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Sardinia and
Corsica. It is unclear from the sources why the Romans acted differently from three years earlier. Polybius held that this action was indefensible. Carthage sent an embassy to Rome, who quoted the Treaty of Lutatius and claimed Carthage was outfitting its own expedition to retake the island, which it had held for 300 years. The Roman Senate stated they considered the preparation of this force an act of war, and demanded Carthage cede Sardinia and Corsica, and pay an additional 1,200-talent indemnity, as peace terms. Weakened by 30 years of war, Carthage agreed rather than again enter into conflict with Rome. The renunciation of Sardinia, which was understood to include Corsica, and the additional payment were added to the treaty as a codicil. Polybius considered this "contrary to all justice" and modern historians have variously described the Romans' behaviour as "unprovoked aggression and treaty-breaking", "shamelessly opportunistic" and an "unscrupulous act".
713:
743:, to each lead an army. Catulus's term was near its end and his replacement could be expected to arrive on Sicily shortly. This caused him to be flexible during the negotiations as he was eager to conclude a definitive peace while he still had the authority to, and thus claim the credit for bringing the lengthy war to a close. Gisco and Catulus agreed Carthage would hand over what it still held of Sicily; release all Roman prisoners without ransom, although ransom would need to be paid to secure the release of prisoners held by the Romans; and pay an indemnity of 2,200 talents of silver – 57,000 kilograms (56 long tons) – over 20 years. These terms were referred to Rome for
626:
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engaging in their traditional policy of waiting for their opponents to wear themselves out, in the expectation of then regaining some or all of their possessions and negotiating a mutually satisfactory peace treaty. Rome was the stronger land-based power and had gained control of most of Sicily. The
Carthaginian leadership preferred to expand their area of control in North Africa at the expense of the
820:. In late 240 or early 239 BC the Carthaginian garrisons on Sardinia joined the mutiny, killing their officers and the island's governor. The Carthaginians sent a force to retake the island. When it arrived its members also mutinied, joined the previous mutineers, and killed all of the Carthaginians on the island. The mutineers then appealed to Rome for protection, which was refused.
804:
supplied food and financial resources. Rome pointedly declined to take advantage of
Carthage's troubles and adhered to the terms of the recent treaty. Italians were prohibited from trading with the rebels but encouraged to trade with Carthage; 2,743 Carthaginian prisoners still held were released without a ransom and were immediately enrolled into Carthage's army.
544:
modern historian Andrew Curry considers "Polybius turns out to fairly reliable"; while Dexter Hoyos describes him as "a remarkably well-informed, industrious, and insightful historian". Other, later, histories of the war and the treaty that ended it exist, but in fragmentary or summary form. Modern historians usually also take into account the histories of
767:
minor clauses in the final agreement: neither party was to interfere with the other's allies nor make war on them; nor recruit soldiers from the other's territory; nor raise money for public works from the other party's territory. These were all formalised in the Treaty of
Lutatius, named after Catulus, who had remained on Sicily as a
803:
broke out. The news of a formed, experienced, anti-Carthaginian army in the heart of its territory spread rapidly and many cities and towns rose in rebellion; some were freshly conquered and all had been harshly oppressed to finance the recently ended war. They added 70,000 men to the rebel force and
766:
Gisco rapidly agreed to further concessions with the commission: several islands close to Sicily would also be handed over; the indemnity was increased to 3,200 talents, with the additional 1,000 talents payable immediately and the time allowed to pay the balance reduced to 10 years. There were other
782:
says that the negotiators on both sides "showed themselves realistic and reasonable in their demands". Adrian
Goldsworthy states "the peace terms made it clear that had been defeated" and Richard Miles claims that "the terms agreed in 241 were harsh". On the other hand, Bruno Bleckmann believes the
731:
with the Romans, on whatever terms he could obtain. After receiving the order to make peace, Hamilcar refused, claiming the surrender was unnecessary. Several modern historians have raised the possibility that for political and prestige reasons
Hamilcar did not wish to be associated with the treaty
638:
The war lasted 23 years, with the maritime aspect the largest and longest naval war of the ancient world. By 249 BC the war had developed into a struggle in which the Romans were attempting to decisively defeat the
Carthaginians and, at a minimum, control the whole of Sicily. The Carthaginians were
442:
Rome then sent a ten-man commission to settle the matter. This in turn agreed that
Carthage would hand over what it still held of Sicily; relinquish several groups of islands nearby; release all Roman prisoners without ransom, although ransom would need to be paid to secure the release of prisoners
1028:
There is scholarly debate as to whether
Saguntum was a formal Roman ally, in which case attacking it may have been a breach of the clause in the Treaty of Lutatius prohibiting attacking each others allies; or whether the city had less formally requested Rome's protection, and possibly been granted
690:
to be imposed on
Carthage once the war was won. The result was a fleet of approximately 200 large warships, built, equipped, and crewed without government expense. The Carthaginians raised a larger fleet which they intended to use to run supplies into Sicily. It was intercepted by the Roman fleet
543:
deals with the First Punic War. The accuracy of Polybius's account has been much debated over the past 150 years, but the modern consensus is to accept it largely at face value, and the details of the treaty in modern sources are almost entirely based on interpretations of Polybius's account. The
833:
Probably in 237 BC the indigenous inhabitants of Sardinia rose up and drove out the mutinous garrison, which took refuge in Roman-controlled Italy. As the war in Africa came to a close, they appealed again for Roman assistance. This time the Romans agreed and prepared an expedition to seize both
658:
took command of the Carthaginians on Sicily in 247 BC he was only given a small army and the Carthaginian fleet was gradually withdrawn. After more than 20 years of war, both states were financially exhausted and were struggling to find sufficient men of military age for their armies and navies.
