3304:
2751:
1854:
173:
7993:
3807:(Wenzhou and Suzhou) occupied an intermediate position, closer to the Northern/New Xiang/Gan group in lexical similarity and strongly closer in subjective intelligibility but closer to Min/Hakka/Yue in phonological regularity and subjective similarity, except that Wenzhou was farthest from all other dialects in phonological regularity. The two Wu dialects were close to each other in lexical similarity and subjective similarity but not in mutual intelligibility, where Suzhou was closer to Northern/Xiang/Gan than to Wenzhou.
3260:
10012:
2010:
3086:, by around 5 million people. It is identified as a top-level group by the Language Atlas, though some linguists believe in other theories, such as it being a Gan-influenced Wu variety, due to an identifiable basis of Old Wu features. Hui varieties are phonologically diverse, and some features are shared with Wu, such as the simplification of diphthongs. Hui can be divided into Jishe, Xiuyi, Qiwu, Jingzhan and Yanzhou branches, with Tunxinese and Jixinese being representatives.
3844:
10662:
2430:
3931:; 'water') of Xuanzhounese, which both show syllables which do not follow the (single) consonant-glide-vowel-consonant syllable structure of more well-known lects. Tone sandhi is also a feature which not all lects share. Cantonese, for instance, only has a very weak system, whereas Wu varieties not only have complex, intricate systems, which affect almost all syllables, but also uses it to mark for grammatical
445:
1642:
1383:
4202:, though it is largely breaking down in Shanghainese due to Mandarin influence. Sinitic languages generally also have no case marking, though lects such as Linxianese and Hengshannese do possess case particles, with the latter expressing it through tone change. Sinitic languages generally have SVO word order and possess classifiers.
258:
Over 91% of the
Chinese population speaks a Sinitic language. Approximately 1.52 billion people are speakers of the Chinese macrolanguage, of whom about three-quarters speak a Mandarin variety. Estimates of the number of global speakers of Sinitic branches as of 2018–2019, both native and non-native,
3319:. Little comparative work has been done (the usual way of reconstructing the relationships between languages), and little is known about mutual intelligibility. Even within the dialectological classification, details are disputed, such as the establishment in the 1980s of three new top-level groups:
3279:
by an estimated 37 million people. Due to migrations, Xiang can be split into New and Old Xiang groups, with Old Xiang having fewer
Mandarin-influenced features. Xiang varieties have universally lost their checked codas, but the majority of them still have a unique preserved checked tone contour.
2057:
in their vowels, which is reflected in their almost universally split dark-checked and often split light-checked tones. They generally also tend to preserve all three checked plosive finals and three nasal finals. The status of
Pinghua is uncertain, and some believe its two groups, Northern and
5426:
Many
Sinitic languages have three-way systems, but the three distances are not always the same ones. For instance, whereas Guangshan Mandarin has a person-oriented proximal, medial, and distal system, Xinyu Gan has a distance-oriented close, proximal, and distal system. Gan especially has many
1624:
Subdivision of
Central Plains Mandarin is not fully agreed upon, though one possible subdivision sees 13 divisions, namely Xuhuai, Zhengkai, Luosong, Nanlu, Yanhe, Shangfu, Xinbeng, Luoxiang, Fenhe, Guanzhong, Qinlong, Longzhong and Nanjiang. Lanyin Mandarin, on the other hand, is divided as
465:
in which differences generally become more pronounced as distances increase, though there are also some sharp boundaries. The
Sinitic languages can be divided into Macro-Bai languages and Chinese languages, and the following is one of many potential ways of subdividing these languages. Some
1892:
The
Language Atlas divides Huai into Tongtai, Huangxiao, and Hongchao areas, with the latter further split into Ninglu and Huaiyang. Tongtai, being geographically located furthest west, has the most significant Wu influence, such as in its distribution of historical voiced plosive series.
3709:
classified the traditional seven dialect groups into three larger groups: Northern (Mandarin), Central (Wu, Gan, and Xiang), and
Southern (Hakka, Yue, and Min). He argued that the Southern Group is derived from a standard used in the Yangtze valley during the
1322:
is also a
Northeastern Mandarin language. Beijing is sometimes included in Northeastern Mandarin due to its distribution of the historical dark checked tone, though is listed as its own group by others, often due to its more regular light checked tones.
1406:, as well as several prefectures along the China-Korea border. Like Jilu Mandarin, its light checked tone is merged into light level or departing based on the manner of articulation of the initial, though its dark checked is merged into the rising. Its
3795:
or Shanxi) and Hankou (Wuhan, Hubei) were subjectively perceived as relatively different from other
Northern dialects but were very close in mutual intelligibility. Objectively, Taiyuan had substantial phonological divergence but little lexical
1822:, Southwestern Mandarin speakers take up the most area and population of all Mandarinic language groups, and would be the eighth most spoken language in the world if separated from the rest of Mandarin. Southwestern Mandarinic tends to not have
718:
in the Southwest, tended to involve Mandarin speakers. Classification of Mandarin lects has undergone several significant changes, though nowadays it is commonly divided as such, based on the distribution of the historical checked tone:
1677:, where it was proposed as lects in and around Shanxi with a checked tone, though this stance is not without disagreement. Jin varieties also often has disyllabic words derived from syllable splitting (分音詞), through the infixation of
1620:
Lanyin Mandarin, spoken in northern Ningxia, parts of Gansu, and northern Xinjiang, is sometimes grouped with Central Plains Mandarin due to its merged lesser light and dark checked tones, though it is realised as a departing tone.
2308:, by an estimated total of 44 million people. Some believe that Hakka is closely related to other groups, such as Gan, Yue, or Tongtai. Hakka varieties generally have no voiced plosive initials and preserve the historical
4197:
Disregarding phonology, grammar is the feature of Sinitic languages which differ the most. The majority of Sinitic languages do not possess tenses, though exceptions include Northern Wu lects such as Shanghainese and
5395:
can be translated as both 'this' and 'that'. Though Wuhannese has this system of a one-term neutral system, it also has a two-way proximal-distal system. This is the same for most other lects with a one-term system.
5219:
are the most common generic classifiers cross-linguistically. As previously mentioned, Mandarinic languages tend to have fewer classifiers whereas the Southern non-Mandarinic varieties tend to have more.
3810:
In the Southern subgroup, Hakka and Yue grouped closely together on the three lexical and subjective measures but not in phonological regularity. The Min dialects showed high divergence, with Min Fuzhou
796:
rimes, though the amount of its use may vary between lects. Loss of checked tone is an often cited criterion for Mandarin languages, though lects such as Yangzhounese and Taiyuannese show otherwise.
3247:, whereas the Southern group was developed based on Northern Gan. The Language Atlas sees Gan divided into Changdu, Yiliu, Jicha, Fuguang, Yingyi, Datong, Dongsui, Huaiyue, and Leizi branches.
3311:
in 2019 to identify sound correspondences and establish cognates, phylogenetic methods are used to infer relationships among these languages and estimate the age of their origin and homeland.
4385:
Mandarinic, Xiang, Hui, and Min languages often place the indirect object (IO) before the direct object (DO). Some lects have switched to IO-DO structure due to Mandarin influence, such as
7692:
Thurgood, Graham (2003), "The subgroup of the Tibeto-Burman languages: The interaction between language contact, change, and inheritance", in Thurgood, Graham; LaPolla, Randy J. (eds.),
3835:
The following section will be dedicated to comparing non-Bai and non-Cai–Long Sinitic languages. Though all stem from Old Chinese, they have all developed differences with each other.
8405:
8396:
8890:
9435:
3380:
are not considered Mandarin. However, linguists such as Richard VanNess Simmons and Zhou Zhenhe have observed that these two varieties possess more qualifying features of
7391:; Lai, Yunfan; Ryder, Robin; Thouzeau, Valentin; Greenhill, Simon J.; List, Johann-Mattis (2019), "Dated language phylogenies shed light on the history of Sino-Tibetan",
5262:
has a neutral demonstrative, which can be used regardless of the distance to the deictic center. Similar systems are found in Northern Wu lects such as Suzhounese and
2500:
Since Min descended from Old Chinese rather than Middle Chinese, it has some features that would be out of place in other varieties. For instance, some words with the
1845:
Southwestern Mandarin tends to be split into Chuanqian, Xishu, Chuanxi, Yunnan, Huguang and Guiliu branches. Minchi is sometimes separated as a remnant of Old Shu.
1355:. Characteristically Jilu Mandarin features include merging the dark checked into the dark level tone, the light checked into light level or departing based on the
9397:
3749:
and regularity of sound correspondences, and subjective criteria of intelligibility and similarity. Most of these criteria show a top-level split with Northern,
1877:. Due to its preservation of a checked tone, some linguists believe that Huai ought to be treated as a top-level group, like Jin. Representative lects tend to be
3718:, such as between Wu and Min, are particularly abrupt, while others, such as between Mandarin and Xiang or between Min and Hakka, are much less clearly defined.
3714:(206 BC – 220 AD), which he called Old Southern Chinese, while the Central group was transitional between the Northern and Southern groups. Some
2798:, use a Wu variety. Wu varieties generally have a fricative initial in their negators, a three-way plosive distinction, as well as a checked coda preserved as a
10137:
8919:
2535:
4382:
Sinitic languages tend to vary greatly in how they mark indirect objects. The area which varies tends to be the placement of the indirect and direct objects.
694:, by around three-quarters of the Sinitic-speaking population. Historically, the prestige variety has always been Mandarin, which is still reflected today in
2256:
and the two Pinghua branches. Siyi is generally agreed to be the most divergent, and Goulou is believed to be the one which is closest related to Pinghua.
1025:
and seemingly random distribution of the dark checked tone, and generally having four tones with the contours of high flat, rising, dipping, and falling.
531:
The Chinese branch of the family is classified into at least seven main families. These families are classified based on five main evolutionary criteria:
9944:
9934:
5399:
Even within two-way systems, which is the most common system, terms could have developed to mean the opposite distance from the deitic center. Cantonese
1886:
9939:
9698:
9246:
9853:
1889:. The Huai of Nanjing has likely served as a national prestige during the Ming and Qing periods, though not all linguists support this viewpoint.
7790:
3871:. Even between varieties which use Sinographs, characters are repurposed or invented to cover for the difference in vocabulary. Examples include
3292:
1374:
Jilu Mandarin can be classified into Baotang, Shiji, Canghui and Zhangli. Zhangli is of note due to its preservation of a separate checked tone.
1307:
5713:
Zhang, Menghan; Yan, Shi; Pan, Wuyun; Jin, Li (2019). "Phylogenetic evidence for Sino-Tibetan origin in northern China in the Late Neolithic".
3066:. Northern Wu is further divided into Piling, Suhujia, Tiaoxi, Linshao, Yongjiang, and Hangzhou, though Hangzhou's classification is unclear.
10020:
9258:
8647:
1770:
As per the Language Atlas by Li, Jin is divided into Dabao, Zhanghu, Wutai, Lüliang, Bingzhou, Shangdang, Hanxin, and Zhiyan branches.
5574:
for examples. The Chinese terms often translated as 'language' and 'dialect' do not correspond well to those translations. These are
9222:
9210:
9234:
8726:
728:
10318:
6569:
3643:
lects. Recent research, however, has noted that these are both are more likely unclassified. Maihua, for example, may be a Yue-
3360:
Like many other language families, Sinitic languages have had problems with classification. The following are a few examples.
9557:
7760:
7703:
7663:
7642:
7620:
7545:
6199:
5427:
varieties with a three-way system, sometimes even marked with tone and vowel length rather than just changing the term used.
3032:
are usually used as representatives of Wu. Wu Chinese varieties generally have a massive number of vowels, which rivals even
6757:
5158:. In Cantonese, for instance, they can be used to mark possession, which is rare in Sinitic while common in Southeast Asia.
3251:
is often chosen as the representative. Shaojiang Min is identified to be influenced or even closely related to Fuguang Gan.
10368:
3915:, which has ten. Sinitic languages also vary wildly in their phonological inventories and phonotactics. Take for instance
3895:; 'ill-tempered' in Mandarin. Note that both traditional and simplified characters can be used to write any lect.
3315:
The traditional, dialectological classification of Chinese languages is based on the evolution of the sound categories of
3283:
One way of dividing Xiang varieties sees five distinct families, namely Changyi, Hengzhou, Louzhao, Chenxu, and Yongzhou.
1830:, which has a standalone checked category, the checked tone is merged with another category. Representative lects include
10210:
7783:
3342:. The evidence for this split is that all Sinitic languages apart from the Min group can fit into the structure of the
230:. It is frequently proposed that there is a primary split between the Sinitic languages and the rest of the family (the
2264:
Hakka Chinese is a direct result of several migration waves from Northern China to the South, and is spoken in eastern
788:
Varieties of Mandarin can be defined by their universally lost -m final, low number of tones, and smaller inventory of
7721:
7315:
7193:
7138:
7113:
7088:
6479:
6130:
5430:
A small number of varieties possess even four- or five-term demonstrative systems. Take for instance the following:
7992:
10684:
10290:
8517:
5557:
is usually used as a synonym for Chinese, especially when viewed as a language family rather than as a language.
3666:. Its classification has always been unclear, though the most common standpoint is that it is considered Hakka.
246:
unified by a shared historical background, and usage of the term "Sinitic" may reflect the linguistic view that
8997:
8640:
7776:
7489:
7471:
7355:
7218:
6671:
6628:
6392:
6367:
197:
5507:
These two lects use tone change and vowel length respectively to distinguish between the four demonstratives.
552:
The distribution of rimes across the four tone qualities, as conditioned by voicing and aspiration of initials
10606:
10060:
7499:
3307:
After applying the linguistic comparative method to the database of comparative linguistic data developed by
3111:
1438:
703:
189:
4205:
Verb usage may be different between Sinitic languages. Notice the double verb marking seen in lects such as
3303:
10665:
10576:
10100:
8575:
8522:
8178:
7674:"Predicting mutual intelligibility in chinese dialects from subjective and objective linguistic similarity"
439:
227:
5499:
5494:
5484:
5479:
5469:
5464:
5454:
5449:
5392:
3924:
3916:
3618:
3613:
3608:
3603:
3598:
3593:
3588:
3583:
3578:
3563:
3558:
3553:
3548:
3543:
3538:
3533:
3528:
3523:
3508:
3503:
3498:
3493:
3488:
3483:
3478:
3473:
3468:
3235:
3230:
3225:
3220:
3215:
3203:
3198:
3193:
3188:
3183:
3013:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2993:
2988:
2983:
2978:
2973:
2968:
2956:
2951:
2946:
2941:
2936:
2931:
2926:
2921:
2916:
2911:
2899:
2894:
2889:
2884:
2879:
2874:
2869:
2864:
2859:
2854:
2702:
2697:
2692:
2687:
2682:
2677:
2672:
2667:
2662:
2657:
2645:
2640:
2635:
2630:
2625:
2620:
2615:
2610:
2605:
2600:
2409:
2404:
2399:
2394:
2389:
2377:
2372:
2367:
2362:
2357:
1996:
1991:
1986:
1981:
1976:
1971:
1959:
1954:
1949:
1944:
1939:
1934:
1678:
1525:
1520:
1515:
1510:
1495:
1490:
1485:
1480:
1431:
970:
965:
960:
955:
950:
945:
940:
935:
930:
925:
920:
905:
900:
895:
890:
885:
880:
875:
870:
865:
860:
855:
10581:
10453:
10378:
10035:
8568:
8223:
8145:
7861:
482:, and was expanded to include Longjia and Luren. It likely split off from the rest of Sinitic during the
3394:) initial is often raised and backed in Wu and Xiang, while they are not in Hangzhounese and New Xiang.
10623:
10596:
10473:
10385:
10132:
10112:
6534:
Chinese Dialect Classification: A comparative approach to Harngjou, Old Jintarn, and Common Northern Wu
4913:
4355:
10175:
8873:
8633:
8468:
7915:
7836:
7630:
7608:
3706:
458:
6296:
5981:
3243:
Gan can also be divided into Northern and Southern groups. The Northern group was formed during the
486:
period. The languages included are all considered minority languages in China and are spoken in the
10549:
10534:
10524:
10238:
8549:
8152:
7965:
5151:
3864:
3827:
on the two objective criteria and was slightly closer to Hakka and Yue on the subjective criteria.
3033:
789:
7534:
Chinese Language(s): A Look Through the Prism of "The Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects"
3788:
Changsha (New Xiang) was always within the Mandarin group. No Old Xiang dialect was in the sample.
234:). This view is rejected by some researchers but has found phylogenetic support among others. The
10561:
8800:
8543:
8329:
8213:
7432:
3691:
3687:
2301:
762:
746:
600:
231:
10554:
10403:
7511:
Jiang, Huo 江荻; Ouyang, Jueya 欧阳觉亚; Zou, Heyan 邹嘉彦 (2007), "Hǎinán Shěng Sānyà Shì Màihuà yīnxì"
591:
The varieties within one family may not be mutually intelligible with each other. For instance,
10495:
10338:
8936:
8589:
8582:
8362:
8296:
7799:
7558:
3737:
valley and thence to southwestern areas, leaving the hills of the southeast largely untouched.
3730:
2417:
Hakka can be divided into Yuetai, Hailu, Yuebei, Yuexi, Tingzhou, Ninglong, Yuxin and Tonggui.
1356:
87:
4823:
On the other hand, Gan, Wu, Hakka, and Yue languages tend to place the DO in front of the IO.
3629:
Nantongnese has heavy Wu influence, which has led to it also having raised and backed vowels.
10490:
10413:
10127:
10105:
8860:
8693:
8532:
8482:
8038:
7559:"What Is a Chinese 'Dialect/Topolect'? Reflections on Some Key Sino-English Linguistic terms"
6283:
5968:
3110:, by 22 million people, sometimes believed to be related to Hakka. Gan varieties tend to not
1835:
1360:
768:
723:
461:
estimated that there are hundreds of mutually unintelligible Sinitic languages. They form a
10258:
10226:
10055:
9180:
8675:
8344:
8190:
8136:
7673:
7651:
5722:
3769:
in the other group. The exception was phonological regularity, where the one Gan dialect (
2750:
479:
243:
27:
7633:(2003), "The Chinese dialects: Phonology", in Thurgood, Graham; LaPolla, Randy J. (eds.),
7453:
Bradley, David (2012), "Languages and Language Families in China", in Rint Sybesma (ed.),
2710:
Min can primarily be split into Coastal and Inland Min varieties. The former contains the
1298:
Northeastern Mandarin lects can be divided into three main groups, namely Hafu (including
8:
10502:
10468:
10303:
10270:
10117:
10045:
9962:
9803:
9798:
9552:
9362:
8868:
8527:
8117:
7944:
7875:
5841:
Chan, Sin-Wai; Chappell, Hilary; Li, Lan (2017). "Mandarin and other Sinitic languages".
