034: 9016: 9014:, p. 169. 9004: 8976: 8974:, p. 150. 8964: 8957: 8939: 8928: 8919: 8907: 8900: 8880: 8868: 8839: 8820:(4): 480–507. 8802: 8790: 8777:10.1086/593154 8753: 8724: 8693:(2): 185–201. 8673: 8636: 8576: 8563:10.2307/493125 8557:(3): 361–378. 8541: 8525: 8518: 8500: 8473: 8456:French History 8446: 8433:10.2307/286380 8427:(3): 299–338. 8411: 8384: 8365:(3): 566–607. 8349: 8322: 8310: 8298: 8282: 8267: 8264:. p. 183. 8252: 8241:(3): 246–259. 8225: 8214:(4): 623–649. 8198: 8182: 8175: 8149: 8130:(2): 202–224. 8114: 8082: 8067: 8060: 8035: 8016:(4): 877–894. 8000: 7989:(2): 347–371. 7973: 7958: 7933: 7898: 7887:(2): 261–286. 7871: 7856: 7838: 7823: 7801: 7782:(2): 180–201. 7776:War in History 7763: 7756: 7738: 7723: 7708: 7687: 7672: 7660: 7631: 7624: 7606: 7589: 7574: 7559: 7540:(4): 693–714. 7524: 7512: 7497: 7479: 7467: 7455: 7440: 7425: 7410: 7395: 7380: 7365: 7353: 7340: 7328: 7316: 7309: 7297:Gildea, Robert 7288: 7280: 7260:Porch, Douglas 7251: 7244: 7222: 7209:10.2307/286210 7203:(4): 660–689. 7184: 7153: 7122: 7089: 7046: 7033:10.2307/286519 7027:(4): 664–683. 7009: 6980: 6951: 6933:(1): 183–219. 6907: 6900: 6882: 6875: 6857: 6846:(3): 644–651. 6828: 6809:(4): 879–882. 6788: 6776: 6768: 6746: 6739: 6713: 6686:(3): 112–121. 6667: 6655: 6636:(2): 225–248. 6618: 6611: 6593: 6586: 6568: 6533: 6522:(2): 173–186. 6516:French History 6506: 6487:(2): 197–210. 6471: 6445: 6419: 6400: 6385: 6370: 6347: 6312: 6299:10.2307/286694 6293:(3): 821–838. 6277: 6259: 6246:10.2307/286267 6240:(2): 287–315. 6222: 6210: 6198: 6172: 6160: 6148: 6137:(4): 399–426. 6131:French History 6121: 6109: 6079: 6072: 6049: 6034: 6015: 5995: 5993:, p. 304. 5982: 5981: 5979: 5976: 5973: 5972: 5962: 5961: 5959: 5956: 5955: 5954: 5949: 5944: 5939: 5934: 5929: 5924: 5919: 5914: 5913: 5912: 5907: 5897: 5892: 5887: 5882: 5876: 5875: 5874: 5861: 5858: 5857: 5856: 5829: 5826: 5815: 5812:Lord Lansdowne 5796: 5769: 5750: 5743: 5736:Alfred Dreyfus 5732:Dreyfus Affair 5728: 5697: 5682: 5678: 5677:congregations. 5662: 5659: 5647: 5620: 5605: 5598:duc de Broglie 5583: 5575: 5572:Adolphe Thiers 5564: 5547:May 1871: The 5545: 5542:Siege of Paris 5524: 5521: 5440:Maxime Weygand 5436:Georges Bonnet 5358:Fifth Republic 5309:Strange Defeat 5271:de Tocqueville 5255:Henri Rousseau 5243: 5240: 5218:Quartier Latin 5175:Adolphe Thiers 5145:Paul Deschanel 5140: 5137: 5135: 5134:Historiography 5132: 5005:Czechoslovakia 4970: 4967: 4960:Heinz Guderian 4861:Siegfried Line 4857:Saar Offensive 4818: 4815: 4798:Galeazzo Ciano 4785: 4782: 4778:Georges Bonnet 4723:were feeble". 4689:Czechoslovakia 4680: 4677: 4636: 4633: 4608:Third Republic 4604:Prime Minister 4495: 4492: 4490: 4487: 4464:Joseph Cardijn 4433: 4430: 4395: 4392: 4374:rate of growth 4365:Bank of France 4314: 4311: 4270:Woodrow Wilson 4251: 4250:Foreign policy 4248: 4204: 4201: 4184:Main article: 4181: 4178: 4165:, but runaway 4077:Main article: 4074: 4071: 4059:Ottoman Empire 4023:Woodrow Wilson 4021:of France and 4002: 3999: 3985: 3982: 3957: 3954: 3914:trench warfare 3903: 3900: 3880:Paul Déroulède 3850:Main article: 3847: 3844: 3816: 3813: 3794:French Algeria 3785:natural rubber 3723:Main article: 3720: 3717: 3659:Russian Empire 3652:Triple Entente 3608:Triple Entente 3595: 3592: 3586:, and much of 3584:Central Africa 3488: 3485: 3459: 3456: 3432: 3429: 3394:1801 Concordat 3354:Masonic lodges 3346:Dreyfus Affair 3274:Assumptionists 3220: 3217: 3171:La Samaritaine 3147: 3144: 3118: 3115: 3080: 3079: 3016: 3013: 3008:Main article: 3005: 3004:Social history 3002: 2980:Henri Poincaré 2976:Anatole France 2936:Devil's Island 2928:Alfred Dreyfus 2921:Alfred Dreyfus 2899:Dreyfus affair 2897:Main article: 2894: 2893:Dreyfus affair 2891: 2840: 2837: 2814: 2813: 2811: 2810: 2803: 2796: 2788: 2785: 2784: 2756: 2755: 2753: 2752: 2747: 2742: 2741: 2740: 2735: 2730: 2720: 2715: 2714: 2713: 2703: 2698: 2693: 2688: 2683: 2678: 2672: 2669: 2668: 2664: 2663: 2658: 2657: 2651: 2649:Fifth Republic 2645: 2644: 2641: 2635: 2634: 2631: 2625: 2624: 2621: 2619: 2618: 2613: 2607: 2604: 2603: 2600: 2593: 2592: 2589: 2582: 2581: 2578: 2576:Third Republic 2570: 2565: 2564: 2561: 2560: 2555: 2554: 2551: 2544: 2543: 2540: 2538:Third Republic 2534: 2533: 2530: 2524: 2523: 2520: 2514: 2513: 2510: 2504: 2503: 2500: 2494: 2493: 2490: 2484: 2483: 2480: 2478:First Republic 2474: 2473: 2470: 2464: 2463: 2460: 2452: 2447: 2446: 2443: 2442: 2437: 2436: 2433: 2427: 2426: 2423: 2417: 2416: 2413: 2400: 2395: 2394: 2391: 2390: 2385: 2384: 2381: 2374: 2373: 2370: 2363: 2362: 2359: 2353: 2352: 2349: 2342: 2341: 2338: 2332: 2331: 2328: 2322: 2321: 2318: 2305: 2300: 2299: 2296: 2295: 2290: 2289: 2288:50 BC – 486 AD 2286: 2280: 2279: 2276: 2270: 2269: 2268:600 BC – 49 BC 2266: 2264:Greek colonies 2260: 2259: 2256: 2248: 2243: 2242: 2239: 2238: 2232: 2231: 2223: 2222: 2213: 2212: 2205: 2199: 2196: 2176:Main article: 2173: 2172:Panama scandal 2170: 2136: 2133: 2131: 2128: 2080: 2077: 2016:prime minister 1905: 1902: 1834: 