703:
the better-trained Romans defeated the undermanned and ill-trained Carthaginian fleet. Of the 250 Carthaginian warships, 50 were sunk – 20 of them with all hands – and 70 captured. After achieving this decisive victory, the Romans continued their land operations in
466:
and the payment of an additional 1,200-talent indemnity – 30,000 kg (30 long tons). Weakened by 30 years of war, Carthage agreed rather than enter into a conflict with Rome again; the additional payment and the renunciation of
726:
was reluctant to allocate the resources necessary to build and man another fleet. In any case, it was probable their Sicilian garrisons would be starved into surrender before that could be done. Instead, it ordered Hamilcar to negotiate a
854: – with the exception of Syracuse, which remained nominally independent and a close ally of Rome. The Romans required a strong military presence on Sardinia and Corsica for at least the next seven years, as they
759:, who by this time had succeeded him as consul. The historian of ancient Rome Adam Ziolkowski argues there was a faction in Rome opposed to the treaty, and possibly to ending the war at all, which was led by the ex-consul
520:, written sometime after 146 BC, or about a century after the end of the war. Polybius's work is considered broadly objective and largely neutral as between Carthaginian and Roman points of view.
614:
in a military and commercial empire. In 264 BC Carthage and Rome were the pre-eminent powers in the western Mediterranean. The two states had several times asserted their mutual friendship via
686:
decided to build a new fleet. With the state's coffers exhausted, the Senate approached Rome's wealthiest citizens for loans to finance the construction of one ship each, repayable from the
862:
by Rome and the additional indemnity fuelled resentment in Carthage, which was not reconciled to Rome's perception of its situation. When Carthage besieged the Roman-protected town of
654:; these were well-fortified and situated on the west coast, where they could be supplied and reinforced without the Romans being able to use their superior army to interfere. When
217:
197:
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287:
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Several different "talents" are known from antiquity. The ones referred to in this article are all Euboic (or Euboeic) talents, of approximately 26 kilograms (57 lb).
282:
739:
Gisco opened discussions with Catulus, the recently victorious Roman commander on Sicily. It was the long-standing Roman procedure to appoint two men each year, known as
771:. Hamilcar immediately handed over command on Sicily to Gisco, who was left to formally inform Carthage of what had been agreed. Catulus returned to Rome to celebrate a
562:, who relied on much earlier sources, is also sometimes used. All, like Polybius, draw most of their information from even earlier, now lost, accounts. The classicist
618:: in 509 BC, 348 BC and around 279 BC. Relationships were good, with strong commercial links. In 264 BC the two cities went to war over the city of Messana (modern
423:
with the Romans, on whatever terms he could negotiate. Hamilcar refused, claiming the surrender was unnecessary, and the negotiation of the peace terms was left to
2692:
158:
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After Carthage evacuated its 20,000-strong army from Sicily to North Africa it became embroiled with the troops in a pay dispute. Eventually the troops
858:. Henceforth Rome was the leading military power in the western Mediterranean, and increasingly the Mediterranean region as a whole. The seizure of
451:) – over 10 years. The treaty received its name from the victorious Gaius Lutatius Catulus, who also negotiated the initial draft.
330:
252:
3168:
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763:. This possible disagreement within Roman policy makers was exemplified by Atticus being elected consul again in 241 BC alongside Cerco.
514:
BC), a Greek sent to Rome in 167 BC as a hostage. His works include a now lost manual on military tactics, but he is known today for
151:
1029:
it. In either case, the Carthaginians argued that relationships entered into after the signing of the treaty were not covered by it.
940:
Sources other than Polybius are discussed by Bernard Mineo in "Principal Literary Sources for the Punic Wars (apart from Polybius)".
454:
In 237 BC, when Carthage was recovering from a bitter and hard-fought civil war, it prepared an expedition to recover the island of
2744:
3148:
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in the southern Italian mainland for a century before the First Punic War. It had conquered peninsular Italy south of the River
732:
which formalised Carthage's defeat in the 23-year-long war. As the next most senior Carthaginian on the island, it was left to
2364:
Scullard, H.H. (2006) . "Carthage and Rome". In Walbank, F. W.; Astin, A. E.; Frederiksen, M. W. & Ogilvie, R. M. (eds.).
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In late 243 BC realising they would not capture Drepana and Lilybaeum unless they could extend their blockade to the sea, the
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Goldsworthy suggests this was to enable the money borrowed to build the recently victorious fleet to be promptly repaid.
816:, was allowed to supply Carthage with the large amounts of food it needed and was no longer able to obtain from its own
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2813:
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Mineo, Bernard (2015) . "Principal Literary Sources for the Punic Wars (apart from Polybius)". In Hoyos, Dexter (ed.).
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after 23 years of conflict. Most of the fighting during the war took place on, or in the waters around, the island of
3173:
2754:
2100:
755:. A ten-man commission was then sent to Sicily to settle the matter. The commission was chaired by Catulus's brother
462:. Cynically, the Romans stated they considered this an act of war. Their peace terms were the ceding of Sardinia and
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For Rome, the treaty marked the start of its expansion beyond the Italian Peninsula. Sicily became the first
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A Roman coin from 109 BC alluding to Catulus's victory; it shows a galley within a wreath of oak leaves
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states "Polybius' account is usually to be preferred when it differs with any of our other accounts".
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531:, in 146 BC and so Polybius's account of the First Punic War is based on several, now-lost,
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272:
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487: – "a remarkably well-informed, industrious, and insightful historian".
459:
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Champion, Craige B. (2015) . "Polybius and the Punic Wars". In Hoyos, Dexter (ed.).
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Hoyos, Dexter (2000). "Towards a Chronology of the 'Truceless War', 241–237 B.C.".
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The Temples of Mid-Republican Rome and Their Historical and Topographical Context
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of its last, beleaguered, strongholds there. Accepting defeat, the Carthaginian
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242:
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126:
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Evidence of Carthage's financial situation includes their request for a 2,000-
3132:
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2485:
Wardle, David (2005). "Valerius Maximus and the End of the First Punic War".
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2,000 talents was approximately 52,000 kilograms (51 long tons) of silver.
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2277:
2215:
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1,200 talents was approximately 30,000 kg (30 long tons) of silver.
