Chinese language - Knowledge

15950: 2425: 6432: 6096: 15962: 10389: 3083: 3065: 3074: 3056: 5531: 5745:, introduced in 1956 by the PRC, and later adopted by Singapore and Taiwan. Pinyin is almost universally employed now for teaching standard spoken Chinese in schools and universities across the Americas, Australia, and Europe. Chinese parents also use Pinyin to teach their children the sounds and tones of new words. In school books that teach Chinese, the pinyin romanization is often shown below a picture of the thing the word represents, with the Chinese character alongside. 2306: 2313: 15986: 15974: 15938: 508: 1500: 2113: 46: 11039: 2185:

accepted into Chinese, a language usually resistant to loanwords, because their foreign origin was hidden by their written form. Often different compounds for the same concept were in circulation for some time before a winner emerged, and sometimes the final choice differed between countries. The proportion of vocabulary of Chinese origin thus tends to be greater in technical, abstract, or formal language. For example, in Japan,

4450: 2320: 5475:, were the first to attempt to describe the sounds and enunciation patterns of Chinese in a foreign language. After the 15th century, the efforts of Jesuits and Western court missionaries resulted in some Latin character transcription/writing systems, based on various variants of Chinese languages. Some of these Latin character-based systems are still being used to write various Chinese variants in the modern era. 5411:, which are written within imaginary square blocks, traditionally arranged in vertical columns, read from top to bottom down a column, and right to left across columns, despite alternative arrangement with rows of characters from left to right within a row and from top to bottom across rows (like English and other Western writing systems) having become more popular since the 20th century. Chinese characters denote 5385: 6296:, p. 56. "To call Chinese a single language composed of dialects with varying degrees of difference is to mislead by minimizing disparities that according to Chao are as great as those between English and Dutch. To call Chinese a family of languages is to suggest extralinguistic differences that in fact do not exist and to overlook the unique linguistic situation that exists in China." 2358: 2346: 2334: 5707: 2818:

to major branches of Chinese such as Mandarin, Wu, and so on as "dialects" because the mutual unintelligibility between them is too great. However, calling major Chinese branches "languages" would also be wrong under the same criterion, since a branch such as Wu, itself contains many mutually unintelligible varieties, and could not be properly called a single language.

5444:, based on spoken Standard Chinese, regardless of dialectical background. Written vernacular Chinese largely replaced Literary Chinese in the early 20th century as the country's standard written language. However, vocabularies from different Chinese-speaking areas have diverged, and the divergence can be observed in written Chinese. 3555:: sound changes over time have steadily reduced the number of possible syllables in the language's inventory. In modern Mandarin, there are only around 1,200 possible syllables, including the tonal distinctions, compared with about 5,000 in Vietnamese (still a largely monosyllabic language), and over 8,000 in English. 1569:). These branches are unintelligible to each other, and many of their subgroups are unintelligible with the other varieties within the same branch (e.g. Southern Min). There are, however, transitional areas where varieties from different branches share enough features for some limited intelligibility, including 2763:). Standard Chinese is based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin. The governments of both China and Taiwan intend for speakers of all Chinese speech varieties to use it as a common language of communication. Therefore, it is used in government agencies, in the media, and as a language of instruction in schools. 1503: 5362:

these terms as to whether the Japanese or Chinese coined them first. As a result of this loaning, Chinese, Korean, Japanese, and Vietnamese share a corpus of linguistic terms describing modern terminology, paralleling the similar corpus of terms built from Greco-Latin and shared among European languages.

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respectively. In each, the homophone was disambiguated by the addition of another morpheme, typically either a near-synonym or some sort of generic word (e.g. 'head', 'thing'), the purpose of which is to indicate which of the possible meanings of the other, homophonic syllable is specifically meant.

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roots in European languages. Many new compounds, or new meanings for old phrases, were created in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to name Western concepts and artifacts. These coinages, written in shared Chinese characters, have then been borrowed freely between languages. They have even been

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in Japanese, which in the original Chinese meant 'the workings of the state', narrowed to 'economy' in Japanese; this narrowed definition was then re-imported into Chinese. As a result, these terms are virtually indistinguishable from native Chinese words: indeed, there is some dispute over some of

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The designation of various Chinese branches remains controversial. Some linguists and most ordinary Chinese people consider all the spoken varieties as one single language, as speakers share a common national identity and a common written form. Others instead argue that it is inappropriate to refer

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spread over East Asia between the 2nd and 5th centuries CE, and with it the study of scriptures and literature in Literary Chinese. Later, strong central governments modeled on Chinese institutions were established in Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, with Literary Chinese serving as the language of

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Old Chinese vocabulary already contained many words not generally occurring in the other Sino-Tibetan languages. The words for 'honey' and 'lion', and probably also 'horse', 'dog', and 'goose', are connected with Indo-European and were acquired through trade and early contacts. (The nearest known

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The entire Chinese character corpus since antiquity comprises well over 50,000 characters, of which only roughly 10,000 are in use and only about 3,000 are frequently used in Chinese media and newspapers. However, Chinese characters should not be confused with Chinese words. Because most Chinese

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All varieties of spoken Chinese use tones to distinguish words. A few dialects of north China may have as few as three tones, while some dialects in south China have up to 6 or 12 tones, depending on how one counts. One exception from this is Shanghainese which has reduced the set of tones to a

3024:

The number of sounds in the different spoken dialects varies, but in general, there has been a tendency to a reduction in sounds from Middle Chinese. The Mandarin dialects in particular have experienced a dramatic decrease in sounds and so have far more polysyllabic words than most other spoken

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in many of them, and the effects of language contact. In addition, many of the smaller languages are spoken in mountainous areas that are difficult to reach and are often also sensitive border zones. Without a secure reconstruction of Proto-Sino-Tibetan, the higher-level structure of the family

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There are also viewpoints pointing out that linguists often ignore mutual intelligibility when varieties share intelligibility with a central variety (i.e. prestige variety, such as Standard Mandarin), as the issue requires some careful handling when mutual intelligibility is inconsistent with

2094:, Cantonese is the dominant spoken language due to cultural influence from Guangdong immigrants and colonial-era policies, and is used in education, media, formal speech, and everyday life—though Mandarin is increasingly taught in schools due to the mainland's growing influence. 4851:; 'hysterics'). The bulk of these words were originally coined in Shanghai during the early 20th century and later loaned from there into Mandarin, hence their Mandarin pronunciations occasionally being quite divergent from the English. For example, in Shanghainese 1509: 7438: 1505: 5447:

Due to the divergence of variants, some unique morphemes are not found in Standard Chinese. Characters rarely used in Standard Chinese have also been created or inherited from archaic literary standards to represent these unique morphemes. For example, characters like

5335:, 'Japanese-made Chinese', and many of these words have been re-loaned into modern Chinese. Other terms were coined by the Japanese by giving new senses to existing Chinese terms or by referring to expressions used in classical Chinese literature. For example, 4190:

words are made up of two or more characters, there are many more Chinese words than characters. A more accurate equivalent for a Chinese character is the morpheme, as characters represent the smallest grammatical units with individual meanings in the Chinese language.

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Chinese is often described as a 'monosyllabic' language. However, this is only partially correct. It is largely accurate when describing Old and Middle Chinese; in Classical Chinese, around 90% of words consist of a single character that corresponds one-to-one with a

5688:. The PRC defines literacy amongst workers as a knowledge of 2,000 characters, though this would be only functional literacy. School children typically learn around 2,000 characters whereas scholars may memorize up to 10,000. A large unabridged dictionary like the 4209:

project (2010) contains 97,404 contemporary entries including idioms, technology terms, and names of political figures, businesses, and products. The 2009 version of the Webster's Digital Chinese Dictionary (WDCD), based on CC-CEDICT, contains over 84,000 entries.

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administration and scholarship, a position it would retain until the late 19th century in Korea and (to a lesser extent) Japan, and the early 20th century in Vietnam. Scholars from different lands could communicate, albeit only in writing, using Literary Chinese.

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in Japanese, Vietnamese, and Korean, and transcription evidence. The resulting system is very complex, with a large number of consonants and vowels, but they are probably not all distinguished in any single dialect. Most linguists now believe it represents a

2903: 2389:. Until the late 20th century, Chinese emigrants to Southeast Asia and North America came from southeast coastal areas, where Min, Hakka, and Yue dialects were spoken. Specifically, most Chinese immigrants to North America until the mid-20th century spoke 4225:, a multi-volume encyclopedic dictionary reference work, gives 122,836 vocabulary entry definitions under 19,485 Chinese characters, including proper names, phrases, and common zoological, geographical, sociological, scientific, and technical terms. 1852:

and the phonetic elements found in the majority of Chinese characters. Although many of the finer details remain unclear, most scholars agree that Old Chinese differs from Middle Chinese in lacking retroflex and palatal obstruents but having initial

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When used within European texts, the tone transcriptions in both pinyin and Wade–Giles are often left out for simplicity; Wade–Giles's extensive use of apostrophes is also usually omitted. Thus, most Western readers will be much more familiar with

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Besides Mandarin, Cantonese is the only other Chinese language that is widely taught as a foreign language, largely due to the economic and cultural influence of Hong Kong and its widespread usage among significant Overseas Chinese communities.

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variants and merging characters with similar pronunciations to the one with the least strokes, among other methods. Singapore, which has a large Chinese community, was the second nation to officially adopt simplified characters—first by

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In Mandarin much more than in other spoken varieties, most syllables tend to be open syllables, meaning they have no coda (assuming that a final glide is not analyzed as a coda), but syllables that do have codas are restricted to nasals

5756:, it may be particularly helpful for beginner Chinese speakers of an English-speaking background. Wade–Giles was found in academic use in the United States, particularly before the 1980s, and was widely used in Taiwan until 2009. 4246:

from other cultures. Most Chinese words are formed out of native Chinese morphemes, including words describing imported objects and ideas. However, direct phonetic borrowing of foreign words has gone on since ancient times.

5734:. There are many systems of romanization for the Chinese varieties, due to the lack of a native phonetic transcription until modern times. Chinese is first known to have been written in Latin characters by Western 2385:, in which differences in speech generally become more pronounced as distances increase, though the rate of change varies immensely. Generally, mountainous South China exhibits more linguistic diversity than the 7353:

Indo-European languages were Tocharian and Sogdian, a middle Iranian language.) Some words have Austroasiatic cognates and point to early contacts with the ancestral language of Muong–Vietnamese and Mon–Khmer.

5660:, used in Hong Kong, Taiwan, Macau, and many overseas Chinese-speaking communities, largely take their form from received character forms dating back to the late Han dynasty and standardized during the Ming. 5680:

The Internet provides practice reading each of these systems, and most Chinese readers are capable of, if not necessarily comfortable with, reading the alternative system through experience and guesswork.

3102: 1504: 6242:"Chinese" refers collectively to the various language varieties that have descended from Old Chinese: native speakers often consider these to be "dialects" of a single language—though the Chinese term 6111:

With the growing importance and influence of China's economy globally, Standard Chinese instruction has been gaining popularity in schools throughout East Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Western world.

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system. These works define phonological categories but with little hint of what sounds they represent. Linguists have identified these sounds by comparing the categories with pronunciations in modern

4755:, continue to enter the Chinese language by transcription according to their pronunciations. This is done by employing Chinese characters with similar pronunciations. For example, 'Israel' becomes 1779:. As the language evolved over this period, the various local varieties became mutually unintelligible. In reaction, central governments have repeatedly sought to promulgate a unified standard. 1537:. Investigation of the historical relationships among the varieties of Chinese is ongoing. Currently, most classifications posit 7 to 13 main regional groups based on phonetic developments from 5109:; 'lettered words') spelled with letters from the English alphabet. These have appeared in colloquial usage, as well as in magazines and newspapers, and on websites and television: 2716: 5752:, was invented by Thomas Wade in 1859 and modified by Herbert Giles in 1892. As this system approximates the phonology of Mandarin Chinese into English consonants and vowels–it is largely an 3541:, the smallest unit of meaning in a language. In modern varieties, it usually remains the case that morphemes are monosyllabic—in contrast, English has many multi-syllable morphemes, both 1949:: as spoken, Chinese varieties have evolved at different rates, while the written language used throughout China changed comparatively little, crystallizing into a prestige form known as 1857:

of some sort, and in having voiceless nasals and liquids. Most recent reconstructions also describe an atonal language with consonant clusters at the end of the syllable, developing into

1744:. Although the relationship was first proposed in the early 19th century and is now broadly accepted, reconstruction of Sino-Tibetan is much less developed than that of families such as 2044:

area, though not identical to any single dialect. By the middle of the 19th century, the Beijing dialect had become dominant and was essential for any business with the imperial court.

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languages, and today comprise over half of their vocabularies. This massive influx led to changes in the phonological structure of the languages, contributing to the development of

4169:, another trait shared with neighboring languages such as Japanese and Korean. Other notable grammatical features common to all the spoken varieties of Chinese include the use of 5553:, compound ideographs, phonetic loans, phonetic compounds, and derivative characters. Only 4% were categorized as pictographs, including many of the simplest characters, such as 2369: 4518:, wherein the Latin and Greek components are usually converted one-for-one into the corresponding Chinese characters. The word 'telephone' was initially loaned phonetically as 2220:

script. However, these were limited to popular literature until the late 19th century. Today Japanese is written with a composite script using both Chinese characters called

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A very common example used to illustrate the use of tones in Chinese is the application of the four tones of Standard Chinese, along with the neutral tone, to the syllable

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varieties. The total number of syllables in some varieties is therefore only about a thousand, including tonal variation, which is only about an eighth as many as English.

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respectively, but the Yue variety spoken in Wuzhou is more similar to the Guangzhou dialect than is Taishanese. Wuzhou is located directly upstream from Guangzhou on the

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are actively used in Cantonese and Hakka, while being archaic or unused in standard written Chinese. The most prominent example of a non-Standard Chinese orthography is

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However, when one of the above words forms part of a compound, the disambiguating syllable is generally dropped and the resulting word is still disyllabic. For example,

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dictionary, contains over 40,000 characters, including obscure, variant, rare, and archaic characters; fewer than a quarter of these characters are now commonly used.

6277:(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), p. 312. "The mutual unintelligibility of the varieties is the main ground for referring to them as separate languages." 2228:

is still required, and hanja are increasingly rarely used in South Korea. As a result of its historical colonization by France, Vietnamese now uses the Latin-based

9774: 6049:(invented for use by US troops during World War II), as well as distinct systems for the phonetic requirements of Cantonese, Min Nan, Hakka, and other varieties. 5782:(Wade–Giles). This simplification presents syllables as homophones which are not, and therefore exaggerates the number of homophones almost by a factor of four. 3286:" and thus counted separately for a total of nine tones. However, they are considered to be duplicates in modern linguistics and are no longer counted as such: 10514: 9296: 2906: 4234:, an authoritative one-volume dictionary on modern standard Chinese language as used in mainland China, has 13,000 head characters and defines 70,000 words. 3545:, such as 'seven', 'elephant', 'para-' and '-able'. Some of the more conservative modern varieties, usually found in the south, have largely monosyllabic 15861: 10321: 10311: 4205:(1994) contains 85,568 head entries for character definitions and is the largest reference work based purely on character and its literary variants. The 4936:'coffee'. The influence of English is particularly pronounced: from the early 20th century, many English words were borrowed into Shanghainese, such as 5038:; 'bus'). With the rising popularity of the Internet, there is a current vogue in China for coining English transliterations, for example, 6252:; 'dialect' does not carry the precise connotations of "dialect" in English—while linguists typically analyze them as separate languages. See 4514:. Today, it is much more common to use existing Chinese morphemes to coin new words to represent imported concepts, such as technical expressions and 10316: 10075: 9623: 2176:

Borrowed Chinese morphemes have been used extensively in all these languages to coin compound words for new concepts, in a similar way to the use of

2065:), was adopted. After much dispute between proponents of northern and southern dialects and an abortive attempt at an artificial pronunciation, the 14089: 10230: 7608: 6192: 14517: 8160: 5685: 3551:, especially with basic vocabulary. However, most nouns, adjectives, and verbs in modern Mandarin are disyllabic. A significant cause of this is 13922: 5684:

A well-educated Chinese reader today recognizes approximately 4,000 to 6,000 characters; approximately 3,000 characters are required to read a

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Because of the difficulties involved in determining the difference between language and dialect, other terms have been proposed. These include

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Although they used Chinese solely for written communication, each country had its own tradition of reading texts aloud using what are known as

2083:; 'common speech'. The national language is now used in education, the media, and formal situations in both mainland China and Taiwan. 8207: 3791:. As such, most of these words have been replaced in speech, if not in writing, with less ambiguous disyllabic compounds. Only the first one, 13462: 7980: 2773:; if they grew up elsewhere, they are also likely fluent in the dialect of their home region. In addition to Standard Chinese, a majority of 2189:

account for about 35% of the words in entertainment magazines, over half the words in newspapers, and 60% of the words in science magazines.

7513: 6331:, p. 42 counts Chinese as having 1,277 tonal syllables, and about 398 to 418 if tones are disregarded; he cites Jespersen, Otto (1928) 5677:, then by adopting entirely the PRC simplified characters. It has also become the de facto standard for younger ethnic Chinese in Malaysia. 13375: 11086: 6345: 5653:. Calligraphy artists can write in Traditional and Simplified characters, but they tend to use Traditional characters for traditional art. 2965:. There are some instances where a vowel is not used as a nucleus. An example of this is in Cantonese, where the nasal sonorant consonants 14194: 15710: 10397: 9635: 8933: 5463:

Chinese had no uniform system of phonetic transcription until the mid-20th century, although enunciation patterns were recorded in early

6284:(1989), p. 2. "The Chinese language family is genetically classified as an independent branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family." 2224:, and kana. Korean is written exclusively with hangul in North Korea, although knowledge of the supplementary Chinese characters called 9024: 7308: 4896:

Western foreign words representing Western concepts have influenced Chinese since the 20th century through transcription. From French,

4873:('motor') sound more like their English counterparts. Cantonese differs from Mandarin with some transliterations, such as 4464: 2129:

Historically, the Chinese language has spread to its neighbors through a variety of means. Northern Vietnam was incorporated into the

14559: 4690:('bun'). Sometimes translations are designed so that they sound like the original while incorporating Chinese morphemes ( 7852:"Language or dialect, topolect or regiolect? A comparative study of language attitudes towards the status of Cantonese in Hong Kong" 9599: 9587: 6224:

Standard Chinese is an official language throughout China. Cantonese is a co-official language specifically in Hong Kong and Macao.

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In modern spoken Mandarin, however, tremendous ambiguity would result if all of these words could be used as-is. The 20th century

3562:. In some cases, monosyllabic words have become disyllabic formed from different characters without the use of compounding, as in 15909: 15904: 15854: 12981: 11130: 9611: 9103: 2235: 2014:

Up to the early 20th century, most Chinese people only spoke their local variety. Thus, as a practical measure, officials of the

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Local varieties of Chinese are conventionally classified into seven dialect groups, largely based on the different evolution of

10695: 7490: 7053: 6197: 4497: 4154: 2023: 1662: 3582:; this is especially common in Jin varieties. This phonological collapse has led to a corresponding increase in the number of 15344: 14600: 9934: 8906: 8868: 8841: 8730: 8707: 8688: 8666: 8628: 8573: 8554: 8535: 8512: 8493: 8406: 8387: 8368: 8346: 8327: 8305: 8283: 8257: 8193: 8138: 8100: 8038: 8019: 8000: 7840: 7778: 7673: 7651: 7280: 4501: 2069:

finally settled on the Beijing dialect in 1932. The People's Republic founded in 1949 retained this standard but renamed it

14082: 11148: 10745: 5664:, introduced by the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1954 to promote mass literacy, simplifies most complex traditional 4460: 2103: 14510: 10587: 4515: 548: 6387:; 'she' in writing, but this was only introduced in the 20th century—both characters remain exactly homophonous. 2400:

In parts of South China, the dialect of a major city may be only marginally intelligible to its neighbors. For example,

1957:. Its use in writing remained nearly universal until the late 19th century, culminating with the widespread adoption of 1708:

has been promoted by the government of the People's Republic of China, with Singapore officially adopting them in 1976.

15847: 11275: 4199:, a compendium of Chinese characters, includes 54,678 head entries for characters, including oracle bone versions. The 4076:(changes in the form of a word), to indicate a word's function within a sentence. In other words, Chinese has very few 5321:

Since the 20th century, another source of words has been kanji: Japan re-molded European concepts and inventions into

2040:; 'language of officials'. For most of this period, this language was a koiné based on dialects spoken in the 13455: 8958: 8647: 6142: 3781: 401: 5541:

Each Chinese character represents a monosyllabic Chinese word or morpheme. In 100 CE, the famed Han dynasty scholar

3795:, normally appears in monosyllabic form in spoken Mandarin; the rest are normally used in the polysyllabic forms of 15604: 13368: 11079: 5525: 2412:, whereas Taishan is to Guangzhou's southwest, with the two cities separated by several river valleys. In parts of 1704:, largely shared by readers who may otherwise speak mutually unintelligible varieties. Since the 1950s, the use of 314: 6215:

The colloquial layers of many varieties, particularly Min varieties, reflect features that predate Middle Chinese.

16036: 16026: 14075: 11178: 10667: 4552:; 'electric speech'), built out of native Chinese morphemes became prevalent. Other examples include 1877: 1770: 538: 1652:, recorded a compromise between the pronunciations of different regions. The royal courts of the Ming and early 15049: 14503: 9374: 9017: 7892: 6172: 3309: 1481: 1435: 1276: 1132: 796: 593: 56: 8091:(2011). "A transnational approach to East Asian book history". In Chakravorty, Swapan; Gupta, Abhijit (eds.). 7832: 2381:

has estimated that there are hundreds of mutually unintelligible varieties of Chinese. These varieties form a

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Chinese varieties have been phonetically transcribed into many other writing systems over the centuries. The

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were established in northern Korea in the 1st century BCE but disintegrated in the following centuries.

2134: 2011:, this dictionary describes a language with many of the features characteristic of modern Mandarin dialects. 1798: 1677: 1427: 1260: 1050: 714: 577: 429: 60: 8806: 8423:; Lai, Yunfan; Ryder, Robin J.; Thouzeau, Valentin; Greenhill, Simon J.; List, Johann-Mattis (21 May 2019). 5723:; 'National language' written in traditional and simplified forms, followed by various romanizations 16041: 16016: 15614: 15044: 13448: 12211: 11271: 11042: 10953: 10477: 5674: 2893: 2066: 1725: 1635: 460: 447: 385: 6073:

that is still widely used in Taiwan to aid standard pronunciation. There are also at least two systems of

5624:; 'water'. Almost all characters created since have been made using this format. The 18th-century 4998:('miniskirt'). Contemporary colloquial Cantonese has distinct loanwords from English, such as 4668:

Occasionally, compromises between the transliteration and translation approaches become accepted, such as

3018: 3014: 3010: 3009:. Some varieties allow most of these codas, whereas others, such as Standard Chinese, are limited to only 3006: 3002: 2998: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2970: 2966: 19:

This article is about the Chinese language, which includes many varieties. For the standardized form, see

16031: 16021: 16011: 13743: 13543: 13361: 11126: 11072: 10958: 10830: 10755: 10412: 8241: 6061:, for example, has been very helpful in reconstructing the pronunciations of premodern forms of Chinese. 5614: 1978: 1819: 1350: 1006: 670: 370: 8992: 8337:

Norman, Jerry (2003). "The Chinese dialects: phonology". In Thurgood, Graham; LaPolla, Randy J. (eds.).