3799:
Chengdu (Sichuan) was somewhat divergent lexically but very little on the other measures.
1823:
1192:
Northeastern Mandarin, especially in Heilongjiang, contains many loanwords from Russian.
781:
as well as other lects, which do not neatly fall into these categories, such as Mandarin
235:
119:
5726:
1853:
1605:. Central Plains Mandarin lects merge the historical checked tones with a lesser muddy (
10618:
10485:
10448:
10333:
10231:
10165:
10160:
10050:
10040:
9666:
9644:
9537:
9345:
9340:
9263:
9251:
9239:
9227:
9215:
8739:
8368:
7977:
7843:
7714:
Languages of the Himalayas: An Ethnolinguistic Handbook of the Greater Himalayan Region
7597:
7415:
5754:
3904:
3852:
3746:
3715:
3695:
3648:
3456:
3288:
3040:
has been observed to have 20 phonemic monophthongal vowels, according to one analysis.
2515:
2469:, by around 76 million people. Due to significant amounts of migration, many people in
1674:
1395:
1391:
774:
734:
499:
250:
constitutes a family of distinct languages, rather than variants of a single language.
31:
5794:... may form a constituent of Sinitic, albeit one heavily influenced by Lolo–Burmese."
159:
149:
10529:
10519:
10398:
10363:
10218:
10170:
10122:
9889:
9742:
9676:
9532:
9517:
9188:
9165:
9119:
9044:
8970:
8850:
8818:
8772:
8711:
8701:
8476:
8436:
8414:
8379:
8373:
8338:
8276:
8270:
8044:
8032:
8015:
7923:
7869:
7849:
7756:
7717:
7699:
7659:
7638:
7616:
7541:
7537:
7485:
7467:
7420:
7388:
7351:
7311:
7214:
7189:
7134:
7109:
7084:
6667:
6624:
6475:
6388:
6363:
6195:
6169:
6126:
5758:
5746:
5738:
5233:
5143:
2719:
2510:) are not affricates in Min. This, interestingly, has led to many languages, such as
2490:
1303:
699:
462:
223:
20:
6577:
2523:
10635:
10155:
10030:
9894:
9884:
9869:
9815:
9737:
9688:
9649:
9598:
9512:
9464:
9448:
9328:
9288:
9283:
9170:
9124:
9070:
9065:
9055:
9049:
8878:
8823:
8808:
8684:
8656:
8497:
8457:
8427:
8401:
8351:
8309:
8218:
8195:
8088:
8068:
8025:
7950:
7813:
7739:
7589:
7464:
Linguistics Epidemiology: Semantics and Language Contact in Mainland Southeast Asia
7410:
7400:
5730:
5589:
5546:
4386:
3451:
3446:
3381:
3369:
3284:
3259:
3248:
2511:
2225:
1827:
1311:
752:
695:
607:
507:
278:
247:
172:
114:
8075:
3721:
Scholars account for the transitional nature of the central varieties in terms of
10586:
10566:
10463:
10423:
10408:
10147:
9997:
9987:
9967:
9924:
9919:
9785:
9749:
9732:
9722:
9661:
9479:
9415:
9357:
9305:
9300:
9202:
9098:
9093:
9002:
8949:
8944:
8924:
8909:
8904:
8845:
8840:
8830:
8813:
8785:
8757:
8734:
8489:
8443:
8302:
8184:
8123:
7957:
7904:
7895:
7881:
7693:
7580:(1970), "Tones and prosody in Middle Chinese and the origin of the rising tone",
6753:
5147:
4206:
3856:
3824:
3774:
3632:
3441:
3426:
3421:
3416:
3349:
3331:, although Pinghua is itself a pair of languages and Huizhou maybe half a dozen.
3320:
3051:
3029:
2527:
2478:
2418:
2297:
2293:
2050:
2034:
1878:
1839:
1670:
1626:
691:
675:
671:
652:
637:
592:
487:
408:
395:
382:
82:
3745:
A 2007 study compared fifteen major urban dialects on the objective criteria of
3725:. Iwata argues that innovations have been transmitted from the north across the
10640:
10630:
10601:
10591:
10308:
10280:
9992:
9977:
9879:
9830:
9825:
9810:
9754:
9693:
9575:
9547:
9527:
9474:
9443:
9420:
9410:
9405:
9367:
9350:
9295:
9160:
9142:
9060:
9034:
8975:
8895:
8883:
8835:
8790:
8780:
8706:
8559:
8537:
8451:
8420:
8356:
8316:
8290:
8264:
8241:
8164:
8110:
8082:
8051:
7929:
7855:
7554:
7393:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
7384:
5873:
5628:, which corresponds better to the familiar Western linguistic use of 'dialect'.
5263:
5229:
4199:
3932:
3868:
3675:
3436:
3316:
3308:
3063:
3037:
3025:
2715:
2519:
2494:
2470:
1666:
1450:), Jiaoliao Mandarin can be divided into Qingzhou, Denglian and Gaihuan areas.
1299:
1015:
999:
740:
711:
683:
656:
596:
514:
467:
219:
67:
10011:
5734:
10678:
10441:
10253:
10248:
9820:
9764:
9759:
9727:
9714:
9590:
9542:
9469:
9425:
9315:
9152:
9075:
8914:
8762:
8749:
8283:
8205:
7971:
7936:
7888:
6173:
5742:
5585:
5259:
3912:
3762:
3734:
3644:
2779:
2739:
2249:
1882:
1831:
1336:
647:
622:
356:
343:
8618:
indicates single languages that are also considered to be separate branches.
7405:
6891:
2534:) with a plosive. Min varieties also have a very large number of words with
662:
with Jin, Hui, Pinghua, and Tuhua not part of the seven traditional groups.
10313:
10263:
9639:
9522:
9495:
9039:
9029:
8257:
8173:
8129:
8058:
7743:
7424:
5750:
5553:
and Chinese. The precise affiliation of Bai remains uncertain and the term
5550:
5155:
4390:
3908:
3820:
3816:
3784:
The study did not find clear splits within the Northern and Central areas:
3770:
3431:
3244:
3043:
3021:
2803:
2799:
2731:
2711:
2253:
2237:
2054:
2038:
2009:
1630:
1417:
1344:
1315:
1019:
987:
715:
494:
71:
5373:
5313:
2058:
Southern, should be listed under Yue, though some reject this standpoint.
1629:
is a collection of Central Plains Mandarin varieties spoken in the former
470:, are hard to classify and thus are not included in the following briefs.
135:
10458:
10432:
10328:
10298:
10275:
10243:
9982:
9972:
9776:
9671:
9656:
9619:
9567:
9388:
9379:
9275:
9114:
8989:
8716:
8603:
7818:
7577:
7238:
Tenses and Aspects? Old Shanghainese as Found in the Book Huyu Bian Shang
5536:
3935:. Take for instance, this simplified analysis of Suzhounese tone sandhi:
3812:
3792:
3778:
3766:
3758:
3754:
3711:
3679:
3640:
3339:
3335:
3324:
2742:. Shaojiang Min acts as a transitional area between Min, Gan, and Hakka.
2735:
2723:
2233:
758:
642:
627:
617:
612:
483:
369:
330:
317:
291:
239:
7768:
1673:. It was first proposed as a lect separate from the rest of Mandarin by
9874:
9848:
9614:
9580:
9085:
9012:
7601:
7500:"Chinese Geolinguistics: History, Current Trend and Theoretical Issues"
3804:
3726:
3722:
3083:
3055:
2727:
2245:
2241:
2221:
1613:) initial together with the rising tone, and those with a fully muddy (
632:
450:
304:
75:
5256:(distal), but this is not the only system found in Sinitic languages.
10323:
10074:
10065:
9793:
9683:
9335:
9323:
9134:
8965:
8596:
8237:
8002:
7809:
5963:
Gong, Xun (6 November 2015). "How Old is the Chinese in Bái?". Paris.
3843:
3750:
3733:
area and from there southeast to the Wu area and westwards along the
3373:
2787:
2482:
2474:
2446:
2442:
2305:
2277:
2265:
2217:
2046:
2042:
2026:
2018:
1803:
1582:
1542:
707:
687:
448:
L1 speakers of Chinese and other Sino-Tibetan languages according to
143:
129:
63:
7593:
2437:
Min Chinese is a direct descendant of Old Chinese, and is spoken in
777:(or "Lower Yangtze", sometimes "Huai", "Southern" or "Southeastern")
523:
All other Sinitic languages henceforth would be considered Chinese.
10613:
10199:
9840:
9021:
8625:
3280:
Most also have a three-way plosive distinction, like Wu varieties.
3075:
3059:
3047:
2795:
2763:
2759:
2466:
2438:
2229:
1819:
1594:
1574:
1554:
1340:
1332:
1225:
995:
10645:
7730:
Wang, Feng (2005), "On the genetic position of the Bai language",
3384:
languages. For instance, the vowels of the second division of the
2433:
Distribution of Min varieties in mainland China, Hainan and Taiwan
10512:
10192:
10079:
9908:
9504:
8098:
7433:"Origin of Sino-Tibetan language family revealed by new research"
7059:
7057:
7055:
7053:
5922:(in Chinese) (2). Shanghai Educational Publishing House: 389–400.
3907:, their contours and the total number of tones vary wildly, from
3860:
3659:
3328:
3276:
3272:
3095:
2775:
2767:
2486:
2462:
2289:
2281:
2022:
1874:
1866:
1799:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1658:
1602:
1586:
1578:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1403:
1352:
1011:
1007:
679:
242:
and thus Sinitic; otherwise, Sinitic is defined only by the many
6903:
5765:
5549:
proposed a subgroup of Sino-Tibetan called "Sinitic" comprising
3847:
An example of Hokkien written exclusively in the Latin alphabet.
2429:
755:(sometimes "Northwestern" and considered part of Central Plains)
10571:
10373:
8011:
7826:
6915:
5154:, however, use of classifiers vary greatly in features such as
4278:
3663:
3636:
3344:
3338:
languages are commonly thought to have split off directly from
2791:
2783:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2273:
2269:
1815:
1779:
1650:
1598:
1590:
1550:
1399:
1319:
1018:. The two families' most notable features are the heavy use of
782:
503:
205:
7050:
3903:
Phonologically speaking, though all Sinitic languages possess
2017:
Yue Chinese is spoken by around 84 million people, in western
1826:, and merges all checked tone categories together. Except for
1641:
792:, among other features. Mandarin lects also often have rhotic
444:
10084:
8007:
7822:
6148:
Language Power and Hierarchy: Multilingual Education in China
5602:, which separates mutually unintelligible languages within a
3377:
3268:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3079:
2771:
2285:
2030:
1870:
1862:
1811:
1807:
1795:
1662:
1654:
1570:
1546:
1348:
1022:
1003:
991:
793:
5897:
5895:
3851:
Typographically, the vast majority of Sinitic languages use
4393:, though Shanghainese also has the alternative word order.
2053:
belong to this family. Yue Chinese lects generally possess
1382:
238:, whose classification is difficult, may be an offshoot of
568:
The loss or retention of coda position plosives and nasals
7272:
Liu, Juan; Peng, Zerun (July 2019). "衡山方言人稱代詞領格變調現象的實質".
7026:
5892:
5541:
2726:
branches of Houguan and Funing, Qionglei Min, as well as
7038:
6939:
5236:
and other Northeastern varieties have a two-way system:
4209:, in these sentences meaning "today I go to Guangzhou":
3923:; 'door (diminutive)') seen in Pingdingnese, or
2284:, as well as scattered points in the rest of Guangdong,
6531:
5694:
2477:
are also able of speaking Min varieties. Lects such as
7242:. Shanghai: The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press.
6973:
5228:
Sinitic languages can vary greatly in their system of
3781:(the southernmost Wu dialect) and all other dialects.
3777:, and the deepest phonological difference was between
2778:
by around 82 million people. Many large cities in the
2421:
is often used as the representative variety of Hakka.
1339:. Notable cities that use Jilu Mandarin lects include
1331:
Jilu Mandarin is spoken in southern Hebei and western
698:. Standard Chinese is now an official language of the
7383:
6897:
5771:
5603:
1536:
572:
478:
This is a language family first proposed by linguist
6263:
Wu, Jizhang; Tang, Jianxiong; Chen, Shujing (2005).
5880:
5530:
3263:
Distribution of Xiang varieties in Hunan and Guangxi
2714:
branches of Quanzhang (Hokkien), Chaoshan (Teoswa),
981:
517:
510:
7658:, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press,
7233:
5868:
5866:
5864:
5862:
5860:
5858:
5856:
5854:
5852:
5797:
3911:, which can be analysed to have only two tones, to
3694:, though its tonal distribution is more similar to
5670:
5658:
3352:. However, this view is not universally accepted.
26:For the sociolinguistic treatment of Chinese, see
7455:Encyclopedia of Chinese Language and Linguistics.
6646:Chinese dialects classified on shared innovations
6194:. Beijing Language and Culture University Press.
2013:Distribution of Yue varieties (including Pinghua)
1002:, whereas Beijing Mandarin is spoken in northern
10676:
6927:
6838:Sun, Yizhi; Chen, Changyi; Xu, Yangchun (2001).
5849:
5682:
4697:{ma33 ma} ei pa41 ŋo41 lian41 kʰuai41 tɕiɛ̃13 lo
2810:An example of a tripartite division of plosives
2802:, except for Oujiang lects, where it has become
1617:) initial are merged with the light level tone.
1437:Based on, for example, the pronunciation of the
1029:Tone contour of historically dark checked tone (
7656:Middle Chinese: A study in Historical Phonology
6185:
6183:
6159:
6157:
5039:
4890:
4720:
3701:
3267:Xiang Chinese is spoken in central and western
761:(often considered a top-level group due to the
8467:
7914:
7671:
7510:
7063:
6991:
6614:
6612:
6596:
6594:
5843:Routledge Encyclopedia of the Chinese language
5840:
5712:
5169:
5110:
4961:
4842:
4761:
4640:
4527:
4449:
4412:
4322:
4234:
3773:) was in the Southern group and very close to
3094:Gan Chinese is spoken in northern and central
8641:
7784:
7672:Tang, Chaoju; Van Heuven, Vincent J. (2007),
6570:"The Hakka People > Historical Background"
6116:
5932:
5788:
2296:, along with overseas communities such as in
1285:
1258:
1231:
714:. Re-population efforts, such as that of the
535:The evolution of the historical fully muddy (
10440:
8328:
7074:
7072:
6793:Zhengzhang, Shangfang (1986). "皖南方言的分區（稿）".
6180:
6154:
6114:
6112:
6110:
6108:
6106:
6104:
6102:
6100:
6098:
6096:
3295:are usually taken as Xiang representatives.
1371:) checked-tone words, among other features.
177:Map of Sinitic languages in China and Taiwan
7650:
7253:Zhang, Qiang (2021). "臨夏方言格標記「哈［XA⁴³］」探究".
6945:
6711:
6709:
6707:
6705:
6703:
6609:
6591:
6527:
6525:
6523:
6521:
6495:Zeng, Xiaoyu (2014). "《西儒耳目資》音系基礎非南京方言補證".
6358:Su, Xiaoqing; Lü, Yongwei (December 1996).
6308:
6306:
6247:
5524:
1386:Distribution of Jiaoliao Mandarin varieties
731:(sometimes considered part of Northeastern)
30:. For other languages spoken in China, see
10661:
10431:
8648:
8634:
7791:
7777:
6792:
6657:
6655:
6545:
6543:
6262:
5947:
5913:
4377:
3298:
2037:, as well as overseas communities such as
599:are not highly mutually intelligible. The
7798:
7711:
7615:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
7414:
7404:
7069:
6837:
6733:
6731:
6729:
6727:
6421:
6419:
6213:
6211:
6093:
6080:
6078:
6076:
6074:
6072:
6070:
6068:
6066:
6064:
6062:
6060:
6058:
6056:
6054:
6052:
6050:
6048:
6046:
6044:
6042:
6040:
5836:
5834:
5832:
5783:
5700:
5382:nɤ35 sɿ35 sən55 ti {} nɤ35 sɿ35 səu213 ti
1625:Jincheng, Yinwu, Hexi, and Beijiang. The
1541:Central Plains Mandarin is spoken in the
7691:
7531:
6979:
6909:
6700:
6518:
6303:
6120:
6038:
6036:
6034:
6032:
6030:
6028:
6026:
6024:
6022:
6020:
5830:
5828:
5826:
5824:
5822:
5820:
5818:
5816:
5814:
5812:
5636:
5634:
5535:'China', from the Chinese dynastic name
5419:(proximal) are both etymologically from
5415:
5405:
5142:Like other East Asian languages such as
3842:
3302:
3258:
2749:
2428:
2008:
1852:
1773:
1640:
1381:
443:
10356:
7461:
7452:
7271:
6957:
6882:
6652:
6540:
6243:
6241:
6239:
6237:
6235:
6233:
6231:
6229:
5803:
5640:This term was not assigned a character.
5567:
4724:
3879:; 'I', ' me' in Hakka,
3761:(samples at Fuzhou, Xiamen, Chaozhou),
3740:
3355:
3124:) and have an f-like initial in closed
10677:
7732:Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orientale
7629:
7607:
7479:
7032:
6724:
6643:
6416:
6208:
6008:
5901:
5886:
5845:. Oxford: Routledge. pp. 605–628.
5571:
5529:, 'the Chinese', probably from Arabic
4805:{꜂n len} ꜀tɕia le ꜂tɕie ꜀san tsaʔ꜆ ꜀wo
3830:
2530:, loaning the Sinitic word for 'tea' (
670:Varieties of Mandarin are used in the
473:
226:that constitute a major branch of the
8629:
7772:
7497:
7252:
7183:
7044:
6807:
6687:
6685:
6683:
6661:
6382:
6189:
6145:
6017:
5809:
5631:
5336:
5276:
5150:, Sinitic languages have a system of
3074:Huizhou Chinese is spoken in western
1314:), and Heisong. Notably, the extinct
8655:
7753:Introduction to Chinese Dialectology
7729:
7553:
7208:
7168:
6822:
6715:
6691:
6600:
6494:
6455:
6440:
6357:
6312:
6277:
6226:
5962:
5688:
5676:
5664:
5592:, which is used for Chinese itself;
4988:
4826:
4589:
4396:
1377:
7750:
7576:
7370:
7345:
7330:
7305:
7290:
7153:
7128:
7078:
7017:
7002:
6933:
6921:
6867:
6808:Zhang, Guangyu (1999). "東南方言關係總論".