1001:
1,000 talents was approximately 25,000 kg (25 long tons) of silver.
992:
3,200 talents was approximately 82,000 kg (81 long tons) of silver.
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340:
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The Punic Wars: Rome, Carthage and the Struggle for the Mediterranean
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Territory ceded to Rome by Carthage under the treaty is shown in pink
768:
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2349:. Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 111–128.
2107:. Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 167–183.
2145:. Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 95–110.
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From 250 BC the Carthaginians held only two cities on Sicily:
630:
Territory controlled by Rome and Carthage at the start of the
435:
was rapidly agreed upon, but when it was referred to Rome for
431:, as the next most senior Carthaginian on the island. A draft
1961:
1918:
1916:
1872:
1870:
1722:
1720:
1718:
1705:
1703:
1701:
1422:
1420:
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908:
539:
sources. Only part of the first book of the forty comprising
536:
308:
1456:
1379:
1355:
1343:
1202:
2368:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 486–569.
1811:
1280:
1270:
1268:
1105:
1103:
583:
2030:
2018:
1951:
1949:
1947:
1945:
1943:
1913:
1867:
1775:
1763:
1715:
1698:
1686:
1618:
1415:
679:, had declined by 17 per cent since the start of the war.
2470:. Vol. 1. Berkeley: University of California Press.
2202:
Curry, Andrew (2012). "The Weapon That Changed History".
1993:
1991:
1978:
1976:
1845:
1843:
1676:
1674:
1672:
1516:
1391:
1307:
1253:
1190:
1088:
736:, the commander of Lilybaeum, to broker the peace terms.
2366:
Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 7, Part 2, 2nd Edition
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The views of modern scholars on the treaty are mixed.
2042:
1751:
1654:
1606:
1579:
1552:
1540:
1444:
1041:
643:, and probably viewed Sicily as a secondary theatre.
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2003:
1928:
1901:
1882:
1591:
1564:
1403:
1295:
1241:
1178:
1130:
787:
states that it was "somewhat lenient" for Carthage.
722:
With their relief effort defeated, the Carthaginian
2425:
The World of Rome: An Introduction to Roman Culture
2308:. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press.
1229:
1142:
1115:
598:, much of the coastal regions of North Africa, the
2289:. Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons.
443:held by the Romans; and pay an indemnity of 3,200
675:, who provided the manpower for the navy and the
3130:
2247:Moral History from Herodotus to Diodorus Siculus
447:of silver – 82,000 kilograms (81
2228:The Fall of Carthage: The Punic Wars 265–146 BC
877:
492:The main source for almost every aspect of the
783:treaty to have been "remarkably moderate" and
391:of 241 BC (amended in 237 BC), that ended the
2589:
2575:
2442:Tipps, G.K. (1985). "The Battle of Ecnomus".
2383:Shutt, Rowland (1938). "Polybius: A Sketch".
324:
152:
2419:
1094:
927:", and is a reference to the Carthaginians'
667:, which was refused. Rome was also close to
16:Peace treaty which ended the First Punic War
2222:
2126:. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Polity Press.
2036:
2024:
1922:
1876:
1834:
1745:
1709:
1692:
1636:
1624:
1522:
1462:
1438:
1426:
1385:
1361:
1349:
1313:
1259:
1211:
1196:
1109:
918:
912:
856:struggled to suppress the local inhabitants
2582:
2568:
2527:
2505:
1397:
1289:
699:on 10 March 241 BC and in the hard-fought
331:
317:
159:
145:
2444:Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte
2249:. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
2189:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2121:
2098:
1805:
1534:
2363:
2181:
2140:
1955:
1861:
1817:
1648:
1082:
1070:
822:
711:
624:
478:
415:ordered their army commander on Sicily,
2462:
2306:The First Punic War: A Military History
2303:
2159:
2101:"Roman Politics in the First Punic War"
2076:
2048:
1997:
1982:
1849:
1793:
1781:
1769:
1726:
1680:
1663:
1612:
1585:
1558:
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1510:
1498:
1486:
1474:
1450:
1409:
1337:
1223:
1172:
1160:
1136:
1058:
790:
3131:
2484:
1757:
704:Sicily against Lilybaeum and Drepana.
622:) in the north-eastern tip of Sicily.
2563:
2513:. New York: Barnes & Noble, Inc.
2441:
2382:
2344:
2322:
2284:
2263:
2201:
2165:Spain: An Oxford Archaeological Guide
2060:
2012:
1967:
1934:
1907:
1895:
1600:
1573:
1373:
1325:
1301:
1274:
1247:
1235:
1148:
1124:
312:
140:
3169:3rd century BC in the Roman Republic
2244:
1184:
399:and in 241 BC a Carthaginian fleet
166:
13:
747:, where they were rejected by the
590:, with its capital in what is now
569:
474:
14:
3185:
2548:
2532:. Rome: L'Erma di Bretschneider.
2266:Rheinisches Museum für Philologie
949:Hamilcar Barca was the father of
3102:
3101:
2721:
594:, had come to dominate southern
2750:Hamilcar's victory with Naravas
2555:Polybius on the First Punic War
2124:A History of the Roman Republic
1022:
1013:
1004:
995:
986:
965:
956:
943:
934:
761:Aulus Manlius Torquatus Atticus
3149:Treaties of the Roman Republic
2427:. Cambridge University Press.
897:
888:
586:by 272 BC. During this period
403:by a Roman fleet commanded by
338:
65:With a codicil added in 237 BC
1:
2347:A Companion to the Punic Wars
2287:A Companion to the Punic Wars
2143:A Companion to the Punic Wars
2105:A Companion to the Punic Wars
671:and the number of adult male
523:Carthaginian written records
508:
501:
407:while attempting to lift the
1376:, pp. 94, 160, 163–165.
1035:
878:Notes, citations and sources
837:
7:
2167:. Oxford University Press.
10:
3190:
2423:; Jones, Peter V. (1997).
2328:Carthage Must be Destroyed
2103:. In Hoyos, Dexter (ed.).