1831: 1791:Adolphe Thiers 1764:Siege of Paris 1718:, seat of the 1716:Palais Bourbon 1707: 1704: 1682:Adolphe Thiers 1670:British Empire 1574:Adolphe Thiers 1490:Fall of France 1453: 1452: 1450: 1449: 1442: 1435: 1427: 1424: 1423: 1395: 1394: 1392: 1391: 1386: 1381: 1380: 1379: 1374: 1369: 1359: 1354: 1353: 1352: 1342: 1337: 1332: 1327: 1322: 1317: 1311: 1308: 1307: 1303: 1302: 1297: 1296: 1290: 1288:Fifth Republic 1284: 1283: 1280: 1274: 1273: 1270: 1264: 1263: 1260: 1258: 1257: 1252: 1246: 1243: 1242: 1239: 1232: 1231: 1228: 1221: 1220: 1217: 1215:Third Republic 1209: 1204: 1203: 1200: 1199: 1194: 1193: 1190: 1183: 1182: 1179: 1177:Third Republic 1173: 1172: 1169: 1163: 1162: 1159: 1153: 1152: 1149: 1143: 1142: 1139: 1133: 1132: 1129: 1123: 1122: 1119: 1117:First Republic 1113: 1112: 1109: 1103: 1102: 1099: 1091: 1086: 1085: 1082: 1081: 1076: 1075: 1072: 1066: 1065: 1062: 1056: 1055: 1052: 1039: 1034: 1033: 1030: 1029: 1024: 1023: 1020: 1013: 1012: 1009: 1002: 1001: 998: 992: 991: 988: 981: 980: 977: 971: 970: 967: 961: 960: 957: 944: 939: 938: 935: 934: 929: 928: 927:50 BC – 486 AD 925: 919: 918: 915: 909: 908: 907:600 BC – 49 BC 905: 903:Greek colonies 899: 898: 895: 887: 882: 881: 878: 877: 871: 870: 862: 861: 852: 851: 844: 837: 836: 833: 832: 829: 828: 821: 815: 814: 807: 801: 800: 793: 787: 786: 779: 777:administration 770: 769: 762: 753: 750: 749: 741: 733: 732: 727: 719: 718: 713: 705: 704: 699: 687: 686: 681: 671: 670: 665: 659: 658: 653: 649: 648: 645: 644: 641: 638: 635: 634: 631: 630: 624: 623: 620: 616: 615: 612: 608: 607: 601: 600: 597: 596: 593: 586: 583: 582: 579: 573: 570: 569: 566: 560: 557: 556: 553: 547: 544: 543: 540: 534: 531: 530: 527: 521: 518: 517: 514: 508: 505: 504: 501: 500: 497: 493: 492: 487: 481: 478: 477: 472: 466: 463: 462: 457: 453: 452: 449: 448: 443: 440: 437: 436: 431: 428: 425: 424: 421: 420: 417: 415:Prime Minister 411: 410: 407: 406: 401: 398: 395: 394: 392:Adolphe Thiers 389: 386: 383: 382: 379: 378: 375: 369: 368: 366: 365: 353: 340: 338: 332: 331: 326: 320: 319: 317: 316: 311: 306: 301: 296: 289:state religion 281: 279: 275: 274: 268: 264: 263: 227: 224: 220: 219: 216: 215: 199: 190: 188: 180: 179: 176: 175: 169: 167: 161: 158: 156: 148: 147: 127: 126: 112: 98: 97: 82: 81: 74: 67: 66: 60: 53: 52: 51: 48: 47: 43: 42: 27: 24: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 12493: 12482: 12479: 12477: 12474: 12472: 12469: 12467: 12464: 12462: 12459: 12457: 12454: 12452: 12449: 12447: 12444: 12442: 12439: 12437: 12434: 12432: 12429: 12427: 12424: 12422: 12419: 12417: 12414: 12412: 12409: 12407: 12404: 12402: 12399: 12397: 12394: 12392: 12389: 12387: 12384: 12382: 12379: 12378: 12376: 12360: 12357: 12355: 12352: 12350: 12347: 12346: 12341: 12338: 12337: 12333: 12323: 12320: 12318: 12315: 12313: 12310: 12308: 12305: 12303: 12300: 12298: 12295: 12293: 12290: 12288: 12285: 12283: 12280: 12278: 12275: 12273: 12270: 12268: 12265: 12262: 12260: 12257: 12255: 12252: 12250: 12247: 12245: 12242: 12240: 12237: 12235: 12232: 12231: 12229: 12227: 12223: 12217: 12214: 12212: 12209: 12207: 12204: 12200: 12197: 12196: 12195: 12192: 12190: 12187: 12185: 12182: 12180: 12177: 12175: 12172: 12170: 12167: 12165: 12162: 12160: 12157: 12155: 12152: 12150: 12147: 12145: 12144:Birth control 12142: 12140: 12137: 12136: 12133: 12130: 12128: 12124: 12114: 12111: 12109: 12106: 12104: 12101: 12099: 12096: 12094: 12091: 12089: 12086: 12084: 12081: 12079: 12076: 12074: 12071: 12069: 12066: 12064: 12061: 12059: 12056: 12054: 12051: 12049: 12046: 12042: 12039: 12038: 12037: 12034: 12032: 12029: 12027: 12024: 12023: 12020: 12017: 12015: 12011: 12001: 11998: 11996: 11993: 11991: 11988: 11984: 11981: 11979: 11976: 11974: 11971: 11970: 11969: 11966: 11964: 11961: 11957: 11954: 11952: 11949: 11948: 11947: 11944: 11942: 11939: 11937: 11934: 11930: 11927: 11926: 11925: 11922: 11920: 11919:Constitutions 11917: 11916: 11913: 11910: 11908: 11904: 11894: 11891: 11889: 11886: 11884: 11881: 11879: 11876: 11874: 11871: 11869: 11866: 11864: 11861: 11859: 11856: 11854: 11851: 11849: 11846: 11845: 11842: 11839: 11837: 11833: 11821: 11818: 11816: 11813: 11811: 11808: 11806: 11803: 11801: 11798: 11796: 11793: 11791: 11788: 11786: 11783: 11782: 11781: 11778: 11774: 11771: 11770: 11769: 11766: 11764: 11761: 11760: 11758: 11754: 11746: 11743: 11741: 11738: 11736: 11733: 11731: 11728: 11727: 11726: 11723: 11718: 11717: 11716:Années folles 11712: 11711: 11710: 11707: 11705: 11702: 11697: 11696: 11691: 11690: 11689: 11686: 11684: 11681: 11679: 11678:Second Empire 11676: 11674: 11671: 11669: 11666: 11664: 11661: 11660: 11657: 11656:July Monarchy 11654: 11652: 11649: 11647: 11644: 11643: 11641: 11639: 11635: 11629: 11626: 11624: 11621: 11619: 11616: 11614: 11611: 11610: 11608: 11604: 11598: 11595: 11593: 11590: 11588: 11585: 11583: 11580: 11578: 11575: 11573: 11570: 11568: 11565: 11563: 11560: 11557: 11556: 11555:Ancien Régime 11551: 11549: 11546: 11544: 11541: 11539: 11536: 11535: 11533: 11531: 