6549:
6456:Zhou, Jixu (2012). "南路話和湖廣話的語音特點".
6425:
6327:
6217:
6163:
4703:"Mama, give me two dollars please."
4368:{cin1-a1} ngeu4 {kuaon3-cieu1} chi5
3863:, have alternative scripts, namely
3855:. However, some varieties, such as
2062:Checked tone contours in Yue lects
1390:Jiaoliao Mandarin is spoken in the
986:Northeastern Mandarin is spoken in
13:
7582:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies
7103:
6777:
6737:
6680:
6618:
6342:
6278:Qian, Zengyi (2002). "山東方言研究" (3).
6084:
5385:DEM COP unripe P {} DEM COP ripe P
5182:
5086:
5015:
4937:
4866:
4808:2SG.POL lend PERF 3SG three CL pot
4785:
4700:ma SPEC give 1SG two CL money SPEC
4664:
4551:
4473:
3639:are both traditionally considered
1537:Central Plains and Lanyin Mandarin
1434:of Northern and Beijing Mandarin.
14:
10696:
6969:]. Shanghai Renmin Chubanshe.
6958:Zhou, Zhenhe; You, Rujie (1986).
6383:Zhang, Chengcai (December 1994).
5223:
4688:
4616:
3891:; 'do not' in Xiang, and
3838:
3669:
3363:
3154:initial and closed medial in Gan
1818:of Myanmar and parts of northern
982:Northeastern and Beijing Mandarin
10660:
10138:Literary and colloquial readings
10010:
7991:
6883:Bao, Houxing; Chen, Hui (2005).
6852:
6662:Huang, Xuezhen (December 1995).
6532:Richard VanNess Simmons (1999).
5432:
2758:Wu Chinese is spoken in most of
1335:, and is often represented with
1326:
171:
16:Branch of Sino-Tibetan languages
7364:
7339:
7324:
7306:Lau, Chun-Fat (November 2021).
7299:
7284:
7265:
7246:
7227:
7202:
7177:
7162:
7147:
7122:
7097:
7011:
6996:
6985:
6951:
6876:
6861:
6846:
6831:
6816:
6801:
6786:
6782:. Beijing: 高等教育出版社. p. 17.
6771:
6760:from the original on 2022-07-22
6746:
6644:Sagart, Lawrence (March 2011).
6637:
6562:
6536:. John Benjamins Publishing Co.
6509:
6503:
6488:
6464:
6449:
6434:
6401:
6376:
6351:
6336:
6321:
6271:
6256:
6139:
6009:Xu, Lin; Zhao, Yansun (1984).
6002:
5988:
5956:
5941:
5926:
5914:Zhengzhang, Shangfang (2010).
5907:
5560:
4748:
4496:3SG give PERF 1SG one CL sweets
4436:
4291:{Jīntiān} wǒ dào {Guǎngzhōu} qù
3887:; 'to not want' in Wu,
3815:) grouped only weakly with the
3140:) terms, among other features.
1398:, which includes the cities of
271:
7484:, University of Hawaii Press,
7446:
7129:Bao, Houxing (December 1998).
6992:Jiang, Ouyang & Zou (2007)
6474:. 廣東教育出版社. 2017. p. 150.
6407:
6123:Diversity in Sinitic Languages
5777:
5706:
5624:
5614:
5598:
5580:
5517:
5349:
5289:
5252:
5242:
5137:
3386:
3146:
3144:Pronunciation of terms with a
3132:
3126:
3116:
2730:, whereas the latter includes
2544:
2502:
2324:
2322:Realization of the historical
2310:
1857:Distribution of Huai varieties
1442:
1422:
1416:) terms are pronounced with a
1408:
1276:
1249:
1218:
583:
561:
555:The evolution of the checked (
545:
540:
536:
210:
201:
193:
1:
7637:, Routledge, pp. 72–83,
7439:(Press release). May 6, 2019.
6623:. 江蘇教育出版社. pp. 123–135.
6164:Lin, Tao (1987). "北京官话区的划分".
5647:
5048:fɐn34 ko33 {lɐi31 tsə53} nə53
4499:"He gave me a box of sweets."
4294:today 1sg arrive Guangzhou go
3883:; 'this' in Hokkien,
2542:Selection of reflexes of the
1645:Distribution of Jin varieties
253:
214:), often synonymous with the
10666:List of varieties of Chinese
7698:, Routledge, pp. 3–21,
7234:Qian, Nairong (錢乃榮) (2010).
7064:Tang & Van Heuven (2007)
6967:Dialects and Chinese culture
6924:, pp. 9–18, 61–69, 222.
6121:Chappell, Hilary M. (2015).
5652:
4899:ŋo34 tɛ42⁻33 pun42 ɕy34 ȵi34
3898:
3702:Relationships between groups
3686:) is listed as a variety of
2754:Distribution of Wu varieties
2216:Yue is generally split into
440:List of varieties of Chinese
433:
228:Sino-Tibetan language family
7:
7751:Yan, Margaret Mian (2006),
7482:Asia's Orthographic Dilemma
6125:. Oxford University Press.
5789:
5604:
5531:
5125:"Give me a piece of bread."
3875:; 'pretty' in Yue,
1577:, in famous cities such as
771:(sometimes "Upper Yangtse")
665:
573:
10:
10701:
10624:Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols
7712:van Driem, George (2001),
7695:The Sino-Tibetan languages
7635:The Sino-Tibetan languages
7506:, Special issue I: 97–121.
7346:Zhu, Jiansong (May 1995).
7209:Wang, Ping (August 1996).
6960:Fāngyán yǔ zhōngguó wénhuà
6550:Lin, Yi (2016). "廣西的粵方言".
5409:(distal) and Shanghainese
4976:"Give me a pair of shoes."
4811:"You lent him three pots."
4571:kei53 ɣə53 iəʔ2 pəŋ53 su11
4192:
3674:The variety spoken in the
3658:) is spoken in and around
1869:, far western and eastern
1861:Huai is spoken in central
704:People's Republic of China
571:The palatalisation of the
526:
437:
25:
18:
10658:
10542:
10511:
10422:
10347:
10289:
10209:
10184:
10146:
10093:
10019:
10008:
9955:
9907:
9862:
9839:
9784:
9775:
9713:
9632:
9607:
9589:
9566:
9503:
9494:
9457:
9434:
9396:
9387:
9378:
9314:
9274:
9201:
9179:
9151:
9133:
9107:
9084:
9020:
9011:
8988:
8958:
8935:
8859:
8799:
8771:
8748:
8725:
8692:
8683:
8674:
8663:
8613:
8558:
8510:
8395:
8236:
8204:
8162:
8097:
8000:
7989:
7807:
6621:魯國堯語言學論文集·客、贛、通泰方言源於南朝通語說
5998:. Guiyang: 貴州民族出版社. 2002.
5735:10.1038/s41586-019-1153-z
5619:
5609:
5593:
5575:
5420:
5410:
5400:
5247:
5237:
5216:
5212:
4158:
4127:
4096:
4065:
4048:
4045:
4042:
4039:
3928:
3920:
3892:
3888:
3884:
3880:
3876:
3872:
3683:
3655:
3573:
3518:
3463:
3410:
3407:
3404:
3401:
3399:
3391:
3210:
3178:
3151:
3137:
3121:
2963:
2906:
2849:
2652:
2595:
2557:
2554:
2552:
2531:
2507:
2384:
2352:
2315:
2192:
2178:
2164:
2153:
2139:
2125:
2110:
2105:
2100:
2095:
2072:
2069:
2066:
1966:
1929:
1903:
1900:
1898:
1649:Jin is spoken in most of
1614:
1610:
1606:
1505:
1475:
1447:
1427:
1413:
1368:
1286:
1270:
1259:
1243:
1232:
1212:
1154:
1117:
1080:
1045:
1042:
1039:
1037:
1030:
915:
850:
809:
806:
803:
801:
587:) in front of high vowels
578:
556:
170:
142:
128:
108:
100:
83:Linguistic classification
81:
57:
49:
44:
39:
7532:Kurpaska, Maria (2010),
7519:
7512:
6962:
6912:, pp. 41–53, 55–56.
6868:Song, Diwu; Cao, Shuji.
6412:. Beijing: 中國社會科學院語言研究所.
6150:. Bloomsbury Publishing.
6010:
5934:
5919:
5915:
5510:
3254:
3034:North Germanic languages
2259:
1363:, and vowel breaking in
737:(sometimes "Peninsular")
19:Not to be confused with
7462:Enfield, N. J. (2003),
7406:10.1073/pnas.1817972116
7371:Wei, Gangqiang (1995).
7184:Zheng, Ding'ou (1997).
7018:Liu, Chuanxian (2001).
6900:, pp. 10319–10320.
6190:Zhang, Shifang (2010).
5933:貴州省民族識別工作隊語言組 (1984).
5391:In the above sentence,
5119:bín kuài {mèn báu} ngāi
5054:"I'll give you a pear."
4905:"I give a book to you."
4493:tā gěi le wǒ yī hé táng
4378:Indirect object marking
3692:Language Atlas of China
3688:Central Plains Mandarin
3299:Internal classification
2536:literary pronunciations
2497:are all Min varieties.
2302:Bangka Belitung Islands
2220:(which itself contains
2055:long-short distinctions
2045:. Famous lects such as
1848:
1810:and bordering parts of
1669:, often represented by
763:Language Atlas of China
603:identifies ten groups:
601:Language Atlas of China
232:Tibeto-Burman languages
10685:Sino-Tibetan languages
7744:10.3406/clao.2005.1728
7331:Zhu, Jiansong (1992).
6823:Meng, Qinghui (2005).
6738:Ye, Changling (1993).
6716:Qian, Nairong (2007).
6692:Qian, Nairong (1992).
6430:. 上海教育出版社. p. 46.
6291:Cite journal requires
5976:Cite journal requires
5525:
4970:peq te {gha - tsy} ngu
4371:today 1sg Guangzhou go
3940:Unchecked Tone Sandhi
3848:
3731:Lower Yangtze Mandarin
3402:Traditionally Mandarin
3370:lect of urban Hangzhou
3312:
3264:
3089:
3069:
2755:
2434:
2424:
2318:) as an n-like sound.
2014:
2004:
1858:
1646:
1636:
1430:) finals), unlike the
1387:
1357:manner of articulation
743:(sometimes "Northern")
454:
8518:Central Tibeto-Burman
7652:Pulleyblank, Edwin G.
7291:Liu, Danqing (2001).
7154:Xie, Jianyou (2007).
6441:Wang, Futang (1998).
6343:He, Wei (June 1993).
6313:Qian, Zengyi (2010).
6218:Yin, Shichao (1997).
6146:Tsung, Linda (2014).
4694:{媽 媽} 誒， 把 我 兩 塊 錢 咯。
3846:
3306:
3262:
2753:
2745:
2432:
2012:
1856:
1774:Southwestern Mandarin
1644:
1561:, as well as most of
1385:
1306:), Jishen (including
490:. The languages are:
447:
438:Further information:
7566:Sino-Platonic Papers
7466:, Psychology Press,
7236:《從〈滬語便商〉所見的老上海話時態》 (
7003:Liu, Ruoyun (1991).
6898:Sagart et al. (2019)
6601:Peng, Xinyi (2010).
6328:Luo, Futeng (1997).
6248:北京大學中國語言文學系 (1995).
6013:(in Chinese). 民族印刷廠.
5772:Sagart et al. (2019)
4902:1SG give CL book 2SG
4574:give 1SG one CL book
4035:Checked tone sandhi
4017:light departing (6)
3947:↓ 1st char tone cat
3741:A quantitative study
3654:Dongjiang Bendihua (
3356:Points of contention
3271:and nearby parts of
2770:, parts of southern
1824:retroflex consonants
1040:Northeastern/Beijing
480:Zhengzhang Shangfang
244:varieties of Chinese
28:Varieties of Chinese
8576:Proto-Tibeto-Burman
7498:Iwata, Ray (2010),
7480:Hannas, W. (1997),
7399:(21): 10317–10322,
7310:. Hong Kong: 中華教育.
7169:Shen, Ming (2016).
7079:Bai, Wanru (1998).
7047:, pp. 102–108.
7035:, pp. 182–183.
6827:. Beijing: 安徽人民出版社.
6778:Li, Rulong (2001).
6754:"奉贤金汇学校首开"偒傣话"课(图)"
6619:Lu, Guoyao (2003).
6514:. Nanjing: 江蘇人民出版社.
5948:貴州省民族識別工作隊 (1984).
5904:, pp. 189–190.
5727:2019Natur.569..112Z
5584:, corresponding to
4036:
4003:dark departing (5)
3941:
3831:Internal comparison
3696:Peninsular Mandarin
3408:Traditionally Xiang
3368:Traditionally, the
3155:
2811:
2549:
2329:
2063:
1396:Liaodong Peninsulae
1034:
474:Macro-Bai languages
466:varieties, such as
236:Macro-Bai languages
198:traditional Chinese
10619:Cantonese Bopomofo
10486:Chinese characters
10414:Written Sichuanese
8998:Zhangjiakou–Hohhot
8569:Proto-Sino-Tibetan
8511:Proposed groupings
7389:Jacques, Guillaume
6946:Pulleyblank (1984)
6426:Hou, Jing (2002).
5950:南龍人（南京-龍家）族別問題調查報告
5063:Lau's Romanization
4802:{你 人} 接 了 佢 三 隻 鍋。
4034:
3939:
3849:
3747:lexical similarity
3716:dialect boundaries
3313:
3265:
3143:
3050:(or Northern Wu),
2809:
2756:
2541:
2435:
2321:
2061:
2015:
1859:
1647:
1388:
1028:
455:
259:are listed below:
224:analytic languages
190:simplified Chinese
32:Languages of China
10672:
10671:
10654:
10653:
10481:
10480:
10399:Written Cantonese
10394:
10393:
10176:Classical grammar
10171:Cantonese grammar
10006:
10005:
9903:
9902:
9709:
9708:
9628:
9627:
9490:
9489:
9197:
9196:
8984:
8983:
8874:Chengdu–Chongqing
8667:Sinitic languages
8623:
8622:
8506:
8505:
8391:
8390:
8232:
8231:
7987:
7986:
7762:978-3-89586-629-6
7755:, LINCOM Europa,
7705:978-0-7007-1129-1
7665:978-0-7748-0192-8
7644:978-0-7007-1129-1
7622:978-0-521-29653-3
7547:978-3-11-021914-2
7538:Walter de Gruyter
7104:Li, Rong (1993).
6603:江西客贛語的特殊音韻現象與結構變遷
6201:978-7-5619-2775-5
6085:Li, Rong (2012).
5721:(7754): 112–115.
5505:
5504:
5234:Standard Mandarin
5134:
5133:
5122:give CL bread 1SG
5061:Hong Kong Hakka (
4985:
4984:
4820:
4819:
4586:
4585:
4577:"Give me a book."
4288:{今 天} 我 到 {廣 州} 去
4189:
4188:
4128:departing (5, 6)
4030:
4029:
3757:in one group and
3627:
3626:
3241:
3240:
3019:
3018:
2708:
2707:
2415:
2414:
2328:initial in Hakka
2224:, Xiangshan, and
2214:
2213:
2002:
2001:
1763:꜂kʊŋ → kuəʔ꜆ ꜂lʊŋ
1534:
1533:
1420:(apart from open
1378:Jiaoliao Mandarin
1296:
1295:
1190:
1189:
998:and northeastern
979:
978:
700:Republic of China
463:dialect continuum
431:
430:
216:Chinese languages
186:Sinitic languages
182:
181:
21:Semitic languages
10692:
10664:
10663:
10636:Taiwanese Hangul
10525:Mainland Chinese
10438:
10437:
10429:
10428:
10354:
10353:
10031:Standard Chinese
10014:
9782:
9781:
9501:
9500:
9394:
9393:
9385:
9384:
9267:
9255:
9243:
9231:
9219:
9018:
9017:
8690:
8689:
8681:
8680:
8657:Chinese language
8650:
8643:
8636:
8627:
8626:
8465:
8464:
8326:
8325:
8160:
8159:
7995:
7912:
7911:
7793:
7786:
7779:
7770:
7769:
7765:
7747:
7726:
7708:
7688:
7681:Interlingüística
7678:
7668:
7647:
7626:
7604:
7573:
7563:
7550:
7527:
7507:
7494:
7476:
7458:
7440:
7428:
7418:
7408:
7377:
7376:
7368:
7362:
7361:
7343:
7337:
7336:
7328:
7322:
7321:
7303:
7297:
7296:
7288:
7282:
7281:
7269:
7263:
7262:
7250:
7244:
7243:
7231:
7225:
7224:
7206:
7200:
7199:
7181:
7175:
7174:
7166:
7160:
7159:
7151:
7145:
7144:
7126:
7120:
7119:
7101:
7095:
7094:
7076:
7067:
7061:
7048:
7042:
7036:
7030:
7024:
7023:
7022:. Beijing: 中华书局.
7015:
7009:
7008:
7000:
6994:
6989:
6983:
6977:
6971:
6970:
6955:
6949:
6943:
6937:
6931:
6925:
6919:
6913:
6907:
6901:
6895:
6889:
6888:
6880:
6874:
6873:
6865:
6859:
6858:
6853:Chen, Zhangtai.
6850:
6844:
6843:
6835:
6829:
6828:
6820:
6814:
6813:
6805:
6799:
6798:
6790:
6784:
6783:
6775:
6769:
6768:
6766:
6765:
6750:
6744:
6743:
6735:
6722:
6721:
6713:
6698:
6697:
6689:
6678:
6677:
6659:
6650:
6649:
6641:
6635:
6634:
6616:
6607:
6606:
6605:. 國立中興大學中國文學研究所.
6598:
6589:
6588:
6586:
6585:
6576:. Archived from
6566:
6560:
6559:
6547:
6538:
6537:
6529:
6516:
6515:
6507:
6501:
6500:
6492:
6486:
6485:
6468:
6462:
6461:
6453:
6447:
6446:
6445:. Beijing: 語文研究.