2099:Bleckmann, Bruno (2015) .
2069:
1441:, pp. 92, 96–97, 130.
610:, and the western half of
527:along with their capital,
471:were added to the treaty.
383:was the agreement between
3097:
3059:
2778:
2730:
2719:
2598:
2528:Ziolkowski, Adam (1992).
2397:10.1017/S001738350000588X
2122:Bringmann, Klaus (2007).
870:in 218 BC it ignited the
707:
348:
178:
114:
90:
69:
59:
51:
32:
24:
3174:Treaties of ancient Rome
2187:Roman Republican Coinage
1970:, pp. 209, 212–213.
1095:Sidwell & Jones 1997
882:
808:, the king of the Roman
753:Roman popular assemblies
3159:3rd-century BC treaties
3036:Great Plains (Bagradas)
2285:Hoyos, Dexter (2015) .
1226:, pp. x–xi, 82–84.
552:, and the 12th-century
2304:Lazenby, John (1996).
919:
913:
830:
757:Quintus Lutatius Cerco
719:
697:Quintus Valerius Falto
693:Gaius Lutatius Catulus
635:
580:aggressively expanding
489:
405:Gaius Lutatius Catulus
106:Quintus Lutatius Cerco
102:Gaius Lutatius Catulus
82:Gaius Lutatius Catulus
2330:. New York: Penguin.
826:
715:
701:Battle of the Aegates
628:
482:
3164:Treaties of Carthage
2814:Crossing of the Alps
2450:(4th Qtr): 432–465.
860:Sardinia and Corsica
791:Sardinia and Corsica
469:Sardinia and Corsica
2230:. London: Phoenix.
2224:Goldsworthy, Adrian
2084:. London: Pimlico.
1837:, pp. 135–136.
1820:, pp. 565–566.
1784:, pp. 158–159.
1772:, pp. 157–159.
1748:, pp. 128–129.
1729:, pp. 157–158.
1639:, pp. 125–126.
1328:, pp. 157–158.
1277:, pp. 111–127.
751:, one of the three
749:Centuriate Assembly
427:, the commander of
21:
2905:Claw of Archimedes
2713:Treaty of Lutatius
2245:Hau, Lisa (2016).
831:
720:
636:
564:Adrian Goldsworthy
490:
381:Treaty of Lutatius
298:Treaty of Lutatius
36:Treaty to end the
20:Treaty of Lutatius
19:
3124:
3123:
2539:978-88-7062-798-5
2520:978-1-56619-210-1
2507:Warmington, Brian
2477:978-0-520-06981-7
2434:978-0-521-38600-5
2421:Sidwell, Keith C.
2385:Greece & Rome
2375:978-0-521-23446-7
2356:978-1-1190-2550-4
2337:978-0-14-101809-6
2315:978-0-8047-2673-3
2296:978-1-1190-2550-4
2256:978-1-4744-1107-3
2237:978-0-304-36642-2
2183:Crawford, Michael
2174:978-0-19-285300-4
2152:978-1-1190-2550-4
2133:978-0-7456-3370-1
2114:978-1-1190-2550-4
2091:978-0-7126-6608-4
1513:, pp. 92–94.
1477:, pp. 64–66.
1465:, pp. 94–95.
1388:, pp. 69–70.
1364:, pp. 25–26.
1352:, pp. 29–30.
1340:, pp. 21–22.
1292:, pp. 41–45.
1214:, pp. 20–21.
1187:, pp. 23–24.
1163:, pp. 11–12.
801:war with Carthage
496:is the historian
458:, which had been
439:it was rejected.
419:, to negotiate a
376:
375:
306:
305:
135:
134:
3181:
3115:Military history
3105:
3104:
3079:Port of Carthage
2915:
2908:
2907:
2787:
2780:Second Punic War
2725:
2663:Bagradas (Tunis)
2584:
2577:
2570:
2561:
2560:
2543:
2524:
2502:
2481:
2459:
2438:
2416:
2379:
2360:
2341:
2319:
2300:
2281:
2272:(3/4): 369–380.
2260:
2241:
2219:
2198:
2178:
2156:
2137:
2118:
2095:
2064:
2058:
2052:
2046:
2040:
2037:Goldsworthy 2006
2034:
2028:
2025:Goldsworthy 2006
2022:
2016:
2010:
2001:
1995:
1986:
1980:
1971:
1965:
1959:
1953:
1938:
1932:
1926:
1923:Goldsworthy 2006
1920:
1911:
1905:
1899:
1893:
1880:
1877:Goldsworthy 2006
1874:
1865:
1859:
1853:
1847:
1838:
1835:Goldsworthy 2006
1832:
1821:
1815:
1809:
1803:
1797:
1791:
1785:
1779:
1773:
1767:
1761:
1755:
1749:
1746:Goldsworthy 2006
1743:
1730:
1724:
1713:
1710:Goldsworthy 2006
1707:
1696:
1693:Goldsworthy 2006
1690:
1684:
1678:
1667:
1661:
1652:
1646:
1640:
1637:Goldsworthy 2006
1634:
1628:
1625:Goldsworthy 2006
1622:
1616:
1610:
1604:
1598:
1589:
1583:
1577:
1571:
1562:
1556:
1550:
1544:
1538:
1532:
1526:
1523:Goldsworthy 2006
1520:
1514:
1508:
1502:
1496:
1490:
1484:
1478:
1472:
1466:
1463:Goldsworthy 2006
1460:
1454:
1448:
1442:
1439:Goldsworthy 2006
1436:
1430:
1427:Goldsworthy 2006
1424:
1413:
1407:
1401:
1395:
1389:
1386:Goldsworthy 2006
1383:
1377:
1371:
1365:
1362:Goldsworthy 2006
1359:
1353:
1350:Goldsworthy 2006
1347:
1341:
1335:
1329:
1323:
1317:
1314:Goldsworthy 2006
1311:
1305:
1299:
1293:
1287:
1278:
1272:
1263:
1260:Goldsworthy 2006
1257:
1251:
1245:
1239:
1233:
1227:
1221:
1215:
1212:Goldsworthy 2006
1209:
1200:
1197:Goldsworthy 2006
1194:
1188:
1182:
1176:
1175:, pp. x–xi.