11527: 11519: 11516: 11515: 11514: 11511: 11509: 11506: 11502: 11499: 11498: 11497: 11494: 11492: 11489: 11488: 11486: 11484: 11480: 11474: 11471: 11469: 11466: 11464: 11461: 11459: 11456: 11455: 11453: 11451: 11447: 11441: 11438: 11436: 11433: 11432: 11430: 11426: 11420: 11417: 11415: 11412: 11410: 11407: 11405: 11402: 11400: 11397: 11395: 11392: 11390: 11387: 11385: 11382: 11380: 11377: 11376: 11374: 11370: 11367: 11365: 11361: 11357: 11354: 11347: 11342: 11340: 11335: 11333: 11328: 11327: 11324: 11312: 11309: 11303: 11300: 11298: 11295: 11293: 11290: 11289: 11287: 11285: 11282: 11280: 11277: 11276: 11275: 11272: 11270: 11269:Italo-Turkish 11267: 11265: 11262: 11260: 11257: 11255: 11252: 11250: 11247: 11245: 11242: 11240: 11237: 11235: 11232: 11230: 11227: 11225: 11224:Russo-Turkish 11222: 11221: 11219: 11215: 11209: 11206: 11204: 11201: 11197: 11196:Treaty of Fes 11194: 11193: 11192: 11191:Agadir Crisis 11189: 11185: 11182: 11181: 11180: 11177: 11175: 11172: 11170: 11167: 11165: 11162: 11160: 11157: 11153: 11150: 11146: 11143: 11141: 11140: 11136: 11135: 11134: 11131: 11130: 11128: 11126: 11125: 11121: 11119: 11116: 11114: 11111: 11109: 11106: 11104: 11101: 11099: 11096: 11094: 11091: 11089: 11086: 11085: 11083: 11079: 11073: 11070: 11068: 11065: 11063: 11060: 11058: 11055: 11051: 11048: 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10675: 10672: 10668: 10664: 10661: 10657: 10653: 10652: 10644: 10640: 10639:vol 1 excerpt 10636: 10632: 10629: 10625: 10622: 10619:Gooch, G. P. 10618: 10615: 10611: 10608: 10605: 10602: 10598: 10595: 10591: 10589: 10588:0-8090-4643-1 10585: 10581: 10577: 10576: 10568: 10564: 10560: 10557: 10553: 10551: 10547: 10543: 10540: 10536: 10533: 10529: 10527: 10523: 10519: 10518: 10510: 10506: 10502: 10499: 10495: 10491: 10487: 10483: 10479: 10475: 10471: 10469: 10465: 10461: 10458: 10454: 10452: 10448: 10444: 10441: 10437: 10433: 10429: 10423: 10419: 10418: 10415: 10411: 10410: 10401: 10400:History Today 10397: 10393: 10389: 10385: 10381: 10376: 10373: 10369: 10366: 10362: 10359: 10355: 10351: 10347: 10343: 10341:0-521-26559-2 10337: 10333: 10329: 10325: 10321: 10317: 10313: 10309: 10305: 10301: 10296: 10295: 10286: 10282: 10279: 10275: 10272: 10268: 10265: 10261: 10258: 10254: 10250: 10248: 10244: 10240: 10238: 10234: 10230: 10229: 10227: 10214: 10210: 10207: 10203: 10199: 10197: 10193: 10189: 10187: 10183: 10182: 10178: 10175: 10171: 10167: 10163: 10159: 10154: 10151: 10147: 10145: 10141: 10137: 10133: 10130: 10129: 10128: 10127:partly online 10124: 10121: 10119: 10115: 10112: 10109: 10107: 10103: 10100: 10097: 10095: 10092:; in French; 10091: 10087: 10083: 10079: 10076: 10072: 10071: 10055: 10049: 10045: 10041: 10037: 10033: 10029: 10025: 10019: 10015: 10010: 10006: 10002: 9998: 9996:0-4348-4216-8 9992: 9988: 9983: 9979: 9978: 9973: 9969: 9965: 9960: 9956: 9952: 9948: 9942: 9938: 9934: 9930: 9926: 9922: 9918: 9912: 9908: 9904: 9900: 9896: 9892: 9888: 9884: 9883: 9877: 9873: 9867: 9863: 9862:Da Capo Press 9859: 9858: 9852: 9848: 9842: 9838: 9833: 9829: 9825: 9821: 9817: 9813: 9807: 9803: 9802: 9797: 9793: 9789: 9785: 9781: 9777: 9773: 9769: 9765: 9761: 9757: 9753: 9749: 9745: 9739: 9735: 9730: 9726: 9722: 9718: 9712: 9708: 9704: 9700: 9699: 9686: 9681: 9673: 9669: 9665: 9661: 9657: 9651: 9644: 9639: 9631: 9627: 9623: 9619: 9615: 9611: 9610: 9602: 9595: 9590: 9583: 9578: 9571: 9566: 9564: 9556: 9551: 9544: 9539: 9532: 9527: 9520: 9515: 9508: 9503: 9501: 9492: 9491: 9490:Inside Europe 9486: 9485:Gunther, John 9480: 9473: 9468: 9461: 9456: 9448: 9444: 9440: 9436: 9432: 9425: 9417: 9411: 9407: 9400: 9393: 9389: 9384: 9376: 9372: 9368: 9362: 9358: 9354: 9350: 9344: 9337: 9332: 9324: 9318: 9314: 9307: 9300: 9295: 9293: 9286:, p. 57. 9285: 9280: 9278: 9276: 9268: 9263: 9261: 9259: 9257: 9249: 9244: 9237: 9232: 9225: 9220: 9213: 9208: 9201: 9196: 9194: 9192: 9190: 9182: 9177: 9170: 9165: 9158: 9154: 9149: 9140: 9133: 9127: 9118: 9111: 9105: 9098: 9093: 9087:, p. 43. 9086: 9081: 9074: 9069: 9063:, p. 32. 9062: 9057: 9051:, p. 20. 9050: 9045: 9043: 9041: 9039: 9030: 9026: 9020: 9013: 9008: 8993: 8992: 8987: 8980: 8973: 8968: 8960: 8958:9783412205805 8954: 8950: 8943: 8937: 8932: 8923: 8916: 8911: 8903: 8897: 8893: 8892: 8884: 8877: 8872: 8864: 8860: 8856: 8852: 8851: 8843: 8835: 8831: 8827: 8823: 8819: 8815: 8814: 8806: 8799: 8794: 8786: 8782: 8778: 8774: 8770: 8766: 8765: 8757: 8749: 8745: 8741: 8737: 8736: 8728: 8712: 8708: 8704: 8700: 8696: 8692: 8688: 8684: 8677: 8669: 8665: 8661: 8657: 8653: 8649: 8648: 8640: 8632: 8623: 8622: 8614: 8608: 8600: 8591: 8590: 8580: 8572: 8568: 8564: 8560: 8556: 8552: 8545: 8538: 8534: 8529: 8521: 8515: 8511: 8504: 8496: 8492: 8488: 8484: 8477: 8469: 8465: 8461: 8457: 8450: 8442: 8438: 8434: 8430: 8426: 8422: 8415: 8407: 8403: 8399: 8395: 8388: 8380: 8376: 8372: 8368: 8364: 8360: 8353: 8345: 8341: 8337: 8333: 8326: 8319: 8314: 8307: 8302: 8295: 8291: 8286: 8278: 8271: 8263: 8256: 8248: 8244: 8240: 8236: 8229: 8221: 8217: 8213: 8209: 8202: 8195: 8191: 8186: 8178: 8172: 8168: 8163: 8162: 8153: 8145: 8141: 8137: 8133: 8129: 8125: 8118: 8110: 8106: 8102: 8098: 8097: 8092: 8086: 8078: 8071: 8063: 8057: 8052: 8051: 8045: 8039: 8031: 8027: 8023: 8019: 8015: 8011: 8004: 7996: 7992: 7988: 7985:(in French). 