7616: 4219:, records more than 23,000 head Chinese characters and gives over 370,000 definitions. The 1999 revised 2404:

and Taishan are located approximately 260 km (160 mi) and 190 km (120 mi) away from

2312: 15928: 15897: 15882: 15084: 14484: 11000: 10973: 10850: 10762: 10509: 10489: 6104: 6042: 5646: 5441: 3996:) can stand alone as individual words, they more often than not form multi-syllable compounds known as 2889: 2769:

is common among Chinese speakers. For example, a Shanghai resident may speak both Standard Chinese and

2305: 1958: 1940: 1088: 752: 5460:, which is used in tabloids and on the internet among Cantonese speakers in Hong Kong and elsewhere. 16006: 14939: 14605: 12120: 10552: 9250: 9010: 8894: 8315: 6177: 2914:

Syllables in the Chinese languages have some unique characteristics. They are tightly related to the

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Vietnam, Korea, and Japan each developed writing systems for their own languages, initially based on

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of Mandarin and was first officially adopted in the 1930s. The language is written primarily using a

1111: 775: 379: 8918: 8545:

Sohn, Ho-Min; Lee, Peter H. (2003). "Language, forms, prosody, and themes". In Lee, Peter H. (ed.).

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In 1991, there were 2,000 foreign learners taking China's official Chinese Proficiency Test, called

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Hymes, Dell (1971). "Sociolinguistics and the ethnography of speaking". In Ardener, Edwin (ed.).

7519: 5701: 4775:). A rather small number of direct transliterations have survived as common words, including 4691: 4511: 4476: 4073: 2650: 2107: 1919: 1758: 1590: 10931: 10780: 8222: 8131:

Chinese language(s): a look through the prism of the Great dictionary of modern Chinese dialects

7713:"Variation in the grammaticalization of complementizers from verba dicendi in Sinitic languages" 6315:; "In language classification, Chinese has a status equivalent to a language family." 4506:

Modern neologisms are primarily translated into Chinese in one of three ways: free translation (

4181:. Although the grammars of the spoken varieties share many traits, they do possess differences. 2835:; 'regional speech', whereas the more closely related varieties within these are called 309: 15892: 15810: 15747: 15273: 14934: 14839: 14794: 14734: 14595: 14353: 14173: 14098: 13778: 13583: 13578: 13573: 13568: 13479: 13025: 12842: 12524: 11349: 11344: 11315: 11303: 10872: 10715: 9313: 5657: 4077: 2123: 1741: 1709: 1685: 1582: 1530: 1160: 824: 136: 15244: 8640:

Cantonese as a Second Language: Issues, Experiences, and Suggestions for Teaching and Learning

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can consist of more than one character–morpheme, usually two, but there can be three or more.

1642:

and split into several varieties following prolonged geographic and political separation. The

15652: 15154: 15034: 14779: 14632: 14526: 14199: 14056: 13314: 13290: 13013: 12976: 11474: 10867: 10790: 10504: 10482: 9237: 9070: 8208:"What Is a Chinese "Dialect/Topolect"? Reflections on Some Key Sino-English Linguistic terms" 6307: 6119: 5735: 5661: 4178: 2790: 2735:) and Taiwan, and one of the four official languages of Singapore (where it is called either 1705: 1574: 1522: 389: 13188: 8272: 6126:, but by 2005 the number of candidates had risen sharply to 117,660 and in 2010 to 750,000. 4408:, the liturgical languages of northern India. Words borrowed from the nomadic tribes of the 2793:. A speaker in Taiwan may mix pronunciations and vocabulary from Standard Chinese and other 1892:

dynasties (6th–10th centuries CE). It can be divided into an early period, reflected by the

15805: 15787: 15529: 15508: 15099: 14789: 14620: 14610: 14408: 14311: 13960: 12961: 12822: 12641: 12621: 12606: 12342: 12307: 12115: 10635: 10603: 10432: 9557: 9052: 8683:. Harvard-Yenching Institute monograph series. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. 8564:

Thomason, Sarah Grey (1988). "Languages of the World". In Paulston, Christina Bratt (ed.).

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Some early Indo-European loanwords in Chinese have been proposed, notably 'honey' (

4230: 4097: 2825:

The Chinese government's official Chinese designation for the major branches of Chinese is

2296: 1915: 1870: 216: 8828:

On the history of the standardization of Mandarin as the Chinese primary national dialect.

7737: 7553: 5593:; 'water'). Between 80% and 90% were classified as phonetic compounds such as 4472: 4400:), generally have Persian etymologies. Buddhist terminology is generally derived from 8: 15757: 15705: 15670: 15503: 15397: 15288: 15134: 15079: 14824: 14679: 14654: 14464: 14386: 14381: 14294: 14269: 14051: 14039: 13719: 13471: 13398: 13274: 13254: 13018: 12945: 12646: 12596: 12591: 12002: 11569: 11153: 10879: 10845: 10680: 10647: 10494: 10422: 10339: 10180: 10175: 9929: 9739: 9245: 7788: 7466: 6167: 6058: 5638: 5397: 4745: 4193:

Estimates of the total number of Chinese words and lexicalized phrases vary greatly. The

3529: 2794: 2459: 2229: 2186: 2162: 1962: 1578: 174: 12631: 12616: 11231: 8642:. Routledge Studies in Applied Linguistics. Manhattan, New York: Routledge. p. 45. 8440: 5072:; 'blog'). In Taiwan, some of these transliterations are different, such as 2133:(202 BCE – 220 CE) in 111 BCE, marking the beginning of a 1525:

family. The spoken varieties of Chinese are usually considered by native speakers to be

935: 15471: 15377: 15219: 15184: 15149: 15004: 14984: 14954: 14694: 14299: 14034: 13932: 13804: 13638: 13556: 13497: 13488: 13384: 13219: 12991: 12925: 12874: 12827: 12771: 12501: 12444: 12170: 11326: 11095: 10995: 10862: 10825: 10710: 10608: 10542: 10537: 10427: 10417: 10043: 10021: 9914: 9722: 9717: 9640: 9628: 9616: 9604: 9592: 9116: 8874: 8769: 8676: 8607: 8467: 8424: 7958: 7879: 7812: 7750: 7700: 7594: 6497: 6495: 6290:, p. 1. " the modern Chinese dialects are really more like a family of languages " 6187: 6152: 5519: 5408: 4101: 4089: 2962: 2645: 2394: 2193: 2166: 1862: 1858: 1701: 1602: 1489: 1191: 1185: 1174: 851: 840: 289: 206: 164: 24: 14699: 12626: 11236: 4364:). Some words were borrowed from Buddhist scriptures, including 'Buddha' ( 2424: 1213: 871: 498: 16051: 15839: 15722: 15700: 15594: 15493: 15488: 15476: 15466: 15431: 15229: 15194: 15024: 14994: 14864: 14764: 14754: 14615: 14554: 14541: 14444: 14439: 14429: 14403: 14398: 14393: 14361: 14321: 14239: 14204: 14135: 14019: 14014: 13976: 13836: 13787: 13752: 13665: 13605: 13198: 12858: 12732: 12677: 12569: 12477: 12472: 12429: 12351: 12082: 12062: 11987: 11964: 11737: 11619: 11589: 11431: 11422: 11374: 11364: 11211: 11143: 10906: 10896: 10775: 10740: 10595: 10547: 10499: 10266: 10119: 10053: 9909: 9894: 9565: 9542: 9496: 9421: 9347: 9227: 9195: 9149: 9088: 9078: 9043: 8964: 8954: 8902: 8878: 8864: 8837: 8761: 8757: 8726: 8703: 8684: 8662: 8643: 8624: 8623:. Linguistics in the world (1st ed.). Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell. 8569: 8550: 8531: 8524: 8508: 8489: 8472: 8454: 8420: 8402: 8383: 8364: 8342: 8323: 8301: 8293: 8279: 8267: 8253: 8189: 8134: 8096: 8069: 8034: 8015: 7996: 7950: 7912: 7908: 7883: 7871: 7836: 7774: 7754: 7742: 7704: 7669: 7661: 7647: 7343: 7276: 7269: 6253: 5626: 5457: 5379: 4396:). Words borrowed from the peoples along the Silk Road, such as 'grape' ( 4174: 4158: 4093: 4085: 4065: 2870: 2778: 2722: 2386: 2382: 2158: 2118: 1990: 1950: 1936: 1854: 1834: 1828: 1733: 1681: 1606: 1518: 1402: 1394: 1237: 1072: 1064: 904: 736: 728: 28: 14974: 14814: 8773: 8111: 7057: 6492: 6095: 2212:

syllabaries for Japanese, while Vietnamese continued to be written with the complex

1657: 544: 15990: 15978: 15717: 15685: 15680: 15539: 15513: 15498: 15441: 15372: 15214: 15174: 15094: 15089: 15069: 15059: 15019: 15009: 14999: 14944: 14914: 14904: 14859: 14829: 14739: 14704: 14588: 14434: 14376: 14341: 14331: 14316: 13992: 13796: 13711: 13675: 13660: 13655: 13648: 13633: 13429: 13424: 13269: 13264: 13234: 13193: 13173: 13062: 13057: 13001: 12971: 12920: 12809: 12682: 12662: 12611: 12578: 12539: 12534: 12529: 12487: 12482: 12464: 12312: 12302: 12206: 12155: 12150: 12125: 12052: 11745: 11722: 11717: 11647: 11642: 11637: 11599: 11539: 11464: 11407: 11402: 11387: 11158: 11109: 11012: 10532: 10407: 10271: 10261: 10246: 10192: 10114: 10065: 10026: 9975: 9889: 9841: 9825: 9705: 9665: 9660: 9547: 9501: 9447: 9442: 9432: 9426: 9255: 9200: 9185: 9061: 8856: 8753: 8721:

education and language policy in postcolonial Hong Kong". In Zhou, Minglang (ed.).

8599: 8462: 8444: 8061: 7940: 7904: 7863: 7804: 7732: 7724: 7692: 7369: 6162: 6078: 4105: 4010:, which more closely resembles the traditional Western notion of a word. A Chinese 3552: 2926: 2876: 2774: 2710: 2545: 2451: 2447: 2416:, the speech of some neighbouring counties or villages is mutually unintelligible. 2142: 2048: 1995: 1927:

encompassing 6th-century northern and southern standards for reading the classics.

1729: 1713: 1673: 1542: 1309: 965: 629: 223: 201: 20: 12817: 8991:

at the Ohio State University with hundreds of links to Chinese related web pages.

8065: 7945: 7928: 5537:

is often used to illustrate the eight basic types of strokes of Chinese characters

4213:

The most comprehensive pure linguistic Chinese-language dictionary, the 12-volume

3278:

In contrast, Standard Cantonese has six tones. Historically, finals that end in a

2153:. Chinese words with these pronunciations were also extensively imported into the 15942: 15737: 15727: 15581: 15549: 15544: 15534: 15481: 15419: 15412: 15361: 15204: 15119: 15114: 15054: 14959: 14924: 14919: 14909: 14899: 14854: 14844: 14834: 14774: 14769: 14749: 14744: 14575: 14549: 14454: 14449: 14371: 14366: 14336: 14304: 14274: 14024: 13927: 13907: 13841: 13724: 13701: 13696: 13670: 13561: 13551: 13510: 13505: 13419: 13249: 13239: 13229: 13178: 13168: 13042: 12915: 12910: 12905: 12794: 12784: 12779: 12747: 12737: 12722: 12712: 12702: 12672: 12636: 12586: 12549: 12514: 12454: 12434: 12414: 12379: 12364: 12359: 12282: 12221: 12201: 12196: 12191: 12135: 12027: 11997: 11946: 11921: 11906: 11880: 11875: 11855: 11840: 11785: 11727: 11712: 11707: 11692: 11687: 11632: 11564: 11544: 11479: 11454: 11382: 11359: 11261: 11226: 11221: 11196: 11168: 11163: 10963: 10943: 10840: 10800: 10785: 10524: 10374: 10364: 10344: 10301: 10296: 10162: 10126: 10109: 10099: 10038: 9856: 9792: 9734: 9682: 9677: 9579: 9475: 9470: 9379: 9326: 9321: 9301: 9286: 9281: 9222: 9217: 9207: 9190: 9162: 9134: 9111: 8996: 8723:

Language policy in the People's Republic of China: theory and practice since 1949

8186:

Language attitudes and identities in multilingual China: a linguistic ethnography

7867: 6182: 6038: 6003: 5650: 5506:

are primarily Muslim and live mainly in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Russia; many

5491: 5371: 4215: 4195: 3523: 2678: 2664: 2625: 2515: 2463: 2455: 2154: 1953:. Literature written distinctly in the Classical form began to emerge during the 1693: 1667: 1649: 1613: 1534: 1380: 1036: 700: 268: 128: 1283: 1267: 600: 584: 15690: 15407: 15349: 15317: 15312: 15234: 15224: 15209: 15169: 15144: 15139: 15124: 15104: 15074: 15064: 15039: 14989: 14964: 14894: 14889: 14849: 14819: 14759: 14719: 14714: 14709: 14689: 14669: 14649: 14264: 14150: 14140: 14119: 14029: 13912: 13884: 13691: 13643: 13600: 13590: 13533: 13515: 13259: 13203: 13183: 12986: 12951: 12940: 12935: 12930: 12837: 12789: 12727: 12697: 12692: 12554: 12544: 12509: 12419: 12384: 12369: 12317: 12277: 12272: 12267: 12216: 12160: 12130: 12110: 12100: 12095: 12072: 11992: 11977: 11972: 11941: 11916: 11901: 11896: 11865: 11860: 11850: 11845: 11835: 11830: 11825: 11820: 11775: 11750: 11697: 11609: 11594: 11559: 11529: 11524: 11504: 11494: 11489: 11484: 11412: 11397: 11339: 11334: 11241: 11201: 11186: 11017: 11007: 10978: 10968: 10685: 10657: 10369: 10354: 10256: 10207: 10202: 10187: 10131: 10070: 9952: 9924: 9904: 9851: 9820: 9797: 9787: 9782: 9744: 9727: 9672: 9537: 9519: 9437: 9411: 9352: 9272: 9260: 9212: 9167: 9157: 9083: 8741: 8416: 8203: 8088: 7824: 6070: 5749: 5634: 4201: 3681: 3279: 2946: 2919: 2786: 2694: 2440: 1792: 1752:. Difficulties have included the great diversity of the languages, the lack of 1653: 1538: 1493: 1488:. Approximately 1.35 billion people, or 17% of the global population, speak a 1364: 1234: 1020: 948: 901: 684: 304: 279: 179: 11216: 10388: 8968: 5095:

Another result of English influence on Chinese is the appearance of so-called

2215: 1898:

rime dictionary (601 CE), and a late period in the 10th century, reflected by

16000: 15966: 15767: 15752: 15742: 15567: 15297: 15239: 15199: 15189: 15164: 15159: 14979: 14884: 14874: 14637: 14459: 14254: 14046: 13917: 13899: 13864: 13760: 13729: 13628: 13610: 13244: 13118: 13094: 13037: 12866: 12799: 12757: 12742: 12667: 12519: 12424: 12297: 12292: 12145: 12057: 12037: 12032: 12022: 12012: 12007: 11982: 11936: 11931: 11926: 11911: 11870: 11815: 11810: 11805: 11800: 11795: 11790: 11780: 11770: 11765: 11755: 11702: 11682: 11677: 11672: 11667: 11662: 11657: 11652: 11604: 11584: 11579: 11574: 11554: 11534: 11519: 11514: 11509: 11469: 11459: 11444: 11439: 11392: 11354: 11256: 11246: 10818: 10630: 10625: 10197: 10141: 10136: 10104: 10091: 9967: 9919: 9846: 9802: 9692: 9529: 9452: 9291: 9139: 9126: 8928: 8860: 8765: 8458: 8073: 7954: 7916: 7875: 7746: 6461: 6074: 5753: 5503: 5499: 5415:

independent of phonetic variation in different languages. Thus the character

3776: 3559: 2958: 2615: 2605: 2520: 2494: 2181: 2170: 1974: 1945:

The complex relationship between spoken and written Chinese is an example of

1776: 1749: 1745: 1621: 1594: 1104: 768: 253: 243: 11051: 8897:, Society for the Study of Early China and Institute of East Asian Studies, 8449: 5530: 15954: 15732: 15642: 15356: 15334: 14929: 14799: 14007: 13828: 13224: 13089: 13052: 12752: 12717: 12707: 12687: 12559: 12439: 12404: 12394: 12389: 12374: 12262: 12186: 12090: 12067: 11760: 11627: 11549: 11499: 11449: 11251: 11191: 10690: 10640: 10016: 9899: 9872: 9416: 9406: 8786: 8476: 8245: 7924: 7361:

Einige Übereinstimmungen zwischen dem Chinesischen und dem Indogermanischen

5742: 5731: 5727: 5389: 4166: 3283: 3240: 3035: 2770: 2476: 2467: 2429: 2007: 1986: 1982: 1889: 1885: 1823: 1639: 1558: 1550: 1316: 1203: 972: 861: 636: 8049: 7728: 6419: 482: 319: 15662: 15624: 15619: 15329: 15307: 15302: 15278: 14809: 14804: 14729: 14724: 14259: 14067: 13876: 13851: 13819: 13135: 13111: 13084: 13074: 13047: 13032: 13008: 12832: 12409: 12332: 12327: 12287: 12017: 10835: 10809: 10705: 10675: 10652: 10620: 10359: 10349: 10153: 10048: 10033: 9996: 9944: 9765: 9756: 9652: 9491: 9366: 9093: 8811: 8583: 7893:"What is Sino-Tibetan? Snapshot of a Field and a Language Family in Flux" 5943: 5642: 5404: 5330: 4752: 3082: 3064: 2934: 2658: 2595: 2585: 2575: 2555: 2525: 2499: 2489: 2484: 2409: 2130: 1899: 1881: 1848:

by comparing later varieties of Chinese with the rhyming practice of the

1804: 1788: 1631: 1598: 1586: 1562: 1546: 1477: 1459: 1227: 894: 612: 465: 452: 258: 248: 238: 228: 169: 14495: 8488:. ABC Chinese dictionary series. Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press. 6438: 4538:)—this word was widely used in Shanghai during the 1920s, but the later 4388:). Other words came from nomadic peoples to the north, such as ' 4161:

construction to form sentences. Chinese also has an extensive system of

4157:, and like many other languages of East Asia, makes frequent use of the 3073: 3055: 15609: 14784: 14189: 14002: 13859: 13163: 13101: 13079: 12449: 12322: 10251: 10225: 9991: 9957: 9462: 9389: 8611: 8588:"Tones and Prosody in Middle Chinese and The Origin of The Rising Tone" 8587: 8425:"Dated language phylogenies shed light on the ancestry of Sino-Tibetan" 7696: 7684: 6424: 5973: 5546: 5507: 5482:, women in certain areas write their local Chinese language variant in 5393: 4965: 2942: 2864: 2717:

List of countries and territories where Chinese is an official language

2686: 2565: 2529: 2503: 2480: 2472: 2390: 1866: 1815: 1753: 1697: 1554: 1081: 745: 233: 13440: 8742:"Redesigning Culture: Chinese Characters in Alphabet-Encoded Networks" 7962: 7816: 7792: 507: 15589: 15402: 15324: 15283: 14249: 14244: 14214: 13997: 13809: 13403: 13353: 13140: 13128: 13123: 13067: 12399: 11138: 11064: 10700: 10451: 10442: 10170: 10060: 9712: 9700: 9511: 9342: 8951:

Kingdom of Characters: The Language Revolution That Made China Modern

8886: 8507:. Cambridge language surveys. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 6942: 6029: 5669: 5550: 5487: 5464: 4638: 4327: 4206: 3583: 2954: 2950: 2938: 2802: 2798: 2766: 2698: 2507: 2405: 2087: 1946: 1924: 1737: 1570: 1566: 1125: 789: 491: 475: 439: 421: 106: 101: 79: 8698:

Wurm, Stephen Adolphe; Li, Rong; Baumann, Theo; Lee, Mei W. (1987).

8603: 6335:; London, p. 15 for a count of over 8000 syllables for English. 4242:

Like many other languages, Chinese has absorbed a sizable number of

2112: 1803:

The earliest examples of Old Chinese are divinatory inscriptions on

15937: 15647: 15599: 14209: 13106: 10990: 10576: 10217: 9398: 9002: 7808: 6302: 6062: 5495: 5494:, considered by many a dialect of Mandarin, is nowadays written in 5468: 5412: 5384: 4401: 4243: 3537: 3304: 1775:

The first written records appeared over 3,000 years ago during the

1634:

can be reconstructed from the rhymes of ancient poetry. During the

1473: 1330: 1146: 986: 810: 650: 556: 294: 96: 11022: 8855:, Cambridge Syntax Guides, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 8148:

Lewis, M. Paul; Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D., eds. (2015),

7761: 6501: 5483: 3558:

Most modern varieties tend to form new words through polysyllabic

2797:

in everyday speech. In part due to traditional cultural ties with

1533:

means they are sometimes considered to be separate languages in a

45: 15339: 13145: 10889: 10569: 10456: 10285: 9881: 8782:"Origin of Sino-Tibetan language family revealed by new research" 7327:

Webster's Digital Chinese Dictionary – Advanced Reference Edition

6136: 5887: 5542: 4727: 3758: 3734: 3706: 3654: 3626: 3047:. The tones are exemplified by the following five Chinese words: 2957:; a zero onset is also possible), and followed (optionally) by a 2670: 2635: 2511: 2273: 2257: 2243: 2041: 1905: 1840: 1712:

are used in Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau, and among Chinese-speaking

1526: 1210: 868: 552: 263: 141: 3986:; 'petroleum'. Although many single-syllable morphemes ( 15675: 14424: 10948: 10750: 7409: 6987: 6985: 5917: 5861: 4920:) were borrowed for 'ballet' and 'champagne' respectively; 4507: 4413: 4389: 4081: 4069: 2682: 2413: 2401: 2199: 2022:

dynasties carried out the administration of the empire using a

1894: 1869:, and indicated grammatical relationships using word order and 1644: 1443: 299: 91: 8851:

Huang, Cheng-Teh James; Li, Yen-Hui Audrey; Li, Yafei (2009),

8566:

International Handbook of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education

7609:"Chinese language proficiency test becoming popular in Mexico" 6519: 5630:

classified characters under a now-common set of 214 radicals.

5420: 3901: 3884: 3863: 3842: 3821: 3786: 3263: 3228: 3201: 3174: 3151: 3092: 3042: 2005:

verse form in this language. Together with the slightly later

1999:

was a dictionary that codified the rhyming conventions of new

1910:

constructed by ancient Chinese philologists as a guide to the

1761:

is often assumed, but has not been convincingly demonstrated.

1242: 909: 15436: 14326: 10461: 8988: 7309:"Languages - Real Chinese - Mini-guides - Chinese characters" 5831: 5665: 5479: 5432: 4709: 4221: 4019:

Examples of Chinese words of more than two syllables include

3547: 2930: 2806: 2690: 2225: 2221: 2177: 2091: 2001: 1485: 1218: 876: 86: 8149: 7248: 6982: 6867: 15446: 8568:(1st ed.). New York: Greenwood Press. pp. 17–45. 7534: 5741:

Today the most common romanization for Standard Chinese is

5472: 4712:'. This is often done for commercial purposes, for example 4409: 4405: 2858: 2207: 2019: 2015: 1724:

Linguists classify all varieties of Chinese as part of the

8322:. Cambridge language surveys. Cambridge University Press. 8060:(6). Centre d'études français sur la Chine Contemporaine. 7161: 7159: 7120: 6723: 4436:), but from exactly which source is not always clear. 4108:. In Mandarin, this involves the use of particles such as 3785:

exploits this, consisting of 92 characters all pronounced

555:

characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see

8816: 7132: 7033: 7021: 7009: 6831: 6759: 6747: 6615: 6555: 6301:

Linguists in China often use a formulation introduced by

5426: 3765: 3741: 3713: 3689: 3661: 3633: 3504: 3497: 3474: 3467: 3444: 3437: 3410: 3403: 3380: 3373: 3341: 3334: 1985:

dynasties in northern China, a common speech (now called

1930: 1179: 1165: 1151: 1137: 845: 829: 815: 801: 8804: 8725:. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 143–161. 8399:

Language in Society: an Introduction to Sociolinguistics

6915: 6891: 5706: 5668:

to fewer strokes, especially by adopting common cursive

5656:

There are currently two systems for Chinese characters.