1170:
1164:
1158:
1152:
1146:
1140:
1134:
1128:
1122:
1113:
1110:Goldsworthy 2006
1107:
1098:
1092:
1086:
1080:
1074:
1068:
1062:
1056:
1030:
1026:
1020:
1017:
1011:
1008:
1002:
999:
993:
990:
984:
969:
963:
960:
954:
947:
941:
938:
932:
922:
916:
901:
895:
892:
872:Second Punic War
850:, governed by a
616:formal alliances
600:Balearic Islands
546:Diodorus Siculus
513:
510:
506:
503:
343:
333:
326:
319:
310:
309:
248:Bagradas (Tunis)
173:
171:
161:
154:
147:
138:
137:
22:
18:
3189:
3188:
3184:
3183:
3182:
3180:
3179:
3178:
3144:First Punic War
3129:
3128:
3125:
3120:
3093:
3061:Third Punic War
3055:
3016:Carteia (naval)
2911:
2899:
2898:
2783:
2782:
2774:
2726:
2717:
2688:Drepana (siege)
2600:First Punic War
2594:
2590:Battles of the
2588:
2551:
2546:
2540:
2521:
2478:
2435:
2376:
2357:
2338:
2316:
2297:
2257:
2238:
2175:
2153:
2134:
2115:
2092:
2072:
2067:
2059:
2055:
2047:
2043:
2035:
2031:
2023:
2019:
2011:
2004:
1996:
1989:
1981:
1974:
1966:
1962:
1954:
1941:
1933:
1929:
1921:
1914:
1906:
1902:
1894:
1883:
1875:
1868:
1860:
1856:
1848:
1841:
1833:
1824:
1816:
1812:
1804:
1800:
1792:
1788:
1780:
1776:
1768:
1764:
1756:
1752:
1744:
1733:
1725:
1716:
1708:
1699:
1691:
1687:
1679:
1670:
1662:
1655:
1647:
1643:
1635:
1631:
1623:
1619:
1611:
1607:
1599:
1592:
1584:
1580:
1572:
1565:
1557:
1553:
1545:
1541:
1533:
1529:
1521:
1517:
1509:
1505:
1497:
1493:
1485:
1481:
1473:
1469:
1461:
1457:
1449:
1445:
1437:
1433:
1425:
1416:
1408:
1404:
1398:Warmington 1993
1396:
1392:
1384:
1380:
1372:
1368:
1360:
1356:
1348:
1344:
1336:
1332:
1324:
1320:
1312:
1308:
1300:
1296:
1290:Ziolkowski 1992
1288:
1281:
1273:
1266:
1258:
1254:
1246:
1242:
1234:
1230:
1222:
1218:
1210:
1203:
1195:
1191:
1183:
1179:
1171:
1167:
1159:
1155:
1147:
1143:
1135:
1131:
1123:
1116:
1108:
1101:
1093:
1089:
1081:
1077:
1069:
1065:
1057:
1042:
1038:
1033:
1027:
1023:
1018:
1014:
1009:
1005:
1000:
996:
991:
987:
977:Aegades Islands
970:
966:
961:
957:
948:
944:
939:
935:
907:comes from the
902:
898:
893:
889:
885:
880:
840:
829:
793:
785:Howard Scullard
718:
710:
665:Ptolemaic Egypt
634:
632:First Punic War
572:
570:First Punic War
560:Joannes Zonaras
511:
504:
494:First Punic War
488:
477:
475:Primary sources
393:First Punic War
377:
372:
344:
339:
337:
307:
302:
293:Aegates Islands
278:Drepana (siege)
218:2nd Mytistratus
198:1st Mytistratus
174:
170:First Punic War
169:
167:
165:
131:
110:
86:
64:
38:First Punic War
17:
12:
11:
5:
3187:
3177:
3176:
3171:
3166:
3161:
3156:
3154:Peace treaties
3151:
3146:
3141:
3122:
3121:
3119:
3118:
3111:
3098:
3095:
3094:
3092:
3091:
3086:
3081:
3076:
3071:
3065:
3063:
3057:
3056:
3054:
3053:
3048:
3043:
3038:
3033:
3028:
3023:
3018:
3013:
3011:Carteia (land)
3008:
3003:
2998:
2993:
2988:
2983:
2978:
2973:
2968:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2948:
2943:
2938:
2933:
2928:
2926:2nd Beneventum
2923:
2918:
2917:
2916:
2909:
2891:
2889:1st Beneventum
2886:
2881:
2876:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2846:
2841:
2839:Lake Trasimene
2836:
2831:
2826:
2821:
2816:
2811:
2806:
2801:
2796:
2790:
2788:
2776:
2775:
2773:
2772:
2767:
2762:
2757:
2752:
2747:
2742:
2736:
2734:
2728:
2727:
2720:
2718:
2716:
2715:
2710:
2705:
2700:
2695:
2690:
2685:
2680:
2675:
2670:
2665:
2660:
2655:
2650:
2645:
2640:
2635:
2630:
2625:
2623:Lipari Islands
2620:
2615:
2610:
2604:
2602:
2596:
2595:
2587:
2586:
2579:
2572:
2564:
2558:
2557:
2550:
2549:External links
2547:
2545:
2544:
2538:
2525:
2519:
2503:
2493:(2): 377–384.
2482:
2476:
2460:
2439:
2433:
2417:
2380:
2374:
2361:
2355:
2342:
2336:
2324:Miles, Richard
2320:
2314:
2301:
2295:
2282:
2261:
2255:
2242:
2236:
2220:
2199:
2179:
2173:
2161:Collins, Roger
2157:
2151:
2138:
2132:
2119:
2113:
2096:
2090:
2078:Bagnall, Nigel
2073:
2071:
2068:
2066:
2065:
2063:, p. 213.
