1272:, who explored prison subculture as a political prisoner in communist Poland in 1985. "Observing" or "observant" participation has also been used to describe fieldwork in sexual minority subcultures by anthropologists and sociologists who are themselves lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender, as well as amongst political activists and in protest events. The different phrasing is meant to highlight the way in which their partial or full membership in the community/subculture that they are researching both allows a different sort of access to the community and also shapes their perceptions in ways different from a full outsider. This is similar to considerations by anthropologists such as Lila Abu-Lughod on "halfie anthropology", or fieldwork by
1062:(do as the locals do): It is important for the researcher to connect or show a connection with the population in order to be accepted as a member of the community. DeWalt & DeWalt (2011) call this form of rapport establishment as "talking the talk" and "walking the walk". Also mentioned by Howell, DeWalt & DeWalt state that the researcher must strive to fit in with the population of study through moderation of language and participation. This sets the stage for how well the researcher blends in with the field and the quality of observable events he or she experiences.
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want to be a part of the study and request that all data collected pertinent to them be removed. In this case, the researcher is obligated to relinquish data that may identify the members in any way. Above anything else, it is the researcher's responsibility that the participants of the study do not suffer any ill effects directly or indirectly from the study, participants are informed of their rights as subjects of the study, and that the group was justly chosen for study.
1289:(children). In participant observation, the ethical concern that is most salient is that of informed consent and voluntary participation. There is the issue of deciding to obtain informed consent from every individual in the group of study, obtain the informed consent for participant observation from the person of leadership, or not inform anyone of one's true purpose in fear of influencing the attitudes of members, thus skewing the observations recorded.
1028:. Traditional participant observation is usually undertaken over an extended period of time, ranging from several months to many years, and even generations. An extended research time period means that the researcher is able to obtain more detailed and accurate information about the individuals, community, and/or population under study. Observable details (like daily time allotment) and more hidden details (like
1080:. The researchers are prompted to think about how their experiences, ethnicity, race, gender, sex, sexual orientation, and other factors might influence their research, in this case what the researcher decides to record and observe. Researchers must be aware of these biases and enter the study with no misconceptions about not bringing in any subjectivities into the data collection process.
40:
1237:, one problem in participant observation is the risk of "going native", by which he means that the researcher becomes so immersed in the world of the participant that the researcher loses scholarly objectivity. Fenno also warns that the researcher may lose the ability and willingness to criticize the participant in order to maintain ties with the participant.
1222:). Researchers engaging in this type of qualitative research method must be aware that participants may act differently or put up a facade that is in accordance to what they believe the researcher is studying. This is why it is important to employ rigor in any qualitative research study. A useful method of rigor to employ is
964:(1967), began gaining currency within American sociology and related fields such as public health. In response to these challenges, some ethnographers have refined their methods, either making them more amenable to formal hypothesis-testing and replicability or framing their interpretations within a more carefully considered
1037:) and what actually does happen, or between different aspects of the formal system; in contrast, a one-time survey of people's answers to a set of questions might be quite consistent, but is less likely to show conflicts between different aspects of the social system or between conscious representations and behavior.
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The decision is based on the nature of the study and the researcher's own personal thoughts on the cost-benefit ratio of the situation. Participant observation also brings up the issue of voluntary participation in events the researcher observes and records. There may be instances when members do not
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and relied on the cultivation of personal relationships with local informants as a way of learning about a culture, involving both observing and participating in the social life of a group. By living with the cultures they studied, researchers were able to formulate first-hand accounts of their lives
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are good methods to use when conducting participant observations, or any other form of qualitative research, because they increase data and research conclusion credibility and transferability. In quantitative research, credibility is liken to internal validity, or the knowledge that our findings are
1113:
Participant observation is not simply showing up at a site and writing things down. On the contrary, participant observation is a complex method that has many components. One of the first things that a researcher or individual must do after deciding to conduct participant observations to gather data
844:. Its aim is to gain a close and intimate familiarity with a given group of individuals (such as a religious, occupational, youth group, or a particular community) and their practices through an intensive involvement with people in their cultural environment, usually over an extended period of time.