4533: 4426:), the Chinese lute, or 'cheese or yogurt' ( 1757:

remains unclear. A top-level branching into Chinese and

1093: 757: 8154:(Eighteenth ed.), Dallas, Texas: SIL International 7995:(2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 7572: 7156: 6932: 6930: 6903: 6855: 6819: 6711: 6699: 6663: 6639: 6627: 6591: 6507: 5467:

and dictionaries. Early Indian translators, working in

4330:

during the Old Chinese period include 'grape' (

3682: 15869: 6843: 6771: 6567: 5603:; 'pour'), combining a phonetic component 5356: 5328: 2918:

and also to the characters of the writing system, and

2205: 1545:

with 66%, or around 800 million speakers, followed by

15926: 8415: 8113:

New dialect formation: the case of Taiwanese Mandarin

7856:

Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development

7773:] (2nd ed.). Beijing: The Commercial Press. 7764:

Zhōngguó yǔyán dìtú jí (dì 2 bǎn): Hànyǔ fāngyán juǎn

7200: 7108: 6997: 6970: 6807: 6795: 6783: 6735: 6651: 6603: 6579: 6543: 6531: 6480: 6022: 6015: 5996: 5989: 5966: 5959: 5936: 5929: 5910: 5903: 5880: 5873: 5854: 5847: 5824: 5817: 5777: 5771: 5765: 4527: 4011: 3591: 1903: 1399: 1385: 1369: 1355: 1335: 1321: 1069: 1055: 1041: 1025: 1011: 991: 977: 733: 719: 705: 689: 675: 655: 641: 64: 50: 8982: 8133:. Trends in linguistics. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. 8093:

New Word Order: Transnational Themes in Book History

7289: 7236: 7212: 7144: 6958: 6927: 6687: 6675: 5390:

Preface to the Poems Composed at the Orchid Pavilion

2393:, a variety of Yue from a small coastal area around 2197: 8363:. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. 8031:

The Chinese language: its history and current usage

7390: 5730:is the process of transcribing a language into the 5510:, living mainly in China, also speak the language. 5092:; 'interconnected tribes') for 'blog'. 2137:that ran almost continuously for a millennium. The 1116: 780: 529: Status as an official or educational language 8917: 8805:Arablouei, Ramtin; Rund Abdelfatah (26 May 2022). 8523: 8271: 8221:. University of Pennsylvania: 1–31. Archived from 7268: 7224: 7084: 6879: 6356:There are plural markers in the language, such as 6236: 3942:, appears in compounds as meaning 'stone' such as 3097:with each of the primary tones in Standard Chinese 2677:Some varieties remain unclassified, including the 1865:have also been identified, but the language lacks 8147: 7646:. Arlington, Va: Center for Applied Linguistics. 7419: 7171: 4744:; 'better-than hundred tastes') for ' 4072:(word order and sentence structure), rather than 15998: 8697: 7762:Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, ed. (2012). 6991: 6324: 6322: 6282:Mandarin Chinese: A Functional Reference Grammar 6193:North American Conference on Chinese Linguistics 6052: 5748:The second-most common romanization system, the 5637:. Various other written styles are also used in 4412:, Mongolian or northeast regions generally have 3590:lists six words that are commonly pronounced as 2213: 8429:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 8361:Middle Chinese: A study in Historical Phonology 7979:(in Chinese). Chinese University of Hong Kong. 7096: 2910:A man speaking Mandarin with a Malaysian accent 2801:, Cantonese is used as an everyday language in 8656: 8549:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 15–51. 7691:, vol. 84, no. 3, pp. 636–641, 7072: 5440:Most modern written Chinese is in the form of 5350: 5322: 2922:they are structured according to fixed rules. 15855: 14511: 14083: 13456: 13369: 11080: 11056: 9018: 6319: 6103:, giving Chinese language instruction at the 4950:; 'golf') and the aforementioned 4931: 4326:). Ancient words borrowed from along the 2925:The structure of each syllable consists of a 1844:. Scholars have attempted to reconstruct the 1529:of a single language. However, their lack of 1281: 1265: 932: 598: 582: 523: Significant Chinese-speaking population 10817: 2654:(1987), distinguishes three further groups: 2169:structure in Japanese and the disruption of 1977:dynasty and subsequent reign of the Jurchen 1968: 1876:Middle Chinese was the language used during 8355: 8240: 8116:(Doctor of Philosophy). University of Essex 7254: 6448: 5545:classified characters into six categories: 2024:common language based on Mandarin varieties 1472:; 'Chinese writing') is a group of 1453: 15862: 15848: 14518: 14504: 14097: 14090: 14076: 13463: 13449: 13376: 13362: 11302: 11087: 11073: 11038: 10808: 9025: 9011: 8739: 8486:ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese 8095:. Worldview Publications. pp. 65–79. 7540: 4841:; 'smart (fashionable)'), and 2204:alphabet for Korean and supplemented with 506: 44: 14525: 8893:, translated by Gilbert Louis Mattos and 8716: 8675: 8637: 8502: 8483: 8466: 8448: 8050:"Language Policy in the KMT and DPP eras" 7944: 7823: 7771:Language Atlas of China: Chinese dialects 7736: 7578: 7374:"Indo-European Vocabulary in Old Chinese" 7358: 7342:Egerod, Søren Christian (12 April 2024). 7165: 7126: 6921: 6909: 6897: 6873: 6801: 6633: 6573: 6502:Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (2012) 6346:Baxter's transcription for Middle Chinese 6328: 6293: 4119: 1989:) developed based on the dialects of the 1782: 1605:at least to some degree, and are largely 8915: 8657:Wardaugh, Ronald; Fuller, Janet (2014). 8618: 8563: 8128: 8087: 7797:Journal of the American Oriental Society 7710: 7682: 7606: 7150: 7138: 7039: 7027: 7015: 6849: 6837: 6094: 6084: 6077:for Chinese. The most widespread is the 5705: 5529: 5383: 5034: 5024: 5014: 5004: 4889: 4879: 4475:by adding descriptive text and removing 2901: 2423: 2283: 2267: 2111: 2067:National Language Unification Commission 1861:distinctions in Middle Chinese. Several 1690:official languages of the United Nations 1498: 396:Chinese Language Standardisation Council 14540: 13487: 13470: 10733: 8717:Zhang, Bennan; Yang, Robin R. (2004). " 8582: 8544: 8396: 8298:Old Japanese: A Phonetic Reconstruction 7410:"Requirements for Chinese Text Layout" 7271:Langenscheidt Pocket Chinese Dictionary 7266: 6813: 5633:Modern characters are styled after the 5613:) with a semantic component of the 4964:; 'sofa'). Later, American 4510:), phonetic translation (by sound), or 3588:Langenscheidt Pocket Chinese Dictionary 2973:can stand alone as their own syllable. 2538:Proportions of first-language speakers 1736:and many other languages spoken in the 549:question marks, boxes, or other symbols 15999: 13786: 13751: 13383: 11094: 8377: 8336: 8314: 8292: 8266: 8047: 7990: 7923: 7890: 7849: 7829:The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy 7787: 7660: 7641: 7341: 7295: 7242: 7218: 7206: 7194: 7190: 7114: 7090: 7003: 6976: 6964: 6952: 6948: 6936: 6861: 6825: 6789: 6777: 6765: 6753: 6741: 6729: 6717: 6705: 6693: 6681: 6669: 6657: 6645: 6621: 6609: 6597: 6585: 6561: 6549: 6537: 6525: 6513: 6444: 6287: 6275:The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language 6198:Protection of the Varieties of Chinese 5675:creating its own simplified characters 4726:; 'dashing-leaping') for ' 4498:Translation of neologisms into Chinese 3608: 2945:in certain varieties), preceded by an 1931:Classical and vernacular written forms 1638:, Middle Chinese went through several 1401: 1190: 1184: 1071: 850: 735: 15843: 15345:Southern Peninsular Malaysian Hokkien 14499: 14071: 13444: 13357: 12242: 11301: 11068: 11055: 9006: 8183: 8009: 7986:from the original on 10 October 2022. 7969: 7425: 7368: 5789:Comparison of Mandarin romanizations 5513: 5490:derived from Chinese characters. The 5419:('one') is pronounced as 4502:Transcription into Chinese characters 3290:Examples of Standard Cantonese tones 3254: 2961:consonant; a syllable also carries a 2898:Varieties of Chinese § Phonology 1541:, of which the most spoken by far is 9032: 8926:(blog): Language Borrowing (topic). 8521: 8202: 8028: 7396: 7230: 7177: 6885: 6486: 4708:) for the video game character ' 4443: 4439: 4274:), and perhaps 'horse' ( 4064:All varieties of modern Chinese are 2104:Adoption of Chinese literary culture 1818:. The next attested stage came from 1676:is an official language of both the 23:. For other languages in China, see 12243: 8948: 8919:"Why So Little Chinese in English?" 8659:An Introduction to Sociolinguistics 8109: 7666:A Handbook of Old Chinese Phonology 7642:Bailey, Charles James Nice (1973). 7102: 6280:Charles N. Li, Sandra A. Thompson. 6099:Yang Lingfu, former curator of the 4516:international scientific vocabulary 3114:Examples of Standard Chinese tones 2704: 1692:. Standard Chinese is based on the 13: 8798: 8592:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 8250:Cantonese: A Comprehensive Grammar 8158: 8151:Ethnologue: Languages of the World 7554:"How hard is it to learn Chinese?" 7325:Timothy Uy and Jim Hsia, Editors, 7078: 6413: 5498:and was previously written in the 3098: 3038:system much like modern Japanese. 2661:, previously included in Mandarin. 1593:and certain divergent dialects of 512:Map of the Chinese-speaking world 14: 16063: 8976: 8936:from the original on 20 June 2013 8807:"The Characters That Built China" 7051: 6143:Chinese computational linguistics 6122:(HSK), comparable to the English 5365: 5118:'third generation of cell phones' 4659:; 'internet logbook') 4374:) and 'bodhisattva' ( 3782:Lion-Eating Poet in the Stone Den 1719: 15984: 15972: 15960: 15948: 15936: 15605:Malay trade and creole languages 11037: 10515:Literary and colloquial readings 10387: 8758:10.2752/175470710X12593419555126 8638:Wakefield, John C., ed. (2019). 8012:Social Anthropology and Language 7909:10.1111/j.1749-818X.2008.00061.x 7897:Language and Linguistics Compass 6430: 5526:Chinese character classification 5111: 4930:) was borrowed from Italian 4682:; 'hamburger') from 4571:; 'electric vision') 4554: 4448: 3797: 3598: 3269: 3258: 3081: 3072: 3063: 3054: 2356: 2344: 2332: 2318: 2311: 2304: 1820:inscriptions on bronze artifacts 1513:Ying, a speaker of Henan Chinese 14560:comparison with British English 8278:. University of Chicago Press. 8033:. North Clarendon, VT: Tuttle. 7644:Variation and linguistic theory 7600: 7584: 7546: 7506: 7488: 7482: 7459: 7431: 7402: 7332: 7319: 7301: 7260: 7183: 7045: 6390: 6373: 6350: 6338: 5695: 5583:; 'mountain'), and 4592:; 'electric brain') 2812: 2251: 2236:English words of Chinese origin 1878:Northern and Southern dynasties 1771:History of the Chinese language 1686:official languages of Singapore 1601:. All varieties of Chinese are 1255:Second alternative Chinese name 1243: 1219: 1180: 1166: 1152: 1138: 1117: 1094: 910: 877: 846: 830: 816: 802: 781: 758: 517: Majority Chinese-speaking 27:. For different varieties, see 8836:, University of Hawaii Press, 8547:A History of Korean Literature 8530:. Cambridge University Press. 8382:. Princeton University Press. 8159:Li, Siok-Hong (1 March 2010). 7738:11858/00-001M-0000-0013-1A8D-4 6454: 6379:A distinction is made between 6370:, used with personal pronouns. 6366: 6361: 6357: 6263: 6248: 6227: 6218: 6209: 6173:Chinese word-segmented writing 5984: 5980: 5954: 5950: 5898: 5894: 5842: 5838: 5812: 5808: 5719: 5714: 5710: 5609: 5599: 5589: 5579: 5569: 5559: 5345: 5340: 5336: 5311: 5279: 5274: 5256: 5247: 5215: 5210: 5193: 5184: 5153: 5148: 5129: 5115: 5105: 5100: 5096: 5088: 5078: 5068: 5058: 5048: 5043: 5039: 4994: 4988: 4983: 4979: 4974: 4960: 4955: 4951: 4946: 4941: 4937: 4926: 4916: 4911: 4907: 4902: 4870: 4866: 4861: 4856: 4852: 4847: 4837: 4832: 4828: 4823: 4818: 4814: 4809: 4799: 4794: 4790: 4785: 4780: 4776: 4771: 4761: 4740: 4735: 4731: 4722: 4717: 4713: 4704: 4699: 4695: 4683: 4678: 4673: 4669: 4655: 4650: 4646: 4630: 4625: 4621: 4609: 4604: 4600: 4588: 4583: 4579: 4567: 4562: 4558: 4548: 4543: 4539: 4523: 4519: 4432: 4422: 4384: 4379: 4375: 4370: 4360: 4355: 4351: 4346: 4340:), 'pomegranate' ( 4336: 4322: 4317: 4313: 4308: 4298: 4293: 4289: 4284: 4279: 4275: 4270: 4265: 4261: 4256: 4155:subject–verb–object word order 4146: 4141: 4137: 4132: 4127: 4123: 4114: 4057: 4052: 4048: 4043: 4038: 4034: 4029: 4024: 4020: 4006: 4001: 3997: 3992: 3982: 3968: 3958: 3948: 3938: 3933: 3929: 3924: 3879: 3875: 3858: 3854: 3837: 3833: 3816: 3812: 3726: 3722: 3674: 3670: 3646: 3642: 3578: 3568: 3429: 3425: 3326: 3322: 3249: 3245: 3220: 3216: 3193: 3189: 3143: 3139: 2845: 2840: 2836: 2831: 2782: 2759: 2754: 2750: 2745: 2740: 2736: 2731: 2726: 2196:, but later replaced with the 2079: 2074: 2070: 2061: 2056: 2052: 2036: 2031: 2027: 1476:spoken natively by the ethnic 1468: 1448: 1439: 1431: 1400: 1386: 1370: 1356: 1337: 1336: 1322: 1282: 1266: 1070: 1056: 1042: 1026: 1012: 993: 992: 978: 933: 734: 720: 706: 690: 676: 657: 656: 642: 599: 583: 1: 8953:. New York: Riverhead Books. 8503:Shibatani, Masayoshi (1990). 8341:. Routledge. pp. 72–83. 8066:10.4000/chinaperspectives.442 8014:. Routledge. pp. 47–92. 7946:10.1525/aa.1966.68.4.02a00040 7793:"A Brief History of Mandarin" 7668:. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. 7593:"汉语水平考试中心：2005年外国考生总人数近12万", 6402: 6396:Hong Kong and Macau Cantonese 6233:Mandarin, Hakka, and Hokkien. 6148:Chinese exclamative particles 6091:Chinese as a foreign language 6053:Other phonetic transcriptions 5062:; 'hacker'), and 5018:; 'gay people'), 4613:; 'hand machine') 4184: 2725:of China (where it is called 2673:, previously included in Yue. 2122:, a Korean collection of the 1993:around the capital. The 1324 1951:Classical or Literary Chinese 1808: 1799:Reconstruction of Old Chinese 1630:. The phonetic categories of 1624: 121:1.35 billion (2017–2022) 11043:List of varieties of Chinese 8790:(Press release). 6 May 2019. 7868:10.1080/01434632.2010.509507 7518:(in Chinese). Archived from 7443:(in Chinese). Archived from 7267:Terrell, Peter, ed. (2005). 6407: 5433: 5427: 5421: 5082:; 'hacker') and 4534: 4312:), and 'goose' ( 4237: 4047:; 'goalkeeper', and 3902: 3885: 3864: 3843: 3822: 3787: 3766: 3759: 3742: 3735: 3714: 3707: 3690: 3683: 3662: 3655: 3634: 3627: 3505: 3498: 3475: 3468: 3445: 3438: 3411: 3404: 3381: 3374: 3342: 3335: 3264: 3229: 3202: 3175: 3152: 3093: 3043: 2989:, the retroflex approximant 2894:Historical Chinese phonology 2883: 2667:, previously included in Wu. 2432:and Taiwan according to the 2290: 2097: 1726:Sino-Tibetan language family 1636:Northern and Southern period 386:National Languages Committee 7: 8834:Asia's Orthographic Dilemma 8832:Hannas, William C. (1997), 8740:Zimmermann, Basile (2010). 8401:. Oxford University Press. 7929:"Dialect, Language, Nation" 7833:University of Hawaiʻi Press 6129: 6023: 6016: 5997: 5990: 5967: 5960: 5937: 5930: 5911: 5904: 5881: 5874: 5855: 5848: 5825: 5818: 5778: 5772: 5766: 5437:in Hokkien, a form of Min. 5357: 5329: 5157:('cell phone') 5028:; 'taxi'), and 4992:; 'cola'), and 4765:), and 'Paris' becomes 4634:; 'blue tooth') 4528: 4350:), and 'lion' ( 4012: 3592: 3586:. As an example, the small 2428:Range of dialect groups in 2419: 2206: 2198: 1904: 1826:period (1046–771 BCE), the 1517:Chinese languages form the 1482:many minority ethnic groups 65: 51: 10: 16068: 11001:Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols 8989:Marjorie Chan's ChinaLinks 8677:Wilkinson, Endymion Porter 8378:Ramsey, S. Robert (1987). 8339:The Sino-Tibetan languages 7850:Groves, Julie May (2010). 7634: 6462:"Summary by language size" 6105:Civil Affairs Staging Area 6088: 5699: 5523: 5517: 5442:written vernacular Chinese 5369: 5196:'Cost, Insurance, Freight' 5188:; 'industry') 5008:; 'cartoon'), 4883:; 'sofa') and 4495: 3527: 3521: 3517: 2890:Standard Chinese phonology 2887: 2849:; 'local speech'. 2714: 2708: 2528:, including Cantonese and 2294: 2101: 2049:standard national language 1959:written vernacular Chinese 1941:Written vernacular Chinese 1934: 1796: 1786: 1768: 1764: 1684:(Taiwan), one of the four 1678:People's Republic of China 18: 16:National language of China 15878: 15823: 15798: 15775: 15766: 15711:comparison with Malaysian 15661: 15635: 15580: 15560: 15522: 15457: 15390: 15266: 15257: 14873: 14678: 14662: 14648: 14574: 14533: 14485:Singaporean Sign Language 14477: 14417: 14352: 14285: 14230: 14223: 14182: 14163: 14128: 14112: 14105: 13985: 13969: 13951: 13898: 13875: 13850: 13827: 13818: 13795: 13777: 13742: 13710: 13684: 13619: 13542: 13526: 13496: 13478: 13412: 13391: 13325: 13298:Southern (Shanghai) Sign 13283: 13212: 13156: 12960: 12898: 12851: 12808: 12770: 12655: 12577: 12568: 12500: 12463: 12350: 12341: 12253: 12249: 12238: 12179: 12081: 11963: 11889: 11736: 11618: 11430: 11421: 11373: 11325: 11314: 11310: 11297: 11290: 11270: 11177: 11125: 11118: 11102: 11062: 11057:Links to related articles 11035: 10919: 10888: 10799: 10724: 10666: 10586: 10561: 10523: 10470: 10396: 10385: 10332: 10284: 10239: 10216: 10161: 10152: 10090: 10009: 9984: 9966: 9943: 9880: 9871: 9834: 9811: 9773: 9764: 9755: 9691: 9651: 9578: 9556: 9528: 9510: 9484: 9461: 9397: 9388: 9365: 9335: 9312: 9236: 9176: 9148: 9125: 9102: 9069: 9060: 9051: 9040: 8681:Chinese History: A Manual 8661:. John Wiley & Sons. 8621:What is sociolinguistics? 8619:Van Herk, Gerard (2012). 8397:Romaine, Suzanne (1994). 7711:Chappell, Hilary (2008). 7607:Liu lili (27 June 2011). 7468:粤语：中国最强方言是如何炼成的_私家历史_澎湃新闻 7255:Matthews & Yip (1994) 6384: 6380: 6312: 6269:Various examples include: 6243: 6178:Classical Chinese grammar 6010: 5924: 5868: 5621: 5617: 5604: 5594: 5584: 5574: 5564: 5554: 5534: 5453: 5449: 5416: 5351: 5323: 5306: 5288: 5242: 5224: 5179: 5162: 5124: 5083: 5073: 5063: 5053: 5029: 5019: 5009: 4999: 4969: 4921: 4897: 4884: 4874: 4842: 4804: 4766: 4756: 4687: 4427: 4417: 4397: 4393: 4365: 4341: 4331: 4303: 4251: 4109: 4096:. They make heavy use of 3987: 3977: 3973: 3963: 3953: 3943: 3919: 3896: 3792: 3750: 3698: 3618: 3573: 3563: 3489: 3485: 3459: 3455: 3421: 3395: 3391: 3365: 3361: 3318: 3313: 3308: 3303: 3300: 3297: 3294: 3239: 3212: 3208:low falling, then rising 3185: 3166: 3162: 3135: 3130: 3127: 3124: 3121: 3118: 2826: 2278: 2262: 2246: 2151:Sino-Xenic pronunciations 2135:period of Chinese control 1969:Rise of northern dialects 1463: 1414: 1393: 1379: 1363: 1349: 1329: 1315: 1308: 1303: 1299: 1291: 1275: 1259: 1254: 1233: 1226: 1209: 1202: 1173: 1159: 1145: 1131: 1124: 1110: 1103: 1087: 1080: 1063: 1049: 1035: 1019: 1005: 985: 971: 964: 959: 955: 944: 934: 926: 921: 900: 893: 867: 860: 839: 823: 809: 795: 788: 774: 767: 751: 744: 727: 713: 699: 683: 669: 649: 635: 628: 623: 619: 608: 592: 576: 572: 567: 535: 505: 489: 473: 437: 419: 414: 380:State Language Commission 369: 355: 335:Official language in 333: 328: 276: 215: 192: 157: 125: 115: 74: 43: 38: 15830:Nearly extinct languages 8916:R. L. G. (6 June 2013). 8899:University of California 8861:10.1017/CBO9781139166935 8484:Schüssler, Axel (2007). 8129:Kurpaska, Maria (2010). 8048:Klöter, Henning (2004). 7972: 7766: 7514: 7499: 7491: 7475: 7467: 7439: 7411: 7193:, p. 11), cited in 7052:何, 信翰 (10 August 2019). 6528:, pp. 422, 434–436. 6333:Monosyllabism in English 6203: 6101:National Museum of China 5563:; 'human'), 5376:Mainland Chinese Braille 4978:; 'disco'), 4893:; 'motor'). 4827:; 'logic'), 4813:; 'humor'), 4803:; 'motor'), 4512:a combination of the two 4171:serial verb construction 3976:; 'quartz', and 3028: 2785:; 'Taiwanese'), 2721:Standard Chinese is the 2139:Four Commanderies of Han 1955:Spring and Autumn period 1846:phonology of Old Chinese 1618:oracle bone inscriptions 1277:Traditional Chinese 922:Alternative Chinese name 848:Cantonese pronunciation: 594:Traditional Chinese 406:Promote Mandarin Council 15783:Malaysian Sign Language 13295:Northern (Beijing) Sign 8983:Classical Chinese texts 8700:Language Atlas of China 8450:10.1073/pnas.1817972116 8110:Kuo, Yun-Hsuan (2005). 7970:Huang Hua (黃華) (2014). 7933:American Anthropologist 7683:Campbell, Lyle (2008), 7359:Ulenbrook, Jan (1967), 7348:Encyclopædia Britannica 6802:Zhang & Yang (2004) 6313:《汉语在语言系属分类中相当于一个语族的地位。》 5988: 5979: 5764:than they will be with 5702:Romanization of Chinese 5052:; 'fans'), 4789:; 'sofa'), 4692:phono-semantic matching 4477:less pertinent examples 4260:), 'lion' ( 4136:; 'still', and 4078:grammatical inflections 4074:inflectional morphology 4033:; 'hamburger', 3282:were considered to be " 2651:Language Atlas of China 2648:, which is used in the 2434:Language Atlas of China 2108:Sino-Xenic vocabularies 1759:Tibeto-Burman languages 1591:Central Plains Mandarin 1261:Simplified Chinese 578:Simplified Chinese 16037:Languages of Singapore 16027:Languages of Hong Kong 15811:Selangor Sign Language 14930:Bruneian/Kedayan Malay 14735:Kelantan-Pattani Malay 14099:Languages of Singapore 11304:Sino-Tibetan languages 8985:– Chinese Text Project 8505:The Languages of Japan 8380:The Languages of China 7991:Hudson, R. A. (1996). 7056:. 自由時報. Archived from 6108: 6037:Other systems include 5736:Christian missionaries 5724: 5658:Traditional characters 5573:; 'Sun'), 5538: 5400: 5133:; 'three') 4932: 4751:Foreign words, mainly 4686:; 'Hamburg' + 4302:), 'dog' ( 4288:), 'pig' ( 3106: 2993:, and voiceless stops 2911: 2644:The classification of 2436: 2214: 2126: 2124:Chinese Buddhist canon 1973:After the fall of the 1920:borrowed Chinese words 1783:Old and Middle Chinese 1742:Southeast Asian Massif 1710:Traditional characters 1612:The earliest attested 1583:Lower Yangtze Mandarin 1531:mutual intelligibility 1514: 537:This article contains 15050:Kota Marudu Talantang 14780:Negeri Sembilan Malay 14527:Languages of Malaysia 14057:Yilan Creole Japanese 8853:The Syntax of Chinese 8522:Sohn, Ho-Min (2001). 8357:Pulleyblank, Edwin G. 8274:The Japanese Language 8184:Liang, Sihua (2015). 8161:"台、華語接觸所引起的台語語音的變化趨勢" 8029:Kane, Daniel (2006). 7729:10.1515/LITY.2008.032 6814:Sohn & Lee (2003) 6308:Encyclopedia of China 6124:Cambridge Certificate 6120:Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi 6098: 6085:As a foreign language 5738:in the 16th century. 5709: 5662:Simplified characters 5533: 5425:in Standard Chinese, 5387: 4416:etymologies, such as 4150:; 'already'. 