2053:
2041:
2039:, p. 144.
2029:
2027:, p. 360.
2017:
2015:, p. 211.
2002:
2000:, p. 124.
1987:
1985:, p. 175.
1972:
1960:
1958:, p. 569.
1939:
1937:, p. 210.
1927:
1925:, p. 136.
1912:
1910:, p. 376.
1900:
1898:, p. 212.
1881:
1879:, p. 135.
1866:
1864:, p. 568.
1854:
1852:, p. 173.
1839:
1822:
1810:
1808:, p. 180.
1806:Bleckmann 2015
1798:
1796:, p. 159.
1786:
1774:
1762:
1760:, p. 382.
1750:
1731:
1714:
1712:, p. 128.
1697:
1695:, p. 133.
1685:
1683:, p. 157.
1668:
1653:
1651:, p. 315.
1641:
1629:
1627:, p. 125.
1617:
1605:
1603:, p. 196.
1590:
1578:
1576:, p. 195.
1563:
1551:
1539:
1537:, p. 127.
1535:Bringmann 2007
1527:
1515:
1503:
1501:, p. 144.
1491:
1489:, p. 165.
1479:
1467:
1455:
1443:
1431:
1429:, p. 129.
1414:
1402:
1400:, p. 165.
1390:
1378:
1366:
1354:
1342:
1330:
1318:
1306:
1304:, p. 126.
1294:
1279:
1264:
1252:
1250:, p. 102.
1240:
1228:
1216:
1201:
1189:
1177:
1165:
1153:
1141:
1129:
1127:, p. 432.
1114:
1099:
1087:
1085:, p. 102.
1075:
1073:, p. 565.
1063:
1061:, p. 158.
1039:
1037:
1034:
1032:
1031:
1021:
1012:
1003:
994:
985:
964:
955:
942:
933:
896:
886:
884:
881:
879:
876:
844:Roman province
839:
836:
827:
792:
789:
775:on 4 October.
716:
709:
706:
656:Hamilcar Barca
629:
576:Roman Republic
571:
568:
525:were destroyed
483:
476:
473:
460:lost to rebels
417:Hamilcar Barca
374:
373:
371:
370:
365:
360:
355:
349:
346:
345:
336:
335:
328:
321:
313:
304:
303:
301:
300:
295:
290:
285:
280:
275:
270:
265:
260:
255:
250:
245:
240:
235:
230:
225:
220:
215:
210:
205:
203:Lipari Islands
200:
195:
190:
185:
179:
176:
175:
164:
163:
156:
149:
141:
133:
132:
130:
129:
124:
118:
116:
112:
111:
109:
108:
103:
100:
94:
92:
88:
87:
85:
84:
79:
77:Hamilcar Barca
73:
71:
67:
66:
61:
57:
56:
53:
49:
48:
34:
30:
29:
26:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3186:
3175:
3172:
3170:
3167:
3165:
3162:
3160:
3157:
3155:
3152:
3150:
3147:
3145:
3142:
3140:
3137:
3136:
3134:
3127:
3117:
3116:
3112:
3110:
3109:
3100:
3099:
3096:
3090:
3087:
3085:
3082:
3080:
3077:
3075:
3072:
3070:
3067:
3066:
3064:
3062:
3058:
3052:
3049:
3047:
3044:
3042:
3039:
3037:
3034:
3032:
3029:
3027:
3024:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3004:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2992:
2989:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2954:
2952:
2949:
2947:
2944:
2942:
2939:
2937:
2934:
2932:
2929:
2927:
2924:
2922:
2919:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2902:
2897:
2896:
2895:
2892:
2890:
2887:
2885:
2882:
2880:
2877:
2875:
2872:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2850:
2847:
2845:
2844:Ager Falernus
2842:
2840:
2837:
2835:
2832:
2830:
2827:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2817:
2815:
2812:
2810:
2807:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2795:
2792:
2791:
2789:
2786:
2781:
2777:
2771:
2768:
2766:
2763:
2761:
2758:
2756:
2753:
2751:
2748:
2746:
2743:
2741:
2738:
2737:
2735:
2733:
2732:Mercenary War
2729:
2724:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2694:
2691:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2681:
2679:
2676:
2674:
2671:
2669:
2668:Cape Hermaeum
2666:
2664:
2661:
2659:
2656:
2654:
2651:
2649:
2646:
2644:
2641:
2639:
2636:
2634:
2631:
2629:
2626:
2624:
2621:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2611:
2609:
2606:
2605:
2603:
2601:
2597:
2593:
2585:
2580:
2578:
2573:
2571:
2566:
2565:
2562:
2556:
2553:
2552:
2541:
2535:
2531:
2526:
2522:
2516:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2483:
2479:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2464:Walbank, F.W.
2461:
2457:
2453:
2449:
2445:
2440:
2436:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2391:(22): 50–57.
2390:
2386:
2381:
2377:
2371:
2367:
2362:
2358:
2352:
2348:
2343:
2339:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2311:
2307:
2302:
2298:
2292:
2288:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2262:
2258:
2252:
2248:
2243:
2239:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2148:
2144:
2139:
2135:
2129:
2125:
2120:
2116:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2097:
2093:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2074:
2062:
2057:
2051:, p. 13.
2050:
2045:
2038:
2033:
2026:
2021:
2014:
2009:
2007:
1999:
1994:
1992:
1984:
1979:
1977:
1969:
1964:
1957:
1956:Scullard 2006
1952:
1950:
1948:
1946:
1944:
1936:
1931:
1924:
1919:
1917:
1909:
1904:
1897:
1892:
1890:
1888:
1886:
1878:
1873:
1871:
1863:
1862:Scullard 2006
1858:
1851:
1846:
1844:
1836:
1831:
1829:
1827:
1819:
1818:Scullard 2006
1814:
1807:
1802:
1795:
1790:
1783:
1778:
1771:
1766:
1759:
1754:
1747:
1742:
1740:
1738:
1736:
1728:
1723:
1721:
1719:
1711:
1706:
1704:
1702:
1694:
1689:
1682:
1677:
1675:
1673:
1666:, p. 97.