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In participant observation, a researcher's discipline based interests and commitments shape which events he or she considers are important and relevant to the research inquiry. According to Howell (1972), the four stages that most participant observation research studies are establishing rapport or
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As with any form of research dealing with human subjects, the researcher must ensure the ethical boundaries are never crossed by those conducting the subjects of study. The researcher must have clearly established boundaries before the onset of the study, and have guidelines in place should any
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While gathering data through participant observation, investigator triangulation would be a way to ensure that one researcher is not letting his or her biases or personal preferences in the way of observing and recording meaningful experiences. As the name suggests, investigator triangulation
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is when the researcher asks for participant feedback on his or her recorded observations to ensure that the researcher is accurately depicting the participants' experiences and the accuracy of conclusions drawn from the data. This method can be used in participant observation studies or when
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behavior) are more easily observed and interpreted over a longer period of time. A strength of observation and interaction over extended periods of time is that researchers can discover discrepancies between what participants sayâand often believeâshould happen (the
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Since the 1980s, some anthropologists and other social scientists have questioned the degree to which participant observation can give veridical insight into the minds of other people. At the same time, a more formalized qualitative research program known as
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involves multiple research team members gathering data about the same event, but this method ensures a variety of recorded observations due to the varying theoretical perspectives of each research team member. In other words,
971:
The development of participant-observation as a research tool has therefore not been a haphazard process, but instead has involved a great deal of self-criticism and review. It has, as a result, become specialized.
880:, said that: "The first way to get to know the Indians is to become like one of them; and it is by learning their language that we will become their fellow citizens." Later, the method would be popularized by
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The researcher may not capture accurately what the participant or may misunderstand the meaning of the participant's words, thus drawing inaccurate generalizations about the participant's perceptions.
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This method permits the researcher to become more involved in the population. There is a risk of "going native" as the researcher strives for an in-depth understanding of the population studied.
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can be viewed as a subset of methods of participant-observation, as the central questions in that field have to do with how to take a camera into the field, while dealing with such issues as the
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The presence of the researcher in the field may influence the participants' behavior, causing the participants to behave differently than they would without the presence of the observer (see:
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As mentioned before this is due to the selective nature of any type of recordable data process: it is inevitably influenced by researchers' personal beliefs of what is relevant and important.
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representative of reality, and transferability is similar to external validity or the extent to which the findings can be generalized across different populations, methods, and settings.
1629:
Emerson, R. M., Fretz, R. I., & Shaw, L. L. (2001). "Participant
Observation and Fieldnotes." In Paul Atkinson, Amanda Coffey, Sara Delamont, John Lofland, & Lyn Lofland (Eds.),
1056:: Get to know the members, visit the scene before study. Howell states that it is important to become friends, or at least be accepted in the community, in order to obtain quality data.
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or groups sharing a strong sense of identity, where only by taking part may the observer truly get access to the lives of those being studied. The postmortem publication of
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issues cross the line of ethical behavior. One of the issues would be if the researcher is studying a population where illegal activities may occur or when working with
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in the latter half of the nineteenth century. This would be followed in the early twentieth century by studies of non-Western societies through such people as
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This also plays out in the analysis of collected data; the researcher's worldview invariably influences how he or she interprets and evaluates the data.
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and gain novel insights. This same method of study has also been applied to groups within
Western society and is especially successful in the study of
1304:(ASA) both have comprehensive statements concerning the code of conduct for research. The AAA has developed a code of ethics to guide this practice.
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getting to know the people, immersing oneself in the field, recording data and observations, and consolidating the information gathered.
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Researcher is completely integrated in population of study beforehand (i.e. they are already a member of particular population studied).
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1102:: categorizing information gathered through interviews, finding common themes, and constructing a coherent story from data.
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Researcher becomes a member of the group by fully embracing skills and customs for the sake of complete comprehension
1094:: organizing data according to recurrent themes found in interviews or other types of qualitative data collection and
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984:'s famous essay on how to approach the multi-faceted arena of human action from an observational point of view, in
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There is the risk of losing all levels of objectivity, thus risking what is analyzed and presented to the public.
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Ambert, A.; Adler, P. A.; Adler, P.; Detzner, D. F. (1995). "Understanding and evaluating qualitative research".
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1245:, be it data, investigator, theory or methodological triangulation, is a form of cross-checking information.
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1502:. 1984. "From the Nativeâs Point of View: On the Nature of Anthropological Understanding." Pp. 123â36 in
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The recorded observations about a group of people or event is never going to be the full description.
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Such research involves a range of well-defined, though variable methods: informal interviews, direct
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Bolton, Ralph. 1995. "Tricks, Friends and Lovers: Erotic
Encounters in the Field." Pp. 140â67 in
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The Nuer: A Description of the Modes of
Livelihood and Political Institutions of a Nilotic People
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DeWalt, K. M., B. R. DeWalt, and C. B. Wayland. 1998. "Participant
Observation." Pp. 259â99 in
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This allows a good combination of involvement and necessary detachment to remain objective.
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Coming of age in Samoa: A Psychological Study of
Primitive Youth for Western Civilisation
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Considérations sur les diverses méthodes à suivre dans l'observation des peuples sauvages
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uses the simple example of a human wink, perceived in a cultural context far from home.
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We are heartbroken and furious! (#2) Violence and the (anti-)globalisation movement(s)
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Atkinson, Paul; Hammersley, Martyn (1994). "Ethnography and participant observation".