7984: 7977: 7969: 7965: 7961: 7959:9780521666312 7955: 7951: 7947: 7943: 7937: 7929: 7925: 7921: 7917: 7916: 7911: 7910:Beaudry, Paul 7905: 7903: 7894: 7890: 7886: 7883:(in French). 7882: 7875: 7867: 7863: 7859: 7853: 7849: 7842: 7834: 7830: 7826: 7820: 7816: 7812: 7805: 7797: 7793: 7789: 7785: 7781: 7777: 7773: 7767: 7759: 7753: 7749: 7742: 7734: 7727: 7719: 7715: 7711: 7705: 7701: 7697: 7691: 7683: 7676: 7669: 7664: 7656: 7652: 7648: 7644: 7643: 7642:History Today 7635: 7627: 7621: 7617: 7610: 7602: 7601: 7593: 7585: 7578: 7570: 7563: 7555: 7551: 7547: 7543: 7539: 7535: 7528: 7521: 7516: 7509: 7504: 7502: 7493: 7489: 7483: 7476: 7471: 7464: 7459: 7451: 7444: 7436: 7429: 7421: 7414: 7406: 7399: 7391: 7384: 7376: 7369: 7362: 7357: 7350: 7344: 7337: 7332: 7325: 7324:McMillan 2003 7320: 7312: 7306: 7302: 7298: 7292: 7283: 7277: 7273: 7268: 7267: 7261: 7255: 7247: 7241: 7237: 7233: 7226: 7218: 7214: 7210: 7206: 7202: 7198: 7191: 7189: 7171: 7167: 7163: 7157: 7140: 7136: 7132: 7126: 7117: 7112: 7108: 7104: 7100: 7093: 7085: 7081: 7077: 7073: 7069: 7065: 7061: 7057: 7050: 7042: 7038: 7034: 7030: 7026: 7022: 7021: 7013: 7005: 7001: 6997: 6993: 6992: 6984: 6976: 6972: 6968: 6964: 6963: 6955: 6936: 6932: 6928: 6927: 6918: 6911: 6903: 6897: 6893: 6886: 6878: 6872: 6868: 6861: 6853: 6849: 6845: 6841: 6840: 6832: 6824: 6820: 6816: 6812: 6808: 6804: 6803: 6798: 6797:Amato, Joseph 6792: 6785: 6780: 6771: 6765: 6761: 6757: 6750: 6742: 6736: 6732: 6728: 6724: 6717: 6709: 6705: 6701: 6697: 6693: 6689: 6685: 6681: 6674: 6672: 6664: 6659: 6651: 6647: 6643: 6639: 6635: 6631: 6630: 6622: 6614: 6608: 6604: 6597: 6589: 6583: 6579: 6572: 6563: 6558: 6554: 6550: 6549: 6544: 6537: 6529: 6525: 6521: 6517: 6510: 6502: 6498: 6494: 6490: 6486: 6482: 6475: 6459: 6455: 6449: 6433: 6429: 6423: 6415: 6411: 6404: 6396: 6389: 6381: 6374: 6366: 6362: 6358: 6351: 6343: 6339: 6335: 6331: 6327: 6323: 6316: 6308: 6304: 6300: 6296: 6292: 6288: 6281: 6273: 6269: 6263: 6255: 6251: 6247: 6243: 6239: 6235: 6234: 6226: 6219: 6214: 6207: 6202: 6186: 6182: 6176: 6169: 6164: 6157: 6152: 6144: 6140: 6136: 6132: 6125: 6118: 6113: 6097: 6093: 6089: 6083: 6075: 6069: 6065: 6064: 6059: 6053: 6045: 6038: 6022: 6018: 6016:9781576073353 6012: 6008: 6007: 5999: 5992: 5987: 5983: 5967: 5963: 5953: 5950: 5948: 5945: 5943: 5940: 5938: 5935: 5933: 5930: 5928: 5925: 5923: 5920: 5918: 5915: 5911: 5910:French Africa 5908: 5906: 5903: 5902: 5901: 5898: 5896: 5893: 5891: 5888: 5886: 5883: 5880: 5877: 5873: 5870: 5869: 5867: 5864: 5863: 5854: 5850: 5846: 5842: 5841:assassination 5838: 5834: 5830: 5827: 5824: 5820: 5816: 5813: 5808: 5807: 5801: 5797: 5794: 5790: 5786: 5782: 5778: 5777:Léon Gambetta 5774: 5770: 5767: 5762: 5761: 5755: 5752:1898: Writer 5751: 5748: 5744: 5741: 5737: 5733: 5729: 5726: 5722: 5718: 5714: 5709: 5708: 5702: 5698: 5695: 5692:. Later, the 5691: 5687: 5683: 5679: 5675: 5671: 5667: 5663: 5660: 5657: 5652: 5648: 5644: 5643: 5637: 5633: 5629: 5625: 5621: 5618: 5614: 5610: 5606: 5603: 5599: 5596: 5592: 5588: 5584: 5581: 5576: 5573: 5569: 5568:Paris Commune 5565: 5562: 5558: 5554: 5550: 5546: 5543: 5539: 5535: 5531: 5527: 5526: 5520: 5518: 5514: 5513:Martin Thomas 5510: 5506: 5502: 5498: 5494: 5489: 5486: 5482: 5478: 5473: 5471: 5466: 5461: 5457: 5453: 5449: 5445: 5441: 5437: 5433: 5429: 5428: 5424:'s 1969 book 5423: 5418: 5412: 5410: 5405: 5399: 5393: 5389: 5383: 5378: 5374: 5371: 5367: 5363: 5359: 5355: 5351: 5346: 5344: 5340: 5335: 5329: 5327: 5323: 5319: 5314: 5313:Popular Front 5310: 5306: 5302: 5301: 5296: 5292: 5290: 5285: 5280: 5274: 5272: 5268: 5263: 5262:Second Empire 5256: 5252: 5248: 5239: 5236: 5235: 5229: 5225: 5220: 5219: 5212: 5211: 5205: 5201: 5197: 5191: 5189: 5185: 5180: 5179:republicanism 5176: 5172: 5170: 5166: 5162: 5158: 5157:was liberated 5154: 5150: 5149:German Empire 5146: 5131: 5129: 5125: 5122:had made the 5121: 5117: 5113: 5109: 5108:État Français 5105: 5100: 5098: 5094: 5090: 5086: 5085:Manstein Plan 5082: 5078: 5074: 5070: 5066: 5062: 5058: 5057:Low Countries 5054: 5050: 5046: 5042: 5041:Army Groups A 5038: 5034: 5031:into central 5030: 5026: 5022: 5018: 5012: 5010: 5006: 5002: 4994: 4989: 4984: 4980: 4976: 4966: 4963: 4961: 4956: 4952: 4948: 4944: 4937: 4936: 4931: 4927: 4922: 4918: 4916: 4911: 4907: 4905: 4901: 4897: 4893: 4888: 4886: 4882: 4877: 4873: 4868: 4866: 4862: 4858: 4854: 4850: 4846: 4842: 4838: 4834: 4828: 4824: 4814: 4811: 4805: 4803: 4799: 4793: 4791: 4781: 4779: 4773: 4771: 4767: 4763: 4757: 4754: 4753:Berchtesgaden 4750: 4745: 4740: 4737: 4733: 4729: 4724: 4722: 4716: 4712: 4710: 4705: 4702: 4698: 4694: 4690: 4686: 4676: 4672: 4668: 4666: 4662: 4657: 4652: 4650: 4646: 4642: 4632: 4630: 4626: 4622: 4618: 4613: 