1665:
1660:
1658:
1650:
1649:Crawford 1974
1645:
1638:
1633:
1626:
1621:
1615:, p. 96.
1614:
1609:
1602:
1597:
1595:
1588:, p. 49.
1587:
1582:
1575:
1570:
1568:
1561:, p. 91.
1560:
1555:
1549:, p. 92.
1548:
1543:
1536:
1531:
1525:, p. 95.
1524:
1519:
1512:
1507:
1500:
1495:
1488:
1483:
1476:
1471:
1464:
1459:
1453:, p. 94.
1452:
1447:
1440:
1435:
1428:
1423:
1421:
1419:
1411:
1406:
1399:
1394:
1387:
1382:
1375:
1370:
1363:
1358:
1351:
1346:
1339:
1334:
1327:
1322:
1316:, p. 21.
1315:
1310:
1303:
1298:
1291:
1286:
1284:
1276:
1271:
1269:
1262:, p. 22.
1261:
1256:
1249:
1244:
1238:, p. 34.
1237:
1232:
1225:
1220:
1213:
1208:
1206:
1199:, p. 23.
1198:
1193:
1186:
1181:
1174:
1169:
1162:
1157:
1151:, p. 53.
1150:
1145:
1139:, p. 13.
1138:
1133:
1126:
1121:
1119:
1112:, p. 20.
1111:
1106:
1104:
1097:, p. 16.
1096:
1091:
1084:
1083:Champion 2015
1079:
1072:
1071:Scullard 2006
1067:
1060:
1055:
1053:
1051:
1049:
1047:
1045:
1040:
1025:
1016:
1007:
998:
989:
982:
978:
974:
971:Probably the
968:
959:
952:
946:
937:
930:
926:
921:
915:
910:
906:
900:
891:
887:
875:
873:
869:
865:
861:
857:
853:
849:
845:
835:
825:
821:
819:
815:
811:
807:
802:
798:
788:
786:
781:
780:Nigel Bagnall
776:
774:
770:
764:
762:
758:
754:
750:
746:
742:
737:
735:
730:
725:
714:
705:
702:
698:
694:
689:
685:
680:
678:
674:
670:
666:
662:
657:
653:
649:
644:
642:
633:
627:
623:
621:
617:
613:
609:
605:
601:
597:
593:
589:
585:
581:
577:
567:
565:
561:
558:
555:
551:
547:
542:
541:The Histories
538:
534:
530:
526:
521:
519:
518:
517:The Histories
499:
495:
486:
481:
472:
470:
465:
461:
457:
452:
450:
446:
440:
438:
434:
430:
426:
422:
418:
414:
410:
406:
402:
398:
394:
390:
386:
382:
369:
366:
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342:
334:
329:
327:
322:
320:
315:
314:
311:
299:
296:
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291:
289:
286:
284:
281:
279:
276:
274:
271:
269:
266:
264:
261:
259:
256:
254:
253:Cape Hermaeum
251:
249:
246:
244:
241:
239:
236:
234:
231:
229:
226:
224:
221:
219:
216:
214:
211:
209:
206:
204:
201:
199:
196:
194:
191:
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186:
184:
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180:
177:
172:
162:
157:
155:
150:
148:
143:
142:
139:
128:
125:
123:
120:
119:
117:
113:
107:
104:
101:
99:
96:
95:
93:
89:
83:
80:
78:
75:
74:
72:
68:
62:
58:
54:
50:
47:
43:
39:
35:
31:
27:
23:
3126:
3113:
3106:
3084:2nd Nepheris
3074:1st Nepheris
2976:New Carthage
2971:2nd Tarentum
2956:2nd Herdonia
2946:Upper Baetis
2941:1st Herdonia
2921:1st Tarentum
2859:Silva Litana
2770:Leptis Parva
2712:
2703:2nd Mt. Eryx
2698:1st Mt. Eryx
2648:Cape Ecnomus
2529:
2510:
2490:
2486:
2467:
2447:
2443:
2424:
2388:
2384:
2365:
2346:
2327:
2305:
2286:
2269:
2265:
2246:
2227:
2210:(1): 32–37.
2207:
2203:
2186:
2164:
2142:
2123:
2104:
2081:
2056:
2049:Collins 1998
2044:
2032:
2020:
1998:Bagnall 1999
1983:Lazenby 1996
1963:
1930:
1903:
1857:
1850:Lazenby 1996
1813:
1801:
1794:Lazenby 1996
1789:
1782:Lazenby 1996
1777:
1770:Lazenby 1996
1765:
1753:
1727:Lazenby 1996
1688:
1681:Lazenby 1996
1664:Bagnall 1999
1644:
1632:
1620:
1613:Bagnall 1999
1608:
1586:Lazenby 1996
1581:
1559:Bagnall 1999
1554:
1547:Bagnall 1999
1542:
1530:
1518:
1511:Bagnall 1999
1506:
1499:Lazenby 1996
1494:
1487:Lazenby 1996
1482:
1475:Bagnall 1999
1470:
1458:
1451:Bagnall 1999
1446:
1434:
1412:, p. x.
1410:Lazenby 1996
1405:
1393:
1381:
1369:
1357:
1345:
1338:Bagnall 1999
1333:
1321:
1309:
1297:
1255:
1243:
1231:
1224:Lazenby 1996
1219:
1192:
1180:
1173:Lazenby 1996
1168:
1161:Walbank 1990
1156:
1144:
1137:Walbank 1990
1132:
1090:
1078:
1066:
1059:Lazenby 1996
1024:
1015:
1006:
997:
988:
967:
958:
945:
936:
925:Carthaginian
923:), meaning "
904:
899:
890:
841:
832:
794:
777:
765:
745:ratification
738:
729:peace treaty
721:
684:Roman Senate
681:
645:
637:
573:
540:
522:
516:
491:
453:
441:
437:ratification
421:peace treaty
401:was defeated
380:
378:
297:
233:Cape Ecnomus
28:Peace Treaty
2879:Decimomannu
2693:Mount Ercte
2204:Archaeology
1758:Wardle 2005
874:with Rome.