6438:
6432:
6431:
6423:
6414:
6413:
6405:
6399:
6398:
6380:
6374:
6373:
6355:
6349:
6348:
6340:
6334:
6333:
6325:
6319:
6318:
6310:
6301:
6300:
6294:
6289:
6287:
6279:
6275:
6269:
6268:
6260:
6254:
6253:
6245:
6224:
6223:
6215:
6206:
6205:
6187:
6178:
6177:
6161:
6152:
6151:
6143:
6137:
6136:
6118:
6091:
6090:
6082:
6015:
6014:
6006:
6000:
5999:
5992:
5986:
5985:
5979:
5974:
5972:
5964:
5960:
5954:
5953:
5945:
5939:
5938:
5930:
5924:
5923:
5911:
5905:
5899:
5890:
5884:
5878:
5877:
5870:
5847:
5846:
5838:
5807:
5801:
5795:
5793:
5792:
5781:
5775:
5769:
5763:
5762:
5710:
5704:
5701:van Driem (2001)
5698:
5692:
5686:
5680:
5674:
5668:
5662:
5641:
5638:
5629:
5626:
5621:
5616:
5611:
5607:
5600:
5595:
5590:language cluster
5582:
5577:
5564:
5558:
5547:Paul K. Benedict
5534:
5528:
5523:From Late Latin
5521:
5501:
5496:
5486:
5481:
5471:
5466:
5456:
5451:
5433:
5423:, for instance.
5422:
5417:
5412:
5407:
5402:
5394:
5375:
5351:
5338:
5315:
5291:
5278:
5254:
5249:
5244:
5239:
5218:
5214:
5184:
5171:
5112:
5088:
5051:give CL pear 2SG
5041:
5017:
4989:
4973:give CL shoe 1SG
4963:
4939:
4892:
4868:
4844:
4827:
4787:
4763:
4750:
4726:
4722:
4690:
4666:
4642:
4618:
4590:
4553:
4529:
4475:
4451:
4438:
4414:
4397:
4324:
4236:
4037:
4033:
3975:light level (2)
3942:
3938:
3930:
3926:
3922:
3918:
3894:
3890:
3886:
3882:
3878:
3874:
3685:
3657:
3651:mixed language.
3620:
3615:
3610:
3605:
3600:
3595:
3590:
3585:
3580:
3575:
3565:
3560:
3555:
3550:
3545:
3540:
3535:
3530:
3525:
3520:
3510:
3505:
3500:
3495:
3490:
3485:
3480:
3475:
3470:
3465:
3405:Traditionally Wu
3397:
3396:
3393:
3388:
3348:, a 7th-century
3237:
3232:
3227:
3222:
3217:
3212:
3205:
3200:
3195:
3190:
3185:
3180:
3156:
3153:
3148:
3142:
3139:
3134:
3128:
3123:
3118:
3046:divides Wu into
3015:
3010:
3005:
3000:
2995:
2990:
2985:
2980:
2975:
2970:
2965:
2958:
2953:
2948:
2943:
2938:
2933:
2928:
2923:
2918:
2913:
2908:
2901:
2896:
2891:
2886:
2881:
2876:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2812:
2808:
2806:, and Xuanzhou.
2704:
2699:
2694:
2689:
2684:
2679:
2674:
2669:
2664:
2659:
2654:
2647:
2642:
2637:
2632:
2627:
2622:
2617:
2612:
2607:
2602:
2597:
2550:
2546:
2540:
2533:
2509:
2504:
2411:
2406:
2401:
2396:
2391:
2386:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2359:
2354:
2330:
2326:
2320:
2317:
2312:
2248:(which includes
2112:
2107:
2102:
2097:
2064:
2060:
1998:
1993:
1988:
1983:
1978:
1973:
1968:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1946:
1941:
1936:
1931:
1896:
1895:
1838:, and sometimes
1720:pəŋ꜄ → pəʔ꜇ ləŋ꜄
1680:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1527:
1522:
1517:
1512:
1507:
1497:
1492:
1487:
1482:
1477:
1453:
1452:
1449:
1444:
1433:
1429:
1424:
1415:
1410:
1370:
1289:
1288:
1278:
1272:
1262:
1261:
1251:
1245:
1235:
1234:
1220:
1214:
1195:
1194:
1156:
1119:
1082:
1035:
1032:
1027:
972:
967:
962:
957:
952:
947:
942:
937:
932:
927:
922:
917:
907:
902:
897:
892:
887:
882:
877:
872:
867:
862:
857:
852:
799:
798:
749:(or "Zhongyuan")
696:Standard Chinese
585:
580:
576:
563:
558:
547:
542:
538:
519:
512:
273:
262:
261:
212:
203:
195:
175:
166:
162:
156:
152:
138:
37:
36:
10700:
10699:
10695:
10694:
10693:
10691:
10690:
10689:
10675:
10674:
10673:
10668:
10650:
10587:Tongyong Pinyin
10567:Gwoyeu Romatzyh
10555:Dungan Cyrillic
10538:
10507:
10477:
10418:
10409:Written Hokkien
10390:
10349:
10343:
10319:Middle Mandarin
10285:
10205:
10180:
10142:
10089:
10022:
10015:
10002:
9951:
9899:
9858:
9835:
9771:
9705:
9624:
9603:
9585:
9562:
9486:
9453:
9430:
9374:
9310:
9270:
9261:
9249:
9237:
9225:
9213:
9193:
9175:
9147:
9129:
9103:
9080:
9007:
8980:
8954:
8931:
8855:
8795:
8767:
8744:
8721:
8670:
8659:
8654:
8624:
8619:
8609:
8560:Proto-languages
8554:
8502:
8469:Greater Siangic
8463:
8400:
8387:
8324:
8228:
8200:
8158:
8102:
8093:
8005:
7996:
7983:
7916:Greater Magaric
7910:
7837:West Himalayish
7817:
7803:
7797:
7763:
7724:
7706:
7676:
7666:
7645:
7623:
7594:10.2307/2718766
7561:
7555:Mair, Victor H.
7548:
7521:
7514:
7492:
7474:
7449:
7431:
7385:Sagart, Laurent
7380:
7369:
7365:
7358:
7344:
7340:
7329:
7325:
7318:
7304:
7300:
7289:
7285:
7274:湘潭大學學報（哲學社會科學版）
7270:
7266:
7261:(2). Guangzhou.
7251:
7247:
7232:
7228:
7221:
7207:
7203:
7196:
7182:
7178:
7167:
7163:
7152:
7148:
7141:
7127:
7123:
7116:
7102:
7098:
7091:
7077:
7070:
7066:, p. 1025.
7062:
7051:
7043:
7039:
7031:
7027:
7016:
7012:
7001:
6997:
6990:
6986:
6980:Kurpaska (2010)
6978:
6974:
6964:
6956:
6952:
6944:
6940:
6932:
6928:
6920:
6916:
6910:Kurpaska (2010)
6908:
6904:
6896:
6892:
6881:
6877:
6866:
6862:
6851:
6847:
6836:
6832:
6821:
6817:
6806:
6802:
6791:
6787:
6776:
6772:
6763:
6761:
6752:
6751:
6747:
6736:
6725:
6714:
6701:
6690:
6681:
6674:
6660:
6653:
6642:
6638:
6631:
6617:
6610:
6599:
6592:
6583:
6581:
6574:edu.ocac.gov.tw
6568:
6567:
6563:
6548:
6541:
6530:
6519:
6510:Tao, Guoliang.
6508:
6504:
6493:
6489:
6482:
6470:
6469:
6465:
6454:
6450:
6439:
6435:
6424:
6417:
6406:
6402:
6395:
6381:
6377:
6370:
6356:
6352:
6341:
6337:
6326:
6322:
6311:
6304:
6292:
6290:
6281:
6280:
6276:
6272:
6261:
6257:
6246:
6227:
6216:
6209:
6202:
6188:
6181:
6162:
6155:
6144:
6140:
6133:
6119:
6094:
6083:
6018:
6012:
6007:
6003:
5994:
5993:
5989:
5977:
5975:
5966:
5965:
5961:
5957:
5946:
5942:
5936:
5931:
5927:
5921:
5917:
5912:
5908:
5900:
5893:
5885:
5881:
5872:
5871:
5850:
5839:
5810:
5802:
5798:
5787:
5784:van Driem (2001
5782:
5778:
5770:
5766:
5711:
5707:
5699:
5695:
5687:
5683:
5675:
5671:
5663:
5659:
5655:
5650:
5645:
5644:
5639:
5632:
5565:
5561:
5522:
5518:
5513:
5389:
5377:
5364:
5353:
5340:
5328:
5317:
5304:
5293:
5280:
5246:(proximal) and
5226:
5210:
5197:
5186:
5173:
5140:
5135:
5127:
5114:
5101:
5090:
5077:
5066:
5056:
5043:
5030:
5019:
5006:
4995:
4994:Yining Pinghua:
4986:
4978:
4965:
4952:
4941:
4928:
4917:
4907:
4894:
4881:
4870:
4857:
4846:
4833:
4821:
4813:
4800:
4789:
4776:
4765:
4752:
4739:
4728:
4711:
4705:
4692:
4679:
4668:
4655:
4644:
4631:
4620:
4607:
4596:
4587:
4579:
4566:
4555:
4542:
4531:
4518:
4507:
4501:
4488:
4477:
4464:
4453:
4440:
4427:
4416:
4403:
4380:
4375:
4365:{今 阿} 我 {廣 州} 去
4363:
4348:
4337:
4326:
4313:
4302:
4298:
4286:
4271:
4260:
4249:
4238:
4225:
4214:
4195:
4190:
4159:checked (7, 8)
4060:
4055:
4040:chain length →
4031:
3961:dark level (1)
3946:
3901:
3869:Latin alphabets
3841:
3833:
3743:
3704:
3672:
3366:
3358:
3350:rime dictionary
3301:
3257:
3114:terms with the
3092:
3072:
2748:
2427:
2298:West Kalimantan
2262:
2007:
1851:
1776:
1768:
1758:
1750:
1742:
1734:
1725:
1715:
1707:
1699:
1691:
1639:
1627:Dungan language
1549:, southwestern
1539:
1380:
1329:
984:
672:Western Regions
668:
565:) tone category
529:
476:
457:Dialectologist
442:
436:
256:
178:
164:
158:
157:
154:
148:
134:
59:
53:Sinitic peoples
35:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
10698:
10688:
10687:
10670:
10669:
10659:
10656:
10655:
10652:
10651:
10649:
10648:
10643:
10638:
10633:
10631:Taiwanese kana
10628:
10627:
10626:
10621:
10611:
10610:
10609:
10604:
10602:Lessing-Othmer
10599:
10594:
10589:
10584:
10579:
10574:
10569:
10559:
10558:
10557:
10546:
10544:
10540:
10539:
10537:
10532:
10527:
10522:
10517:
10515:
10509:
10508:
10506:
10505:
10500:
10499:
10498:
10493:
10482:
10479:
10478:
10476:
10471:
10466:
10461:
10456:
10451:
10446:
10444:
10435:
10426:
10420:
10419:
10417:
10416:
10411:
10406:
10404:Written Dungan
10401:
10395:
10392:
10391:
10389:
10388:
10383:
10382:
10381:
10376:
10371:
10360:
10358:
10351:
10345:
10344:
10342:
10341:
10336:
10331:
10326:
10321:
10316:
10311:
10309:Middle Chinese
10306:
10301:
10295:
10293:
10287:
10286:
10284:
10283:
10278:
10276:Wubi (Wang Ma)
10273:
10268:
10267:
10266:
10261:
10256:
10246:
10241:
10236:
10235:
10234:
10224:
10221:
10215:
10213:
10207:
10206:
10204:
10203:
10196:
10188:
10186:
10182:
10181:
10179:
10178:
10173:
10168:
10163:
10158:
10152:
10150:
10144:
10143:
10141:
10140:
10135:
10130:
10125:
10120:
10115:
10110:
10109:
10108:
10097:
10095:
10091:
10090:
10088:
10087:
10082:
10077:
10072:
10071:
10070:
10069:
10068:
10063:
10053:
10048:
10043:
10038:
10027:
10025:
10017:
10016:
10009:
10007:
10004:
10003:
10001:
10000:
9995:
9993:Xiangnan Tuhua
9990:
9985:
9980:
9978:Shaozhou Tuhua
9975:
9970:
9965:
9959:
9957:
9953:
9952:
9950:
9949:
9948:
9947:
9942:
9937:
9929:
9928:
9927:
9922:
9913:
9911:
9905:
9904:
9901:
9900:
9898:
9897:
9892:
9887:
9882:
9877:
9872:
9866:
9864:
9860:
9859:
9857:
9856:
9851:
9845:
9843:
9837:
9836:
9834:
9833:
9828:
9823:
9818:
9813:
9808:
9807:
9806:
9801:
9790:
9788:
9779:
9773:
9772:
9770:
9769:
9768:
9767:
9762:
9757:
9747:
9746:
9745:
9735:
9730:
9725:
9719:
9717:
9711:
9710:
9707:
9706:
9704:
9703:
9702:
9701:
9696:
9691:
9681:
9680:
9679:
9669:
9664:
9659:
9654:
9653:
9652:
9647:
9636:
9634:
9630:
9629:
9626:
9625:
9623:
9622:
9617:
9611:
9609:
9605:
9604:
9602:
9601:
9595:
9593:
9587:
9586:
9584:
9583:
9578:
9572:
9570:
9564:
9563:
9561:
9560:
9555:
9550:
9545:
9540:
9535:
9530:
9525:
9520:
9515:
9509:
9507:
9498:
9492:
9491:
9488:
9487:
9485:
9484:
9483:
9482:
9477:
9467:
9461:
9459:
9455:
9454:
9452:
9451:
9446:
9440:
9438:
9432:
9431:
9429:
9428:
9423:
9418:
9413:
9408:
9402:
9400:
9391:
9382:
9376:
9375:
9373:
9372:
9371:
9370:
9360:
9355:
9354:
9353:
9348:
9343:
9333:
9332:
9331:
9320:
9318:
9312:
9311:
9309:
9308:
9303:
9298:
9293:
9292:
9291:
9280:
9278:
9272:
9271:
9269:
9268:
9256:
9244:
9232:
9220:
9207:
9205:
9199:
9198:
9195:
9194:
9192:
9191:
9185:
9183:
9177:
9176:
9174:
9173:
9168:
9163:
9157:
9155:
9149:
9148:
9146:
9145:
9139:
9137:
9131:
9130:
9128:
9127:
9122:
9117:
9111:
9109:
9105:
9104:
9102:
9101:
9096:
9090:
9088:
9082:
9081:
9079:
9078:
9073:
9068:
9063:
9058:
9053:
9047:
9042:
9037:
9032:
9026:
9024:
9015:
9009:
9008:
9006:
9005:
9000:
8994:
8992:
8986:
8985:
8982:
8981:
8979:
8978:
8973:
8968:
8962:
8960:
8956:
8955:
8953:
8952:
8947:
8941:
8939:
8933:
8932:
8930:
8929:
8928:
8927:
8917:
8912:
8907:
8902:
8901:
8900:
8899:
8898:
8891:Renshou–Fushun
8888:
8887:
8886:
8876:
8865:
8863:
8857:
8856:
8854:
8853:
8848:
8843:
8838:
8833:
8828:
8827:
8826:
8816:
8811:
8805:
8803:
8801:Central Plains
8797:
8796:
8794:
8793:
8788:
8783:
8777:
8775:
8769:
8768:
8766:
8765:
8760:
8754:
8752:
8746:
8745:
8743:
8742:
8737:
8731:
8729:
8723:
8722:
8720:
8719:
8714:
8709:
8704:
8698:
8696:
8687:
8678:
8672:
8671:
8664:
8661:
8660:
8653:
8652:
8645:
8638:
8630:
8621:
8620:
8614:
8611:
8610:
8608:
8607:
8600:
8593:
8586:
8579:
8572:
8564:
8562:
8556:
8555:
8553:
8552:
8550:Tibeto-Kanauri
8547:
8540:
8535:
8530:
8525:
8523:Kuki-Chin–Naga
8520:
8514:
8512:
8508:
8507:
8504:
8503:
8501:
8500:
8495:
8494:
8493:
8486:
8473:
8471:
8462:
8461:
8454:
8449:
8448:
8447:
8433:
8432:
8431:
8424:
8411:
8409:
8393:
8392:
8389:
8388:
8386:
8385:
8384:
8383:
8376:
8371:
8359:
8354:
8349:
8348:
8347:
8334:
8332:
8323:
8322:
8321:
8320:
8313:
8306:
8294:
8287:
8280:
8273:
8268:
8261:
8254:
8246:
8244:
8242:Southeast Asia
8234:
8233:
8230:
8229:
8227:
8226:
8221:
8216:
8210:
8208:
8202:
8201:
8199:
8198:
8193:
8188:
8181:
8179:Angami–Pochuri
8176:
8170:
8168:
8157:
8156:
8149:
8142:
8141:
8140:
8133:
8121:
8114:
8106:
8104:
8103:Burmese border
8095:
8094:
8092:
8091:
8086:
8079:
8072:
8065:
8064:
8063:
8055:
8048:
8041:
8036:
8021:
8019:
7998:
7997:
7990:
7988:
7985:
7984:
7982:
7981:
7968:
7963:
7962:
7961:
7954:
7942:
7941:
7940:
7933:
7920:
7918:
7909:
7908:
7901:
7900:
7899:
7892:
7885:
7873:
7866:
7865:
7864:
7859:
7847:
7840:
7832:
7830:
7805:
7804:
7796:
7795:
7788:
7781:
7773:
7767:
7766:
7761:
7748:
7738:(1): 101–127,
7727:
7722:
7709:
7704:
7689:
7669:
7664:
7648:
7643:
7627:
7621:
7605:
7574:
7551:
7546:
7529:
7522:(in Chinese),
7508:
7495:
7490:
7477:
7472:
7459:
7448:
7445:
7444:
7443:
7442:
7441:
7379:
7378:
7363:
7356:
7338:
7323:
7316:
7298:
7283:
7264:
7245:
7226:
7219:
7201:
7194:
7176:
7161:
7146:
7139:
7121:
7114:
7096:
7089:
7068:
7049:
7037:
7025:
7010:
6995:
6984:
6972:
6950:
6938:
6926:
6914:
6902:
6890:
6875:
6860:
6845:
6830:
6815:
6800:
6785:
6770:
6745:
6723:
6699:
6679:
6672:
6651:
6636:
6629:
6608:
6590:
6561:
6539:
6517:
6502:
6487:
6480:
6463:
6448:
6433:
6415:
6400:
6393:
6375:
6368:
6350:
6335:
6320:
6302:
6293:|journal=
6270:
6255:
6225:
6207:
6200:
6179:
6168:(3): 166–172.