4609: 4605: 4601: 4597: 4593: 4588: 4586: 4582: 4578: 4574: 4570: 4566: 4561: 4559: 4555: 4551: 4547: 4543: 4539: 4535: 4531: 4526: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4512: 4508: 4507:Popular Front 4504: 4500: 4486: 4484: 4480: 4475: 4473: 4469: 4465: 4461: 4459: 4453: 4451: 4448: 4444: 4440: 4429: 4427: 4423: 4418: 4416: 4414: 4409: 4408:André Tardieu 4405: 4403: 4391: 4389: 4385: 4380: 4377: 4375: 4371: 4366: 4362: 4358: 4354: 4353:paid vacation 4350: 4345: 4340: 4338: 4337:popular front 4334: 4330: 4324: 4320: 4313:Popular Front 4310: 4308: 4302: 4298: 4296: 4290: 4287: 4283: 4279: 4275: 4271: 4267: 4262: 4257: 4247: 4245: 4244: 4239: 4235: 4234: 4230: 4226: 4222: 4218: 4214: 4210: 4200: 4196: 4193: 4187: 4177: 4175: 4170: 4168: 4164: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4147: 4145: 4141: 4137: 4133: 4130:dominated by 4129: 4128: 4123: 4119: 4115: 4111: 4110: 4109:Bloc national 4105: 4098: 4095:, during the 4094: 4090: 4089:Deutsches Eck 4085: 4080: 4070: 4068: 4064: 4060: 4056: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4040: 4035: 4033: 4024: 4020: 4016: 4012: 4007: 3998: 3996: 3991: 3981: 3979: 3974: 3972: 3966: 3963: 3953: 3949: 3948: 3942: 3938: 3933: 3931: 3927: 3923: 3919: 3918:Western Front 3915: 3909: 3899: 3897: 3893: 3889: 3885: 3881: 3876: 3874: 3869: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3853: 3840: 3835: 3830: 3826: 3822: 3812: 3810: 3806: 3801: 3799: 3795: 3790: 3786: 3782: 3776: 3774: 3770: 3769: 3764: 3760: 3756: 3752: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3731: 3726: 3716: 3714: 3710: 3709:Balkan crisis 3704: 3702: 3698: 3694: 3690: 3686: 3682: 3678: 3674: 3673: 3668: 3664: 3660: 3655: 3653: 3649: 3645: 3641: 3634: 3630: 3627:(centre) and 3626: 3625:Mother Russia 3622: 3618: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3591: 3589: 3585: 3581: 3577: 3573: 3569: 3565: 3560: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3543:(1884–1885). 3542: 3538: 3534: 3530: 3525: 3523: 3518: 3516: 3511: 3507: 3503: 3493: 3484: 3480: 3478: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3455: 3453: 3447: 3442: 3438: 3428: 3426: 3421: 3417: 3413: 3408: 3406: 3401: 3397: 3395: 3391: 3387: 3384:in Rome, and 3383: 3379: 3374: 3370: 3366: 3363: 3359: 3355: 3351: 3347: 3342: 3340: 3339: 3334: 3333:Albert de Mun 3330: 3326: 3322: 3318: 3317: 3312: 3310: 3309:Rerum Novarum 3306: 3302: 3301:Albert de Mun 3298: 3294: 3290: 3285: 3282: 3277: 3275: 3271: 3263: 3262: 3256: 3252: 3250: 3247:were passed. 3246: 3242: 3241:Ancien Régime 3237: 3236:anti-clerical 3232: 3226: 3216: 3214: 3209: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3194: 3190: 3189:working class 3185: 3183: 3179: 3174: 3172: 3168: 3163: 3162:Le Bon Marché 3156: 3155:Au Bon Marché 3152: 3143: 3140: 3136: 3132: 3128: 3124: 3114: 3113: 3109: 3108: 3103: 3102: 3097: 3093: 3092: 3087: 3086: 3077: 3076: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3065: 3060: 3058: 3053: 3049: 3047: 3043: 3042: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3028: 3023: 3011: 3001: 2997: 2995: 2994: 2989: 2985: 2981: 2977: 2971: 2969: 2965: 2964: 2959: 2958: 2952: 2947: 2945: 2941: 2940:French Guiana 2937: 2933: 2929: 2922: 2917: 2913: 2911: 2907: 2906:anti-Semitism 2900: 2890: 2886: 2884: 2880: 2876: 2875:Léon Gambetta 2873:Followers of 2871: 2869: 2864: 2860: 2859:Radical Party 2853: 2849: 2845: 2836: 2832: 2829: 2825: 2819: 2809: 2804: 2802: 2797: 2795: 2790: 2789: 2787: 2786: 2783: 2772: 2768: 2758: 2757: 2751: 2748: 2746: 2743: 2739: 2736: 2734: 2731: 2729: 2726: 2725: 2724: 2721: 2719: 2716: 2712: 2709: 2708: 2707: 2704: 2702: 2699: 2697: 2694: 2692: 2689: 2687: 2684: 2682: 2679: 2677: 2674: 2673: 2671: 2670: 2666: 2665: 2652: 2650: 2647: 2646: 2642: 2640: 2637: 2636: 2632: 2630: 2627: 2626: 2622: 2617: 2614: 2612: 2609: 2608: 2606: 2605: 2601: 2599: 2598:Années folles 2595: 2594: 2590: 2588: 2584: 2583: 2579: 2577: 2574: 2573: 2568: 2563: 2562: 2552: 2550: 2546: 2545: 2541: 2539: 2536: 2535: 2531: 2529: 2528:Second Empire 2526: 2525: 2521: 2519: 2516: 2515: 2511: 2509: 2508:July Monarchy 2506: 2505: 2501: 2499: 2496: 2495: 2491: 2489: 2486: 2485: 2481: 2479: 2476: 2475: 2471: 2469: 2466: 2465: 2461: 2459: 2456: 2455: 2450: 2445: 2444: 2434: 2432: 2431:Bourbon kings 2429: 2428: 2424: 2422: 2419: 2418: 2414: 2412: 2409: 2408: 2405: 2404: 2403:Ancien Régime 2398: 2393: 2392: 2382: 2380: 2376: 2375: 2371: 2369: 2365: 2364: 2360: 2358: 2355: 2354: 2350: 2348: 2344: 2343: 2339: 2337: 2334: 2333: 2329: 2327: 2324: 2323: 2319: 2316: 2312: 2309: 2308: 2303: 2298: 2297: 2287: 2285: 2282: 2281: 2277: 2275: 2272: 2271: 2267: 2265: 2262: 2261: 2257: 2255: 2252: 2251: 2246: 2241: 2240: 2237: 2234: 2233: 2229: 2225: 2224: 2221: 2215: 2214: 2209: 2204: 2203: 2195: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2179: 2169: 2165: 2162: 2157: 2153: 2145: 2141: 2127: 2125: 2120: 2118: 2117: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2100: 2096: 