866:in eastern
812:kingdom of
688:reparations
550:Dio Cassius
288:2nd Mt Eryx
283:1st Mt Eryx
91:Negotiators
3133:Categories
3069:Lake Tunis
2834:Ebro River
2618:Agrigentum
2592:Punic Wars
2061:Miles 2011
2013:Hoyos 2015
1968:Miles 2011
1935:Hoyos 2015
1908:Hoyos 2000
1896:Miles 2011
1601:Miles 2011
1574:Miles 2011
1374:Miles 2011
1326:Miles 2011
1302:Mineo 2015
1275:Mineo 2015
1248:Hoyos 2015
1236:Curry 2012
1149:Shutt 1938
1125:Tipps 1985
929:Phoenician
818:hinterland
669:bankruptcy
663:loan from
557:chronicler
512: 118
505: 200
341:Punic Wars
193:Agrigentum
3031:2nd Utica
3026:1st Utica
2991:Grumentum
2951:2nd Capua
2931:1st Capua
2799:Lilybaeum
2785:(Battles)
2683:Lilybaeum
2509:(1993) .
2413:162905667
2195:859598398
1036:Citations
931:ancestry.
903:The term
838:Aftermath
810:satellite
769:proconsul
648:Lilybaeum
641:Numidians
578:had been
554:Byzantine
449:long tons
429:Lilybaeum
358:Mercenary
263:Lilybaeum
70:Mediators
3108:Category
3089:Carthage
3046:Insubria
2996:Metaurus
2966:Canusium
2961:Numistro
2901:Heat ray
2894:Syracuse
2884:3rd Nola
2874:2nd Nola
2864:1st Nola
2849:Geronium
2794:Saguntum
2755:Carthage
2745:Bagradas
2673:Panormus
2643:Tyndaris
2608:Treaties
2511:Carthage
2499:41544894
2468:Polybius
2466:(1990).
2326:(2011).
2278:41234468
2226:(2006).
2216:41780760
2185:(1974).
2163:(1998).
2080:(1999).
1185:Hau 2016
951:Hannibal
920:Poenicus
864:Saguntum
814:Syracuse
806:Hiero II
797:mutinied
673:citizens
608:Sardinia
596:Hispania
588:Carthage
529:Carthage
498:Polybius
485:Polybius
456:Sardinia
409:blockade
385:Carthage
273:Phintias
258:Panormus
228:Tyndaris
183:Treaties
122:Carthage
42:Carthage
40:between
3021:Crotona
2986:Petelia
2981:Baecula
2936:Silarus
2913:Sambuca
2824:Ticinus
2760:The Saw
2708:Aegates
2678:Drepana
2633:Thermae
2613:Messana
2487:Latomus
2456:4435938
2070:Sources
914:Punicus
852:praetor
848:Sicilia
773:triumph
741:consuls
677:legions
652:Drepana
620:Messina
604:Corsica
592:Tunisia
464:Corsica
445:talents
268:Drepana
213:Thermae
188:Messana
115:Parties
52:Drafted
33:Context
3139:241 BC
2854:Cannae
2829:Trebia
2536:
2517:
2497:
2474:
2454:
2431:
2411:
2405:642112
2403:
2372:
2353:
2334:
2312:
2293:
2276:
2253:
2234:
2214:
2193:
2171:
2149:
2130:
2111:
2088:
981:Ustica
973:Lipari
868:Iberia
799:and a
724:Senate
708:Treaty
691:under
661:talent
612:Sicily
433:treaty
413:Senate
397:Sicily
363:Second
63:241 BC
60:Signed
55:241 BC
3041:Cirta
3006:Sucro
3001:Ilipa
2869:Ibera
2819:Cissa
2809:Rhone
2804:Malta
2765:Tunis
2740:Utica
2653:Aspis
2638:Sulci
2628:Mylae
2495:JSTOR
2452:JSTOR
2409:S2CID
2401:JSTOR
2274:JSTOR
2212:JSTOR
911:word
909:Latin
905:Punic
883:Notes
734:Gisco
537:Latin
533:Greek
425:Gisco
368:Third
353:First
238:Aspis
223:Sulci
208:Mylae
98:Gisco
3051:Zama
2903:and
2658:Adys
2534:ISBN
2515:ISBN
2472:ISBN
2429:ISBN
2370:ISBN
2351:ISBN
2332:ISBN
2310:ISBN
2291:ISBN
2251:ISBN
2232:ISBN
2191:OCLC
2169:ISBN
2147:ISBN
2128:ISBN
2109:ISBN
2086:ISBN
979:and
975:and
917:(or
695:and
650:and
584:Arno
574:The
548:and
535:and
389:Rome
387:and
379:The
243:Adys
127:Rome
46:Rome
44:and
25:Type
2393:doi
2270:143
846:as
3135::
2491:64
2489:.
2448:34
2446:.
2407:.
2399:.
2387:.
2268:.
2208:65
2206:.
2005:^
1990:^
1975:^
1942:^
1915:^
1884:^
1869:^
1842:^
1825:^
1734:^
1717:^
1700:^
1671:^
1656:^
1593:^
1566:^
1417:^
1282:^
1267:^
1204:^
1117:^
1102:^
1043:^
606:,
602:,
509:c.
502:c.
2583:e
2576:t
2569:v
2542:.
2523:.
2501:.
2480:.
2458:.
2437:.
2415:.
2395::
2389:8
2378:.
2359:.
2340:.
2318:.
2299:.
2280:.
2259:.
2240:.
2218:.
2197:.
2177:.
2155:.
2136:.
2117:.
2094:.
983:.
953:.
507:–
500:(
332:e
325:t
318:v
160:e
153:t
146:v
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