6153:
6138:
6131:
6092:
6016:
6001:
5987:
5978:|journal=
5955:
5940:
5925:
5906:
5891:
5879:
5848:
5808:
5804:Bradley (2012)
5796:
5786::403) states "
5776:
5764:
5705:
5703:, p. 351.
5693:
5681:
5679:, p. 122.
5669:
5667:, p. 107.
5656:
5654:
5651:
5649:
5646:
5643:
5642:
5630:
5559:
5515:
5514:
5512:
5509:
5503:
5502:
5497:
5492:
5488:
5487:
5482:
5477:
5473:
5472:
5467:
5462:
5458:
5457:
5452:
5447:
5443:
5442:
5439:
5436:
5379:是 生 的 ， 是 熟 的
5365:
5354:
5341:
5329:
5318:
5305:
5294:
5281:
5269:
5268:
5230:demonstratives
5225:
5224:Demonstratives
5222:
5202:ngo5 bun2 syu1
5187:
5174:
5161:
5160:
5139:
5136:
5132:
5131:
5102:
5091:
5078:
5067:
5060:
5059:
5057:
5031:
5020:
5007:
4996:
4993:
4992:
4987:
4983:
4982:
4953:
4942:
4929:
4918:
4912:Shanghainese (
4911:
4910:
4908:
4882:
4871:
4858:
4847:
4834:
4831:
4830:
4825:
4818:
4817:
4790:
4777:
4766:
4753:
4740:
4729:
4712:
4709:
4708:
4706:
4680:
4669:
4656:
4645:
4632:
4621:
4608:
4597:
4594:
4593:
4588:
4584:
4583:
4556:
4543:
4532:
4519:
4508:
4505:
4504:
4502:
4490:他 給 了 我 一 盒 糖。
4478:
4465:
4454:
4441:
4428:
4417:
4404:
4401:
4400:
4395:
4379:
4376:
4349:
4338:
4327:
4314:
4303:
4300:
4299:
4272:
4261:
4250:
4239:
4226:
4215:
4212:
4211:
4194:
4191:
4187:
4186:
4183:
4180:
4177:
4173:
4172:
4169:
4166:
4163:
4160:
4156:
4155:
4152:
4149:
4146:
4142:
4141:
4138:
4135:
4132:
4129:
4125:
4124:
4121:
4118:
4115:
4111:
4110:
4107:
4104:
4101:
4098:
4094:
4093:
4090:
4087:
4084:
4080:
4079:
4076:
4073:
4070:
4067:
4063:
4062:
4057:
4051:
4050:
4047:
4044:
4041:
4032:
4028:
4027:
4024:
4021:
4018:
4014:
4013:
4010:
4007:
4004:
4000:
3999:
3996:
3993:
3990:
3986:
3985:
3982:
3979:
3976:
3972:
3971:
3968:
3965:
3962:
3958:
3957:
3954:
3951:
3948:
3945:chain length →
3937:
3933:part of speech
3900:
3897:
3840:
3839:Writing system
3837:
3832:
3829:
3801:
3800:
3797:
3789:
3742:
3739:
3703:
3700:
3676:Ganyu District
3671:
3670:Northern China
3668:
3625:
3624:
3621:
3616:
3611:
3606:
3601:
3596:
3591:
3586:
3581:
3576:
3570:
3569:
3566:
3561:
3556:
3551:
3546:
3541:
3536:
3531:
3526:
3521:
3515:
3514:
3511:
3506:
3501:
3496:
3491:
3486:
3481:
3476:
3471:
3466:
3460:
3459:
3454:
3449:
3444:
3439:
3434:
3429:
3424:
3419:
3413:
3412:
3409:
3406:
3403:
3400:
3365:
3364:Southern China
3362:
3357:
3354:
3334:Like Bai, the
3317:Middle Chinese
3309:Laurent Sagart
3300:
3297:
3289:Shuangfengnese
3256:
3253:
3239:
3238:
3233:
3228:
3223:
3218:
3213:
3207:
3206:
3201:
3196:
3191:
3186:
3181:
3175:
3174:
3171:
3168:
3165:
3162:
3159:
3091:
3088:
3071:
3068:
3038:Dondac variety
3017:
3016:
3011:
3006:
3001:
2996:
2991:
2986:
2981:
2976:
2971:
2966:
2960:
2959:
2954:
2949:
2944:
2939:
2934:
2929:
2924:
2919:
2914:
2909:
2903:
2902:
2897:
2892:
2887:
2882:
2877:
2872:
2867:
2862:
2857:
2852:
2846:
2845:
2842:
2839:
2836:
2833:
2830:
2827:
2824:
2821:
2818:
2815:
2747:
2744:
2706:
2705:
2700:
2695:
2690:
2685:
2680:
2675:
2670:
2665:
2660:
2655:
2649:
2648:
2643:
2638:
2633:
2628:
2623:
2618:
2613:
2608:
2603:
2598:
2592:
2591:
2588:
2585:
2582:
2579:
2576:
2573:
2570:
2567:
2564:
2560:
2559:
2556:
2553:
2471:Southeast Asia
2426:
2423:
2413:
2412:
2407:
2402:
2397:
2392:
2387:
2381:
2380:
2375:
2370:
2365:
2360:
2355:
2349:
2348:
2345:
2342:
2339:
2336:
2333:
2261:
2258:
2212:
2211:
2208:
2205:
2202:
2199:
2195:
2194:
2191:
2188:
2185:
2181:
2180:
2177:
2174:
2171:
2167:
2166:
2163:
2160:
2156:
2155:
2152:
2149:
2146:
2142:
2141:
2138:
2135:
2132:
2128:
2127:
2124:
2121:
2118:
2114:
2113:
2108:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2089:
2088:
2085:
2082:
2079:
2075:
2074:
2071:
2068:
2006:
2003:
2000:
1999:
1994:
1989:
1984:
1979:
1974:
1969:
1963:
1962:
1957:
1952:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1926:
1925:
1922:
1919:
1916:
1913:
1910:
1906:
1905:
1902:
1899:
1850:
1847:
1775:
1772:
1751:
1743:
1735:
1727:
1726:
1708:
1700:
1692:
1684:
1683:
1667:Inner Mongolia
1638:
1635:
1543:Central Plains
1538:
1535:
1532:
1531:
1528:
1523:
1518:
1513:
1508:
1502:
1501:
1498:
1493:
1488:
1483:
1478:
1472:
1471:
1468:
1465:
1462:
1459:
1456:
1379:
1376:
1367:rime series' (
1328:
1325:
1294:
1293:
1283:
1280:
1273:
1267:
1266:
1256:
1253:
1246:
1240:
1239:
1229:
1222:
1215:
1209:
1208:
1205:
1202:
1199:
1188:
1187:
1184:
1181:
1178:
1175:
1172:
1169:
1166:
1163:
1160:
1157:
1151:
1150:
1147:
1144:
1141:
1138:
1135:
1132:
1129:
1126:
1123:
1120:
1114:
1113:
1110:
1107:
1104:
1101:
1098:
1095:
1092:
1089:
1086:
1083:
1077:
1076:
1073:
1070:
1067:
1064:
1061:
1058:
1055:
1052:
1048:
1047:
1044:
1041:
1038:
1016:Inner Mongolia
1000:Inner Mongolia
983:
980:
977:
976:
973:
968:
963:
958:
953:
948:
943:
938:
933:
928:
923:
918:
912:
911:
908:
903:
898:
893:
888:
883:
878:
873:
868:
863:
858:
853:
847:
846:
843:
840:
837:
834:
831:
828:
825:
822:
819:
816:
812:
811:
808:
805:
802:
779:
778:
772:
766:
756:
750:
747:Central Plains
744:
738:
732:
726:
712:United Nations
688:Central Plains
684:Inner Mongolia
667:
664:
660:
659:
650:
645:
640:
635:
630:
625:
620:
615:
610:
589:
588:
569:
566:
553:
550:
528:
525:
521:
520:
497:
475:
472:
468:Shaozhou Tuhua
435:
432:
429:
428:
425:
424:1,521,943,700
422:
418:
417:
414:
411:
405:
404:
401:
398:
392:
391:
388:
385:
379:
378:
375:
372:
366:
365:
362:
359:
353:
352:
349:
346:
340:
339:
336:
333:
327:
326:
323:
320:
314:
313:
310:
307:
301:
300:
297:
294:
288:
287:
284:
283:1,118,584,040
281:
275:
274:
269:
266:
255:
252:
222:of East Asian
180:
179:
176:
168:
167:
146:
140:
139:
132:
126:
125:
124:
123:
117:
110:
106:
105:
102:
101:Proto-language
98:
97:
96:
95:
85:
79:
78:
68:Southeast Asia
61:
55:
54:
51:
47:
46:
42:
41:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
10697:
10686:
10683:
10682:
10680:
10667:
10657:
10647:
10644:
10642:
10639:
10637:
10634:
10632:
10629:
10625:
10622:
10620:
10617:
10616:
10615:
10612:
10608:
10605:
10603:
10600:
10598:
10595:
10593:
10590:
10588:
10585:
10583:
10580:
10578:
10575:
10573:
10570:
10568:
10565:
10564:
10563:
10560:
10556:
10553:
10552:
10551:
10550:Cyrillization
10548:
10547:
10545:
10541:
10536:
10533:
10531:
10528:
10526:
10523:
10521:
10518:
10516:
10514:
10510:
10504:
10501:
10497:
10494:
10492:
10489:
10488:
10487:
10484:
10483:
10475:
10472:
10470:
10467:
10465:
10462:
10460:
10457:
10455:
10452:
10450:
10447:
10445:
10443:
10442:Script styles
10439:
10436:
10434:
10430:
10427:
10425:
10421:
10415:
10412:
10410:
10407:
10405:
10402:
10400:
10397:
10396:
10387:
10384:
10380:
10377:
10375:
10372:
10370:
10367:
10366:
10365:
10362:
10361:
10359:
10355:
10352:
10346:
10340:
10337:
10335:
10332:
10330:
10327:
10325:
10322:
10320:
10317:
10315:
10312:
10310:
10307:
10305:
10302:
10300:
10297:
10296:
10294:
10292:
10288:
10282:
10279:
10277:
10274:
10272:
10269:
10265:
10262:
10260:
10257:
10255:
10252:
10251:
10250:
10247:
10245:
10242:
10240:
10237:
10233:
10230:
10229:
10228:
10225:
10222:
10220:
10217:
10216:
10214:
10212:
10208:
10202:
10201:
10197:
10195:
10194:
10190:
10189:
10187:
10183:
10177:
10174:
10172:
10169:
10167:
10164:
10162:
10159:
10157:
10154:
10153:
10151:
10149:
10145:
10139:
10136:
10134:
10131:
10129:
10126:
10124:
10121:
10119:
10116:
10114:
10111:
10107:
10104:
10103:
10102:
10099:
10098:
10096:
10092:
10086:
10083:
10081:
10078:
10076:
10073:
10067:
10064:
10062:
10059:
10058:
10057:
10054:
10052:
10049:
10047:
10044:
10042:
10039:
10037:
10034:
10033:
10032:
10029:
10028:
10026:
10024:
10018:
10013:
9999:
9996:
9994:
9991:
9989:
9986:
9984:
9981:
9979:
9976:
9974:
9971:
9969:
9966:
9964:
9961:
9960:
9958:
9954:
9946:
9943:
9941:
9938:
9936:
9933:
9932:
9930:
9926:
9923:
9921:
9918:
9917:
9915:
9914:
9912:
9910:
9906:
9896:
9893:
9891:
9888:
9886:
9883:
9881:
9878:
9876:
9873:
9871:
9868:
9867:
9865:
9861:
9855:
9852:
9850:
9847:
9846:
9844:
9842:
9838:
9832:
9829:
9827:
9824:
9822:
9819:
9817:
9814:
9812:
9809:
9805:
9802:
9800:
9797:
9796:
9795:
9792:
9791:
9789:
9787:
9783:
9780:
9778:
9774:
9766:
9763:
9761:
9758:
9756:
9753:
9752:
9751:
9748:
9744:
9741:
9740:
9739:
9736:
9734:
9731:
9729:
9726:
9724:
9721:
9720:
9718:
9716:
9712:
9700:
9697:
9695:
9692:
9690:
9687:
9686:
9685:
9682:
9678:
9675:
9674:
9673:
9670:
9668:
9665:
9663:
9660:
9658:
9655:
9651:
9648:
9646:
9643:
9642:
9641:
9638:
9637:
9635:
9631:
9621:
9618:
9616:
9613:
9612:
9610:
9606:
9600:
9597:
9596:
9594:
9592:
9588:
9582:
9579:
9577:
9574:
9573:
9571:
9569:
9565:
9559:
9556:
9554:
9551:
9549:
9546:
9544:
9541:
9539:
9536:
9534:
9531:
9529:
9526:
9524:
9521:
9519:
9516:
9514:
9511:
9510:
9508:
9506:
9502:
9499:
9497:
9493:
9481:
9478:
9476:
9473:
9472:
9471:
9468:
9466:
9463:
9462:
9460:
9456:
9450:
9447:
9445:
9442:
9441:
9439:
9437:
9433:
9427:
9424:
9422:
9419:
9417:
9414:
9412:
9409:
9407:
9404:
9403:
9401:
9399:
9395:
9392:
9390:
9386:
9383:
9381:
9377:
9369:
9366:
9365:
9364:
9361:
9359:
9356:
9352:
9349:
9347:
9344:
9342:
9339:
9338:
9337:
9334:
9330:
9327:
9326:
9325:
9322:
9321:
9319:
9317:
9313:
9307:
9304:
9302:
9299:
9297:
9294:
9290:
9287:
9286:
9285:
9282:
9281:
9279:
9277:
9273:
9265:
9260:
9257:
9253:
9248:
9245:
9241:
9236:
9233:
9229:
9224:
9221:
9217:
9212:
9209:
9208:
9206:
9204:
9200:
9190:
9187:
9186:
9184:
9182:
9178:
9172:
9169:
9167:
9164:
9162:
9159:
9158:
9156:
9154:
9150:
9144:
9141:
9140:
9138:
9136:
9132:
9126:
9123:
9121:
9118:
9116:
9113:
9112:
9110:
9106:
9100:
9097:
9095:
9092:
9091:
9089:
9087:
9083:
9077:
9074:
9072:
9069:
9067:
9064:
9062:
9059:
9057:
9054:
9051:
9048:
9046:
9043:
9041:
9038:
9036:
9033:
9031:
9028:
9027:
9025:
9023:
9019:
9016:
9014:
9010:
9004:
9001:
8999:
8996:
8995:
8993:
8991:
8987:
8977:
8974:
8972:
8969:
8967:
8964:
8963:
8961:
8957:
8951:
8948:
8946:
8943:
8942:
8940:
8938:
8934:
8926:
8923:
8922:
8921:
8918:
8916:
8913:
8911:
8908:
8906:
8903:
8897:
8894:
8893:
8892:
8889:
8885:
8882:
8881:
8880:
8877:
8875:
8872:
8871:
8870:
8867:
8866:
8864:
8862:
8858:
8852:
8849:
8847:
8844:
8842:
8839:
8837:
8834:
8832:
8829:
8825:
8822:
8821:
8820:
8817:
8815:
8812:
8810:
8807:
8806:
8804:
8802:
8798:
8792:
8789:
8787:
8784:
8782:
8779:
8778:
8776:
8774:
8770:
8764:
8761:
8759:
8756:
8755:
8753:
8751:
8747:
8741:
8738:
8736:
8733:
8732:
8730:
8728:
8724:
8718:
8715:
8713:
8710:
8708:
8705:
8703:
8700:
8699:
8697:
8695:
8691:
8688:
8686:
8682:
8679:
8677:
8673:
8669:
8668:
8662:
8658:
8651:
8646:
8644:
8639:
8637:
8632:
8631:
8628:
8617:
8612:
8606:
8605:
8601:
8599:
8598:
8594:
8592:
8591:
8590:Proto-Karenic
8587:
8585:
8584:
8583:Proto-Loloish
8580:
8578:
8577:
8573:
8571:
8570:
8566:
8565:
8563:
8561:
8557:
8551:
8548:
8546:
8545:
8544:Tibeto-Burman
8541:
8539:
8536:
8534:
8531:
8529:
8526:
8524:
8521:
8519:
8516:
8515:
8513:
8509:
8499:
8496:
8492:
8491:
8487:
8485:
8484:
8480:
8479:
8478:
8475:
8474:
8472:
8470:
8466:
8460:
8459:
8455:
8453:
8450:
8446:
8445:
8441:
8440:
8439:
8438:
8434:
8430:
8429:
8425:
8423:
8422:
8418:
8417:
8416:
8413:
8412:
8410:
8407:
8403:
8398:
8394:
8382:
8381:
8377:
8375:
8372:
8370:
8367:
8366:
8365:
8364:
8360:
8358:
8355:
8353:
8350:
8346:
8343:
8342:
8341:
8340:
8336:
8335:
8333:
8331:
8330:Burmo-Qiangic
8327:
8319:
8318:
8314:
8312:
8311:
8307:
8305:
8304:
8300:
8299:
8298:
8295:
8293:
8292:
8288:
8286:
8285:
8281:
8279:
8278:
8274:
8272:
8269:
8267:
8266:
8262:
8260:
8259:
8255:
8253:
8252:
8248:
8247:
8245:
8243:
8239:
8235:
8225:
8224:Jingpho–Luish
8222:
8220:
8217:
8215:
8212:
8211:
8209:
8207:
8203:
8197:
8194:
8192:
8189:
8187:
8186:
8182:
8180:
8177:
8175:
8172:
8171:
8169:
8166:
8161:
8155:
8154:
8150:
8148:
8147:
8143:
8139:
8138:
8134:
8132:
8131:
8127:
8126:
8125:
8122:
8120:
8119:
8115:
8113:
8112:
8108:
8107:
8105:
8100:
8096:
8090:
8087:
8085:
8084:
8080:
8078:
8077:
8073:
8071:
8070:
8066:
8061:
8060:
8056:
8054:
8053:
8049:
8047:
8046:
8042:
8040:
8037:
8035:
8034:
8030:
8029:
8028:
8027:
8023:
8022:
8020:
8017:
8013:
8009:
8004:
7999:
7994:
7980:
7979:
7974:
7973:
7969:
7967:
7964:
7960:
7959:
7955:
7953:
7952:
7948:
7947:
7946:
7943:
7939:
7938:
7934:
7932:
7931:
7927:
7926:
7925:
7922:
7921:
7919:
7917:
7913:
7907:
7906:
7902:
7898:
7897:
7893:
7891:
7890:
7886:
7884:
7883:
7879:
7878:
7877:
7874:
7872:
7871:
7867:
7863:
7862:Baram–Thangmi
7860:
7858:
7857:
7853:
7852:
7851:
7848:
7846:
7845:
7841:
7839:
7838:
7834:
7833:
7831:
7828:
7824:
7820:
7815:
7811:
7806:
7801:
7794:
7789:
7787:
7782:
7780:
7775:
7774:
7771:
7764:
7758:
7754:
7749:
7745:
7741:
7737:
7733:
7728:
7725:
7723:90-04-10390-2
7719:
7715:
7710:
7707:
7701:
7697:
7696:
7690:
7686:
7682:
7675:
7670:
7667:
7661:
7657:
7653:
7649:
7646:
7640:
7636:
7632:
7631:Norman, Jerry
7628:
7624:
7618:
7614:
7610:
7609:Norman, Jerry
7606:
7603:
7599:
7595:
7591:
7587:
7583:
7579:
7575:
7571:
7567:
7560:
7556:
7552:
7549:
7543:
7539:
7535:
7530:
7525:
7518:
7509:
7505:
7504:Dialectologia
7501:
7496:
7493:
7487:
7483:
7478:
7475:
7469:
7465:
7460:
7456:
7451:
7450:
7438:
7434:
7430:
7429:
7426:
7422:
7417:
7412:
7407:
7402:
7398:
7394:
7390:
7386:
7382:
7381:
7374:
7367:
7359:
7353:
7349:
7342:
7334:
7327:
7319:
7317:9789888760046
7313:
7309:
7302:
7294:
7287:
7279:
7275:
7268:
7260:
7256:
7249:
7241:
7237:
7230:
7222:
7216:
7213:. 華中理工大學出版社.