2092: 2086: 2076: 2074: 2070: 2065: 2060: 2057: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2041: 2039: 2038: 2028: 2023: 2019: 2017: 2013: 2009: 2005: 2000: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1984: 1982: 1981: 1976: 1972: 1968: 1962: 1960: 1959:Paris Commune 1955: 1951: 1947: 1939: 1935: 1930: 1926: 1924: 1922: 1915: 1911: 1901: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1885: 1883: 1879: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1859: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1839: 1830: 1828: 1823: 1822: 1816: 1815:Paris Commune 1812: 1807: 1805: 1801: 1797: 1796:German Empire 1792: 1788: 1783: 1781: 1777: 1773: 1769: 1768:Léon Gambetta 1765: 1761: 1757: 1753: 1752:Léon Gambetta 1749: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1728: 1721: 1717: 1712: 1703: 1700: 1699: 1698:Ancien Régime 1693: 1689: 1683: 1677: 1675: 1674:British India 1671: 1666: 1663: 1658: 1654: 1649: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1612: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1596: 1592: 1587: 1583: 1575: 1569: 1565: 1561: 1557: 1552: 1550: 1546: 1542: 1536: 1531:(keeping the 1530: 1526: 1522: 1521:German Empire 1518: 1517:Paris Commune 1514: 1510: 1505: 1503: 1499: 1495: 1491: 1487: 1483: 1479: 1474: 1469: 1465: 1461: 1448: 1443: 1441: 1436: 1434: 1429: 1428: 1426: 1425: 1422: 1411: 1407: 1397: 1396: 1390: 1387: 1385: 1382: 1378: 1375: 1373: 1370: 1368: 1365: 1364: 1363: 1360: 1358: 1355: 1351: 1348: 1347: 1346: 1343: 1341: 1338: 1336: 1333: 1331: 1328: 1326: 1323: 1321: 1318: 1316: 1313: 1312: 1310: 1309: 1305: 1304: 1291: 1289: 1286: 1285: 1281: 1279: 1276: 1275: 1271: 1269: 1266: 1265: 1261: 1256: 1253: 1251: 1248: 1247: 1245: 1244: 1240: 1238: 1237:Années folles 1234: 1233: 1229: 1227: 1223: 1222: 1218: 1216: 1213: 1212: 1207: 1202: 1201: 1191: 1189: 1185: 1184: 1180: 1178: 1175: 1174: 1170: 1168: 1167:Second Empire 1165: 1164: 1160: 1158: 1155: 1154: 1150: 1148: 1147:July Monarchy 1145: 1144: 1140: 1138: 1135: 1134: 1130: 1128: 1125: 1124: 1120: 1118: 1115: 1114: 1110: 1108: 1105: 1104: 1100: 1098: 1095: 1094: 1089: 1084: 1083: 1073: 1071: 1070:Bourbon kings 1068: 1067: 1063: 1061: 1058: 1057: 1053: 1051: 1048: 1047: 1044: 1043: 1042:Ancien Régime 1037: 1032: 1031: 1021: 1019: 1015: 1014: 1010: 1008: 1004: 1003: 999: 997: 994: 993: 989: 987: 983: 982: 978: 976: 973: 972: 968: 966: 963: 962: 958: 955: 951: 948: 947: 942: 937: 936: 926: 924: 921: 920: 916: 914: 911: 910: 906: 904: 901: 900: 896: 894: 891: 890: 885: 880: 879: 876: 873: 872: 868: 864: 863: 860: 854: 853: 848: 843: 842: 822: 820: 817: 816: 808: 806: 803: 802: 794: 792: 789: 788: 780: 778: 772: 771: 763: 761: 758: 757: 754: 748: 742: 735: 734: 731: 730:German Empire 728: 721: 720: 717: 716:Paris Commune 714: 707: 706: 703: 700: 693: 692: 689: 688: 685: 682: 680: 677: 676: 672: 669: 666: 664: 663:ISO 3166 code 660: 657: 654: 650: 646: 642: 636: 632: 629: 625: 621: 617: 613: 609: 606: 602: 598: 594: 590: 584: 580: 577: 571: 567: 564: 558: 554: 551: 545: 542:3 August 1914 541: 538: 532: 528: 525: 519: 515: 512: 511:Leon Gambetta 506: 502: 498: 494: 491: 488: 485: 479: 476: 473: 470: 464: 461: 458: 454: 450: 447: 444: 438: 435: 432: 426: 422: 418: 416: 412: 408: 405: 404:Albert Lebrun 402: 396: 393: 390: 384: 380: 376: 374: 370: 363: 360: 359:parliamentary 357: 354: 351: 348: 347:parliamentary 345: 342: 341: 339: 337: 333: 330: 327: 325: 321: 315: 312: 310: 307: 305: 302: 300: 297: 294: 290: 286: 283: 282: 280: 276: 272: 269: 265: 260: 231: 228: 221: 214: 213:protectorates 210: 206: 203: 200: 198: 195: 192: 191: 186: 181: 168: 160: 159: 154: 149: 145: 140: 135: 133: 128: 110: 109: 103: 99: 93: 92: 87: 83: 77: 71: 63: 57: 49: 44: 38: 31: 22: 19: 12249:Coat of arms 12239:Architecture 12211:Social class 12169:Homelessness 12154:Demographics 12108:Trade unions 12041:Central bank 11983:criminal law 11946:Human rights 11929:presidential 11773:Algerian War 11756:Contemporary 11730:Vichy France 11725:World War II 11695:Belle Époque 11687: 11628:First Empire 11530:Early Modern 11501:West Francia 11137: 11133:Anglo-German 11122: 10994:Treaties and 10766: 10755:Great powers 10707: 10687: 10677: 10666: 10655: 10634: 10627: 10620: 10609: 10600: 10593: 10579: 10562: 10555: 10545: 10538: 10531: 10521: 10504: 10493: 10477: 10474:Weber, Eugen 10463: 10456: 10446: 10435: 10417: 10414: 10399: 10383: 10379: 10371: 10364: 10357: 10331: 10303: 10299: 10284: 10277: 10270: 10263: 10262:Gooch, G.P. 10256: 10252: 10242: 10232: 10212: 10201: 10191: 10180: 10161: 10149: 10139: 10122: 10113: 10101: 10099:Brogan, D. W 10081: 10074: 10043: 10013: 9986: 9975: 9963: 9936: 9906: 9886: 9880: 9856: 9836: 9800: 9796:Colton, Joel 9763: 9760:Brogan, D.W. 9733: 9706: 9685:Jackson 2006 9680: 9663: 9659: 9650: 9638: 9613: 9607: 9601: 9594:Jackson 2006 9589: 9582:Jackson 2006 9577: 9570:Jackson 2006 9555:Jackson 2006 9550: 9543:Jackson 2006 9538: 9531:Jackson 2006 9526: 9519:Jackson 2006 9514: 9507:Jackson 2006 9489: 9479: 9472:Jackson 2006 9467: 9460:Jackson 2006 9455: 9441:(42): 9–22. 