4098:grammatical particles 3952:; 'plaster', 3596:in Standard Chinese: 3105: 2909: 2888:Further information: 2791:Austronesian language 2427: 2115: 1871:grammatical particles 1797:Further information: 1706:simplified characters 1688:, and one of the six 1575:Southwestern Mandarin 1523:Sino-Tibetan language 1512: 402:Ministry of Education 390:Hakka Affairs Council 15806:Penang Sign Language 15788:Manually Coded Malay 14164:Indigenous languages 13961:Taiwan Sign Language 8995:20 July 2011 at the 8300:. Routledge–Curzon. 8215:Sino-Platonic Papers 7891:Handel, Zev (2008). 7381:Sino-Platonic Papers 7275:. Langenscheidt KG. 6951:, pp. 189–191; 6732:, pp. 133, 247. 6447:, pp. 211–214; 6258:Varieties of Chinese 6158:Chinese language law 5620:, a reduced form of 4231:Xiandai Hanyu Cidian 4228:The 2016 edition of 4061:; 'e-mail'. 3972:; 'grotto', 3828:'actual-connection' 2297:Varieties of Chinese 1916:varieties of Chinese 1863:derivational affixes 1832:and portions of the 1714:communities overseas 1628: 1250 BCE 852:[hɔ̄ːn.jy̬ː] 16042:Languages of Taiwan 16017:Isolating languages 15289:Malaysian Cantonese 15045:Klias River Kadazan 14224:Immigrant languages 13472:Languages of Taiwan 13338:NM = Inner Mongolia 8526:The Korean Language 8441:2019PNAS..11610317S 8435:(21): 10317–10322. 7717:Linguistic Typology 7447:on 15 February 2020 7344:"Chinese languages" 6876:, pp. 120–121. 6768:, pp. 540–541. 6756:, pp. 549–550. 6624:, pp. 181–183. 6564:, pp. 183–185. 6383:; 'he' and 6168:Chinese punctuation 5790: 5770:(pinyin), and with 5639:Chinese calligraphy 4473:improve the article 3530:Chinese classifiers 3291: 3115: 2822:language identity. 2795:languages of Taiwan 2697:spoken in northern 2230:Vietnamese alphabet 2187:Sino-Japanese words 1965:beginning in 1919. 1963:May Fourth Movement 1620:created during the 1579:Xuanzhou Wu Chinese 1436:traditional Chinese 1161:Canton Romanization 825:Canton Romanization 357:Recognised minority 175:Eastern Han Chinese 16032:Languages of Macau 16022:Languages of China 16012:Analytic languages 15636:Mixed & Others 15378:Malaysian Mandarin 13805:Taiwanese Mandarin 13385:Languages of Macau 12875:Formosan languages 11096:Languages of China 10996:Cantonese Bopomofo 10863:Chinese characters 10791:Written Sichuanese 9375:Zhangjiakou–Hohhot 8949:Tsu, Jing (2022). 8746:Design and Culture 8421:Jacques, Guillaume 8294:Miyake, Marc Hideo 8268:Miller, Roy Andrew 8188:. Cham: Springer. 8054:China Perspectives 7767:中国语言地图集(第2版):汉语方言卷 7697:10.1353/lan.0.0054 7662:Baxter, William H. 7597:, 16 January 2006. 7595:Xinhua News Agency 7365:proposes 57 items. 6992:Wurm et al. (1987) 6504:, pp. 3, 125. 6489:, pp. 10, 21. 6449:Pulleyblank (1984) 6188:Languages of China 6153:Chinese honorifics 6109: 5788: 5725: 5686:mainland newspaper 5539: 5520:Chinese characters 5514:Chinese characters 5409:Chinese characters 5401: 5398:semi-cursive style 5219:; 'price' 4177:, and the related 4090:grammatical number 4066:analytic languages 3962:; 'lime', 3289: 3113: 3107: 2912: 2689:spoken in western 2437: 2395:Taishan, Guangdong 2194:Chinese characters 2127: 1855:consonant clusters 1702:Chinese characters 1565:(68 million, e.g. 1557:(74 million, e.g. 1549:(75 million, e.g. 1515: 1490:variety of Chinese 1428:simplified Chinese 290:Chinese characters 207:Standard Cantonese 165:Proto-Sino-Tibetan 25:Languages of China 15924: 15923: 15918: 15917: 15873:loan vocabularies 15837: 15836: 15827:Extinct languages 15819: 15818: 15576: 15575: 15253: 15252: 15085:Mainstream Kenyah 14570: 14569: 14493: 14492: 14473: 14472: 14159: 14158: 14065: 14064: 13977:Taiwanese Braille 13947: 13946: 13943: 13942: 13894: 13893: 13837:Taiwanese Hokkien 13773: 13772: 13769: 13768: 13744:Malayo-Polynesian 13738: 13737: 13438: 13437: 13351: 13350: 12894: 12893: 12890: 12889: 12886: 12885: 12879: 12871: 12863: 12766: 12765: 12496: 12495: 12234: 12233: 12230: 12229: 11959: 11958: 11955: 11954: 11286: 11285: 11049: 11048: 11031: 11030: 10858: 10857: 10776:Written Cantonese 10771: 10770: 10553:Classical grammar 10548:Cantonese grammar 10383: 10382: 10280: 10279: 10086: 10085: 10005: 10004: 9867: 9866: 9574: 9573: 9361: 9360: 9251:Chengdu–Chongqing 9044:Sinitic languages 8908:978-1-55729-071-7 8870:978-0-521-59958-0 8843:978-0-8248-1892-0 8732:978-1-4020-8038-8 8709:978-962-359-085-3 8690:978-0-674-00249-4 8668:978-1-118-73229-8 8630:978-1-4051-9319-1 8575:978-0-313-24484-1 8556:978-0-521-82858-1 8537:978-0-521-36943-5 8514:978-0-521-36918-3 8495:978-0-8248-2975-9 8408:978-0-19-875133-5 8389:978-0-691-01468-5 8370:978-0-7748-0192-8 8348:978-0-7007-1129-1 8329:978-0-521-29653-3 8307:978-0-415-30575-4 8285:978-0-226-52717-8 8259:978-0-415-08945-6 8242:Matthews, Stephen 8195:978-3-319-12619-7 8140:978-3-11-021914-2 8102:978-81-920651-1-3 8040:978-0-8048-3853-5 8021:978-1-136-53941-1 8002:978-0-521-56514-1 7842:978-0-8248-1068-9 7780:978-7-100-07054-6 7675:978-3-11-012324-1 7653:978-0-87281-032-7 7560:. 17 January 2006 7543:, pp. 27–43. 7541:Zimmermann (2010) 7497:The New Messenger 7370:Chang, Tsung-tung 7282:978-1-58573-057-5 7257:, pp. 20–22. 7141:, pp. 27–28. 7129:, pp. 55–57. 7042:, pp. 72–73. 7030:, pp. 55–56. 7018:, pp. 53–55. 6864:, pp. 98–99. 6840:, pp. 75–77. 6828:, pp. 29–30. 6720:, pp. 49–51. 6708:, pp. 48–49. 6672:, pp. 34–42. 6648:, pp. 14–15. 6600:, pp. 42–45. 6516:, pp. 12–13. 6428:(27th ed., 2024) 6254:Dialect continuum 6035: 6034: 5991:Chiang Chieh-shih 5627:Kangxi Dictionary 5458:Written Cantonese 5431:in Cantonese and 5380:Taiwanese Braille 5319: 5318: 5315:; 'clan' 5251:; 'home' 4666: 4665: 4494: 4493: 4440:Modern borrowings 4092:, and only a few 4080:—it possesses no 4068:: they depend on 3912: 3911: 3849:'recognize-know' 3773: 3772: 3515: 3514: 3276: 3275: 3103: 2953:, or consonant + 2907: 2779:Taiwanese Hokkien 2723:standard language 2443:voiced initials: 2387:North China Plain 2383:dialect continuum 2119:Tripitaka Koreana 1991:North China Plain 1937:Classical Chinese 1850:Classic of Poetry 1835:Book of Documents 1829:Classic of Poetry 1682:Republic of China 1656:operated using a 1510: 1462:language' or 1456: 1418: 1417: 1410: 1409: 1310:Standard Mandarin 1250: 1249: 1133:Yale Romanization 1051:Yale Romanization 966:Standard Mandarin 917: 916: 797:Yale Romanization 715:Yale Romanization 630:Standard Mandarin 563: 562: 545:rendering support 541:phonetic symbols. 371:Regulated by 29:Sinitic languages 16059: 16007:Chinese language 15989: 15988: 15987: 15977: 15976: 15975: 15965: 15964: 15963: 15953: 15952: 15951: 15941: 15940: 15932: 15871:Chinese language 15864: 15857: 15850: 15841: 15840: 15773: 15772: 15373:Mandarin Chinese 15264: 15263: 14860:Terengganu Malay 14660: 14659: 14538: 14537: 14520: 14513: 14506: 14497: 14496: 14228: 14227: 14183:Creole languages 14170:Johor-Riau Malay 14110: 14109: 14092: 14085: 14078: 14069: 14068: 13825: 13824: 13793: 13792: 13784: 13783: 13749: 13748: 13494: 13493: 13485: 13484: 13465: 13458: 13451: 13442: 13441: 13430:Mandarin Chinese 13378: 13371: 13364: 13355: 13354: 13307: 12877: 12869: 12861: 12575: 12574: 12348: 12347: 12251: 12250: 12240: 12239: 11428: 11427: 11323: 11322: 11312: 11311: 11299: 11298: 11295: 11294: 11123: 11122: 11110:Standard Chinese 11089: 11082: 11075: 11066: 11065: 11053: 11052: 11041: 11040: 11013:Taiwanese Hangul 10902:Mainland Chinese 10815: 10814: 10806: 10805: 10731: 10730: 10408:Standard Chinese 10391: 10159: 10158: 9878: 9877: 9771: 9770: 9762: 9761: 9644: 9632: 9620: 9608: 9596: 9395: 9394: 9067: 9066: 9058: 9057: 9034:Chinese language 9027: 9020: 9013: 9004: 9003: 8972: 8945: 8943: 8941: 8921: 8912: 8882: 8847: 8827: 8825: 8823: 8791: 8777: 8736: 8713: 8694: 8672: 8653: 8634: 8615: 8579: 8560: 8541: 8529: 8518: 8499: 8480: 8470: 8452: 8412: 8393: 8374: 8352: 8333: 8311: 8289: 8277: 8263: 8237: 8235: 8233: 8227: 8212: 8199: 8180: 8178: 8176: 8155: 8144: 8125: 8123: 8121: 8106: 8084: 8082: 8080: 8044: 8025: 8006: 7993:Sociolinguistics 7987: 7985: 7978: 7973:白話為何在五四時期「活」起來了？ 7966: 7948: 7920: 7887: 7846: 7820: 7789:Coblin, W. South 7784: 7758: 7740: 7707: 7679: 7657: 7629: 7628: 7626: 7624: 7615:. Archived from 7604: 7598: 7592: 7588: 7582: 7579:Wakefield (2019) 7576: 7570: 7569: 7567: 7565: 7550: 7544: 7538: 7532: 7531: 7529: 7527: 7522:on 6 August 2020 7510: 7504: 7503: 7486: 7480: 7479: 7463: 7457: 7456: 7454: 7452: 7435: 7429: 7423: 7417: 7416: 7406: 7400: 7394: 7388: 7384: 7378: 7364: 7355: 7336: 7330: 7323: 7317: 7316: 7305: 7299: 7293: 7287: 7286: 7274: 7264: 7258: 7252: 7246: 7240: 7234: 7228: 7222: 7216: 7210: 7204: 7198: 7187: 7181: 7175: 7169: 7166:DeFrancis (1984) 7163: 7154: 7148: 7142: 7136: 7130: 7127:DeFrancis (1984) 7124: 7118: 7112: 7106: 7100: 7094: 7088: 7082: 7076: 7070: 7069: 7067: 7065: 7049: 7043: 7037: 7031: 7025: 7019: 7013: 7007: 7001: 6995: 6989: 6980: 6974: 6968: 6962: 6956: 6946: 6940: 6934: 6925: 6922:Shibatani (1990) 6919: 6913: 6910:Wilkinson (2000) 6907: 6901: 6898:Shibatani (1990) 6895: 6889: 6883: 6877: 6874:Shibatani (1990) 6871: 6865: 6859: 6853: 6847: 6841: 6835: 6829: 6823: 6817: 6811: 6805: 6799: 6793: 6787: 6781: 6780:, pp. 3–15. 6775: 6769: 6763: 6757: 6751: 6745: 6739: 6733: 6727: 6721: 6715: 6709: 6703: 6697: 6691: 6685: 6679: 6673: 6667: 6661: 6655: 6649: 6643: 6637: 6634:Schüssler (2007) 6631: 6625: 6619: 6613: 6607: 6601: 6595: 6589: 6583: 6577: 6574:Schüssler (2007) 6571: 6565: 6559: 6553: 6547: 6541: 6535: 6529: 6523: 6517: 6511: 6505: 6499: 6490: 6484: 6478: 6477: 6475: 6473: 6468:. 3 October 2018 6458: 6452: 6442: 6436: 6435: 6434: 6417: 6397: 6394: 6388: 6386: 6382: 6377: 6371: 6368: 6363: 6359: 6354: 6348: 6342: 6336: 6329:DeFrancis (1984) 6326: 6317: 6314: 6294:DeFrancis (1984) 6267: 6261: 6250: 6245: 6240: 6234: 6231: 6225: 6222: 6216: 6213: 6163:Chinese numerals 6079:Palladius system 6059:'Phags-pa script 6026: 6019: 6012: 6000: 5993: 5986: 5982: 5970: 5963: 5956: 5952: 5940: 5933: 5926: 5914: 5907: 5900: 5896: 5884: 5877: 5870: 5858: 5851: 5844: 5840: 5828: 5821: 5814: 5810: 5791: 5787: 5785:For comparison: 5781: 5775: 5769: 5721: 5716: 5712: 5623: 5619: 5611: 5606: 5601: 5596: 5591: 5586: 5581: 5576: 5571: 5566: 5561: 5556: 5536: 5455: 5451: 5436: 5430: 5424: 5418: 5360: 5354: 5353: 5347: 5342: 5338: 5334: 5326: 5325: 5313: 5308: 5290: 5283:; 'era' 5281: 5276: 5258: 5249: 5244: 5226: 5217: 5212: 5195: 5186: 5181: 5164: 5155: 5150: 5131: 5126: 5117: 5112: 5107: 5102: 5098: 5090: 5085: 5080: 5075: 5070: 5065: 5060: 5055: 5050: 5045: 5041: 5036: 5031: 5026: 5021: 5016: 5011: 5006: 5001: 4996: 4990: 4985: 4981: 4976: 4971: 4962: 4957: 4953: 4948: 4943: 4939: 4935: 4928: 4923: 4918: 4913: 4909: 4904: 4899: 4891: 4886: 4881: 4876: 4872: 4868: 4863: 4858: 4854: 4849: 4844: 4839: 4834: 4830: 4825: 4820: 4816: 4811: 4806: 4801: 4796: 4792: 4787: 4782: 4778: 4773: 4768: 4763: 4758: 4742: 4737: 4733: 4724: 4719: 4715: 4706: 4701: 4697: 4689: 4685: 4680: 4675: 4671: 4657: 4652: 4648: 4632: 4627: 4623: 4611: 4606: 4602: 4590: 4585: 4581: 4569: 4564: 4560: 4555: 4550: 4545: 4541: 4537: 4531: 4525: 4521: 4489: 4486: 4480: 4452: 4451: 4444: 4434: 4429: 4424: 4419: 4399: 4395: 4386: 4381: 4377: 4372: 4367: 4362: 4357: 4353: 4348: 4343: 4338: 4333: 4324: 4319: 4315: 4310: 4305: 4300: 4295: 4291: 4286: 4281: 4277: 4272: 4267: 4263: 4258: 4253: 4179:subject dropping 4175:pronoun dropping 4148: 4143: 4139: 4134: 4129: 4125: 4121: 4116: 4111: 4059: 4054: 4050: 4045: 4040: 4036: 4031: 4026: 4022: 4015: 4008: 4003: 3999: 3994: 3989: 3984: 3979: 3975: 3970: 3965: 3960: 3955: 3950: 3945: 3940: 3935: 3931: 3926: 3921: 3905: 3898: 3891:'time-interval' 3888: 3881: 3877: 3867: 3860: 3856: 3846: 3839: 3835: 3825: 3818: 3814: 3798: 3794: 3790: 3769: 3762: 3752: 3745: 3738: 3728: 3724: 3717: 3710: 3700: 3693: 3686: 3676: 3672: 3665: 3658: 3648: 3644: 3637: 3630: 3620: 3610: 3599: 3595: 3580: 3575: 3570: 3565: 3553:phonetic erosion 3508: 3501: 3491: 3478: 3471: 3461: 3448: 3441: 3431: 3427: 3414: 3407: 3397: 3384: 3377: 3367: 3345: 3338: 3328: 3324: 3292: 3288: 3267: 3260: 3256: 3251: 3247: 3232: 3222: 3218: 3205: 3195: 3191: 3178: 3168: 3155: 3145: 3141: 3116: 3112: 3104: 3096: 3085: 3076: 3067: 3058: 3046: 3020: 3016: 3012: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2972: 2968: 2933:(which can be a 2908: 2847: 2842: 2838: 2833: 2828: 2784: 2775:Taiwanese people 2761: 2756: 2752: 2747: 2742: 2738: 2733: 2728: 2711:Standard Chinese 2705:Standard Chinese 2633: 2623: 2613: 2603: 2593: 2583: 2573: 2563: 2553: 2543: 2452:Standard Chinese 2371: 2365: 2360: 2359: 2353: 2348: 2347: 2341: 2336: 2335: 2329: 2322: 2321: 2315: 2308: 2285: 2280: 2269: 2264: 2253: 2248: 2219: 2211: 2203: 2143:Chinese Buddhism 2081: 2076: 2072: 2063: 2058: 2054: 2047:In the 1930s, a 2038: 2033: 2029: 1996:Zhongyuan Yinyun 1909: 1813: 1810: 1728:, together with 1674:Standard Chinese 1629: 1626: 1616:consists of the 1511: 1470: 1465: 1457: 1454: 1450: 1441: 1433: 1406: 1405: 1404: 1389: 1388: 1375: 1374: 1373: 1359: 1358: 1345: 1344: 1343: 1341: 1325: 1324: 1301: 1300: 1287: 1286: 1271: 1270: 1246: 1245: 1222: 1221: 1198: 1197: 1193: 1187: 1169: 1168: 1155: 1154: 1141: 1140: 1120: 1119: 1099: 1098: 1097: 1076: 1075: 1074: 1059: 1058: 1045: 1044: 1031: 1030: 1029: 1015: 1014: 1001: 1000: 999: 997: 981: 980: 957: 956: 940: 939: 938: 913: 912: 889: 888: 856: 855: 854: 849: 835: 834: 833: 819: 818: 805: 804: 784: 783: 763: 762: 761: 740: 739: 738: 723: 722: 709: 708: 695: 694: 693: 679: 678: 665: 664: 663: 661: 645: 644: 621: 620: 604: 603: 588: 587: 568:Chinese language 565: 564: 528: 522: 516: 510: 501: 485: 478: 469: 463: 456: 450: 442: 433: 432: 424: 359:language in 282: 202:Standard Chinese 131: 68: 63:(middle) forms, 54: 48: 36: 35: 21:Standard Chinese 16067: 16066: 16062: 16061: 16060: 16058: 16057: 16056: 15997: 15996: 15995: 15985: 15983: 15973: 15971: 15961: 15959: 15949: 15947: 15935: 15927: 15925: 15920: 15919: 15914: 15874: 15868: 15838: 15833: 15815: 15794: 15762: 15657: 15631: 15572: 15556: 15518: 15459: 15453: 15413:Malaysian Tamil 15386: 15259: 15249: 14970:Eastern Kadazan 14950:Coastal Kadazan 14876: 14869: 14681: 14674: 14653: 14644: 14566: 14529: 14524: 14494: 14489: 14469: 14413: 14348: 14281: 14219: 14178: 14155: 14124: 14101: 14096: 14066: 14061: 13986:Other languages 13981: 13965: 13939: 13908:Taiwanese Hakka 13890: 13887:(Wuqiu dialect) 13871: 13846: 13842:Teochew dialect 13814: 13765: 13734: 13706: 13680: 13615: 13538: 13522: 13474: 13469: 13439: 13434: 13420:Macanese Patois 13408: 13387: 13382: 13352: 13347: 13321: 13301: 13279: 13208: 13152: 12963: 12956: 12882: 12862:(Indo-European) 12847: 12804: 12762: 12651: 12564: 12492: 12459: 12337: 12245: 12244:Other languages 12226: 12175: 12106:Central Tibetan 12077: 11951: 11885: 11732: 11614: 11417: 11369: 11317: 11306: 11282: 11266: 11173: 11114: 11098: 11093: 11058: 11050: 11045: 11027: 10964:Tongyong Pinyin 10944:Gwoyeu Romatzyh 10932:Dungan Cyrillic 10915: 10884: 10854: 10795: 10786:Written Hokkien 10767: 10726: 10720: 10696:Middle Mandarin 10662: 10582: 10557: 10519: 10466: 10399: 10392: 10379: 10328: 10276: 10235: 10212: 10148: 10082: 10001: 9980: 9962: 9939: 9863: 9830: 9807: 9751: 9687: 9647: 9638: 9626: 9614: 9602: 9590: 9570: 9552: 9524: 9506: 9480: 9457: 9384: 9357: 9331: 9308: 9232: 9172: 9144: 9121: 9098: 9047: 9036: 9031: 8997:Wayback Machine 8979: 8961: 8939: 8937: 8909: 8891:Chinese Writing 8885: 8871: 8850: 8844: 8831: 8821: 8819: 8801: 8799:Further reading 8796: 8780: 8733: 8710: 8691: 8669: 8650: 8631: 8604:10.2307/2718766 8576: 8557: 8538: 8515: 8496: 8417:Sagart, Laurent 8409: 8390: 8371: 8349: 8330: 8308: 8286: 8260: 8231: 8229: 8225: 8210: 8204:Mair, Victor H. 8196: 8174: 8172: 8141: 8119: 8117: 8103: 8078: 8076: 8041: 8022: 8003: 7983: 7976: 7974: 7843: 7825:DeFrancis, John 7781: 7768: 7676: 7654: 7637: 7632: 7622: 7620: 7619:on 29 June 2011 7605: 7601: 7590: 7589: 7585: 7577: 7573: 7563: 7561: 7552: 7551: 7547: 7539: 7535: 7525: 7523: 7516: 7515:全球華文網-華文世界，數位之最 7512: 7511: 7507: 7501: 7493: 7487: 7483: 7477: 7469: 7465: 7464: 7460: 7450: 7448: 7441: 7437: 7436: 7432: 7424: 7420: 7413: 7408: 7407: 7403: 7395: 7391: 7387: 7376: 7337: 7333: 7324: 7320: 7307: 7306: 7302: 7294: 7290: 7283: 7265: 7261: 7253: 7249: 7241: 7237: 7229: 7225: 7217: 7213: 7205: 7201: 7188: 7184: 7176: 7172: 7164: 7157: 7151:Campbell (2008) 7149: 7145: 7139:Thomason (1988) 7137: 7133: 7125: 7121: 7117:, pp. 7–8. 7113: 7109: 7101: 7097: 7089: 7085: 7077: 7073: 7063: 7061: 7060:on 11 July 2021 7054:"自由廣場》Taigi與台語" 7050: 7046: 7040:Kurpaska (2010) 7038: 7034: 7028:Kurpaska (2010) 7026: 7022: 7016:Kurpaska (2010) 7014: 7010: 7002: 6998: 6990: 6983: 6975: 6971: 6963: 6959: 6947: 6943: 6935: 6928: 6920: 6916: 6908: 6904: 6896: 6892: 6884: 6880: 6872: 6868: 6860: 6856: 6850:Kornicki (2011) 6848: 6844: 6838:Kornicki (2011) 6836: 6832: 6824: 6820: 6812: 6808: 6800: 6796: 6788: 6784: 6776: 6772: 6764: 6760: 6752: 6748: 6740: 6736: 6728: 6724: 6716: 6712: 6704: 6700: 6692: 6688: 6680: 6676: 6668: 6664: 6656: 6652: 6644: 6640: 6632: 6628: 6620: 6616: 6608: 6604: 6596: 6592: 6588:, pp. 2–3. 6584: 6580: 6572: 6568: 6560: 6556: 6548: 6544: 6536: 6532: 6524: 6520: 6512: 6508: 6500: 6493: 6485: 6481: 6471: 6469: 6460: 6459: 6455: 6443: 6439: 6429: 6418: 6414: 6410: 6405: 6400: 6395: 6391: 6378: 6374: 6355: 6351: 6343: 6339: 6327: 6320: 6299: 6273:David Crystal, 6268: 6264: 6241: 6237: 6232: 6228: 6223: 6219: 6214: 6210: 6206: 6183:Han unification 6132: 6093: 6087: 6055: 6039:Gwoyeu Romatzyh 6004:Chiang Kai-shek 5704: 5698: 5651:clerical script 5528: 5522: 5516: 5492:Dungan language 5382: 5372:Written Chinese 5370:Main articles: 5368: 4616:'mobile phone' 4532:; Shanghainese 4504: 4490: 4484: 4481: 4470: 4453: 4449: 4442: 4240: 4216:Hanyu Da Cidian 4196:Hanyu Da Zidian 4187: 3928:alone, and not 3532: 3526: 3524:Chinese grammar 3520: 3357: 3111: 3110: 3109: 3108: 3099: 3088: 3087: 3086: 3078: 3077: 3069: 3068: 3060: 3059: 3031: 2902: 2900: 2886: 2815: 2719: 2713: 2707: 2679:Danzhou dialect 2642: 2641: 2640: 2639: 2638:, others (0.6%) 2631: 2629: 2621: 2619: 2611: 2609: 2601: 2599: 2591: 2589: 2581: 2579: 2571: 2569: 2561: 2559: 2551: 2549: 2541: 2464:Dungan language 2462:, and also the 2456:Beijing dialect 2422: 2377:The sinologist 2375: 2374: 2373: 2372: 2368: 2366: 2363: 2361: 2357: 2354: 2351: 2349: 2345: 2342: 2339: 2337: 2333: 2330: 2327: 2325: 2323: 2319: 2316: 2309: 2299: 2293: 2277:from Cantonese 2261:from Cantonese 2110: 2100: 1971: 1943: 1935:Main articles: 1933: 1812: 1250 BCE 1811: 1801: 1795: 1787:Main articles: 1785: 1773: 1767: 1722: 1694:Beijing dialect 1668:Nanjing dialect 1666:, based on the 1650:rime dictionary 1627: 1614:written Chinese 1499: 1420: 1381:Tongyong Pinyin 1371: 1351:Gwoyeu Romatzyh 1339: 1292:Literal meaning 1196: 1095: 1037:Tongyong Pinyin 1027: 1007:Gwoyeu Romatzyh 995: 945:Literal meaning 887: 847: 831: 759: 701:Tongyong Pinyin 691: 671:Gwoyeu Romatzyh 659: 609:Literal meaning 543:Without proper 531: 530: 526: 524: 520: 518: 514: 497: 481: 474: 459: 458: 457: 446: 445: 438: 428: 427: 420: 410: 365: 360: 358: 351: 336: 329:Official status 324: 315:Chinese Braille 283: 278: 211: 195: 188: 160: 153: 132: 129:Language family 127: 118: 117:Native speakers 111: 70: 32: 17: 12: 11: 5: 16065: 16055: 16054: 16049: 16047:Lingua francas 16044: 16039: 16034: 16029: 16024: 16019: 16014: 16009: 15994: 15993: 15981: 15969: 15957: 15945: 15922: 15921: 15916: 15915: 15913: 15912: 15907: 15902: 15901: 15900: 15895: 15890: 15879: 15876: 15875: 15867: 15866: 15859: 15852: 15844: 15835: 15834: 15832: 15831: 15828: 15824: 15821: 15820: 15817: 15816: 15814: 15813: 15808: 15802: 15800: 15796: 15795: 15793: 15792: 15791: 15790: 15779: 15777: 15770: 15764: 15763: 15761: 15760: 15755: 15750: 15745: 15740: 15735: 15730: 15725: 15720: 15715: 15714: 15713: 15703: 15698: 15693: 15688: 15683: 15678: 15673: 15667: 15665: 15659: 15658: 15656: 15655: 15650: 15645: 15639: 15637: 15633: 15632: 15630: 15629: 15628: 15627: 15622: 15617: 15612: 15602: 15597: 15592: 15586: 15584: 15578: 15577: 15574: 15573: 15571: 15570: 15564: 15562: 15558: 15557: 15555: 15554: 15553: 15552: 15547: 15542: 15537: 15526: 15524: 15520: 15519: 15517: 15516: 15511: 15506: 15501: 15496: 15491: 15486: 15485: 15484: 15474: 15469: 15463: 15461: 15455: 15454: 15452: 15451: 15450: 15449: 15444: 15439: 15434: 15424: 15423: 15422: 15417: 15416: 15415: 15405: 15394: 15392: 15388: 15387: 15385: 15384: 15383: 15382: 15381: 15380: 15370: 15369: 15368: 15367: 15366: 15365: 15364: 15354: 15353: 15352: 15350:Penang Hokkien 15347: 15332: 15327: 15322: 15321: 15320: 15315: 15300: 15295: 15294: 15293: 15292: 15291: 15270: 15268: 15261: 15255: 15254: 15251: 15250: 15248: 15247: 15242: 15237: 15232: 15227: 15222: 15217: 15212: 15207: 15202: 15197: 15192: 15187: 15182: 15180:Selungai