7212:
7205:
7197:
7195:9787534329425
7191:
7187:
7180:
7172:
7165:
7157:
7150:
7142:
7140:9787534319983
7136:
7133:. 江蘇教育出版社出版.
7132:
7125:
7117:
7115:9787534319952
7111:
7108:. 江蘇教育出版社出版.
7107:
7100:
7092:
7090:9787534334344
7086:
7083:. 江蘇教育出版社出版.
7082:
7075:
7073:
7065:
7060:
7058:
7056:
7054:
7046:
7041:
7034:
7033:Norman (1988)
7029:
7021:
7014:
7006:
6999:
6993:
6988:
6982:, p. 73.
6981:
6976:
6968:
6961:
6954:
6947:
6942:
6935:
6930:
6923:
6918:
6911:
6906:
6899:
6894:
6886:
6879:
6871:
6870:中國移民史 第五卷：名師其
6864:
6856:
6849:
6841:
6834:
6826:
6819:
6811:
6804:
6796:
6789:
6781:
6774:
6759:
6755:
6749:
6741:
6734:
6732:
6730:
6728:
6719:
6712:
6710:
6708:
6706:
6704:
6695:
6688:
6686:
6684:
6675:
6669:
6665:
6658:
6656:
6647:
6640:
6632:
6626:
6622:
6615:
6613:
6604:
6597:
6595:
6580:on 2019-09-09
6579:
6575:
6571:
6565:
6557:
6553:
6546:
6544:
6535:
6528:
6526:
6524:
6522:
6513:
6506:
6498:
6491:
6483:
6481:9787554816332
6477:
6473:
6467:
6459:
6452:
6444:
6437:
6429:
6422:
6420:
6411:
6404:
6396:
6390:
6386:
6379:
6371:
6365:
6361:
6354:
6346:
6339:
6331:
6324:
6316:
6309:
6307:
6298:
6285:
6274:
6266:
6259:
6251:
6244:
6242:
6240:
6238:
6236:
6234:
6232:
6230:
6221:
6214:
6212:
6203:
6197:
6193:
6186:
6184:
6175:
6171:
6167:
6160:
6158:
6149:
6142:
6134:
6132:9780198723790
6128:
6124:
6117:
6115:
6113:
6111:
6109:
6107:
6105:
6103:
6101:
6099:
6097:
6088:
6081:
6079:
6077:
6075:
6073:
6071:
6069:
6067:
6065:
6063:
6061:
6059:
6057:
6055:
6053:
6051:
6049:
6047:
6045:
6043:
6041:
6039:
6037:
6035:
6033:
6031:
6029:
6027:
6025:
6023:
6021:
6005:
5997:
5991:
5983:
5970:
5959:
5951:
5944:
5937:(in Chinese).
5929:
5910:
5903:
5902:Norman (1988)
5898:
5896:
5889:, p. 72.
5888:
5887:Norman (2003)
5883:
5875:
5869:
5867:
5865:
5863:
5861:
5859:
5857:
5855:
5853:
5844:
5837:
5835:
5833:
5831:
5829:
5827:
5825:
5823:
5821:
5819:
5817:
5815:
5813:
5805:
5800:
5791:
5785:
5780:
5773:
5768:
5760:
5756:
5752:
5748:
5744:
5740:
5736:
5732:
5728:
5724:
5720:
5716:
5709:
5702:
5697:
5690:
5685:
5678:
5673:
5666:
5661:
5657:
5637:
5635:
5627:
5617:
5606:
5601:
5591:
5587:
5586:macrolanguage
5583:
5573:
5572:Hannas (1997)
5569:
5568:Enfield (2003
5563:
5556:
5552:
5548:
5544:
5543:
5538:
5533:
5527:
5520:
5516:
5508:
5498:
5493:
5490:
5489:
5483:
5478:
5475:
5474:
5468:
5463:
5460:
5459:
5453:
5448:
5445:
5444:
5440:
5437:
5435:
5434:
5431:
5428:
5424:
5418:
5408:
5397:
5388:
5386:
5383:
5380:
5376:
5371:
5368:
5363:
5360:
5357:
5352:
5347:
5344:
5339:
5334:
5331:
5327:
5324:
5321:
5316:
5311:
5308:
5303:
5300:
5297:
5292:
5287:
5284:
5279:
5274:
5271:
5267:
5265:
5261:
5257:
5255:
5245:
5235:
5231:
5221:
5209:
5206:
5203:
5200:
5196:
5193:
5190:
5185:
5180:
5177:
5172:
5167:
5164:
5159:
5157:
5153:
5149:
5145:
5130:
5126:
5123:
5120:
5117:
5116:分 塊 {麪 包} 𠊎。
5113:
5108:
5105:
5100:
5097:
5094:
5089:
5084:
5081:
5076:
5073:
5070:
5064:
5058:
5055:
5052:
5049:
5046:
5042:
5037:
5034:
5029:
5026:
5023:
5018:
5013:
5010:
5005:
5002:
4999:
4991:
4990:
4981:
4977:
4974:
4971:
4968:
4964:
4959:
4956:
4951:
4948:
4945:
4940:
4935:
4932:
4927:
4924:
4921:
4915:
4909:
4906:
4903:
4900:
4897:
4893:
4888:
4885:
4880:
4877:
4874:
4869:
4864:
4861:
4856:
4853:
4850:
4845:
4840:
4837:
4829:
4828:
4824:
4816:
4812:
4809:
4806:
4803:
4799:
4796:
4793:
4788:
4783:
4780:
4775:
4772:
4769:
4764:
4759:
4756:
4751:
4746:
4743:
4738:
4735:
4732:
4727:
4718:
4715:
4707:
4704:
4701:
4698:
4695:
4691:
4686:
4683:
4678:
4675:
4672:
4667:
4662:
4659:
4654:
4651:
4648:
4643:
4638:
4635:
4630:
4627:
4624:
4619:
4614:
4611:
4606:
4603:
4600:
4595:Changshanese:
4592:
4591:
4582:
4578:
4575:
4572:
4569:
4565:
4562:
4559:
4554:
4549:
4546:
4541:
4538:
4535:
4530:
4525:
4522:
4517:
4514:
4511:
4503:
4500:
4497:
4494:
4491:
4487:
4484:
4481:
4476:
4471:
4468:
4463:
4460:
4457:
4452:
4447:
4444:
4439:
4434:
4431:
4426:
4423:
4420:
4415:
4410:
4407:
4399:
4398:
4394:
4392:
4388:
4383:
4374:
4372:
4369:
4366:
4362:
4359:
4357:
4352:
4347:
4344:
4341:
4336:
4333:
4330:
4325:
4320:
4317:
4312:
4309:
4306:
4297:
4295:
4292:
4289:
4285:
4282:
4280:
4275:
4270:
4267:
4264:
4259:
4256:
4253:
4248:
4245:
4242:
4237:
4232:
4229:
4224:
4221:
4218:
4210:
4208:
4203:
4201:
4184:
4181:
4178:
4175:
4174:
4170:
4167:
4164:
4161:
4157:
4153:
4150:
4147:
4144:
4143:
4139:
4136:
4133:
4130:
4126:
4122:
4119:
4116:
4113:
4112:
4108:
4105:
4102:
4099:
4095:
4091:
4088:
4085:
4082:
4081:
4077:
4074:
4071:
4068:
4066:level (1, 2)
4064:
4058:
4053:
4052:
4038:
4025:
4022:
4019:
4016:
4015:
4011:
4008:
4005:
4002:
4001:
3997:
3994:
3991:
3988:
3987:
3983:
3980:
3977:
3974:
3973:
3969:
3966:
3963:
3960:
3959:
3955:
3952:
3949:
3944:
3943:
3936:
3934:
3914:
3910:
3906:
3896:
3870:
3866:
3862:
3858:
3854:
3845:
3836:
3828:
3826:
3822:
3818:
3814:
3808:
3806:
3798:
3794:
3790:
3787:
3786:
3785:
3782:
3780:
3776:
3775:Meixian Hakka
3772:
3768:
3764:
3760:
3756:
3752:
3748:
3738:
3736:
3735:Yangtze River
3732:
3728:
3724:
3719:
3717:
3713:
3708:
3699:
3697:
3693:
3689:
3681:
3677:
3667:
3665:
3661:
3652:
3650:
3649:Hainanese Min
3646:
3642:
3638:
3634:
3630:
3622:
3617:
3612:
3607:
3602:
3597:
3592:
3587:
3582:
3577:
3572:
3571:
3567:
3562:
3557:
3552:
3547:
3542:
3537:
3532:
3527:
3522:
3517:
3516:
3512:
3507:
3502:
3497:
3492:
3487:
3482:
3477:
3472:
3467:
3462:
3461:
3458:
3455:
3453:
3450:
3448:
3445:
3443:
3440:
3438:
3435:
3433:
3430:
3428:
3425:
3423:
3420:
3418:
3415:
3414:
3398:
3395:
3389:
3383:
3379:
3375:
3371:
3361:
3353:
3351:
3347:
3346:
3341:
3337:
3332:
3330:
3326:
3322:
3318:
3310:
3305:
3296:
3294:
3290:
3286:
3281:
3278:
3274:
3270:
3261:
3252:
3250:
3246:
3234:
3229:
3224:
3219:
3214:
3209:
3208:
3202:
3197:
3192:
3187:
3182:
3177:
3176:
3172:
3169:
3166:
3163:
3160:
3158:
3157:
3149:
3141:
3135:
3129:
3119:
3113:
3109:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3087:
3085:
3082:and parts of
3081:
3077:
3067:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3053:
3049:
3045:
3041:
3039:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3023:
3012:
3007:
3002:
2997:
2992:
2987:
2982:
2977:
2972:
2967:
2962:
2961:
2955:
2950:
2945:
2940:
2935:
2930:
2925:
2920:
2915:
2910:
2905:
2904:
2898:
2893:
2888:
2883:
2878:
2873:
2868:
2863:
2858:
2853:
2848:
2847:
2843:
2840:
2837:
2834:
2831:
2828:
2825:
2822:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2813:
2807:
2805:
2801:
2797:
2793:
2789:
2785:
2781:
2780:Yangtze Delta
2777:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2752:
2743:
2741:
2740:Shaojiang Min
2737:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2701:
2696:
2691:
2686:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2661:
2656:
2651:
2650:
2644:
2639:
2634:
2629:
2624:
2619:
2614:
2609:
2604:
2599:
2594:
2593:
2589:
2586:
2583:
2580:
2577:
2574:
2571:
2568:
2565:
2562:
2561:
2551:
2547:
2539:
2537:
2529:
2525:
2521:
2517:
2513:
2505:
2498:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2464:
2461:and parts of
2460:
2456:
2452:
2448:
2444:
2440:
2431:
2422:
2420:
2408:
2403:
2398:
2393:
2388:
2383:
2382:
2376:
2371:
2366:
2361:
2356:
2351:
2350:
2346:
2343:
2340:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2331:
2327:
2319:
2313:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2257:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2209:
2206:
2203:
2200:
2197:
2196:
2189:
2186:
2183:
2182:
2175:
2172:
2169:
2168:
2161:
2158:
2157:
2150:
2147:
2144:
2143:
2136:
2133:
2130:
2129:
2122:
2119:
2116:
2115:
2109:
2104:
2099:
2094:
2091:
2090:
2086:
2083:
2080:
2077:
2076:
2065:
2059:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2033:and parts of
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2011:
1995:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1975:
1970:
1965:
1964:
1958:
1953:
1948:
1943:
1938:
1933:
1928:
1927:
1923:
1920:
1917:
1914:
1911:
1908:
1907:
1897:
1894:
1890:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1855:
1846:
1843:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1814:, as well as
1813:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1771:
1767:
1764:
1761:
1757:
1754:
1749:
1746:
1741:
1738:
1733:
1730:
1724:
1721:
1718:
1714:
1711:
1706:
1703:
1698:
1695:
1690:
1687:
1682:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1643:
1634:
1632:
1628:
1622:
1618:
1609:) and clear (
1604:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1573:and southern
1572:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1557:and northern
1556:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1529:
1524:
1519:
1514:
1509:
1504:
1503:
1500:'to hand in'
1499:
1494:
1489:
1484:
1479:
1474:
1473:
1469:
1466:
1463:
1460:
1457:
1455:
1454:
1451:
1445:
1440:
1435:
1426:rime series (
1425:
1419:
1411:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1384:
1375:
1372:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1327:Jilu Mandarin
1324:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1304:Changchunnese
1301:
1292:
1284:
1281:
1279:
1274:
1269:
1268:
1265:
1257:
1254:
1252:
1247:
1242:
1241:
1238:
1230:
1227:
1223:
1221:
1216:
1211:
1210:
1206:
1203:
1201:Pronunciation
1200:
1197:
1196:
1193:
1185:
1182:
1179:
1176:
1173:
1170:
1167:
1164:
1161:
1158:
1153:
1152:
1148:
1145:
1142:
1139:
1136:
1133:
1130:
1127:
1124:
1121:
1116:
1115:
1111:
1108:
1105:
1102:
1099:
1096:
1093:
1090:
1087:
1084:
1079:
1078:
1074:
1071:
1068:
1065:
1062:
1059:
1056:
1053:
1050:
1049:
1036:
1033:) characters
1026:
1024:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
974:
969:
964:
959:
954:
949:
944:
939:
934:
929:
924:
919:
914:
913:
909:
904:
899:
894:
889:
884:
879:
874:
869:
864:
859:
854:
849:
848:
844:
841:
838:
835:
832:
829:
826:
823:
820:
817:
814:
813:
800:
797:
795:
791:
786:
784:
776:
773:
770:
767:
764:
760:
757:
754:
751:
748:
745:
742:
739:
736:
733:
730:
727:
725:
722:
721:
720:
717:
713:
709:
705:
701:
697:
693:
689:
685:
681:
677:
673:
663:
658:
654:
651:
649:
646:
644:
641:
639:
636:
634:
631:
629:
626:
624:
621:
619:
616:
614:
611:
609:
606:
605:
604:
602:
598:
594:
586:
575:
570:
567:
564:
554:
551:
548:
534:
533:
532:
524:
516:
509:
505:
501:
498:
496:
493:
492:
491:
489:
485:
481:
471:
469:
464:
460:
453:
452:
446:
441:
426:
423:
420:
419:
415:
412:
410:
407:
406:
402:
399:
397:
394:
393:
389:
386:
384:
381:
380:
376:
373:
371:
368:
367:
363:
360:
358:
355:
354:
350:
347:
345:
342:
341:
337:
334:
332:
329:
328:
324:
321:
319:
316:
315:
311:
308:
306:
303:
302:
298:
295:
293:
290:
289:
285:
282:
280:
277:
276:
270:
267:
264:
263:
260:
251:
249:
245:
241:
237:
233:
229:
225:
221:
217:
213:
207:
199:
191:
187:
174:
169:
161:
151:
147:
145:
141:
137:
133:
131:
127:
121:
118:
116:
113:
112:
111:
107:
104:Proto-Sinitic
103:
99:
94:
91:
90:
89:
86:
84:
80:
77:
73:
69:
65:
62:
56:
52:
48:
43:
38:
33:
29:
22:
10572:Hanyu Pinyin
10562:Romanization
10469:Semi-cursive
10314:Old Mandarin
10271:Stroke count
10198:
10191:
10113:Old National
9956:Unclassified
8861:Southwestern
8694:Northeastern
8676:Major groups
8666:
8665:
8615:
8602:
8595:
8588:
8581:
8574:
8567:
8542:
8488:
8481:
8456:
8442:
8435:
8426:
8419:
8378:
8363:Lolo-Burmese
8361:
8337:
8315:
8308:
8301:
8289:
8282:
8275:
8263:
8256:
8250:
8249:
8183:
8151:
8144:
8135:
8128:
8116:
8109:
8081:
8074:
8067:
8057:
8050:
8043:
8031:
8024:
7976:
7970:
7956:
7949:
7935:
7928:
7903:
7894:
7887:
7880:
7868:
7854:
7842:
7835:
7800:Sino-Tibetan
7752:
7735:
7731:
7713:
7694:
7687:: 1019–1028.