9438: 9434: 9424: 9405: 9399: 9388:Jackson 2003 9383: 9352: 9343: 9331: 9312: 9306: 9243: 9231: 9219: 9207: 9176: 9164: 9156: 9148: 9139: 9131: 9126: 9117: 9109: 9104: 9092: 9080: 9068: 9056: 9028: 9019: 9012:Harding 2013 9007: 8995:. Retrieved 8989: 8979: 8972:Harding 2013 8967: 8948: 8942: 8931: 8922: 8910: 8890: 8883: 8871: 8857:(1): 18–44. 8854: 8848: 8842: 8817: 8811: 8805: 8793: 8768: 8762: 8756: 8742:(2): 25–45. 8739: 8733: 8727: 8715:. Retrieved 8690: 8686: 8676: 8654:(1): 45–62. 8651: 8645: 8639: 8630: 8620: 8606: 8598: 8588: 8579: 8554: 8550: 8544: 8528: 8509: 8503: 8486: 8482: 8476: 8462:(1): 48–73. 8459: 8455: 8449: 8424: 8420: 8414: 8397: 8393: 8387: 8362: 8358: 8352: 8335: 8331: 8325: 8318:Jackson 2006 8313: 8301: 8285: 8276: 8270: 8261: 8255: 8238: 8234: 8228: 8211: 8207: 8201: 8185: 8160: 8152: 8127: 8123: 8117: 8103:(1): 51–72. 8100: 8094: 8085: 8076: 8070: 8049: 8038: 8013: 8009: 8003: 7986: 7982: 7976: 7945: 7936: 7922:(1): 73–99. 7919: 7913: 7884: 7880: 7874: 7847: 7841: 7810: 7804: 7779: 7775: 7766: 7747: 7741: 7732: 7726: 7699: 7690: 7681: 7675: 7663: 7649:(2): 18–25. 7646: 7640: 7634: 7615: 7609: 7599: 7592: 7583: 7577: 7571:. Routledge. 7568: 7562: 7537: 7533: 7527: 7515: 7508:Aldrich 1996 7491: 7482: 7470: 7458: 7449: 7443: 7434: 7428: 7419: 7413: 7404: 7398: 7389: 7383: 7374: 7368: 7356: 7348: 7343: 7331: 7319: 7300: 7291: 7265: 7254: 7235: 7225: 7200: 7196: 7174:. Retrieved 7165: 7156: 7143:. 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Retrieved 6005: 5998: 5991:Aldrich 1996 5986: 5966: 5868:, 1871–1914 5866:Belle Époque 5831:1914: After 5823:Emile Combes 5793:Bonapartists 5760:J'Accuse...! 5642:le seize Mai 5616: 5555:and most of 5490: 5484: 5477:la décadence 5476: 5474: 5470:la décadence 5469: 5465:la décadence 5460:Paul Reynaud 5448:Pierre Laval 5425: 5417:la décadence 5413: 5404:la décadence 5398:La Décadence 5394: 5388:la décadence 5369: 5347: 5334:la décadence 5330: 5325: 5318:André Géraud 5308: 5307:in his book 5298: 5295:John Gunther 5293: 5279:la décadence 5275: 5259: 5250: 5238:government. 5206:founded the 5192: 5173: 5165:constitution 5142: 5112:Vichy France 5107: 5101: 5089:Adolf Hitler 5029:Army Group B 5016: 5013: 4998: 4983:Vichy France 4964: 4940: 4933: 4924:Gamelin (in 4912: 4908: 4889: 4869: 4830: 4809: 4806: 4794: 4790:Paul Reynaud 4787: 4774: 4770:Le Populaire 4769: 4765: 4761: 4758: 4741: 4725: 4717: 4713: 4709:Lord Halifax 4706: 4697:Nazi Germany 4691:to hand the 4682: 4673: 4669: 4664: 4660: 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France 684:Succeeded by 683: 678: 656:French Franc 595:10 July 1940 589:Vichy France 563:World War II 555:28 June 1919 201: 193: 165: France 130: 101: 86:Motto: 85: 76:Coat of arms 18: 12359:WikiProject 12174:Immigration 12164:Health care 12026:Agriculture 11978:enforcement 11735:Free France 11704:World War I 11651:Restoration 11638:Late Modern 11508:Middle Ages 11483:Middle Ages 11468:Celtic Gaul 11311:World War I 11274:Balkan Wars 11259:Second Boer 11244:Banana Wars 11208:July Crisis 11139:Dreadnought 11124:Weltpolitik 10968:Pan-Slavism 10573:World War I 10208:pp 349–501. 10206:online free 9695:Works cited 9390:, pp. 9299:Colton 1966 9267:Colton 1966 9248:Colton 1966 9236:Colton 1966 9224:Colton 1966 9212:Colton 1966 9200:Colton 1966 9181:Colton 1966 9169:Colton 1966 8915:Colton 1966 8771:(1): 1–44. 8613:Colton 1966 8535:, pp. 8533:Larkin 1988 8290:Larkin 1988 8192:, pp. 8190:Larkin 1988 7668:Keiger 1983 7520:Taylor 1954 7475:Taylor 1954 7463:Brogan 1940 7182:(full text) 7151:(full text) 6998:(1): 1–17. 6784:Hutton 1986 6663:Hutton 1986 6218:Brogan 1940 6206:Brogan 1940 6168:Brogan 1940 6156:Brogan 1940 6117:Brogan 1940 6027:23 December 5881:, 1919–1939 5837:Jean Jaurès 5789:monarchists 5749:was formed. 5717:Sadi Carnot 5666:Legitimists 5656:Jules Grévy 5651:Republicans 5628:Jules Simon 5602:Monarchists 5420:thesis was 5200:Legitimists 5163:to draft a 5128:Free France 5009:Sudetenland 4979:Free France 4930:Frank Capra 4896:Netherlands 4883:, a German 4693:Sudetenland 4625:Josef Gangl 4563:During the 4554:Sudetenland 4515:appeasement 4439:Benedict XV 4233:coup d'état 4155:public debt 3962:war economy 3956:War economy 3888:Jean Jaurès 3745:(1897–1902) 3693:Anglophobia 3580:West Africa 3564:Jules Ferry 3473:Paul Cambon 3425:Gallicanism 3386:Pope Pius X 3281:Jules Ferry 3198:consumerism 3193:bourgeoisie 3127:Eugen Weber 2942:(nicknamed 2910:French Army 2848:Silver coin 2681:Health care 2611:Free France 2498:Restoration 2302:Middle Ages 2274:Celtic Gaul 2217:History of 2156:coup d'état 2091:Legitimists 2069:Jules Grévy 2049:Jules Simon 1980:ordre moral 1977:. The term 1938:Ordre Moral 1850:Legitimists 1643:Free France 1627:World War I 1619:centre-left 1609:during the 1607:West Africa 1320:Health care 1250:Free France 1137:Restoration 941:Middle Ages 913:Celtic Gaul 856:History of 819:Free France 679:Preceded by 643:150,000,000 484:Lower house 469:Upper house 456:Legislature 364:(1875–1940) 352:(1870−1875) 304:Lutheranism 254: / 202:Light blue: 12375:Categories 12302:Philosophy 12287:Literature 12199:secularism 11995:Parliament 11790:2005 riots 11740:Liberation 11606:Revolution 11473:Roman Gaul 11458:Prehistory 11414:Journalism 10996:agreements 10944:Great Game 10910:Revanchism 10170:Q107258923 10016:. Norton. 