Murut 15177: 15172: 15167: 15162: 15157: 15152: 15147: 15142: 15137: 15132: 15130:Punan Bah-Biau 15127: 15122: 15117: 15112: 15110:Nonukan Tidong 15107: 15102: 15097: 15092: 15087: 15082: 15077: 15072: 15067: 15062: 15057: 15052: 15047: 15042: 15037: 15032: 15030:Keningau Murut 15027: 15022: 15017: 15012: 15007: 15002: 14997: 14992: 14987: 14982: 14977: 14972: 14967: 14962: 14957: 14952: 14947: 14942: 14937: 14932: 14927: 14922: 14917: 14912: 14907: 14902: 14897: 14892: 14887: 14881: 14879: 14871: 14870: 14868: 14867: 14862: 14857: 14852: 14847: 14842: 14837: 14832: 14827: 14822: 14817: 14812: 14807: 14802: 14797: 14792: 14787: 14782: 14777: 14772: 14767: 14762: 14757: 14752: 14747: 14742: 14737: 14732: 14727: 14722: 14717: 14712: 14707: 14702: 14697: 14692: 14686: 14684: 14676: 14675: 14673: 14672: 14666: 14664: 14657: 14646: 14645: 14643: 14642: 14641: 14640: 14630: 14629: 14628: 14623: 14618: 14613: 14608: 14603: 14593: 14592: 14591: 14580: 14578: 14572: 14571: 14568: 14567: 14565: 14564: 14563: 14562: 14552: 14546: 14544: 14535: 14531: 14530: 14523: 14522: 14515: 14508: 14500: 14491: 14490: 14488: 14487: 14481: 14479: 14478:Sign languages 14475: 14474: 14471: 14470: 14468: 14467: 14462: 14457: 14452: 14447: 14442: 14437: 14432: 14427: 14421: 14419: 14415: 14414: 14412: 14411: 14406: 14401: 14396: 14391: 14390: 14389: 14384: 14379: 14369: 14364: 14358: 14356: 14350: 14349: 14347: 14346: 14345: 14344: 14339: 14334: 14329: 14324: 14319: 14309: 14308: 14307: 14302: 14291: 14289: 14283: 14282: 14280: 14279: 14278: 14277: 14272: 14267: 14262: 14257: 14252: 14247: 14236: 14234: 14225: 14221: 14220: 14218: 14217: 14212: 14207: 14202: 14197: 14192: 14186: 14184: 14180: 14179: 14177: 14176: 14171: 14167: 14165: 14161: 14160: 14157: 14156: 14154: 14153: 14148: 14143: 14138: 14132: 14130: 14126: 14125: 14123: 14122: 14116: 14114: 14107: 14106:Main languages 14103: 14102: 14095: 14094: 14087: 14080: 14072: 14063: 14062: 14060: 14059: 14054: 14049: 14044: 14043: 14042: 14037: 14027: 14022: 14017: 14012: 14011: 14010: 14000: 13995: 13989: 13987: 13983: 13982: 13980: 13979: 13973: 13971: 13967: 13966: 13964: 13963: 13957: 13955: 13949: 13948: 13945: 13944: 13941: 13940: 13938: 13937: 13936: 13935: 13930: 13925: 13920: 13915: 13904: 13902: 13896: 13895: 13892: 13891: 13889: 13888: 13885:Putian dialect 13881: 13879: 13873: 13872: 13870: 13869: 13868: 13867: 13856: 13854: 13848: 13847: 13845: 13844: 13839: 13833: 13831: 13822: 13816: 13815: 13813: 13812: 13807: 13801: 13799: 13790: 13781: 13775: 13774: 13771: 13770: 13767: 13766: 13764: 13763: 13757: 13755: 13746: 13740: 13739: 13736: 13735: 13733: 13732: 13727: 13722: 13716: 13714: 13708: 13707: 13705: 13704: 13699: 13694: 13688: 13686: 13682: 13681: 13679: 13678: 13673: 13668: 13663: 13658: 13653: 13652: 13651: 13646: 13636: 13631: 13625: 13623: 13617: 13616: 13614: 13613: 13608: 13603: 13598: 13597: 13596: 13588: 13587: 13586: 13581: 13571: 13566: 13565: 13564: 13559: 13548: 13546: 13540: 13539: 13537: 13536: 13530: 13528: 13524: 13523: 13521: 13520: 13519: 13518: 13508: 13502: 13500: 13491: 13482: 13476: 13475: 13468: 13467: 13460: 13453: 13445: 13436: 13435: 13433: 13432: 13427: 13422: 13416: 13414: 13410: 13409: 13407: 13406: 13401: 13395: 13393: 13389: 13388: 13381: 13380: 13373: 13366: 13358: 13349: 13348: 13346: 13345: 13342: 13339: 13336: 13333: 13332:HK = Hong Kong 13330: 13326: 13323: 13322: 13320: 13319: 13312: 13311: 13310: 13309: 13308: 13303:Hong Kong Sign 13296: 13287: 13285: 13281: 13280: 13278: 13277: 13272: 13267: 13262: 13257: 13252: 13247: 13242: 13237: 13232: 13227: 13222: 13216: 13214: 13210: 13209: 13207: 13206: 13201: 13196: 13191: 13186: 13181: 13176: 13171: 13166: 13160: 13158: 13154: 13153: 13151: 13150: 13149: 13148: 13143: 13133: 13132: 13131: 13126: 13116: 13115: 13114: 13109: 13099: 13098: 13097: 13092: 13087: 13082: 13077: 13072: 13071: 13070: 13065: 13060: 13045: 13040: 13035: 13030: 13029: 13028: 13023: 13022: 13021: 13011: 13006: 13005: 13004: 12994: 12989: 12984: 12979: 12968: 12966: 12958: 12957: 12955: 12954: 12949: 12943: 12938: 12933: 12928: 12923: 12918: 12913: 12908: 12902: 12900: 12896: 12895: 12892: 12891: 12888: 12887: 12884: 12883: 12881: 12880: 12878:(Austronesian) 12872: 12870:(Austronesian) 12864: 12855: 12853: 12849: 12848: 12846: 12845: 12840: 12835: 12830: 12825: 12820: 12814: 12812: 12806: 12805: 12803: 12802: 12797: 12792: 12787: 12782: 12776: 12774: 12768: 12767: 12764: 12763: 12761: 12760: 12755: 12750: 12745: 12740: 12735: 12730: 12725: 12720: 12715: 12710: 12705: 12700: 12695: 12690: 12685: 12680: 12675: 12670: 12665: 12659: 12657: 12653: 12652: 12650: 12649: 12644: 12639: 12634: 12629: 12624: 12619: 12614: 12609: 12604: 12599: 12594: 12589: 12583: 12581: 12572: 12566: 12565: 12563: 12562: 12557: 12552: 12547: 12542: 12537: 12532: 12527: 12522: 12517: 12512: 12506: 12504: 12498: 12497: 12494: 12493: 12491: 12490: 12485: 12480: 12475: 12469: 12467: 12461: 12460: 12458: 12457: 12452: 12447: 12442: 12437: 12432: 12427: 12422: 12417: 12412: 12407: 12402: 12397: 12392: 12387: 12382: 12377: 12372: 12367: 12362: 12356: 12354: 12345: 12339: 12338: 12336: 12335: 12330: 12325: 12320: 12315: 12310: 12305: 12300: 12295: 12290: 12285: 12280: 12275: 12270: 12265: 12259: 12257: 12247: 12246: 12236: 12235: 12232: 12231: 12228: 12227: 12225: 12224: 12219: 12214: 12209: 12204: 12199: 12194: 12189: 12183: 12181: 12177: 12176: 12174: 12173: 12168: 12163: 12158: 12153: 12148: 12143: 12138: 12133: 12128: 12123: 12118: 12113: 12108: 12103: 12098: 12093: 12087: 12085: 12079: 12078: 12076: 12075: 12070: 12065: 12060: 12055: 12050: 12048:Southern Qiang 12045: 12043:Northern Qiang 12040: 12035: 12030: 12025: 12020: 12015: 12010: 12005: 12000: 11995: 11990: 11985: 11980: 11975: 11969: 11967: 11961: 11960: 11957: 11956: 11953: 11952: 11950: 11949: 11944: 11939: 11934: 11929: 11924: 11919: 11914: 11909: 11904: 11899: 11893: 11891: 11887: 11886: 11884: 11883: 11878: 11873: 11868: 11863: 11858: 11853: 11848: 11843: 11838: 11833: 11828: 11823: 11818: 11813: 11808: 11803: 11798: 11793: 11788: 11783: 11778: 11773: 11768: 11763: 11758: 11753: 11748: 11742: 11740: 11734: 11733: 11731: 11730: 11725: 11720: 11715: 11710: 11705: 11700: 11695: 11690: 11685: 11680: 11675: 11670: 11665: 11660: 11655: 11650: 11645: 11640: 11635: 11630: 11624: 11622: 11616: 11615: 11613: 11612: 11607: 11602: 11597: 11592: 11587: 11582: 11577: 11572: 11567: 11562: 11557: 11552: 11547: 11542: 11537: 11532: 11527: 11522: 11517: 11512: 11507: 11502: 11497: 11492: 11487: 11482: 11477: 11472: 11467: 11462: 11457: 11452: 11447: 11442: 11436: 11434: 11425: 11419: 11418: 11416: 11415: 11410: 11405: 11400: 11395: 11390: 11385: 11379: 11377: 11371: 11370: 11368: 11367: 11362: 11357: 11352: 11347: 11342: 11337: 11331: 11329: 11320: 11308: 11307: 11292: 11288: 11287: 11284: 11283: 11280: 11278: 11268: 11267: 11265: 11264: 11259: 11254: 11249: 11244: 11239: 11234: 11229: 11224: 11219: 11214: 11209: 11204: 11199: 11194: 11189: 11183: 11181: 11175: 11174: 11172: 11171: 11166: 11161: 11156: 11151: 11146: 11141: 11135: 11133: 11120: 11116: 11115: 11113: 11112: 11106: 11104: 11100: 11099: 11092: 11091: 11084: 11077: 11069: 11063: 11060: 11059: 11047: 11046: 11036: 11033: 11032: 11029: 11028: 11026: 11025: 11020: 11015: 11010: 11008:Taiwanese kana 11005: 11004: 11003: 10998: 10988: 10987: 10986: 10981: 10979:Lessing-Othmer 10976: 10971: 10966: 10961: 10956: 10951: 10946: 10936: 10935: 10934: 10923: 10921: 10917: 10916: 10914: 10909: 10904: 10899: 10894: 10892: 10886: 10885: 10883: 10882: 10877: 10876: 10875: 10870: 10859: 10856: 10855: 10853: 10848: 10843: 10838: 10833: 10828: 10823: 10821: 10812: 10803: 10797: 10796: 10794: 10793: 10788: 10783: 10781:Written Dungan 10778: 10772: 10769: 10768: 10766: 10765: 10760: 10759: 10758: 10753: 10748: 10737: 10735: 10728: 10722: 10721: 10719: 10718: 10713: 10708: 10703: 10698: 10693: 10688: 10686:Middle Chinese 10683: 10678: 10672: 10670: 10664: 10663: 10661: 10660: 10655: 10653:Wubi (Wang Ma) 10650: 10645: 10644: 10643: 10638: 10633: 10623: 10618: 10613: 10612: 10611: 10601: 10598: 10592: 10590: 10584: 10583: 10581: 10580: 10573: 10565: 10563: 10559: 10558: 10556: 10555: 10550: 10545: 10540: 10535: 10529: 10527: 10521: 10520: 10518: 10517: 10512: 10507: 10502: 10497: 10492: 10487: 10486: 10485: 10474: 10472: 10468: 10467: 10465: 10464: 10459: 10454: 10449: 10448: 10447: 10446: 10445: 10440: 10430: 10425: 10420: 10415: 10404: 10402: 10394: 10393: 10386: 10384: 10381: 10380: 10378: 10377: 10372: 10370:Xiangnan Tuhua 10367: 10362: 10357: 10355:Shaozhou Tuhua 10352: 10347: 10342: 10336: 10334: 10330: 10329: 10327: 10326: 10325: 10324: 10319: 10314: 10306: 10305: 10304: 10299: 10290: 10288: 10282: 10281: 10278: 10277: 10275: 10274: 10269: 10264: 10259: 10254: 10249: 10243: 10241: 10237: 10236: 10234: 10233: 10228: 10222: 10220: 10214: 10213: 10211: 10210: 10205: 10200: 10195: 10190: 10185: 10184: 10183: 10178: 10167: 10165: 10156: 10150: 10149: 10147: 10146: 10145: 10144: 10139: 10134: 10124: 10123: 10122: 10112: 10107: 10102: 10096: 10094: 10088: 10087: 10084: 10083: 10081: 10080: 10079: 10078: 10073: 10068: 10058: 10057: 10056: 10046: 10041: 10036: 10031: 10030: 10029: 10024: 10013: 10011: 10007: 10006: 10003: 10002: 10000: 9999: 9994: 9988: 9986: 9982: 9981: 9979: 9978: 9972: 9970: 9964: 9963: 9961: 9960: 9955: 9949: 9947: 9941: 9940: 9938: 9937: 9932: 9927: 9922: 9917: 9912: 9907: 9902: 9897: 9892: 9886: 9884: 9875: 9869: 9868: 9865: 9864: 9862: 9861: 9860: 9859: 9854: 9844: 9838: 9836: 9832: 9831: 9829: 9828: 9823: 9817: 9815: 9809: 9808: 9806: 9805: 9800: 9795: 9790: 9785: 9779: 9777: 9768: 9759: 9753: 9752: 9750: 9749: 9748: 9747: 9737: 9732: 9731: 9730: 9725: 9720: 9710: 9709: 9708: 9697: 9695: 9689: 9688: 9686: 9685: 9680: 9675: 9670: 9669: 9668: 9657: 9655: 9649: 9648: 9646: 9645: 9633: 9621: 9609: 9597: 9584: 9582: 9576: 9575: 9572: 9571: 9569: 9568: 9562: 9560: 9554: 9553: 9551: 9550: 9545: 9540: 9534: 9532: 9526: 9525: 9523: 9522: 9516: 9514: 9508: 9507: 9505: 9504: 9499: 9494: 9488: 9486: 9482: 9481: 9479: 9478: 9473: 9467: 9465: 9459: 9458: 9456: 9455: 9450: 9445: 9440: 9435: 9430: 9424: 9419: 9414: 9409: 9403: 9401: 9392: 9386: 9385: 9383: 9382: 9377: 9371: 9369: 9363: 9362: 9359: 9358: 9356: 9355: 9350: 9345: 9339: 9337: 9333: 9332: 9330: 9329: 9324: 9318: 9316: 9310: 9309: 9307: 9306: 9305: 9304: 9294: 9289: 9284: 9279: 9278: 9277: 9276: 9275: 9268:Renshou–Fushun 9265: 9264: 9263: 9253: 9242: 9240: 9234: 9233: 9231: 9230: 9225: 9220: 9215: 9210: 9205: 9204: 9203: 9193: 9188: 9182: 9180: 9178:Central Plains 9174: 9173: 9171: 9170: 9165: 9160: 9154: 9152: 9146: 9145: 9143: 9142: 9137: 9131: 9129: 9123: 9122: 9120: 9119: 9114: 9108: 9106: 9100: 9099: 9097: 9096: 9091: 9086: 9081: 9075: 9073: 9064: 9055: 9049: 9048: 9041: 9038: 9037: 9030: 9029: 9022: 9015: 9007: 9001: 9000: 8986: 8978: 8977:External links 8975: 8974: 8973: 8959: 8946: 8913: 8907: 8883: 8869: 8848: 8842: 8829: 8800: 8797: 8795: 8794: 8793: 8792: 8737: 8731: 8714: 8708: 8695: 8689: 8673: 8667: 8654: 8648: 8635: 8629: 8616: 8580: 8574: 8561: 8555: 8542: 8536: 8519: 8513: 8500: 8494: 8481: 8413: 8407: 8394: 8388: 8375: 8369: 8353: 8347: 8334: 8328: 8312: 8306: 8290: 8284: 8264: 8258: 8238: 8228:on 10 May 2018 8200: 8194: 8181: 8156: 8145: 8139: 8126: 8107: 8101: 8089:Kornicki, P.F. 8085: 8045: 8039: 8026: 8020: 8007: 8001: 7988: 7967: 7939:(4): 922–935. 7921: 7903:(3): 422–441. 7888: 7862:(6): 531–551. 7847: 7841: 7821: 7809:10.2307/606615 7803:(4): 537–552. 7785: 7779: 7759: 7708: 7680: 7674: 7658: 7652: 7638: 7636: 7633: 7631: 7630: 7599: 7583: 7571: 7545: 7533: 7505: 7481: 7458: 7430: 7418: 7401: 7399:, p. 161. 7389: 7386: 7385: 7366: 7356: 7338: 7331: 7318: 7300: 7288: 7281: 7259: 7247: 7235: 7223: 7211: 7209:, p. 927. 7199: 7182: 7170: 7155: 7143: 7131: 7119: 7107: 7095: 7083: 7071: 7044: 7032: 7020: 7008: 7006:, p. 181. 6996: 6981: 6979:, p. 188. 6969: 6957: 6941: 6926: 6924:, p. 143. 6914: 6902: 6900:, p. 146. 6890: 6878: 6866: 6854: 6842: 6830: 6818: 6806: 6794: 6792:, p. 133. 6782: 6770: 6758: 6746: 6744:, p. 136. 6734: 6722: 6710: 6698: 6686: 6674: 6662: 6660:, p. 125. 6650: 6638: 6626: 6614: 6612:, p. 177. 6602: 6590: 6578: 6566: 6554: 6552:, p. 431. 6542: 6540:, p. 426. 6530: 6518: 6506: 6491: 6479: 6453: 6437: 6411: 6409: 6406: 6404: 6401: 6399: 6398: 6389: 6372: 6349: 6337: 6318: 6298: 6297: 6291: 6285: 6278: 6270: 6262: 6235: 6226: 6217: 6207: 6205: 6202: 6201: 6200: 6195: 6190: 6185: 6180: 6175: 6170: 6165: 6160: 6155: 6150: 6145: 6140: 6131: 6128: 6089:Main article: 6086: 6083: 6071:semi-syllabary 6054: 6051: 6033: 6032: 6027: 6020: 6013: 6007: 6006: 6001: 5994: 5987: 5977: 5976: 5971: 5964: 5957: 5947: 5946: 5941: 5934: 5927: 5921: 5920: 5915: 5908: 5901: 5891: 5890: 5885: 5878: 5871: 5865: 5864: 5859: 5852: 5845: 5835: 5834: 5829: 5822: 5815: 5805: 5804: 5801: 5798: 5795: 5700:Main article: 5697: 5694: 5647:cursive script 5635:regular script 5518:Main article: 5515: 5512: 5367: 5366:Writing system 5364: 5317: 5316: 5304: 5301: 5300:; 'television' 5295: 5292: 5285: 5284: 5272: 5269: 5263: 5260: 5259:'wireless era' 5253: 5252: 5240: 5237: 5236:; 'electronic' 5231: 5228: 5221: 5220: 5208: 5205: 5200: 5197: 5190: 5189: 5177: 5174: 5169: 5166: 5159: 5158: 5146: 5143: 5142:; 'generation' 5137: 5134: 5122: 5119: 4664: 4663: 4660: 4643: 4642: 4635: 4618: 4617: 4614: 4597: 4596: 4593: 4576: 4575: 4572: 4492: 4491: 4456: 4454: 4447: 4441: 4438: 4239: 4236: 4202:Zhonghua Zihai 4186: 4183: 4153:Chinese has a 3910: 3909: 3906: 3899: 3893: 3892: 3889: 3882: 3872: 3871: 3868: 3861: 3851: 3850: 3847: 3840: 3830: 3829: 3826: 3819: 3809: 3808: 3805: 3802: 3771: 3770: 3763: 3756: 3753: 3747: 3746: 3739: 3732: 3729: 3719: 3718: 3711: 3704: 3701: 3695: 3694: 3687: 3680: 3677: 3667: 3666: 3659: 3652: 3649: 3639: 3638: 3631: 3624: 3621: 3615: 3614: 3611: 3606: 3603: 3550: 3543:bound and free 3522:Main article: 3519: 3516: 3513: 3512: 3509: 3502: 3495: 3492: 3487: 3483: 3482: 3479: 3472: 3465: 3462: 3457: 3453: 3452: 3449: 3442: 3435: 3432: 3423: 3419: 3418: 3415: 3408: 3401: 3398: 3393: 3389: 3388: 3385: 3378: 3371: 3368: 3363: 3359: 3358: 3356: 3355: 3352: 3348: 3346: 3339: 3332: 3329: 3320: 3316: 3315: 3314:Pitch contour 3312: 3307: 3302: 3299: 3296: 3280:stop consonant 3274: 3273: 3268: 3261: 3252: 3243: 3237: 3236: 3233: 3226: 3223: 3214: 3210: 3209: 3206: 3199: 3196: 3187: 3183: 3182: 3179: 3172: 3169: 3164: 3160: 3159: 3156: 3149: 3146: 3137: 3133: 3132: 3131:Pitch contour 3129: 3126: 3123: 3120: 3090: 3089: 3080: 3079: 3071: 3070: 3062: 3061: 3053: 3052: 3051: 3050: 3049: 3030: 3027: 2920:phonologically 2885: 2882: 2846:dìdiǎn fāngyán 2814: 2811: 2709:Main article: 2706: 2703: 2695:Shaozhou Tuhua 2675: 2674: 2668: 2662: 2630: 2620: 2610: 2600: 2590: 2580: 2570: 2560: 2550: 2540: 2536: 2535: 2534: 2533: 2532: 2523: 2518: 2497: 2492: 2487: 2470: 2441:Middle Chinese 2421: 2418: 2367: 2362: 2355: 2350: 2343: 2338: 2331: 2324: 2317: 2310: 2303: 2302: 2301: 2300: 2295:Main article: 2292: 2289: 2099: 2096: 1970: 1967: 1932: 1929: 1822:dating to the 1793:Middle Chinese 1784: 1781: 1769:Main article: 1766: 1763: 1721: 1720:Classification 1718: 1658:koiné language 1654:Qing dynasties 1539:Middle Chinese 1519:Sinitic branch 1494:first language 1416: 1415: 1412: 1411: 1408: 1407: 1397: 1391: 1390: 1383: 1377: 1376: 1367: 1361: 1360: 1353: 1347: 1346: 1333: 1327: 1326: 1319: 1313: 1312: 1306: 1305: 1304:Transcriptions 1297: 1296: 1293: 1289: 1288: 1279: 1273: 1272: 1263: 1257: 1256: 1252: 1251: 1248: 1247: 1240: 1231: 1230: 1224: 1223: 1216: 1207: 1206: 1200: 1199: 1195: 1194: 1188: 1181: 1177: 1171: 1170: 1163: 1157: 1156: 1149: 1143: 1142: 1135: 1129: 1128: 1126:Yue: Cantonese 1122: 1121: 1114: 1108: 1107: 1101: 1100: 1091: 1085: 1084: 1078: 1077: 1067: 1061: 1060: 1053: 1047: 1046: 1039: 1033: 1032: 1023: 1017: 1016: 1009: 1003: 1002: 989: 983: 982: 975: 969: 968: 962: 961: 960:Transcriptions 953: 952: 946: 942: 941: 930: 924: 923: 919: 918: 915: 914: 907: 898: 897: 891: 890: 886: 885: 882: 878: 874: 865: 864: 858: 857: 843: 837: 836: 827: 821: 820: 813: 807: 806: 799: 793: 792: 790:Yue: Cantonese 786: 785: 778: 772: 771: 765: 764: 755: 749: 748: 742: 741: 731: 725: 724: 717: 711: 710: 703: 697: 696: 687: 681: 680: 673: 667: 666: 653: 647: 646: 639: 633: 632: 626: 625: 624:Transcriptions 617: 616: 610: 606: 605: 596: 590: 589: 580: 574: 573: 570: 569: 561: 560: 547:, you may see 533: 532: 525: 519: 513: 511: 503: 502: 495: 487: 486: 479: 471: 470: 443: 435: 434: 425: 417: 416: 415:Language codes 412: 411: 409: 408: 398: 392: 382: 375: 373: 367: 366: 363: 361: 356: 353: 352: 350: 349: 346: 343: 339: 337: 334: 331: 330: 326: 325: 323: 322: 317: 312: 307: 302: 297: 292: 286: 284: 280:Writing system 277: 274: 273: 272: 271: 266: 261: 256: 251: 246: 241: 236: 231: 226: 219: 213: 212: 210: 209: 204: 198: 196: 194:Standard forms 193: 190: 189: 187: 186: 185: 184: 183: 182: 180:Middle Chinese 163: 161: 158: 155: 154: 152: 151: 150: 149: 135: 133: 126: 123: 122: 119: 116: 113: 112: 110: 109: 104: 99: 94: 89: 83: 76: 75:Native to 72: 71: 49: 41: 40: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 16064: 16053: 16050: 16048: 16045: 16043: 16040: 16038: 16035: 16033: 16030: 16028: 16025: 16023: 16020: 16018: 16015: 16013: 16010: 16008: 16005: 16004: 16002: 15992: 15982: 15980: 15970: 15968: 15958: 15956: 15946: 15944: 15939: 15934: 15933: 15930: 15911: 15908: 15906: 15903: 15899: 15896: 15894: 15891: 15889: 15886: 15885: 15884: 15881: 15880: 15877: 15872: 15865: 15860: 15858: 15853: 15851: 15846: 15845: 15842: 15829: 15826: 15825: 15822: 15812: 15809: 15807: 15804: 15803: 15801: 15797: 15789: 15786: 15785: 15784: 15781: 15780: 15778: 15774: 15771: 15769: 15765: 15759: 15756: 15754: 15751: 15749: 15746: 15744: 15741: 15739: 15736: 15734: 15731: 15729: 15726: 15724: 15721: 15719: 15716: 15712: 15709: 15708: 15707: 15704: 15702: 15699: 15697: 15696:East Timorese 15694: 15692: 15689: 15687: 15684: 15682: 15679: 15677: 15674: 15672: 15669: 15668: 15666: 15664: 15660: 15654: 15651: 15649: 15646: 15644: 15641: 15640: 15638: 15634: 15626: 15623: 15621: 15618: 15616: 15613: 15611: 15608: 15607: 15606: 15603: 15601: 15598: 15596: 15593: 15591: 15588: 15587: 15585: 15583: 15579: 15569: 15566: 15565: 15563: 15559: 15551: 15548: 15546: 15543: 15541: 15538: 15536: 15533: 15532: 15531: 15528: 15527: 15525: 15521: 15515: 15512: 15510: 15507: 15505: 15502: 15500: 15497: 15495: 15492: 15490: 15487: 15483: 15480: 15479: 15478: 15475: 15473: 15470: 15468: 15465: 15464: 15462: 15456: 15448: 15445: 15443: 15440: 15438: 15435: 15433: 15430: 15429: 15428: 15427:Indo-European 15425: 15421: 15418: 15414: 15411: 15410: 15409: 15406: 15404: 15401: 15400: 15399: 15396: 15395: 15393: 15389: 15379: 15376: 15375: 15374: 15371: 15363: 15360: 15359: 15358: 15355: 15351: 15348: 15346: 15343: 15342: 15341: 15338: 15337: 15336: 15333: 15331: 15328: 15326: 15323: 15319: 15316: 15314: 15311: 15310: 15309: 15306: 15305: 15304: 15301: 15299: 15296: 15290: 15287: 15286: 15285: 15282: 15281: 15280: 15277: 15276: 15275: 15272: 15271: 15269: 15265: 15262: 15256: 15246: 15243: 15241: 15238: 15236: 15233: 15231: 15228: 15226: 15223: 15221: 15218: 15216: 15213: 15211: 15208: 15206: 15203: 15201: 15198: 15196: 15193: 15191: 15188: 15186: 15183: 15181: 15178: 15176: 15173: 15171: 15168: 15166: 15165:Sarawak Malay 15163: 15161: 15158: 15156: 15153: 15151: 15148: 15146: 15143: 15141: 15138: 15136: 15133: 15131: 15128: 15126: 15123: 15121: 15118: 15116: 15113: 15111: 15108: 15106: 15103: 15101: 15098: 15096: 15093: 15091: 15088: 15086: 15083: 15081: 15078: 15076: 15073: 15071: 15068: 15066: 15063: 15061: 15058: 15056: 15053: 15051: 15048: 15046: 15043: 15041: 15038: 15036: 15033: 15031: 15028: 15026: 15023: 15021: 15018: 15016: 15013: 15011: 15008: 15006: 15003: 15001: 14998: 14996: 14993: 14991: 14988: 14986: 14983: 14981: 14978: 14976: 14973: 14971: 14968: 14966: 14963: 14961: 14958: 14956: 14953: 14951: 14948: 14946: 14943: 14941: 14938: 14936: 14935:Brunei Bisaya 14933: 14931: 14928: 14926: 14923: 14921: 14918: 14916: 14913: 14911: 14908: 14906: 14903: 14901: 14898: 14896: 14893: 14891: 14888: 14886: 14883: 14882: 14880: 14878: 14872: 14866: 14863: 14861: 14858: 14856: 14853: 14851: 14848: 14846: 14843: 14841: 14840:Southern Thai 14838: 14836: 14833: 14831: 14828: 14826: 14823: 14821: 14818: 14816: 14813: 14811: 14808: 14806: 14803: 14801: 14798: 14796: 14795:Orang Seletar 14793: 14791: 14788: 14786: 14783: 14781: 14778: 14776: 