7684:
7680:
7655:
7634:
7612:
7585:
7581:
7578:Mei, Tsu-lin
7569:
7565:
7533:
7523:
7516:
7503:
7481:
7463:
7454:
7437:ScienceDaily
7436:
7396:
7392:
7372:
7366:
7347:
7341:
7332:
7326:
7307:
7301:
7292:
7286:
7277:
7273:
7267:
7258:
7254:
7248:
7239:
7235:
7229:
7210:
7204:
7185:
7179:
7173:. 中國社會科學出版社.
7170:
7164:
7155:
7149:
7130:
7124:
7105:
7099:
7080:
7045:Iwata (2010)
7040:
7028:
7019:
7013:
7004:
6998:
6987:
6975:
6966:
6959:
6953:
6948:, p. 3.
6941:
6936:, p. ?.
6929:
6917:
6905:
6893:
6884:
6878:
6869:
6863:
6854:
6848:
6839:
6833:
6824:
6818:
6809:
6803:
6794:
6788:
6779:
6773:
6762:. Retrieved
6748:
6739:
6717:
6693:
6663:
6645:
6639:
6620:
6602:
6582:. Retrieved
6578:the original
6573:
6564:
6555:
6551:
6533:
6511:
6505:
6496:
6490:
6471:
6466:
6457:
6451:
6443:漢語方言語音的演變和層次
6442:
6436:
6427:
6409:
6403:
6384:
6378:
6359:
6353:
6347:. 社會科學文獻出版社.
6344:
6338:
6329:
6323:
6314:
6284:cite journal
6273:
6264:
6258:
6249:
6219:
6191:
6165:
6147:
6141:
6122:
6086:
6004:
5995:
5990:
5969:cite journal
5958:
5949:
5943:
5928:
5916:蔡家话白语关系及词根比较
5909:
5882:
5842:
5806:, p. 1.
5799:
5779:
5767:
5718:
5714:
5708:
5696:
5691:, p. 3.
5684:
5672:
5660:
5623:
5613:
5597:
5579:
5562:
5554:
5545:). In 1982,
5540:
5519:
5506:
5429:
5425:
5414:
5404:
5398:
5390:
5387:
5384:
5381:
5378:
5372:
5369:
5366:
5361:
5358:
5355:
5348:
5345:
5342:
5335:
5332:
5330:
5325:
5322:
5319:
5312:
5309:
5306:
5301:
5298:
5295:
5288:
5285:
5282:
5275:
5272:
5270:
5258:
5251:
5241:
5227:
5211:
5207:
5204:
5201:
5198:
5194:
5191:
5188:
5181:
5178:
5175:
5168:
5165:
5162:
5156:definiteness
5141:
5128:
5124:
5121:
5118:
5115:
5109:
5106:
5103:
5098:
5095:
5092:
5085:
5082:
5079:
5074:
5071:
5068:
5062:
5053:
5050:
5047:
5045:分 個 {梨 子} 你。
5044:
5038:
5035:
5032:
5027:
5024:
5021:
5014:
5011:
5008:
5003:
5000:
4997:
4979:
4975:
4972:
4969:
4967:撥 對 {鞋 子} 我。
4966:
4960:
4957:
4954:
4949:
4946:
4943:
4936:
4933:
4930:
4925:
4922:
4919:
4904:
4901:
4898:
4895:
4889:
4886:
4883:
4878:
4875:
4872:
4865:
4862:
4859:
4854:
4851:
4848:
4841:
4838:
4835:
4822:
4814:
4810:
4807:
4804:
4801:
4797:
4794:
4791:
4784:
4781:
4778:
4773:
4770:
4767:
4760:
4757:
4754:
4747:
4744:
4741:
4736:
4733:
4730:
4719:
4716:
4713:
4710:Nanchangese:
4702:
4699:
4696:
4693:
4687:
4684:
4681:
4676:
4673:
4670:
4663:
4660:
4657:
4652:
4649:
4646:
4639:
4636:
4633:
4628:
4625:
4622:
4615:
4612:
4609:
4604:
4601:
4598:
4580:
4576:
4573:
4570:
4567:
4563:
4560:
4557:
4550:
4547:
4544:
4539:
4536:
4533:
4526:
4523:
4520:
4515:
4512:
4509:
4498:
4495:
4492:
4489:
4485:
4482:
4479:
4472:
4469:
4466:
4461:
4458:
4455:
4448:
4445:
4442:
4435:
4432:
4429:
4424:
4421:
4418:
4411:
4408:
4405:
4391:Shanghainese
4384:
4381:
4373:
4370:
4367:
4364:
4360:
4353:
4350:
4345:
4342:
4339:
4334:
4331:
4328:
4321:
4318:
4315:
4310:
4307:
4304:
4296:
4293:
4290:
4287:
4283:
4276:
4273:
4268:
4265:
4262:
4257:
4254:
4251:
4246:
4243:
4240:
4233:
4230:
4227:
4222:
4219:
4216:
4204:
4196:
3909:Shanghainese
3902:
3850:
3834:
3819:dialects of
3817:Southern Min
3809:
3802:
3783:
3771:Nanchang Gan
3744:
3720:
3707:Jerry Norman
3705:
3673:
3653:
3631:
3628:
3385:
3367:
3359:
3343:
3333:
3314:
3285:Changshanese
3282:
3266:
3249:Nanchangnese
3245:Tang dynasty
3242:
3145:
3131:
3125:
3115:
3106:and eastern
3093:
3073:
3044:Qian Nairong
3042:
3022:Shanghainese
3020:
2804:vowel length
2800:glottal stop
2774:and eastern
2757:
2712:Southern Min
2709:
2543:
2501:
2499:
2436:
2416:
2323:
2309:
2263:
2215:
2039:Kuala Lumpur
2016:
1904:Non-Tongtai
1891:
1887:Yangzhounese
1873:and most of
1860:
1844:
1777:
1769:
1765:
1762:
1759:
1755:
1752:
1747:
1744:
1739:
1736:
1731:
1728:
1722:
1719:
1716:
1712:
1709:
1704:
1701:
1696:
1693:
1688:
1685:
1665:and central
1648:
1631:Soviet Union
1623:
1619:
1540:
1441:
1436:
1421:
1418:null initial
1407:
1389:
1373:
1364:
1345:Shijiazhuang
1330:
1316:Taz language
1312:Shenyangnese
1297:
1290:
1275:
1263:
1248:
1236:
1217:
1191:
988:Heilongjiang
985:
807:Non-Mandarin
787:
780:
769:Southwestern
724:Northeastern
716:Qing dynasty
669:
661:
590:
582:
560:
544:
530:
522:
477:
459:Jerry Norman
456:
449:
257:
215:
209:
185:
183:
109:Subdivisions
92:
88:Sino-Tibetan
72:Central Asia
60:distribution
10641:Xiao'erjing
10503:Punctuation
10496:Traditional
10449:Oracle bone
10433:Logographic
10329:Proto-Hakka
10304:Eastern Han
10299:Old Chinese
10161:Classifiers
10128:Northern Wu
10056:Singaporean
9262: [
9250: [
9238: [
9226: [
9214: [
8604:Proto-Hakka
8533:Mahakiranti
8039:East Bodish
7819:Uttarakhand
7447:Works cited
7350:. 江蘇教育出版社.
7188:. 江蘇教育出版社.
6666:. 江蘇教育出版社.
6558:(6): 38–42.
6387:. 江蘇教育出版社.
6362:. 江蘇教育出版社.
5689:Mair (1991)
5677:Wang (2005)
5665:Wang (2005)
5205:1SG CL book
5138:Classifiers
4832:Yichunnese:
4506:Taiyuanese:
4402:Beijingese:
4387:Nanchangese
4213:Beijingese:
4097:rising (3)
3989:rising (3)
3813:Eastern Min
3805:Wu dialects
3796:divergence.
3779:Wenzhounese
3723:wave models
3712:Han dynasty
3698:varieties.
3680:Lianyungang
3633:Danzhounese
3376:of eastern
3340:Old Chinese
3287:and one of
3098:, parts of
3078:, southern
3030:Wenzhounese
2766:, southern
2724:Eastern Min
2419:Meizhounese
2280:, southern
2268:, parts of
1879:Nanjingnese
1865:, northern
1840:Kunmingnese
1794:, southern
1786:, northern
1671:Taiyuannese
1661:, northern
1657:, northern
1565:, southern
1553:, southern
1439:palatalized
1010:, parts of
790:classifiers
785:varieties.
593:Wenzhounese
484:Old Chinese
374:22,200,000
361:37,400,000
348:44,065,190
335:47,100,000
322:75,633,810
309:81,817,790
296:85,576,570
240:Old Chinese
165:(Macro-Bai)
10592:Wade–Giles
10491:Simplified
10386:Vernacular
10379:in Vietnam
10232:Simplified
10219:Biaoxingma
10166:Honorifics
10101:Historical
10046:Philippine
10036:Sichuanese
9963:Badong Yao
9667:Shao–Jiang
9538:Philippine
9346:Xiangxiang
9341:Shuangfeng
9086:Taizhou Wu
8869:Sichuanese
8498:Idu–Taraon
8452:Miju–Meyor
8345:Gyalrongic
8191:Tangkhulic
7966:Raji–Raute
7588:: 86–110,
7526:(1): 23–34
7513:海南省三亚市迈话音系
7491:082481892X
7473:0415297435
7375:. 江蘇教育出版社.
7357:7534323290
7220:7560911315
7171:安徽宣城（雁翅）方言
7158:. 廣西人民出版社.
6934:Mei (1970)
6922:Yan (2006)
6840:江西贛方言語音的特點
6764:2022-07-22
6742:. 江蘇教育出版社.
6720:. 上海教育出版社.
6696:. 上海教育出版社.
6673:7534325064
6630:7534354994
6584:2010-06-11
6394:7534322936
6369:7534328837
6332:. 江蘇教育出版社.
6222:. 江蘇教育出版社.
5648:References
5264:Ningbonese
5152:classifers
4896:我 得 本 書 你。
4568:給 我 一 本 書。
4332:kuaon-cieu
4207:Beijingese
4200:Suzhounese
4176:light (8)
4145:light (8)
4114:light (8)
4083:light (8)
3853:Sinographs
3727:Huai River
3457:Shuangfeng
3112:palatalize
3084:Jingdezhen
3026:Suzhounese
2782:, such as
2728:Puxian Min
2457:, most of
2272:, western
2131:Hong Kong
2117:Guangzhou
2051:Taishanese
2021:, eastern
1836:Sichuanese
1806:, most of
1790:, most of
1778:Spoken in
1653:, western
1300:Harbinnese
1006:, most of
994:, most of
597:Ningbonese
549:) initials
451:Ethnologue
400:4,130,000
387:5,380,000
254:Population
76:North Asia
58:Geographic
10530:Taiwanese
10520:Cantonese
10364:Classical
10324:Proto-Min
10259:Microsoft
10118:Cantonese
10094:Phonology
10075:Cantonese
10066:Singdarin
10051:Malaysian
10041:Taiwanese
9945:Rongjiang
9935:Yongjiang
9931:Southern
9916:Northern
9890:Luo–Guang
9799:Hong Kong
9794:Guangzhou
9750:Taiwanese
9743:Changting
9677:Zhanjiang
9591:Zhongshan
9558:Malaysian
9553:Singapore
9518:Zhangzhou
9470:Zhongshan
9363:Yong–Quan
9259:Jing-Zhan
9189:Xuancheng
9166:Jiangshan
9045:Changzhou
8966:Junjiahua
8819:Guanzhong
8702:Changchun
8597:Proto-Min
8528:Macro-Bai
8406:Arunachal
8399:(possible
8214:Boro–Garo
8118:Kuki-Chin
8101:and Indo-
8016:Arunachal
8003:Himalayas
7978:Tandrange
7945:Chepangic
7876:Dhimalish
7810:Himalayas
7716:, Brill,
7293:吳語的句法類型特點
6408:He, Wei.
6174:0257-0203
5874:"Chinese"
5759:129946000
5743:1476-4687
5653:Citations
5570::69) and
5461:Proximal
5441:Zhangshu
5438:Dongxiang
5260:Wuhannese
5208:'my book'
4947:gha - tsy
4335:Guangzhou
4301:Wuxinese:
4258:Guangzhou
4255:Guǎngzhōu
4162:dark (7)
4154:˨ ˥˨ ˨ ˧
4140:˥ ˥˨ ˨ ˧
4131:dark (7)
4123:˨ ˥˩ ˩ ꜌
4109:˥ ˥˩ ˩ ꜌
4100:dark (7)
4078:˦ ˨˧ ˦ ꜉
4069:dark (7)
4061:darkness
4056:tone cat
4026:˨˧ ˩ ˩ ꜌
4012:˥˨ ˧ ˦ ꜉
3925:/tʃɦɻʷəi/
3913:Bobainese
3899:Phonology
3791:Taiyuan (
3751:New Xiang
3513:'flower'
3374:New Xiang
3293:Loudinese
3136:initial (
3120:initial (
2823:Changzhou
2788:Changzhou
2720:Zhongshan
2590:Changsha
2516:Inuktitut
2506:initial (
2491:Taiwanese
2483:Hainanese
2475:Hong Kong
2447:Guangdong
2443:Zhanjiang
2344:Hong Kong
2338:Changting
2314:initial (
2306:Indonesia
2278:Hong Kong
2266:Guangdong
2218:Cantonese
2145:Dongguan
2047:Cantonese
2043:Vancouver
2027:Hong Kong
2019:Guangdong
1883:Hefeinese
1832:Wuhannese
1804:Chongqing
1766:'to roll'
1583:Zhengzhou
1530:'to see'
1446:initial (
1412:initial (
1337:Jinannese
1308:Jilinnese
1291:politsiya
1255:'machine'
1054:Changchun
836:Guangzhou
821:Zhengzhou
775:Jianghuai
708:Singapore
692:Northeast
676:Southwest
577:initial (
488:Southwest
434:Languages
268:Speakers
155:(Sinitic)
144:Glottolog
130:ISO 639-5
120:Macro-Bai
64:East Asia
50:Ethnicity
10679:Category
10614:Bopomofo
10543:Phonetic
10535:Two-cell
10464:Clerical
10374:in Japan
10369:Adoption
10357:Official
10348:Literary
10223:Boshiamy
10200:Xiehouyu
10156:Numerals
10133:Mandarin
10061:Standard
10021:Standard
9895:Qin–Lian
9885:Yong–Xun
9870:Gao–Yang
9816:Jiujiang
9804:Malaysia
9738:Tingzhou
9689:Wenchang
9650:Jianyang
9640:Northern
9599:Sanxiang
9513:Quanzhou
9496:Southern
9465:Manjiang
9329:Changsha
9289:Nanchang
9284:Chang–Du
9181:Xuanzhou
9171:Qingtian
9125:Wencheng
9071:Jiangyin
9066:Jinxiang
9056:Shaoxing
9050:Hangzhou
9030:Shanghai
8971:Qinjiang
8879:Minjiang
8851:Xinjiang
8809:Dongping
8773:Jiaoliao
8712:Shenyang
8685:Mandarin
8402:isolates
8369:Mondzish
8297:Cai–Long
8045:Tshangla
8001:Eastern
7844:Tamangic
7814:Himachal
7808:Western
7802:branches
7654:(1984),
7611:(1988),
7557:(1991),
7425:31061123
7255:淮南師範學院學報
7211:蘇州方言語音研究
7156:廣西漢語方言研究
6885:湘語的分區（稿）
6758:Archived
6472:漢語方言學大詞典
6428:現代漢語方言概論
6315:漢語官話方言研究
6267:. 方志出版社.
6265:河北省志 方言志
6252:. 语文出版社.
6192:北京官话语音研究
5996:貴州省志 民族志
5751:31019300
5144:Japanese
4185:˧ ˦ ˨ ꜋
4171:˦ ˦ ˦ ˨
4092:˨ ˧ ˦ ꜉
4059:1st char
4054:2nd char
3998:˥ ˩ ˩ ꜌
3984:˨ ˧ ˦ ꜉
3970:˦ ˦ ˦ ꜉
3865:Cyrillic
3825:Chaozhou
3803:The two
3568:'melon'
3452:Changsha
3447:Hangzhou
3432:Shanghai
3382:Mandarin
3173:Yingtan
3161:Nanchang
3076:Hangzhou
2826:Shaoxing
2817:Shanghai
2796:Hangzhou
2764:Shanghai
2760:Zhejiang
2732:Northern
2569:Chaozhou
2566:Quanzhou
2558:Non-Min
2548:initial
2467:Zhejiang
2439:Chaoshan
2250:Luoguang
2170:Taishan
2092:Examples
1924:Huizhou
1918:Hangzhou
1915:Yangzhou
1820:Thailand
1760:滾 {} 骨 攏
1723:'stupid'
1717:笨 {} 薄 愣
1679:/(u)əʔl/
1575:Xinjiang
1555:Shandong
1392:Jiaodong
1341:Cangzhou
1333:Shandong
1226:rutabaga
1186:'north'
1149:'eight'
1112:'guest'
1066:Chaozhou
1057:Shenyang
996:Liaoning
975:'heart'
910:'sound'
804:Mandarin
735:Jiaoliao
690:and the
666:Mandarin
608:Mandarin
546:quánzhuó
500:Cai-Long
279:Mandarin
218:, are a
211:Hànyǔ zú
160:macr1275
150:sini1245
10513:Braille
10474:Cursive
10424:Scripts
10291:History
10281:ZhengMa
10227:Cangjie
10193:Chengyu
10148:Grammar
10123:Hokkien
10080:Hokkien
9988:Waxiang
9968:Danzhou
9940:Guandao
9925:Younian
9920:Tongdao
9909:Pinghua
9849:Taishan
9765:Raoping
9733:Huizhou
9723:Meixian
9699:Banqiao
9672:Leizhou
9662:Pu–Xian
9657:Central
9645:Jian'ou
9620:Longyan
9568:Teochew
9505:Hokkien
9480:Nanlang
9436:Fu–Ning
9416:Changle
9398:Houguan
9389:Eastern
9336:Loushao
9324:Changyi
9306:Da–Tong
9301:Ying–Yi
9247:Yanzhou
9115:Wenzhou
9108:Oujiang
9099:Tiantai
9094:Taizhou
9003:Zhi–Yan
8950:Nantong
8945:Nanjing
8920:Gui–Liu
8910:Nanping
8905:Kunming
8831:Luoyang
8786:Qingdao
8758:Tianjin
8735:Beijing
8727:Beijing
8616:Italics
8477:Siangic
8458:Songlin
8437:Kho-Bwa
8415:Hrusish
8397:Dubious
8380:Loloish
8374:Burmish
8339:Qiangic
8310:Longjia
8277:Karenic
8271:Nungish
8251:Sinitic
8137:Hkongso
8099:Myanmar
8069:Gongduk
8033:Tibetic
7951:Chepang
7924:Magaric
7870:Kiranti
7850:Newaric
7613:Chinese
7602:2718766
7572:: 1–31.