9643:Young 2005 9435:Romantisme 9336:Weber 1994 9097:Young 2005 9085:Young 2005 9073:Young 2005 9061:Young 2005 9049:Young 2005 8292:, p. 7166:vatican.va 7135:vatican.va 6191:8 November 5978:References 5814:, in 1904. 5779:, such as 5771:1901: The 5754:Émile Zola 5745:1894: The 5730:1894: The 5690:Émile Zola 5566:1871: The 5305:Marc Bloch 5289:Riom Trial 5184:Revolution 5151:, and the 4928:) seen in 4853:Phoney War 4849:Blitzkrieg 4821:See also: 4577:Winter War 4565:Phoney War 4144:Communists 4053:, such as 4047:Saar Basin 4017:of Italy, 3941:censorship 3916:along the 3819:See also: 3576:Madagascar 3522:Suez Canal 3427:was dead. 3325:Integrists 3293:encyclical 3223:See also: 3206:gramophone 3178:Émile Zola 3096:Paris Soir 3085:Paris Soir 3015:Newspapers 2968:Émile Zola 2877:, such as 2317:settlement 2284:Roman Gaul 2254:Prehistory 1996:Legitimist 1961:in March. 1954:Versailles 1868:supported 1866:Orléanists 1821:communards 956:settlement 923:Roman Gaul 893:Prehistory 747:by Germany 628:Population 460:Parliament 336:Government 324:Demonym(s) 242:02°18′59″E 239:48°52′13″N 194:Dark blue: 12159:Education 12113:Transport 11963:Judiciary 11924:Elections 11878:Mountains 11836:Geography 11582:Louis XIV 11372:Overviews 10959:Meiji era 10806:Alliances 10486:17758709M 10320:145438655 10276:Nere, J. 10164:: 39–48. 9725:10550976M 9375:22522982M 9284:Watt 1989 8997:26 August 8834:146472852 8785:142074638 8707:143962782 8668:154974252 8621:Léon Blum 8379:154961834 8030:162914333 7968:22521391M 7866:15182161W 7833:21488370M 7796:154834826 7655:0018-2753 7554:153431025 7084:145338843 6975:0099-0329 6969:: 17–21. 6708:141242021 6700:0094-7679 6650:144943082 6501:144278218 6416:(1): 4ff. 6342:159988092 6102:7 October 5595:Orleanist 5350:Gaullists 5196:Orleanist 5021:Dyle Plan 4947:Luftwaffe 4900:Dyle Plan 4835:in 1939, 4656:Wehrmacht 4499:Léon Blum 4460:/Féminine 4402:Gringoire 4370:devaluing 4329:Léon Blum 4323:Léon Blum 4309:in 1938. 4167:inflation 3807:in 1925, 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12194:Religion 12139:Abortion 12093:Taxation 11990:Military 11951:Intersex 11941:Politics 11907:Politics 11709:Interwar 11404:Economic 11399:Language 11384:Timeline 10476:(1976). 10350:3023833M 10330:(2002). 10166:Wikidata 10042:(2005). 10032:1094174M 10005:19269229 9974:(1954). 9955:6249001M 9935:(1961). 9925:2527483M 9905:(1988). 9820:65-18768 9798:(1966). 9788:6410854M 9772:40033736 9762:(1940). 9752:7738060M 9705:(1996). 9672:41299115 9487:(1940). 9351:(2003). 8711:Archived 8109:41299224 8046:(2003). 7718:4114844M 7698:(1981). 7490:(1975). 7262:(2003). 7234:(1991). 7176:18 March 7170:Archived 7145:18 March 7139:Archived 6944:18 March 6935:Archived 6458:Archived 6432:Archived 6365:1865793M 6270:(2001). 6096:Archived 6060:(2002). 6021:Archived 5860:See also 5681:opposed. 5557:Lorraine 5370:protégés 5368:and his 5322:Pertinax 5069:Ardennes 4932:'s film 4876:Ardennes 4721:Napoleon 4596:Hitler's 4388:Jacobins 4065:and the 4032:Big Four 3926:le Tigre 3902:Fighting 3789:settlers 3701:Boer War 3623:(left), 3621:Marianne 3390:Holy See 3350:La Croix 3305:Leo XIII 3289:Leo XIII 3057:La Croix 2963:L'Aurore 2957:J'accuse 2745:Taxation 2723:Religion 2718:Politics 2711:Consorts 2706:Monarchs 2701:Military 2696:Medicine 2372:987–1328 2361:987–1792 2315:Frankish 2313:and the 2236:Timeline 2208:a series 2206:Part of 1992:Catholic 1742:and his 1631:Radicals 1541:Lorraine 1384:Taxation 1362:Religion 1357:Politics 1350:Consorts 1345:Monarchs 1340:Military 1335:Medicine 1011:987–1328 1000:987–1792 954:Frankish 952:and the 875:Timeline 847:a series 845:Part of 652:Currency 362:republic 209:mandates 205:Colonies 12340:Outline 12322:Theatre 12317:Symbols 12277:Gardens 12267:Fashion 12259:Cuisine 12226:Culture 12216:Welfare 12189:Poverty 12127:Society 12103:Tourism 12063:Exports 12036:Banking 12014:Economy 11973:history 11868:Islands 11863:Borders 11496:Francia 11450:Ancient 11428:Regions 11379:History 11364:History 10939:In Asia 10772:Germany 10582:(2003) 10565:(2003) 10548:(1985) 10496:(1988) 10449:(1987) 10374:(2001) 10273:(2013). 10245:(2000) 10235:(1995) 10204:(1940) 10194:(1952) 10142:(2000) 10104:(1953) 10068:Surveys 9630:2702049 8717:9 April 8144:2601740 7586:. 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The 4333:Stalin 4307:Munich 3984:Morale 3827:, and 3610:, and 3553:Tonkin 3549:Fuzhou 3356:. The 2919:Capt. 2771:· 2769: 2667:Topics 2379:Valois 2320: 2258: 2219:France 2210:on the 2116:laїque 2105:. The 2012:Senate 1864:. 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