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Schwartz, M. S.; Green, C. Schwartz (1955). "Problems in participant observation".
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1118:(1980) provides five different types of participant observations summarised below.
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in the United States; and, in the later urban research, the students of the
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980:. Issues with entry into the field have evolved into a separate subfield.
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1526:. 1986. "From the Door of His Tent: The Fieldworker and the Inquisitor."
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Limits ability to establish rapport and immersing oneself in the field.
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Unable to build rapport or ask questions as new information comes up.
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The
Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research
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Researcher maintains a balance between "insider" and "outsider" roles
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851:(1885-1953), an American pioneer in adult education influenced by
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The concept "participant observation" was first coined in 1924 by
1777:. Orlando, Florida: Harcourt College Publishers. pp. 58â62.
1392:. Department of Philosophy, History, Human Sciences (in French).
865:. The method, however, originated earlier and was applied in the
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577:
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1747:(2nd ed.), edited by N. Denzin & Y. Lincoln. Thousand Oaks:
1745:"Writing: A Method of Inquiry." Handbook of Qualitative Research
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is decide what kind of participant observer he or she will be.
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2149:
Arab Women in the Field: Studying Your Own
Society, edited by
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Hard Living on Clay Street: Portraits of Blue Collar
Families
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anthropologists on a culture to which they partially belong.
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Peshkin, A. (1993). "The goodness of qualitative research".
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Code of Ethics of the
American Anthropological Association
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edited by J. Clifford and G. E. Marcus. Berkeley, Calif.:
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Centre for the Study of Globalisation and Regionalisation
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Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography,
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1016:, results from activities undertaken off or online, and
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Discovery: An Approach to the Study of Functional Groups
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European and American voyages of scientific exploration
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established him as a prominent figure in the field of
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Douglas, Jack D., and John M. Johnson, (eds.). 1977.
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Visual Anthropology: Photography as a Research Method
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The Sexual Life of Savages in North-Western Melanesia
940:'s decade of work as a participant-observer with the
1020:. Although the method is generally characterized as
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Qualitative Methods In Psychology: A Research Guide
1679:. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press. pp. 47â61.
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1988:
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1633:pp: 356-357. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
1504:Culture Theory: Essays on Mind, Self, and Emotion,
923:The practice emerged as the principal approach to
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2217:American Sociological Association Code of Ethics
900:Participant observation was used extensively by
2151:S. Altorki and C. Fawzi El-Solh. Syracuse, NY:
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2110:, edited by D. Kulick and M. Wilson. London:
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1654:. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, Inc.
1594:Handbook of Methods in Cultural Anthropology,
884:and his students in Britain; the students of
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2177:U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
2024:Lincoln, Yvonne S., and Egon G. Guba. 1985.
1924:Home Style: House Members in Their Districts
1689:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1141:No contact with population or field of study
2190:Ethics ResourcesâParticipate & Advocate
2147:. 1988. "Fieldwork of a Dutiful Daughter."
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1398:Société des observateurs de l'homme
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1710:Journal of Marriage and the Family
1675:DeWalt, DeWalt, K.M, B.R. (2011).
1024:, it can (and often does) include
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2060:Banister, Peter, Geoff Bunn, and
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1302:American Sociological Association
1901:Handbook of Qualitative Research
1214:Impact of researcher involvement
1109:Types of participant observation
855:and Danish educator-philosopher
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1066:Recording Observations and Data
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1122:Participant Observation Types
878:Joseph Marie, baron de GĂ©rando
728:Anthropologists by nationality
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1991:Investigative Social Research
1818:American Journal of Sociology
1616:, and Malcolm Collier. 1986.
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1344:Participatory Action Research
2123:Sullivan, S. (2004). 2004. "
7:
1349:Person-centered ethnography
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1049:The phases are as follows:
1012:produced within the group,
890:Chicago school of sociology
10:
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2087:Princeton University Press
1960:Cambridge University Press
1931:pp. 274â5, 277, 286.
1921:Fenno, Richard F. (1978).
1650:Howell, Joseph T. (1972).
1512:Cambridge University Press
1394:National Library of France
1354:Scholar-practitioner model
1220:observer-expectancy effect
1004:in the life of the group,
986:Interpretation of Cultures
748:List of indigenous peoples
2153:Syracuse University Press
2081:Kaminski, Marek M. 2004.
1995:. Beverly Hills, Calif.:
1987:Douglas, Jack D. (1976).
1873:10.3102/0013189x022002023
1510:and R. LeVine. New York:
493:Cross-cultural comparison
1631:Handbook of Ethnography.
1339:Naturalistic observation
665:Historical particularism
2198:. Retrieved 2019-03-16.