7517:Fāngyán
7457:, Brill
7416:6534992
7308:香港客家話研究
6963:方言与中国文化
6756:. 人民網.
6317:. 齊魯書社.
6220:哈爾濱方言詞典
6087:中國語言地圖集
5723:Bibcode
5599:fāngyán
5555:Sinitic
5491:Yonder
5476:Distal
5096:mèn báu
5025:lɐi tsə
4220:Jīntiān
4193:Grammar
4151:˨ ˥˨ ˧
4137:˥ ˥˨ ˧
4120:˨ ˥˩ ꜌
4106:˥ ˥˩ ꜌
4075:˦ ˨˧ ꜊
4049:4 char
4046:3 char
4043:2 char
4023:˨˧ ˩ ꜌
4009:˥˨ ˧ ꜊
3956:4 char
3953:3 char
3950:2 char
3861:Hokkien
3729:to the
3690:in the
3660:Huizhou
3623:'down'
3442:Wenzhou
3427:Nantong
3422:Nanjing
3417:Beijing
3329:Pinghua
3321:Huizhou
3277:Guizhou
3273:Guangxi
3096:Jiangxi
3056:Oujiang
3052:Taizhou
3036:. The
2844:Quzhou
2835:Wenzhou
2832:Taizhou
2776:Jiangxi
2768:Jiangsu
2736:Central
2587:Guiyang
2584:Lanzhou
2581:Leizhou
2575:Jian'ou
2512:Occitan
2495:Hokchiu
2489:(incl.
2487:Hokkien
2463:Jiangxi
2341:Hsinchu
2335:Meizhou
2290:Guangxi
2282:Jiangxi
2254:Yongxun
2238:Qinlian
2234:Gaoyang
2226:Guanbao
2023:Guangxi
1912:Taizhou
1909:Nantong
1901:Tongtai
1875:Jiangsu
1867:Jiangxi
1800:Shaanxi
1792:Sichuan
1788:Guangxi
1784:Guizhou
1675:Li Rong
1659:Shaanxi
1603:Lanzhou
1587:Luoyang
1579:Kaifeng
1567:Ningxia
1563:Shaanxi
1559:Jiangsu
1464:Qingdao
1404:Qingdao
1361:initial
1359:of the
1353:Baoding
1287:полиция
1264:mashina
1237:bryukva
1219:bǔliúkè
1207:Origin
1204:Meaning
1060:Beijing
1012:Tianjin
1008:Beijing
839:Meizhou
833:Nanjing
830:Chengdu
827:Taiyuan
815:Beijing
729:Beijing
680:Huguang
653:Pinghua
527:Chinese
508:Longjia
416:0.004%
413:56,300
396:Pinghua
383:Huizhou
286:73.50%
248:Chinese
163:
153:
115:Chinese
93:Sinitic
45:Chinese
40:Sinitic
10582:Postal
10577:MPS II
10454:Bronze
10334:Ba–Shu
10254:Google
10249:Pinyin
10185:Idioms
9998:Yeheni
9880:Wu–Hua
9875:Goulou
9854:Xinhui
9831:Dapeng
9826:Weitou
9811:Xiguan
9786:Yuehai
9755:Sixian
9694:Haikou
9684:Hainan
9615:Zhenan
9581:Haklau
9576:Swatow
9548:Penang
9533:Taiwan
9528:Chawan
9475:Longdu
9444:Ningde
9421:Gutian
9411:Fuqing
9406:Fuzhou
9368:Qiyang
9351:Wugang
9296:Yi–Liu
9223:Xiu-Yi
9211:Ji-She
9161:Quzhou
9153:Chu–Qu
9143:Jinhua
9135:Wuzhou
9120:Rui'an
9061:Ningbo
9035:Suzhou
8925:Wuming
8896:Zigong
8884:Leshan
8846:Lanyin
8841:Dungan
8836:Xuzhou
8814:Gangou
8791:Weihai
8781:Dalian
8740:Taiwan
8707:Harbin
8490:Milang
8444:Puroik
8428:Mijiic
8352:Ersuic
8303:Caijia
8219:Konyak
8185:Meitei
8089:Chamdo
8026:Bodish
8012:Bhutan
7958:Bhujel
7905:Lepcha
7896:Lhokpu
7882:Dhimal
7827:Sikkim
7759:
7720:
7702:
7662:
7641:
7619:
7600:
7544:
7488:
7470:
7423:
7413:
7373:黎川方言詞典
7354:
7348:武漢方言詞典
7333:武漢方言研究
7314:
7217:
7192:
7186:香港粵語詞典
7137:
7131:長沙方言詞典
7112:
7106:廈門方言詞典
7087:
7081:廣州方言詞典
6740:蘇州方言詞典
6718:上海話大詞典
6694:當代吳語研究
6670:
6664:梅縣方言詞典
6627:
6552:欽州學院學報
6512:南通方言詞典
6478:
6410:中原官話分區
6391:
6385:西寧方言詞典
6366:
6360:徐州方言詞典
6345:洛陽方言研究
6330:牟平方言詞典
6250:漢語方言詞彙
6198:
6172:
6129:
5757:
5749:
5741:
5715:Nature
5608:; and
5446:Close
5393:/nɤ³⁵/
5326:
5323:
5302:unripe
5148:Korean
5129:
4980:
4914:Wugniu
4815:
4717:꜂n len
4581:
4486:sweets
4361:
4356:Wugniu
4351:
4284:
4279:pinyin
4274:
4247:arrive
4182:˧ ˦ ꜉
4168:˦ ˦ ꜉
4148:˨ ˥˨˧
4134:˥ ˥˨˧
4089:˨ ˧ ꜊
3995:˥ ˩ ꜌
3981:˨ ˧ ꜊
3967:˦ ˦ ꜉
3917:/mɭɤŋ/
3857:Dungan
3821:Xiamen
3765:, and
3753:, and
3664:Heyuan
3637:Maihua
3437:Suzhou
3411:Gloss
3345:Qieyun
3170:Fuzhou
3164:Yichun
3138:合口曉匣兩母
3064:Wuzhou
2841:Lishui
2838:Jinhua
2829:Ningbo
2820:Suzhou
2792:Ningbo
2784:Suzhou
2722:, the
2716:Datian
2578:Haikou
2572:Putian
2563:Fuzhou
2528:Telugu
2493:) and
2479:Teoswa
2459:Fujian
2455:Taiwan
2451:Hainan
2294:Hainan
2274:Fujian
2270:Taiwan
2246:Goulou
2222:Yuehai
2198:Yulin
2184:Bobai
2159:Shiqi
2073:Light
2035:Hainan
1921:Fuzhou
1828:Minchi
1816:Kokang
1780:Yunnan
1737:
1694:
1651:Shanxi
1599:Xining
1591:Xuzhou
1551:Shanxi
1470:Gloss
1467:Dalian
1461:Weihai
1458:Yantai
1400:Dalian
1320:Russia
1282:'jail'
1277:bālízi
1260:машина
1250:mǎshén
1233:брюква
1075:Wuhan
1069:Suzhou
1063:Heyuan
1051:Harbin
1046:Gloss
1020:rhotic
842:Xiamen
810:Gloss
783:Junhua
753:Lanyin
674:, the
584:jiànmǔ
504:Caijia
421:Total
409:Dungan
403:0.27%
390:0.35%
377:1.46%
364:2.46%
351:2.90%
338:3.09%
325:4.97%
312:5.38%
299:5.62%
265:Branch
208::
206:pinyin
200::
192::
10646:Nüshu
10350:forms
10264:Sogou
10211:Input
10085:Hakka
10023:forms
9863:Other
9821:Shiqi
9760:Hailu
9728:Wuhua
9715:Hakka
9633:Other
9608:Other
9543:Pedan
9458:Other
9449:Fu'an
9426:Matsu
9358:Ji–Xu
9316:Xiang
9266:]
9254:]
9242:]
9235:Qi-De
9230:]
9218:]
9076:Shadi
9022:Taihu
8976:Gyami
8959:Other
8915:Wuhan
8824:Xi'an
8763:Jinan
8421:Hruso
8317:Luren
8291:Kathu
8265:Tujia
8153:Taman
8124:Mruic
8111:Karbi
8052:Basum
8008:Tibet
7930:Magar
7856:Newar
7823:Nepal
7677:(PDF)
7598:JSTOR
7562:(PDF)
7020:赣榆方言志
7005:惠州方言志
6965:[
6780:漢語方言學
5935:蔡家的語言
5755:S2CID
5625:tǔhuà
5605:yǔyán
5581:yǔyán
5526:Sīnae
5511:Notes
5199:我 本 書
5099:bread
4782:tsaʔ꜆
4774:three
4758:꜂tɕie
4734:꜀tɕia
4677:money
4674:tɕiɛ̃
4661:kʰuai
4602:ma ma
4311:today
4308:cin-a
4223:today
4117:˨ ˥˩
4103:˥ ˥˩
4072:˦ ˨˧
4020:˨˧ ˩
4006:˥˨ ˧
3905:tones
3763:Hakka
3656:東江本地話
3645:Hakka
3378:Hunan
3269:Hunan
3255:Xiang
3167:Ji'an
3108:Hunan
3104:Anhui
3100:Hebei
3080:Anhui
3060:Chuqu
3048:Taihu
2772:Anhui
2698:tsʰən
2693:tʂʰən
2545:cheng
2524:Māori
2520:Latin
2503:cheng
2347:Yudu
2286:Hunan
2260:Hakka
2242:Wuhua
2087:Long
2084:Short
2078:Short
2031:Macau
1871:Hubei
1863:Anhui
1812:Hunan
1808:Hubei
1796:Gansu
1748:kuəʔ꜆
1663:Henan
1655:Hebei
1595:Xi'an
1571:Gansu
1547:Henan
1526:tɕiɛ̃
1349:Jinan
1072:Hefei
1043:Other
1023:erhua
1004:Hebei
992:Jilin
845:Anyi
824:Xi'an
818:Jinan
794:erhua
657:Tuhua
648:Xiang
623:Hakka
515:Luren
427:100%
357:Xiang
344:Hakka
220:group
10607:Yale
10597:EFEO
10459:Seal
10244:Dayi
9841:Siyi
9523:Amoy
9040:Wuxi
8937:Huai
8750:Jilu
8538:Rung
8483:Koro
8357:Naic
8284:Gong
8240:and
8238:East
8196:Zeme
8165:Naga
8083:Tani
8076:ʼOle
7972:Dura
7937:Kham
7889:Toto
7757:ISBN
7718:ISBN
7700:ISBN
7660:ISBN
7639:ISBN
7617:ISBN
7542:ISBN
7524:2007
7486:ISBN
7468:ISBN
7421:PMID
7352:ISBN
7312:ISBN
7280:(4).
7215:ISBN
7190:ISBN
7135:ISBN
7110:ISBN
7085:ISBN
6855:閩語研究
6825:徽州方言
6812:(1).
6797:(1).
6668:ISBN
6625:ISBN
6499:(4).
6497:語言科學
6476:ISBN
6460:(3).
6458:語言研究
6389:ISBN
6364:ISBN
6297:help
6196:ISBN
6170:ISSN
6127:ISBN
6011:白语简志
5982:help
5920:研究之乐
5747:PMID
5739:ISSN
5615:tǔyǔ
5566:See
5500:꜃hɛ̣
5362:ripe
5215:and
5195:book
5146:and
5107:ngāi
5083:kuài
5075:give
5028:pear
5004:give
4950:shoe
4926:give
4879:book
4855:give
4771:꜀san
4749:PERF
4737:lend
4689:SPEC
4650:lian
4629:give
4617:SPEC
4564:book
4516:give
4483:táng
4437:PERF
4425:give
4389:and
4319:ngeu
4179:˧ ˦
4165:˦ ˦
4086:˨ ˧
3992:˥ ˩
3978:˨ ˧
3964:˦ ꜉
3867:and
3859:and
3823:and
3662:and
3635:and
3372:and
3327:and
3275:and
3152:xiao
3130:and
3127:xiao
3117:jian
3102:and
3062:and
3028:and
2900:tʰaŋ
2895:tʰɔŋ
2890:tʰoŋ
2885:tʰoŋ
2880:tʰoŋ
2875:tʰoŋ
2870:tʰoŋ
2865:tʰoŋ
2860:tʰoŋ
2855:tʰoŋ
2794:and
2738:and
2718:and
2703:tsən
2683:ʔdaŋ
2678:teiŋ
2668:tʰiŋ
2641:tsʰa
2636:tʂʰa
2526:and
2473:and
2465:and
2441:and
2300:and
2292:and
2230:Siyi
2081:Long
2070:Dark
2067:Tone
2049:and
2041:and
1997:piaŋ
1977:pʰiŋ
1972:pʰeŋ
1885:and
1849:Huai
1834:and
1798:and
1756:꜂lʊŋ
1732:꜂kʊŋ
1713:ləŋ꜄
1705:pəʔ꜇
1689:pəŋ꜄
1601:and
1569:and
1521:tɕiã
1516:cian
1511:cian
1496:tɕiɔ
1491:tɕiɔ
1486:ciau
1481:ciau
1443:jiàn
1428:止攝開口
1402:and
1394:and
1365:tong
1351:and
1310:and
1302:and
1198:Term
1014:and
941:ɕiəŋ
931:siən
741:Jilu
710:and
655:and
595:and
574:jiàn
272:pct.
184:The
10339:Gan
10239:CKC
10106:Old
9983:She
9973:Mai
9777:Yue
9380:Min
9276:Gan
9203:Hui
9052:(?)
8990:Jin
8717:Taz
8404:) (
8258:Bai
8206:Sal
8146:Pyu
8130:Mru
8059:Nam
7740:doi
7590:doi
7411:PMC
7401:doi
7397:116
5918:.
5790:Bái
5731:doi
5719:569
5618:or
5588:or
5551:Bai
5542:OED
5539:. (
5537:Qin
5532:Ṣīn
5485:꜃hɛ
5470:ko꜆
5465:꜁ko
5455:kọ꜆
5450:꜀ko
5416:geq
5406:go²
5359:səu
5350:COP
5337:DEM
5299:sən
5290:COP
5277:DEM
5243:zhè
5192:syu
5179:bun
5170:1SG
5166:ngo
5111:1SG
5104:𠊎。
5093:麪 包
5072:bín
5040:2SG
5022:梨 子
5001:fɐn
4962:1SG
4958:ngu
4944:鞋 子
4923:peq
4891:2SG
4863:pun
4852:tɛ⁻
4843:1SG
4798:pot
4795:꜀wo
4762:3SG
4725:POL
4721:2SG
4714:你 人
4653:two
4641:1SG
4599:媽 媽
4548:pəŋ
4540:one
4537:iəʔ
4528:1SG
4513:kei
4462:one
4450:1SG
4422:gěi
4413:3SG
4343:chi
4329:廣 州
4323:1sg
4305:今 阿
4252:廣 州
4244:dào
4235:1sg
4217:今 天
3793:Jin
3767:Yue
3759:Min
3755:Gan
3684:贛榆話
3678:of
3641:Yue
3584:ɕiɑ
3579:ɕia
3559:kua
3554:kua
3534:kuo
3529:kuɑ
3524:kua
3499:hua
3494:kʰo
3479:xuo
3474:xuɑ
3469:xua
3387:jia
3336:Min
3325:Jin
3291:or
3204:fɛi
3199:fai
3194:fei
3184:ϕɨi
3150:or
3147:xia
3133:xia
3090:Gan
3070:Hui
3014:daŋ
3009:dɔŋ
3004:doŋ
2999:doŋ
2994:doŋ
2989:doŋ
2984:doŋ
2979:doŋ
2974:doŋ
2969:doŋ
2957:taŋ
2952:tɔŋ
2947:toŋ
2942:toŋ
2937:toŋ
2932:toŋ
2927:toŋ
2922:toŋ
2917:toŋ
2912:toŋ
2688:taŋ
2673:tɛŋ
2663:tan
2658:tiŋ
2646:tsa
2626:ʔdɛ
2555:Min
2445:of
2425:Min
2410:nie
2405:ɡit
2400:ȵit
2390:ȵit
2378:niẽ
2373:ɡin
2368:ȵin
2363:neŋ
2358:ȵin
2304:in
2252:),
2228:),
2210:˨˩
2193:˨˨
2179:˨˩
2154:˨˨
2151:˨˨˦
2140:˨˨
2126:˨˨
2005:Yue
1992:paŋ
1987:biŋ
1982:pin
1955:tei
1940:tʰi
1935:tʰi
1637:Jin
1545:of
1432:/ʐ/
1423:zhǐ
1318:of
1271:巴籬子
1213:卜留克
1183:˨˩˧
1168:˨˩˧
1165:˨˩˧
1162:˨˩˧
1159:˨˩˧
1146:˨˩˧
1109:˨˩˧
1091:˨˩˧
1085:˨˩˧
971:ɕim
966:sim
961:sim
956:sɐm
951:sin
946:ɕin
936:ɕiẽ
926:ɕiẽ
921:ɕin
891:iɐm
876:iəŋ
866:iən
759:Jin
643:Gan
638:Hui
628:Min
618:Yue
613:Jin
495:Bai
370:Gan
331:Jin
318:Min
292:Yue
202:漢語族
194:汉语族
136:zhx
122:(?)
10681::
9264:zh
9252:zh
9240:zh
9228:zh
9216:zh
9013:Wu
8174:Ao
8014:,
8010:,
7825:,
7821:,
7736:34
7734:,
7685:17
7683:,
7679:,
7596:,
7586:30
7584:,
7570:29
7568:,
7564:,
7540:,
7536:,
7520:方言
7515:,
7502:,
7435:.
7419:,
7409:,
7395:,
7387:;
7278:43
7276:.
7259:23
7257:.
7071:^
7052:^
6810:方言
6795:方言
6726:^
6702:^
6682:^
6654:^
6611:^
6593:^
6572:.
6556:31
6554:.
6542:^
6520:^
6418:^
6305:^
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