14773: 14771: 14768: 14766: 14763: 14761: 14758: 14756: 14753: 14751: 14748: 14746: 14743: 14741: 14738: 14736: 14733: 14731: 14728: 14726: 14723: 14721: 14718: 14716: 14713: 14711: 14708: 14706: 14703: 14701: 14698: 14696: 14693: 14691: 14688: 14687: 14685: 14683: 14677: 14671: 14668: 14667: 14665: 14661: 14658: 14656: 14651: 14647: 14639: 14636: 14635: 14634: 14631: 14627: 14624: 14622: 14619: 14617: 14614: 14612: 14609: 14607: 14604: 14602: 14601:North Bornean 14599: 14598: 14597: 14594: 14590: 14587: 14586: 14585: 14584:Austroasiatic 14582: 14581: 14579: 14577: 14573: 14561: 14558: 14557: 14556: 14553: 14551: 14548: 14547: 14545: 14543: 14539: 14536: 14532: 14528: 14521: 14516: 14514: 14509: 14507: 14502: 14501: 14498: 14486: 14483: 14482: 14480: 14476: 14466: 14463: 14461: 14458: 14456: 14453: 14451: 14448: 14446: 14443: 14441: 14438: 14436: 14433: 14431: 14428: 14426: 14423: 14422: 14420: 14416: 14410: 14407: 14405: 14402: 14400: 14397: 14395: 14392: 14388: 14385: 14383: 14380: 14378: 14375: 14374: 14373: 14370: 14368: 14365: 14363: 14360: 14359: 14357: 14355: 14351: 14343: 14340: 14338: 14335: 14333: 14330: 14328: 14325: 14323: 14320: 14318: 14315: 14314: 14313: 14310: 14306: 14303: 14301: 14298: 14297: 14296: 14293: 14292: 14290: 14288: 14284: 14276: 14273: 14271: 14268: 14266: 14263: 14261: 14258: 14256: 14253: 14251: 14248: 14246: 14243: 14242: 14241: 14238: 14237: 14235: 14233: 14229: 14226: 14222: 14216: 14213: 14211: 14208: 14206: 14203: 14201: 14198: 14196: 14193: 14191: 14188: 14187: 14185: 14181: 14175: 14174:Orang Seletar 14172: 14169: 14168: 14166: 14162: 14152: 14149: 14147: 14144: 14142: 14139: 14137: 14134: 14133: 14131: 14127: 14121: 14118: 14117: 14115: 14111: 14108: 14104: 14100: 14093: 14088: 14086: 14081: 14079: 14074: 14073: 14070: 14058: 14055: 14053: 14050: 14048: 14045: 14041: 14038: 14036: 14033: 14032: 14031: 14028: 14026: 14023: 14021: 14018: 14016: 14013: 14009: 14006: 14005: 14004: 14001: 13999: 13996: 13994: 13991: 13990: 13988: 13984: 13978: 13975: 13974: 13972: 13968: 13962: 13959: 13958: 13956: 13954: 13950: 13934: 13931: 13929: 13926: 13924: 13921: 13919: 13916: 13914: 13911: 13910: 13909: 13906: 13905: 13903: 13901: 13897: 13886: 13883: 13882: 13880: 13878: 13874: 13866: 13865:Matsu dialect 13863: 13862: 13861: 13858: 13857: 13855: 13853: 13849: 13843: 13840: 13838: 13835: 13834: 13832: 13830: 13826: 13823: 13821: 13817: 13811: 13808: 13806: 13803: 13802: 13800: 13798: 13794: 13791: 13789: 13785: 13782: 13780: 13776: 13762: 13759: 13758: 13756: 13754: 13750: 13747: 13745: 13741: 13731: 13728: 13726: 13723: 13721: 13718: 13717: 13715: 13713: 13709: 13703: 13700: 13698: 13695: 13693: 13690: 13689: 13687: 13683: 13677: 13674: 13672: 13669: 13667: 13664: 13662: 13659: 13657: 13654: 13650: 13647: 13645: 13642: 13641: 13640: 13637: 13635: 13632: 13630: 13627: 13626: 13624: 13622: 13618: 13612: 13609: 13607: 13604: 13602: 13599: 13594: 13593: 13592: 13589: 13585: 13582: 13580: 13577: 13576: 13575: 13572: 13570: 13567: 13563: 13560: 13558: 13555: 13554: 13553: 13550: 13549: 13547: 13545: 13541: 13535: 13532: 13531: 13529: 13525: 13517: 13514: 13513: 13512: 13509: 13507: 13504: 13503: 13501: 13499: 13495: 13492: 13490: 13486: 13483: 13481: 13477: 13473: 13466: 13461: 13459: 13454: 13452: 13447: 13446: 13443: 13431: 13428: 13426: 13423: 13421: 13418: 13417: 13415: 13411: 13405: 13402: 13400: 13397: 13396: 13394: 13390: 13386: 13379: 13374: 13372: 13367: 13365: 13360: 13359: 13356: 13343: 13341:XJ = Xinjiang 13340: 13337: 13334: 13331: 13328: 13327: 13324: 13318: 13316: 13313: 13306: 13304: 13300: 13299: 13297: 13294: 13293: 13292: 13289: 13288: 13286: 13282: 13276: 13273: 13271: 13268: 13266: 13263: 13261: 13258: 13256: 13253: 13251: 13248: 13246: 13243: 13241: 13238: 13236: 13233: 13231: 13228: 13226: 13223: 13221: 13218: 13217: 13215: 13211: 13205: 13202: 13200: 13197: 13195: 13192: 13190: 13187: 13185: 13182: 13180: 13177: 13175: 13172: 13170: 13167: 13165: 13162: 13161: 13159: 13155: 13147: 13144: 13142: 13139: 13138: 13137: 13134: 13130: 13127: 13125: 13122: 13121: 13120: 13117: 13113: 13110: 13108: 13105: 13104: 13103: 13100: 13096: 13093: 13091: 13088: 13086: 13083: 13081: 13078: 13076: 13073: 13069: 13066: 13064: 13061: 13059: 13056: 13055: 13054: 13051: 13050: 13049: 13046: 13044: 13041: 13039: 13036: 13034: 13031: 13027: 13024: 13020: 13017: 13016: 13015: 13012: 13010: 13007: 13003: 13000: 12999: 12998: 12995: 12993: 12990: 12988: 12985: 12983: 12980: 12978: 12975: 12974: 12973: 12970: 12969: 12967: 12965: 12959: 12953: 12950: 12947: 12944: 12942: 12939: 12937: 12934: 12932: 12929: 12927: 12924: 12922: 12919: 12917: 12914: 12912: 12909: 12907: 12904: 12903: 12901: 12897: 12876: 12873: 12868: 12865: 12860: 12857: 12856: 12854: 12850: 12844: 12843:Western Yugur 12841: 12839: 12836: 12834: 12831: 12829: 12826: 12824: 12821: 12819: 12816: 12815: 12813: 12811: 12807: 12801: 12798: 12796: 12793: 12791: 12788: 12786: 12783: 12781: 12778: 12777: 12775: 12773: 12769: 12759: 12756: 12754: 12751: 12749: 12746: 12744: 12741: 12739: 12736: 12734: 12731: 12729: 12726: 12724: 12721: 12719: 12716: 12714: 12711: 12709: 12706: 12704: 12701: 12699: 12696: 12694: 12691: 12689: 12686: 12684: 12681: 12679: 12676: 12674: 12671: 12669: 12666: 12664: 12661: 12660: 12658: 12654: 12648: 12645: 12643: 12640: 12638: 12635: 12633: 12630: 12628: 12625: 12623: 12620: 12618: 12615: 12613: 12610: 12608: 12605: 12603: 12600: 12598: 12595: 12593: 12590: 12588: 12585: 12584: 12582: 12580: 12576: 12573: 12571: 12567: 12561: 12558: 12556: 12553: 12551: 12548: 12546: 12543: 12541: 12538: 12536: 12533: 12531: 12528: 12526: 12525:Eastern Yugur 12523: 12521: 12518: 12516: 12513: 12511: 12508: 12507: 12505: 12503: 12499: 12489: 12486: 12484: 12481: 12479: 12476: 12474: 12471: 12470: 12468: 12466: 12462: 12456: 12453: 12451: 12448: 12446: 12445:Small Flowery 12443: 12441: 12438: 12436: 12433: 12431: 12428: 12426: 12423: 12421: 12418: 12416: 12413: 12411: 12408: 12406: 12403: 12401: 12398: 12396: 12393: 12391: 12388: 12386: 12383: 12381: 12378: 12376: 12373: 12371: 12368: 12366: 12363: 12361: 12358: 12357: 12355: 12353: 12349: 12346: 12344: 12340: 12334: 12331: 12329: 12326: 12324: 12321: 12319: 12316: 12314: 12311: 12309: 12306: 12304: 12301: 12299: 12296: 12294: 12291: 12289: 12286: 12284: 12281: 12279: 12276: 12274: 12271: 12269: 12266: 12264: 12261: 12260: 12258: 12256: 12255:Austroasiatic 12252: 12248: 12241: 12237: 12223: 12220: 12218: 12215: 12213: 12210: 12208: 12205: 12203: 12200: 12198: 12195: 12193: 12190: 12188: 12185: 12184: 12182: 12178: 12172: 12169: 12167: 12164: 12162: 12159: 12157: 12154: 12152: 12149: 12147: 12144: 12142: 12139: 12137: 12134: 12132: 12129: 12127: 12124: 12122: 12119: 12117: 12114: 12112: 12109: 12107: 12104: 12102: 12099: 12097: 12094: 12092: 12089: 12088: 12086: 12084: 12080: 12074: 12071: 12069: 12066: 12064: 12061: 12059: 12056: 12054: 12051: 12049: 12046: 12044: 12041: 12039: 12036: 12034: 12031: 12029: 12026: 12024: 12021: 12019: 12016: 12014: 12011: 12009: 12006: 12004: 12001: 11999: 11996: 11994: 11991: 11989: 11986: 11984: 11981: 11979: 11976: 11974: 11971: 11970: 11968: 11966: 11962: 11948: 11945: 11943: 11940: 11938: 11935: 11933: 11930: 11928: 11925: 11923: 11920: 11918: 11915: 11913: 11910: 11908: 11905: 11903: 11900: 11898: 11895: 11894: 11892: 11888: 11882: 11879: 11877: 11874: 11872: 11869: 11867: 11864: 11862: 11859: 11857: 11854: 11852: 11849: 11847: 11844: 11842: 11839: 11837: 11834: 11832: 11829: 11827: 11824: 11822: 11819: 11817: 11814: 11812: 11809: 11807: 11804: 11802: 11799: 11797: 11794: 11792: 11789: 11787: 11784: 11782: 11779: 11777: 11774: 11772: 11769: 11767: 11764: 11762: 11759: 11757: 11754: 11752: 11749: 11747: 11744: 11743: 11741: 11739: 11735: 11729: 11726: 11724: 11721: 11719: 11716: 11714: 11711: 11709: 11706: 11704: 11701: 11699: 11696: 11694: 11691: 11689: 11686: 11684: 11681: 11679: 11676: 11674: 11671: 11669: 11666: 11664: 11661: 11659: 11656: 11654: 11651: 11649: 11646: 11644: 11641: 11639: 11636: 11634: 11631: 11629: 11626: 11625: 11623: 11621: 11617: 11611: 11608: 11606: 11603: 11601: 11598: 11596: 11593: 11591: 11588: 11586: 11583: 11581: 11578: 11576: 11573: 11571: 11568: 11566: 11563: 11561: 11558: 11556: 11553: 11551: 11548: 11546: 11543: 11541: 11538: 11536: 11533: 11531: 11528: 11526: 11523: 11521: 11518: 11516: 11513: 11511: 11508: 11506: 11503: 11501: 11498: 11496: 11493: 11491: 11488: 11486: 11483: 11481: 11478: 11476: 11473: 11471: 11468: 11466: 11463: 11461: 11458: 11456: 11453: 11451: 11448: 11446: 11443: 11441: 11438: 11437: 11435: 11433: 11429: 11426: 11424: 11420: 11414: 11411: 11409: 11406: 11404: 11401: 11399: 11396: 11394: 11391: 11389: 11386: 11384: 11381: 11380: 11378: 11376: 11372: 11366: 11363: 11361: 11358: 11356: 11353: 11351: 11348: 11346: 11343: 11341: 11338: 11336: 11333: 11332: 11330: 11328: 11324: 11321: 11319: 11313: 11309: 11305: 11300: 11296: 11293: 11289: 11279: 11277: 11273: 11269: 11263: 11260: 11258: 11255: 11253: 11250: 11248: 11245: 11243: 11240: 11238: 11235: 11233: 11230: 11228: 11225: 11223: 11220: 11218: 11215: 11213: 11210: 11208: 11205: 11203: 11200: 11198: 11195: 11193: 11190: 11188: 11185: 11184: 11182: 11180: 11176: 11170: 11167: 11165: 11162: 11160: 11157: 11155: 11152: 11150: 11147: 11145: 11142: 11140: 11137: 11136: 11134: 11132: 11128: 11124: 11121: 11117: 11111: 11108: 11107: 11105: 11101: 11097: 11090: 11085: 11083: 11078: 11076: 11071: 11070: 11067: 11061: 11054: 11044: 11034: 11024: 11021: 11019: 11016: 11014: 11011: 11009: 11006: 11002: 10999: 10997: 10994: 10993: 10992: 10989: 10985: 10982: 10980: 10977: 10975: 10972: 10970: 10967: 10965: 10962: 10960: 10957: 10955: 10952: 10950: 10947: 10945: 10942: 10941: 10940: 10937: 10933: 10930: 10929: 10928: 10927:Cyrillization 10925: 10924: 10922: 10918: 10913: 10910: 10908: 10905: 10903: 10900: 10898: 10895: 10893: 10891: 10887: 10881: 10878: 10874: 10871: 10869: 10866: 10865: 10864: 10861: 10860: 10852: 10849: 10847: 10844: 10842: 10839: 10837: 10834: 10832: 10829: 10827: 10824: 10822: 10820: 10819:Script styles 10816: 10813: 10811: 10807: 10804: 10802: 10798: 10792: 10789: 10787: 10784: 10782: 10779: 10777: 10774: 10773: 10764: 10761: 10757: 10754: 10752: 10749: 10747: 10744: 10743: 10742: 10739: 10738: 10736: 10732: 10729: 10723: 10717: 10714: 10712: 10709: 10707: 10704: 10702: 10699: 10697: 10694: 10692: 10689: 10687: 10684: 10682: 10679: 10677: 10674: 10673: 10671: 10669: 10665: 10659: 10656: 10654: 10651: 10649: 10646: 10642: 10639: 10637: 10634: 10632: 10629: 10628: 10627: 10624: 10622: 10619: 10617: 10614: 10610: 10607: 10606: 10605: 10602: 10599: 10597: 10594: 10593: 10591: 10589: 10585: 10579: 10578: 10574: 10572: 10571: 10567: 10566: 10564: 10560: 10554: 10551: 10549: 10546: 10544: 10541: 10539: 10536: 10534: 10531: 10530: 10528: 10526: 10522: 10516: 10513: 10511: 10508: 10506: 10503: 10501: 10498: 10496: 10493: 10491: 10488: 10484: 10481: 10480: 10479: 10476: 10475: 10473: 10469: 10463: 10460: 10458: 10455: 10453: 10450: 10444: 10441: 10439: 10436: 10435: 10434: 10431: 10429: 10426: 10424: 10421: 10419: 10416: 10414: 10411: 10410: 10409: 10406: 10405: 10403: 10401: 10395: 10390: 10376: 10373: 10371: 10368: 10366: 10363: 10361: 10358: 10356: 10353: 10351: 10348: 10346: 10343: 10341: 10338: 10337: 10335: 10331: 10323: 10320: 10318: 10315: 10313: 10310: 10309: 10307: 10303: 10300: 10298: 10295: 10294: 10292: 10291: 10289: 10287: 10283: 10273: 10270: 10268: 10265: 10263: 10260: 10258: 10255: 10253: 10250: 10248: 10245: 10244: 10242: 10238: 10232: 10229: 10227: 10224: 10223: 10221: 10219: 10215: 10209: 10206: 10204: 10201: 10199: 10196: 10194: 10191: 10189: 10186: 10182: 10179: 10177: 10174: 10173: 10172: 10169: 10168: 10166: 10164: 10160: 10157: 10155: 10151: 10143: 10140: 10138: 10135: 10133: 10130: 10129: 10128: 10125: 10121: 10118: 10117: 10116: 10113: 10111: 10108: 10106: 10103: 10101: 10098: 10097: 10095: 10093: 10089: 10077: 10074: 10072: 10069: 10067: 10064: 10063: 10062: 10059: 10055: 10052: 10051: 10050: 10047: 10045: 10042: 10040: 10037: 10035: 10032: 10028: 10025: 10023: 10020: 10019: 10018: 10015: 10014: 10012: 10008: 9998: 9995: 9993: 9990: 9989: 9987: 9983: 9977: 9974: 9973: 9971: 9969: 9965: 9959: 9956: 9954: 9951: 9950: 9948: 9946: 9942: 9936: 9933: 9931: 9928: 9926: 9923: 9921: 9918: 9916: 9913: 9911: 9908: 9906: 9903: 9901: 9898: 9896: 9893: 9891: 9888: 9887: 9885: 9883: 9879: 9876: 9874: 9870: 9858: 9855: 9853: 9850: 9849: 9848: 9845: 9843: 9840: 9839: 9837: 9833: 9827: 9824: 9822: 9819: 9818: 9816: 9814: 9810: 9804: 9801: 9799: 9796: 9794: 9791: 9789: 9786: 9784: 9781: 9780: 9778: 9776: 9772: 9769: 9767: 9763: 9760: 9758: 9754: 9746: 9743: 9742: 9741: 9738: 9736: 9733: 9729: 9726: 9724: 9721: 9719: 9716: 9715: 9714: 9711: 9707: 9704: 9703: 9702: 9699: 9698: 9696: 9694: 9690: 9684: 9681: 9679: 9676: 9674: 9671: 9667: 9664: 9663: 9662: 9659: 9658: 9656: 9654: 9650: 9642: 9637: 9634: 9630: 9625: 9622: 9618: 9613: 9610: 9606: 9601: 9598: 9594: 9589: 9586: 9585: 9583: 9581: 9577: 9567: 9564: 9563: 9561: 9559: 9555: 9549: 9546: 9544: 9541: 9539: 9536: 9535: 9533: 9531: 9527: 9521: 9518: 9517: 9515: 9513: 9509: 9503: 9500: 9498: 9495: 9493: 9490: 9489: 9487: 9483: 9477: 9474: 9472: 9469: 9468: 9466: 9464: 9460: 9454: 9451: 9449: 9446: 9444: 9441: 9439: 9436: 9434: 9431: 9428: 9425: 9423: 9420: 9418: 9415: 9413: 9410: 9408: 9405: 9404: 9402: 9400: 9396: 9393: 9391: 9387: 9381: 9378: 9376: 9373: 9372: 9370: 9368: 9364: 9354: 9351: 9349: 9346: 9344: 9341: 9340: 9338: 9334: 9328: 9325: 9323: 9320: 9319: 9317: 9315: 9311: 9303: 9300: 9299: 9298: 9295: 9293: 9290: 9288: 9285: 9283: 9280: 9274: 9271: 9270: 9269: 9266: 9262: 9259: 9258: 9257: 9254: 9252: 9249: 9248: 9247: 9244: 9243: 9241: 9239: 9235: 9229: 9226: 9224: 9221: 9219: 9216: 9214: 9211: 9209: 9206: 9202: 9199: 9198: 9197: 9194: 9192: 9189: 9187: 9184: 9183: 9181: 9179: 9175: 9169: 9166: 9164: 9161: 9159: 9156: 9155: 9153: 9151: 9147: 9141: 9138: 9136: 9133: 9132: 9130: 9128: 9124: 9118: 9115: 9113: 9110: 9109: 9107: 9105: 9101: 9095: 9092: 9090: 9087: 9085: 9082: 9080: 9077: 9076: 9074: 9072: 9068: 9065: 9063: 9059: 9056: 9054: 9050: 9046: 9045: 9039: 9035: 9028: 9023: 9021: 9016: 9014: 9009: 9008: 9005: 8998: 8994: 8990: 8987: 8984: 8981: 8980: 8970: 8966: 8962: 8960:9780735214729 8956: 8952: 8947: 8935: 8931: 8930: 8929:The Economist 8925: 8920: 8914: 8910: 8904: 8900: 8896: 8892: 8888: 8884: 8880: 8876: 8872: 8866: 8862: 8858: 8854: 8849: 8845: 8839: 8835: 8830: 8818: 8814: 8813: 8808: 8803: 8802: 8789: 8788: 8783: 8779: 8778: 8775: 8771: 8767: 8763: 8759: 8755: 8751: 8747: 8743: 8738: 8734: 8728: 8724: 8720: 8715: 8711: 8705: 8701: 8696: 8692: 8686: 8682: 8678: 8674: 8670: 8664: 8660: 8655: 8651: 8649:9781032093161 8645: 8641: 8636: 8632: 8626: 8622: 8617: 8613: 8609: 8605: 8601: 8597: 8593: 8589: 8585: 8581: 8577: 8571: 8567: 8562: 8558: 8552: 8548: 8543: 8539: 8533: 8528: 8527: 8520: 8516: 8510: 8506: 8501: 8497: 8491: 8487: 8482: 8478: 8474: 8469: 8464: 8460: 8456: 8451: 8446: 8442: 8438: 8434: 8430: 8426: 8422: 8418: 8414: 8410: 8404: 8400: 8395: 8391: 8385: 8381: 8376: 8372: 8366: 8362: 8358: 8354: 8350: 8344: 8340: 8335: 8331: 8325: 8321: 8317: 8316:Norman, Jerry 8313: 8309: 8303: 8299: 8295: 8291: 8287: 8281: 8276: 8275: 8269: 8265: 8261: 8255: 8252:. Routledge. 8251: 8247: 8246:Yip, Virginia 8243: 8239: 8224: 8220: 8216: 8209: 8205: 8201: 8197: 8191: 8187: 8182: 8170: 8166: 8162: 8157: 8153: 8152: 8146: 8142: 8136: 8132: 8127: 8115: 8114: 8108: 8104: 8098: 8094: 8090: 8086: 8075: 8071: 8067: 8063: 8059: 8055: 8051: 8046: 8042: 8036: 8032: 8027: 8023: 8017: 8013: 8008: 8004: 7998: 7994: 7989: 7982: 7975: 7968: 7964: 7960: 7956: 7952: 7947: 7942: 7938: 7934: 7930: 7926: 7925:Haugen, Einar 7922: 7918: 7914: 7910: 7906: 7902: 7898: 7894: 7889: 7885: 7881: 7877: 7873: 7869: 7865: 7861: 7857: 7853: 7848: 7844: 7838: 7834: 7830: 7826: 7822: 7818: 7814: 7810: 7806: 7802: 7798: 7794: 7790: 7786: 7782: 7776: 7772: 7765: 7760: 7756: 7752: 7748: 7744: 7739: 7734: 7730: 7726: 7722: 7718: 7714: 7709: 7706: 7702: 7698: 7694: 7690: 7686: 7681: 7677: 7671: 7667: 7663: 7659: 7655: 7649: 7645: 7640: 7639: 7618: 7614: 7610: 7603: 7596: 7587: 7581:, p. 45. 7580: 7575: 7559: 7555: 7549: 7542: 7537: 7521: 7517: 7509: 7502:(in Chinese). 7498: 7494: 7485: 7474: 7470: 7462: 7446: 7442: 7434: 7427: 7422: 7414: 7405: 7398: 7393: 7382: 7375: 7371: 7367: 7362: 7357: 7354: 7349: 7345: 7340: 7339: 7335: 7328: 7322: 7314: 7310: 7304: 7298:, p. 10. 7297: 7296:Norman (1988) 7292: 7284: 7278: 7273: 7272: 7263: 7256: 7251: 7245:, p. 52. 7244: 7243:Norman (1988) 7239: 7233:, p. 17. 7232: 7227: 7221:, p. 22. 7220: 7219:Hudson (1996) 7215: 7208: 7207:Haugen (1966) 7203: 7197:, p. 531 7196: 7195:Groves (2010) 7192: 7186: 7179: 7174: 7168:, p. 57. 7167: 7162: 7160: 7152: 7147: 7140: 7135: 7128: 7123: 7116: 7115:Baxter (1992) 7111: 7104: 7099: 7092: 7091:Klöter (2004) 7087: 7080: 7075: 7059: 7055: 7048: 7041: 7036: 7029: 7024: 7017: 7012: 7005: 7004:Norman (1988) 7000: 6993: 6988: 6986: 6978: 6977:Norman (1988) 6973: 6967:, p. 23. 6966: 6965:Ramsey (1987) 6961: 6955:, p. 98. 6954: 6953:Ramsey (1987) 6950: 6949:Norman (1988) 6945: 6939:, p. 72. 6938: 6937:Norman (2003) 6933: 6931: 6923: 6918: 6912:, p. 43. 6911: 6906: 6899: 6894: 6888:, p. 89. 6887: 6882: 6875: 6870: 6863: 6862:Miyake (2004) 6858: 6852:, p. 67. 6851: 6846: 6839: 6834: 6827: 6826:Miller (1967) 6822: 6816:, p. 23. 6815: 6810: 6803: 6798: 6791: 6790:Norman (1988) 6786: 6779: 6778:Ramsey (1987) 6774: 6767: 6766:Coblin (2000) 6762: 6755: 6754:Coblin (2000) 6750: 6743: 6742:Norman (1988) 6738: 6731: 6730:Norman (1988) 6726: 6719: 6718:Norman (1988) 6714: 6707: 6706:Norman (1988) 6702: 6696:, p. 48. 6695: 6694:Norman (1988) 6690: 6684:, p. 24. 6683: 6682:Norman (1988) 6678: 6671: 6670:Norman (1988) 6666: 6659: 6658:Ramsey (1987) 6654: 6647: 6646:Baxter (1992) 6642: 6636:, p. 12. 