2028:Beverly Hills, Calif.:
1929:Little, Brown & Co.
1775:Participant Observation
1677:Participant Observation
1596:edited by H. R. Bernard
1465:William Morrow & Co
1384:Degérando, Joseph-Marie
1266:observing participation
1252:conducting interviews.
1026:quantitative dimensions
896:History and development
794:Participant observation
498:Participant observation
1860:Educational Researcher
1600:Walnut Creek, Calif.:
1433:Evans-Pritchard, E. E.
1324:Educational psychology
1319:Creative participation
1182:Complete Participation
1160:Moderate Participation
1006:collective discussions
902:Frank Hamilton Cushing
640:Cross-cultural studies
16:Method in anthropology
2133:University of Warwick
2070:Open University Press
2026:Naturalistic Inquiry.
1956:Existential Sociology
1743:Richardson, L. 2000.
1411:Malinowski, BronisĆaw
1149:Passive Participation
834:communication studies
814:cultural anthropology
802:practitioner-scholars
2237:Qualitative research
2083:Games Prisoners Play
2042:Naturalistic inquiry
1485:Arizona and the West
1364:Unobtrusive measures
1359:Qualitative research
1334:Immersion journalism
1314:Clinical Ethnography
1171:Active Participation
1130:Level of Involvement
1078:reflexivity journals
1054:Establishing Rapport
1022:qualitative research
914:E.E. Evans-Pritchard
910:BronisĆaw Malinowski
904:in his study of the
882:BronisĆaw Malinowski
859:, in his 1925 book
830:cultural criminology
826:sociology of culture
806:qualitative research
733:Anthropology by year
670:Boasian anthropology
645:Cultural materialism
630:Actorânetwork theory
228:Paleoanthropological
2242:Observational study
2232:Social anthropology
1123:
992:Method and practice
974:Visual anthropology
685:Performance studies
578:Kinship and descent
518:Cultural relativism
168:Paleoethnobotanical
143:Ethnoarchaeological
2169:The Belmont Report
1771:Spradley, James P.
1121:
1099:Narrative Analysis
1010:personal documents
849:Eduard C. Lindeman
804:typically used in
705:Post-structuralism
464:Research framework
2085:. Princeton, NJ:
2030:SAGE Publications
1997:SAGE publications
1749:Sage Publications
1548:Anselm L. Strauss
1544:Glaser, Barney G.
1481:Grenville Goodwin
1477:Spicer, Edward H.
1270:Marek M. Kaminski
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1138:Non-Participatory
1091:Thematic Analysis
938:Grenville Goodwin
842:social psychology
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690:Political economy
513:Thick description
310:Political economy
173:Zooarchaeological
133:Bioarchaeological
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738:Bibliography
680:Interpretive
655:Diffusionism
624:Key theories
610: /
540:Key concepts
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218:Neurological
203:Evolutionary
148:Experiential
32:Anthropology
2072:. Pp. 1â16.
1867:(2): 23â9.
1554:. Chicago:
1487:3(3):201â4.
1329:Ethnobotany
1070:field notes
998:observation
906:Zuni people
810:ethnography
608:Colonialism
551:Development
508:Reflexivity
476:Ethnography
426:Descriptive
284:Development
223:Nutritional
198:Biocultural
123:Battlefield
2226:Categories
2038:1036737672
1661:0881335266
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1441:. Oxford:
1370:References
1300:(AAA) and
1274:bicultural
1074:interviews
886:Franz Boas
869:linked to
853:John Dewey
800:method by
588:Prehistory
441:Historical
414:Linguistic
326:Historical
294:Ecological
186:Biological
88:Linguistic
78:Biological
2167:. 2016. "
2112:Routledge
1903:: 248â61.
1881:145739522
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818:ethnology
561:Evolution
556:Ethnicity
488:Ethnology
366:Political
274:Cognitive
213:Molecular
2064:. 2011.
1773:(1980).
1550:. 1967.
1457:. 1928.
1413:. 1929.
1308:See also
1116:Spradley
920:(1928).
912:(1929),
743:Journals
660:Feminism
446:Semiotic
386:Symbolic
381:Religion
316:Feminist
304:Economic
254:Cultural
208:Forensic
163:Maritime
158:Forensic
153:Feminist
128:Biblical
118:Aviation
83:Cultural
24:a series
22:Part of
1479:1961. "
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546:Culture
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356:Museums
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336:Kinship
289:Digital
264:Applied
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51:Outline
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249:Social
113:Aerial
93:Social
2108:Taboo
1877:S2CID
1835:S2CID
1727:JSTOR
1030:taboo
722:Lists
603:Value
481:cyber
396:Urban
346:Media
341:Legal
67:Types
2091:ISBN
2034:OCLC
1964:ISBN
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