6635: 6630: 6623: 6622:Baxter (1992) 6618: 6611: 6610:Baxter (1992) 6606: 6599: 6598:Norman (1988) 6594: 6587: 6586:Baxter (1992) 6582: 6575: 6570: 6563: 6562:Norman (1988) 6558: 6551: 6550:Handel (2008) 6546: 6539: 6538:Handel (2008) 6534: 6527: 6526:Handel (2008) 6522: 6515: 6514:Norman (1988) 6510: 6503: 6498: 6496: 6488: 6483: 6467: 6463: 6457: 6450: 6446: 6445:Norman (1988) 6441: 6433: 6427: 6426: 6421: 6416: 6412: 6393: 6376: 6369: 6353: 6347: 6341: 6334: 6330: 6325: 6323: 6316: 6310: 6309: 6304: 6295: 6292: 6289: 6288:Norman (1988) 6286: 6283: 6279: 6276: 6272: 6271: 6266: 6259: 6255: 6251: 6239: 6230: 6221: 6212: 6208: 6199: 6196: 6194: 6191: 6189: 6186: 6184: 6181: 6179: 6176: 6174: 6171: 6169: 6166: 6164: 6161: 6159: 6156: 6154: 6151: 6149: 6146: 6144: 6141: 6139: 6138: 6134: 6133: 6127: 6125: 6121: 6116: 6112: 6106: 6102: 6097: 6092: 6082: 6080: 6076: 6075:cyrillization 6072: 6068: 6064: 6060: 6050: 6048: 6044: 6041:, the French 6040: 6031: 6028: 6025: 6021: 6018: 6014: 6009: 6008: 6005: 6002: 5999: 5995: 5992: 5978: 5975: 5972: 5969: 5965: 5962: 5958: 5949: 5948: 5945: 5942: 5939: 5935: 5932: 5928: 5923: 5922: 5919: 5916: 5913: 5909: 5906: 5902: 5893: 5892: 5889: 5886: 5883: 5879: 5876: 5872: 5867: 5866: 5863: 5860: 5857: 5853: 5850: 5846: 5837: 5836: 5833: 5830: 5827: 5823: 5820: 5816: 5807: 5806: 5802: 5799: 5796: 5793: 5792: 5786: 5783: 5780: 5774: 5768: 5763: 5757: 5755: 5754:anglicization 5751: 5746: 5744: 5739: 5737: 5733: 5729: 5722: 5708: 5703: 5693: 5691: 5687: 5682: 5678: 5676: 5671: 5667: 5663: 5659: 5654: 5652: 5648: 5644: 5640: 5636: 5631: 5629: 5628: 5616: 5612: 5602: 5592: 5582: 5572: 5562: 5552: 5548: 5544: 5532: 5527: 5521: 5511: 5509: 5505: 5504:Dungan people 5501: 5500:Arabic script 5497: 5493: 5489: 5485: 5481: 5476: 5474: 5470: 5466: 5461: 5459: 5445: 5443: 5438: 5435: 5429: 5423: 5414: 5410: 5406: 5399: 5396:, written in 5395: 5391: 5386: 5381: 5377: 5373: 5363: 5359: 5348: 5333: 5332: 5314: 5305: 5302: 5299: 5296: 5293: 5291:'TV-watchers' 5287: 5286: 5282: 5273: 5270: 5267: 5264: 5261: 5255: 5254: 5250: 5241: 5238: 5235: 5232: 5229: 5223: 5222: 5218: 5209: 5206: 5204: 5201: 5198: 5192: 5191: 5187: 5178: 5175: 5173: 5170: 5167: 5161: 5160: 5156: 5147: 5144: 5141: 5138: 5135: 5132: 5123: 5120: 5114: 5113: 5110: 5108: 5093: 5091: 5081: 5071: 5061: 5051: 5037: 5027: 5017: 5007: 4997: 4991: 4977: 4968:gave rise to 4967: 4963: 4949: 4934: 4929: 4919: 4905: 4894: 4892: 4882: 4864: 4850: 4840: 4826: 4812: 4802: 4788: 4774: 4764: 4754: 4749: 4747: 4743: 4729: 4725: 4711: 4707: 4693: 4681: 4661: 4658: 4645: 4644: 4640: 4636: 4633: 4620: 4619: 4615: 4612: 4599: 4598: 4594: 4591: 4578: 4577: 4574:'television' 4573: 4570: 4557: 4556: 4553: 4551: 4536: 4530: 4517: 4513: 4509: 4503: 4499: 4488: 4478: 4474: 4468: 4466: 4462: 4457:This section 4455: 4446: 4445: 4437: 4435: 4425: 4415: 4411: 4407: 4403: 4391: 4387: 4373: 4363: 4349: 4339: 4329: 4325: 4311: 4301: 4287: 4273: 4259: 4248: 4245: 4235: 4233: 4232: 4226: 4224: 4223: 4218: 4217: 4211: 4208: 4204: 4203: 4198: 4197: 4191: 4182: 4180: 4176: 4172: 4168: 4167:measure words 4164: 4160: 4159:topic–comment 4156: 4151: 4149: 4135: 4117: 4107: 4103: 4099: 4095: 4091: 4087: 4083: 4079: 4075: 4071: 4067: 4062: 4060: 4058:diànzǐyóujiàn 4046: 4032: 4017: 4014: 4009: 3995: 3985: 3971: 3961: 3951: 3941: 3927: 3916: 3907: 3904: 3900: 3895: 3894: 3890: 3887: 3883: 3874: 3873: 3870:'stone-head' 3869: 3866: 3862: 3853: 3852: 3848: 3845: 3841: 3832: 3831: 3827: 3824: 3820: 3811: 3810: 3806: 3803: 3800: 3799: 3796: 3789: 3784: 3783: 3778: 3777:Yuen Ren Chao 3768: 3764: 3761: 3757: 3754: 3749: 3748: 3744: 3740: 3737: 3733: 3730: 3721: 3720: 3716: 3712: 3709: 3705: 3702: 3697: 3696: 3692: 3688: 3685: 3678: 3669: 3668: 3664: 3660: 3657: 3653: 3650: 3641: 3640: 3636: 3632: 3629: 3625: 3622: 3617: 3616: 3612: 3607: 3604: 3601: 3600: 3597: 3594: 3589: 3585: 3581: 3571: 3561: 3556: 3554: 3549: 3546: 3544: 3540: 3539: 3531: 3525: 3510: 3507: 3503: 3500: 3496: 3493: 3488: 3484: 3480: 3477: 3473: 3470: 3466: 3463: 3458: 3454: 3451:low, falling 3450: 3447: 3443: 3440: 3436: 3433: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3413: 3409: 3406: 3402: 3400:'assassinate' 3399: 3394: 3390: 3387:high, rising 3386: 3383: 3379: 3376: 3372: 3369: 3364: 3360: 3354:high, falling 3353: 3350: 3349: 3347: 3344: 3340: 3337: 3333: 3330: 3321: 3317: 3311: 3306: 3293: 3287: 3285: 3284:checked tones 3281: 3272: 3266: 3262: 3253: 3244: 3242: 3238: 3235:high falling 3234: 3231: 3227: 3224: 3215: 3211: 3207: 3204: 3200: 3197: 3188: 3184: 3181:high, rising 3180: 3177: 3173: 3170: 3165: 3161: 3157: 3154: 3150: 3147: 3138: 3134: 3117: 3095: 3091:The syllable 3084: 3075: 3066: 3057: 3048: 3045: 3039: 3037: 3026: 3022: 2974: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2923: 2921: 2917: 2899: 2895: 2891: 2881: 2879: 2878: 2873: 2872: 2867: 2866: 2861: 2860: 2855: 2850: 2848: 2834: 2823: 2819: 2810: 2808: 2804: 2800: 2796: 2792: 2788: 2781:(also called 2780: 2776: 2772: 2768: 2764: 2762: 2748: 2734: 2724: 2718: 2712: 2702: 2700: 2696: 2692: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2672: 2669: 2666: 2663: 2660: 2657: 2656: 2655: 2653: 2652: 2647: 2637: 2627: 2617: 2607: 2597: 2587: 2577: 2567: 2557: 2547: 2539: 2531: 2527: 2524: 2522: 2519: 2517: 2513: 2509: 2505: 2501: 2498: 2496: 2493: 2491: 2488: 2486: 2482: 2478: 2474: 2471: 2469: 2465: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2446: 2445: 2444: 2442: 2435: 2431: 2426: 2417: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2398: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2384: 2380: 2370: 2314: 2307: 2298: 2288: 2286: 2276: 2275: 2270: 2260: 2259: 2254: 2245: 2241: 2237: 2233: 2231: 2227: 2223: 2218: 2217: 2210: 2209: 2202: 2201: 2195: 2190: 2188: 2183: 2182:Ancient Greek 2179: 2174: 2172: 2171:vowel harmony 2168: 2164: 2160: 2156: 2152: 2147: 2144: 2140: 2136: 2132: 2125: 2121: 2120: 2114: 2109: 2105: 2095: 2093: 2089: 2084: 2082: 2068: 2064: 2050: 2045: 2043: 2039: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2012: 2010: 2009: 2004: 2003: 1998: 1997: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1980: 1976: 1975:Northern Song 1966: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1952: 1948: 1942: 1938: 1928: 1926: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1908: 1907: 1901: 1897: 1896: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1874: 1872: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1842: 1837: 1836: 1831: 1830: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1814:, during the 1806: 1800: 1794: 1790: 1780: 1778: 1777:Shang dynasty 1772: 1762: 1760: 1755: 1751: 1750:Austroasiatic 1747: 1746:Indo-European 1743: 1739: 1735: 1731: 1727: 1717: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1703: 1699: 1695: 1691: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1670:of Mandarin. 1669: 1665: 1664: 1659: 1655: 1651: 1647: 1646: 1641: 1640:sound changes 1637: 1633: 1623: 1622:Shang dynasty 1619: 1615: 1610: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1596: 1592: 1588: 1584: 1580: 1576: 1572: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1497: 1495: 1491: 1487: 1483: 1480:majority and 1479: 1475: 1471: 1461: 1451: 1445: 1437: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1413: 1403: 1398: 1396: 1392: 1384: 1382: 1378: 1368: 1366: 1362: 1354: 1352: 1348: 1334: 1332: 1328: 1320: 1318: 1314: 1311: 1307: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1285: 1280: 1278: 1274: 1269: 1264: 1262: 1258: 1253: 1241: 1239: 1236: 1232: 1229: 1225: 1217: 1215: 1212: 1208: 1205: 1201: 1192: 1189: 1186: 1183: 1182: 1178: 1176: 1172: 1164: 1162: 1158: 1150: 1148: 1144: 1136: 1134: 1130: 1127: 1123: 1115: 1113: 1109: 1106: 1102: 1092: 1090: 1086: 1083: 1079: 1073: 1068: 1066: 1062: 1054: 1052: 1048: 1040: 1038: 1034: 1024: 1022: 1018: 1010: 1008: 1004: 990: 988: 984: 976: 974: 970: 967: 963: 958: 954: 950: 947: 943: 937: 931: 929: 925: 920: 908: 906: 903: 899: 896: 892: 883: 880: 879: 875: 873: 870: 866: 863: 859: 853: 844: 842: 838: 828: 826: 822: 814: 812: 808: 800: 798: 794: 791: 787: 779: 777: 773: 770: 766: 756: 754: 750: 747: 743: 737: 732: 730: 726: 718: 716: 712: 704: 702: 698: 688: 686: 682: 674: 672: 668: 654: 652: 648: 640: 638: 634: 631: 627: 622: 618: 614: 611: 607: 602: 597: 595: 591: 586: 581: 579: 575: 571: 566: 558: 554: 550: 546: 542: 540: 534: 509: 504: 500: 496: 494: 493: 488: 484: 480: 477: 472: 467: 462: 454: 449: 444: 441: 436: 431: 426: 423: 418: 413: 407: 403: 399: 397: 393: 391: 387: 383: 381: 377: 376: 374: 372: 368: 362: 354: 347: 344: 341: 340: 338: 332: 327: 321: 318: 316: 313: 311: 308: 306: 303: 301: 298: 296: 293: 291: 288: 287: 285: 281: 275: 270: 267: 265: 262: 260: 257: 255: 252: 250: 247: 245: 242: 240: 237: 235: 232: 230: 227: 225: 222: 221: 220: 218: 214: 208: 205: 203: 200: 199: 197: 191: 181: 178: 177: 176: 173: 172: 171: 168: 167: 166: 162: 156: 148: 145: 144: 143: 140: 139: 138: 134: 130: 124: 120: 114: 108: 105: 103: 100: 98: 95: 93: 90: 88: 85: 84: 81: 77: 73: 67: 62: 58: 53: 47: 42: 37: 34: 30: 26: 22: 15870: 15615:Chetty Malay 15357:Chaoshan Min 15335:Southern Min 15274:Sino-Tibetan 15155:Sabah Bisaya 15035:Kinabatangan 14940:Bukar–Sadong 14800:Pahang Malay 14596:Austronesian 14231: 14200:Chitty Malay 14195:Bazaar Malay 14008:Shanghainese 13953:Japonic Sign 13779:Sino-Tibetan 13480:Austronesian 13329:GX = Guangxi 13317: 13315:Tibetan Sign 13305: 13291:Chinese Sign 13157:Creole/Mixed 13026:Southeastern 13014:Southwestern 12977:Northeastern 12962:Varieties of 10949:Hanyu Pinyin 10939:Romanization 10846:Semi-cursive 10691:Old Mandarin 10648:Stroke count 10575: 10568: 10490:Old National 10333:Unclassified 9238:Southwestern 9071:Northeastern 9053:Major groups 9042: 9033: 8950: 8938:. Retrieved 8927: 8923: 8901:, Berkeley, 8895:Jerry Norman 8890: 8852: 8833: 8820:. Retrieved 8810: 8787:ScienceDaily 8785: 8752:(1): 27–43. 8749: 8745: 8722: 8718: 8699: 8680: 8658: 8639: 8620: 8595: 8591: 8584:Tsu-lin, Mei 8565: 8546: 8525: 8504: 8485: 8432: 8428: 8398: 8379: 8360: 8338: 8319: 8297: 8273: 8249: 8230:. Retrieved 8223:the original 8218: 8214: 8185: 8173:. Retrieved 8168: 8164: 8150: 8130: 8118:. Retrieved 8112: 8092: 8077:. Retrieved 8057: 8053: 8030: 8011: 7992: 7936: 7932: 7900: 7896: 7859: 7855: 7828: 7800: 7796: 7770: 7763: 7723:(1): 45–98. 7720: 7716: 7688: 7665: 7643: 7623:12 September 7621:. Retrieved 7617:the original 7612: 7602: 7591:(in Chinese) 7586: 7574: 7562:. Retrieved 7557: 7548: 7536: 7524:. Retrieved 7520:the original 7508: 7496: 7484: 7472: 7461: 7449:. Retrieved 7445:the original 7433: 7426:Huang (2014) 7421: 7404: 7392: 7380: 7360: 7351: 7347: 7334: 7326: 7321: 7312: 7303: 7291: 7270: 7262: 7250: 7238: 7226: 7214: 7202: 7185: 7180:, p. 7. 7173: 7146: 7134: 7122: 7110: 7098: 7086: 7074: 7062:. Retrieved 7058:the original 7047: 7035: 7023: 7011: 6999: 6972: 6960: 6944: 6917: 6905: 6893: 6881: 6869: 6857: 6845: 6833: 6821: 6809: 6797: 6785: 6773: 6761: 6749: 6737: 6725: 6713: 6701: 6689: 6677: 6665: 6653: 6641: 6629: 6617: 6605: 6593: 6581: 6576:, p. 1. 6569: 6557: 6545: 6533: 6521: 6509: 6482: 6470:. Retrieved 6465: 6456: 6451:, p. 3. 6440: 6423: 6415: 6392: 6375: 6365: 6352: 6340: 6332: 6306: 6300: 6281: 6274: 6265: 6260:for details. 6247: 6238: 6229: 6220: 6211: 6135: 6117: 6113: 6110: 6066: 6056: 6036: 5998:Jiǎng Jièshí 5961:Mao Tse-tung 5784: 5761: 5758: 5747: 5743:Hanyu Pinyin 5740: 5732:Latin script 5728:Romanization 5726: 5718: 5696:Romanization 5689: 5683: 5679: 5655: 5641:, including 5632: 5625: 5608: 5598: 5588: 5578: 5568: 5558: 5540: 5477: 5462: 5446: 5439: 5403:The Chinese 5402: 5344: 5320: 5310: 5297: 5278: 5268:; 'wireless' 5265: 5246: 5233: 5214: 5202: 5183: 5171: 5165:'IT circles' 5152: 5139: 5128: 5104: 5094: 5087: 5077: 5067: 5057: 5047: 5033: 5023: 5013: 5003: 4993: 4987: 4973: 4959: 4945: 4925: 4915: 4901: 4895: 4888: 4878: 4860: 4846: 4836: 4824:luóji, luójí 4822: 4808: 4798: 4784: 4770: 4760: 4753:proper nouns 4750: 4739: 4721: 4703: 4677: 4667: 4654: 4629: 4608: 4587: 4566: 4547: 4505: 4482: 4471:Please help 4459:may contain 4458: 4431: 4421: 4383: 4369: 4359: 4345: 4335: 4321: 4307: 4297: 4283: 4269: 4255: 4249: 4241: 4229: 4227: 4220: 4214: 4212: 4200: 4194: 4192: 4188: 4152: 4145: 4131: 4113: 4100:to indicate 4063: 4056: 4042: 4028: 4018: 4005: 3991: 3981: 3967: 3957: 3947: 3937: 3923: 3917: 3913: 3908:'foodstuff' 3780: 3774: 3587: 3577: 3567: 3557: 3536: 3533: 3481:low, rising 3277: 3270: 3158:high, level 3040: 3036:pitch accent 3032: 3023: 2975: 2941:, or even a 2924: 2913: 2875: 2869: 2863: 2857: 2853: 2851: 2844: 2830: 2824: 2820: 2816: 2813:Nomenclature 2771:Shanghainese 2765: 2758: 2744: 2730: 2720: 2676: 2649: 2643: 2537: 2502:, including 2477:Shanghainese 2475:, including 2468:Central Asia 2450:, including 2438: 2433: 2430:China proper 2399: 2379:Jerry Norman 2376: 2282: 2272: 2266: 2256: 2250: 2239: 2234: 2191: 2175: 2148: 2128: 2117: 2085: 2078: 2060: 2046: 2035: 2013: 2008:Menggu Ziyun 2006: 2000: 1994: 1987:Old Mandarin 1972: 1944: 1911: 1902:such as the 1900:rhyme tables 1893: 1875: 1849: 1839: 1833: 1827: 1824:Western Zhou 1805:oracle bones 1802: 1774: 1723: 1672: 1661: 1643: 1611: 1559:Shanghainese 1551:Southern Min 1516: 1467: 1447: 1423: 1422: 1419: 1317:Hanyu Pinyin 1204:Southern Min 1153:Zung1 man4*2 1112:Romanization 1089:Romanization 973:Hanyu Pinyin 927: 862:Southern Min 776:Romanization 753:Romanization 637:Hanyu Pinyin 536: 490: 146: 137:Sino-Tibetan 33: 15625:Sabah Malay 15620:Cocos Malay 15509:Minangkabau 15460:archipelago 15330:Pu-Xian Min 15308:Eastern Min 15258:Significant 15100:Murik Kayan 14810:Reman Malay 14805:Perak Malay 14790:Orang Kanaq 14730:Kedah Malay 14725:Judeo-Malay 14606:Kayan–Murik 14409:Minangkabau 12823:Fuyu Kyrgyz 12622:Tai Hongjin 12308:Muak Sa-aak 11018:Xiao'erjing 10880:Punctuation 10873:Traditional 10826:Oracle bone 10810:Logographic 10706:Proto-Hakka 10681:Eastern Han 10676:Old Chinese 10538:Classifiers 10505:Northern Wu 10433:Singaporean 9639: [ 9627: [ 9615: [ 9603: [ 9591: [ 8812:Throughline 8702:. Longman. 8232:17 November 7526:15 February 7451:15 February 7440:粵普之爭為你中文解毒 7397:Kane (2006) 7363:(in German) 7329:, July 2009 7231:Mair (1991) 7191:Bailey 1973 7178:Mair (1991) 6886:Sohn (2001) 6487:Mair (1991) 6047:Yale system 5944:Sun Yat-sen 5643:seal script 5547:pictographs 5407:centers on 5405:orthography 5331:wasei-kango 4694:), such as 4595:'computer' 4163:classifiers 4044:shǒuményuán 3679:'recognize' 3511:low, level 3417:mid, level 3351:high, level 2935:monophthong 2929:that has a 2777:also speak 2485:Wenzhounese 2410:Pearl River 2271:), and 2173:in Korean. 2131:Han dynasty 2026:, known as 1981:and Mongol 1789:Old Chinese 1632:Old Chinese 1478:Han Chinese 1295:Han writing 1228:Eastern Min 895:Eastern Min 551:instead of 400:Singapore: 305:Xiao'erjing 170:Old Chinese 159:Early forms 57:traditional 55:written in 16001:Categories 15898:Vietnamese 15883:Sinosphere 15758:Vietnamese 15748:Sri Lankan 15706:Indonesian 15663:Immigrants 15610:Baba Malay 15530:Philippine 15523:Philippine 15504:Mandailing 15458:Indonesian 15245:Umaʼ Lasan 15135:Punan Batu 15080:Lun Bawang 14825:Semaq Beri 14680:Peninsular 14663:Nationwide 14655:Indigenous 14626:Sama–Bajaw 14621:Philippine 14611:Land Dayak 14465:Vietnamese 14382:Mandailing 14354:Indonesian 14312:Indo-Aryan 14190:Baba Malay 14052:Vietnamese 14040:Indonesian 13860:Fuzhounese 13720:Kanakanavu 13399:Portuguese 13344:XZ = Tibet 13335:MC = Macau 13275:Zhangzhung 13019:Sichuanese 12946:Vietnamese 12343:Hmong-Mien 12222:Waxianghua 12003:Khroskyabs 11291:Indigenous 11179:Prefecture 11154:Portuguese 10969:Wade–Giles 10868:Simplified 10763:Vernacular 10756:in Vietnam 10609:Simplified 10596:Biaoxingma 10543:Honorifics 10478:Historical 10423:Philippine 10413:Sichuanese 10340:Badong Yao 10044:Shao–Jiang 9915:Philippine 9723:Xiangxiang 9718:Shuangfeng 9463:Taizhou Wu 9246:Sichuanese 8969:1246726702 8887:Qiu, Xigui 8598:: 86–110. 8171:(1): 56–71 7103:Kuo (2005) 6466:Ethnologue 6425:Ethnologue 6403:References 5974:Mao Zedong 5968:Máo Zédōng 5797:Wade–Giles 5794:Characters 5750:Wade–Giles 5551:ideographs 5524:See also: 5508:Hui people 5465:rime books 5394:Wang Xizhi 5035:baa1 si6,2 5025:dik1 si6,2 5005:kaa1 tung1 4966:soft power 4906:) and 4880:so1 faa3,2 4865:) and 4496:See also: 4485:April 2024 4465:irrelevant 4185:Vocabulary 3613:Cantonese 3584:homophones 3528:See also: 3034:two-toned 2949:(a single 2943:triphthong 2916:morphology 2865:vernacular 2715:See also: 2687:Waxianghua 2530:Taishanese 2504:Fuzhounese 2481:Suzhounese 2466:spoken in 2460:Sichuanese 2391:Taishanese 2284:gam1 gwat1 2163:Vietnamese 2102:See also: 1867:inflection 1816:Late Shang 1754:inflection 1698:logography 1365:Wade–Giles 1021:Wade–Giles 685:Wade–Giles 394:Malaysia: 61:simplified 59:(top) and 15991:Hong Kong 15979:Singapore 15799:By states 15653:Esperanto 15590:Chavacano 15403:Malayalam 15398:Dravidian 15325:Hainanese 15284:Cantonese 15220:Tombonuwo 15185:Sembakung 15005:Kalabakan 14955:Daro-Matu 14695:Cheq Wong 14633:Tai-Kadai 14550:Malaysian 14394:Baweanese 14367:Banjarese 14300:Malayalam 14295:Dravidian 14250:Hainanese 14245:Cantonese 14215:Singdarin 14035:Malaysian 13998:Cantonese 13970:Auxiliary 13639:Ketagalan 13557:Favorlang 13404:Cantonese 13255:Tocharian 13189:Qoqmončaq 13141:Cantonese 13095:Shaojiang 13068:Hainanese 12997:Zhongyuan 12992:Jiao-Liao 12926:Esperanto 12828:Ili Turki 12535:Khamnigan 12400:Kiong Nai 12171:Zitsadegu 11149:Mongolian 11139:Cantonese 10907:Taiwanese 10897:Cantonese 10741:Classical 10701:Proto-Min 10636:Microsoft 10495:Cantonese 10471:Phonology 10452:Cantonese 10443:Singdarin 10428:Malaysian 10418:Taiwanese 10322:Rongjiang 10312:Yongjiang 10308:Southern 10293:Northern 10267:Luo–Guang 10176:Hong Kong 10171:Guangzhou 10127:Taiwanese 10120:Changting 10054:Zhanjiang 9968:Zhongshan 9935:Malaysian 9930:Singapore 9895:Zhangzhou 9847:Zhongshan 9740:Yong–Quan 9636:Jing-Zhan 9566:Xuancheng 9543:Jiangshan 9422:Changzhou 9343:Junjiahua 9196:Guanzhong 9079:Changchun 8940:27 August 8879:209828119 8822:27 August 8766:1754-7075 8719:Putonghua 8459:0027-8424 8074:1996-4617 7955:0002-7294 7917:1749-818X 7884:144374994 7876:0143-4632 7755:201097561 7747:1430-0532 7705:143663395 7473:The Paper 7079:Li (2010) 6408:Citations 6030:Confucius 6017:K'ung Tsu 5875:Pei-ching 5819:Chung-kuo 5670:shorthand 5549:, simple 5488:syllabary 5413:morphemes 5015:gei1 lou2 4848:xiēsīdǐlǐ 4741:Sàibǎiwèi 4679:hànbǎobāo 4639:Bluetooth 4461:excessive 4328:Silk Road 4244:loanwords 4238:Loanwords 4207:CC-CEDICT 4030:hànbǎobāo 3602:Character 3560:compounds 3370:'history' 3298:Character 3122:Character 2951:consonant 2939:diphthong 2884:Phonology 2803:Hong Kong 2799:Guangdong 2767:Diglossia 2732:pǔtōnghuà 2699:Guangdong 2508:Hainanese 2406:Guangzhou 2340:Guangzhou 2291:Varieties 2268:dim2 sam1 2098:Influence 2088:Hong Kong 2080:pǔtōnghuà 1961:with the 1947:diglossia 1925:diasystem 1807:dated to 1738:Himalayas 1660:known as 1571:New Xiang 1567:Cantonese 1492:as their 1474:languages 1220:Tiong-bûn 1167:Zung men* 1118:Chung-Vun 1043:Jhong-wún 1028:Chung-wen 911:Háng-ngṳ̄ 817:Hon3 jyu5 492:Glottolog 476:ISO 639-3 440:ISO 639-2 422:ISO 639-1 348:Singapore 320:ʼPhags-pa 217:Varieties 107:Singapore 102:Indonesia 80:Sinophone 16052:Sinology 15943:Language 15888:Japanese 15738:Nepalese 15723:Japanese 15701:Filipino 15648:Tanglish 15600:Manglish 15595:Kristang 15494:Javanese 15489:Buginese 15477:Madurese 15467:Acehnese 15432:Gujarati 15260:minority 15230:Tringgus 15195:Serudung 15025:Kendayan 14995:Jangkang 14877:Malaysia 14765:Mah Meri 14755:Kristang 14682:Malaysia 14576:Families 14542:Official 14445:Japanese 14440:Filipino 14430:Armenian 14404:Javanese 14399:Buginese 14362:Acehnese 14322:Gujarati 14210:Singlish 14205:Kristang 14146:Mandarin 14129:Official 14113:National 14020:Japanese 14015:Filipino 13829:Southern 13797:Mandarin 13685:Southern 13666:Sakizaya 13606:Saisiyat 13544:Northern 13498:Atayalic 13489:Formosan 13392:Official 13199:Tangwang 13179:Macanese 13174:Lingling 13107:Northern 13090:Northern 13053:Southern 12972:Mandarin 12899:Minority 12859:Sarikoli 12772:Tungusic 12733:Naxi Yao 12678:Cao Miao 12602:Ningming 12502:Mongolic 12478:Dzao Min 12473:Biao Min 12430:Qo Xiong 12425:Pingtang 12121:Dongwang 12063:Tshobdun 11988:Guiqiong 11590:Sangkong 11365:Muangphe 11327:Mondzish 11281:numerous 11272:Counties 11119:Regional 11103:Official 10991:Bopomofo 10920:Phonetic 10912:Two-cell 10841:Clerical 10751:in Japan 10746:Adoption 10734:Official 10725:Literary 10600:Boshiamy 10577:Xiehouyu 10533:Numerals 10510:Mandarin 10438:Standard 10398:Standard 10272:Qin–Lian 10262:Yong–Xun 10247:Gao–Yang 10193:Jiujiang 10181:Malaysia 10115:Tingzhou 10066:Wenchang 10027:Jianyang 10017:Northern 9976:Sanxiang 9890:Quanzhou 9873:Southern 9842:Manjiang 9706:Changsha 9666:Nanchang 9661:Chang–Du 9558:Xuanzhou 9548:Qingtian 9502:Wencheng 9448:Jiangyin 9443:Jinxiang 9433:Shaoxing 9427:Hangzhou 9407:Shanghai 9348:Qinjiang 9256:Minjiang 9228:Xinjiang 9186:Dongping 9150:Jiaoliao 9089:Shenyang 9062:Mandarin 8993:Archived 8934:Archived 8889:(2000), 8774:53981784 8679:(2000). 8586:(1970). 8477:31061123 8359:(1984). 8318:(1988). 8296:(2004). 8270:(1967). 8248:(1994). 8206:(1991). 7981:Archived 7927:(1966). 7827:(1984). 7791:(2000). 7689:Language 7664:(1992). 7564:28 April 7558:BBC News 7372:(1988). 6303:Fu Maoji 6130:See also 6063:Bopomofo 5905:T'ai-pei 5849:T'ai-wan 5826:Zhōngguó 5803:Meaning 5779:T'ai-pei 5496:Cyrillic 5469:Sanskrit 5227:'e-home' 4947:gāo'ěrfū 4917:xiāngbīn 4890:mo1 daa2 4529:délǜfēng 4467:examples 4402:Sanskrit 4094:articles 3651:'actual' 3538:morpheme 3464:'market' 3305:Jyutping 3148:'mother' 2871:regional 2854:topolect 2789:, or an 2546:Mandarin 2448:Mandarin 2420:Grouping 2238:include 2159:Japanese 1880:and the 1740:and the 1680:and the 1607:analytic 1543:Mandarin 1527:dialects 1469:Zhōngwén 1331:Bopomofo 1244:Dṳng-ùng 1147:Jyutping 1139:Jūng mán 1096:Tson ven 1057:Jūng-wén 987:Bopomofo 979:Zhōngwén 811:Jyutping 760:Hoe nyiu 651:Bopomofo 615:language 557:Help:IPA 499:sini1245 384:Taiwan: 364:Malaysia 295:Bopomofo 224:Mandarin 97:Malaysia 69:(bottom) 66:Zhōngwén 15929:Portals 15910:Spanish 15905:English 15718:Persian 15686:Burmese 15681:Bengali 15671:African 15582:Creoles 15540:Maranao 15499:Kerinci 15442:Punjabi 15362:Teochew 15340:Hokkien 15267:Chinese 15215:Timugon 15175:Sekapan 15095:Momogun 15090:Melanau 15070:Lengilu 15060:Lahanan 15020:Kelabit 15010:Kanowit 15000:Kajaman 14945:Bukitan 14915:Bintulu 14905:Berawan 14830:Semelai 14740:Kenaboi 14705:Jah Hut 14650:Natives 14616:Malayic 14555:English 14435:Burmese 14377:Angkola 14342:Sinhala 14332:Punjabi 14317:Bengali 14275:Teochew 14270:Hokkien 14265:Hokchew 14260:Henghwa 14240:Sinitic 14232:Chinese 14136:English 13993:English 13933:Zhao'an 13928:Raoping 13877:Pu-Xian 13852:Eastern 13788:Sinitic 13753:Batanic 13676:Taivoan 13661:Qauqaut 13656:Makatao 13649:Luilang 13634:Kavalan 13425:English 13270:Xianbei 13265:Tuyuhun 13235:Old Yue 13213:Extinct 13194:Sanqiao 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