Sino-Tibetan languages

1550: 1538: 1562: 1056: 8118: 1212: 190: 3738:. He compared the vocabulary of Gothic and Chinese and guessed that the two may be of the same origin. In the second half of the 19th century, Kong Haogu, Shigude, Ijosser, etc. successively proposed that Chinese and European languages are homologous. Among them, Kong Haogu, through the comparison of Chinese and Indo-European domestic animal vocabulary, first proposed an Indo-Chinese language macrofamily (including Chinese, Tibetan, Burmese, and Indo-European languages). 1108: 2118:, like Shafer, rejects a primary split between Chinese and the rest, suggesting that Chinese owes its traditional privileged place in Sino-Tibetan to historical, typological, and cultural, rather than linguistic, criteria. He calls the entire family "Tibeto-Burman", a name he says has historical primacy, but other linguists who reject a privileged position for Chinese nevertheless continue to call the resulting family "Sino-Tibetan". 1104:. Similarly, Karlgren's *l has been recast as *r, with a different initial interpreted as *l, matching Tibeto-Burman cognates, but also supported by Chinese transcriptions of foreign names. A growing number of scholars believe that Old Chinese did not use tones and that the tones of Middle Chinese developed from final consonants. One of these, *-s, is believed to be a suffix, with cognates in other Sino-Tibetan languages. 1521:

approximately 4,200 to 7,800 years ago (with an average of 5,900 years ago), associated with the Yangshao and/or Majiayao cultures. Sagart et al. (2019) performed another phylogenetic analysis based on different data and methods to arrive at the same conclusions to the homeland and divergence model but proposed an earlier root age of approximately 7,200 years ago, associating its origin with millet farmers of the late

308:. Difficulties have included the great diversity of the languages, the lack of inflection in many of them, and the effects of language contact. In addition, many of the smaller languages are spoken in mountainous areas that are difficult to reach and are often also sensitive border zones. There is no consensus regarding the date and location of their origin. 3611:) as primary branches. Stanley Starosta has extended this proposal with a further branch called "Yangzian" joining Hmong–Mien and Austroasiatic. The proposal has been largely rejected by other linguists who argue that the similarities between Austronesian and Sino-Tibetan more likely arose from contact rather than being genetic. 3633:(1856), James Byrne (1892), and G.J. Ramstedt (1907), suggested that Yeniseian was a northern relative of the Sino–Tibetan languages. These ideas were followed much later by Kai Donner and Karl Bouda. A 2008 study found further evidence for a possible relation between Yeniseian and Sino–Tibetan, citing several possible 2137:, etc.), both amongst each other and to the other languages of the family, remain unclear. However, rather than placing them in a geographic grouping, as Matisoff does, van Driem leaves them unclassified. He has proposed several hypotheses, including the reclassification of Chinese to a Sino-Bodic subgroup: 1816:

Tibeto-Burman languages (the Sino-Tibetan languages to the exclusion of Chinese)" and that "it no longer seems justified to treat Chinese as the first branching of the Sino-Tibetan family," because the morphological divide between Chinese and Tibeto-Burman has been bridged by recent reconstructions of

3733:

August Conrad proposed the Sino-Tibetan-Indo-European language family. This hypothesis holds that there is a genetic relationship between the Sino-Tibetan language family and the Indo-European language family. The earliest comparative linguistic study of Chinese and Indo-European languages was by the

1262:

Most of the current spread of Sino-Tibetan languages is the result of historical expansions of the three groups with the most speakers – Chinese, Burmese and Tibetic – replacing an unknown number of earlier languages. These groups also have the longest literary traditions of the family. The remaining

1069:

is by far the oldest recorded Sino-Tibetan language, with inscriptions dating from around 1250 BC and a huge body of literature from the first millennium BC. However, the Chinese script is logographic and does not represent sounds systematically; it is therefore difficult to reconstruct the phonology

1815:

Some more-recent Western scholars, such as Bradley (1997) and La Polla (2003), have retained Matisoff's two primary branches, though differing in the details of Tibeto-Burman. However, Jacques (2006) notes, "comparative work has never been able to put forth evidence for common innovations to all the

463:

by comparing five major languages, with occasional comparisons with other languages. He reconstructed a two-way distinction on initial consonants based on voicing, with aspiration conditioned by pre-initial consonants that had been retained in Tibetic but lost in many other languages. Thus, Benedict

299:

between Chinese, Tibetan, Burmese, and other languages was first proposed in the early 19th century and is now broadly accepted. The initial focus on languages of civilizations with long literary traditions has been broadened to include less widely spoken languages, some of which have only recently,

2527:

and Mark W. Post have criticized the applicability of conventional Sino-Tibetan classification schemes to minor languages lacking an extensive written history (unlike Chinese, Tibetic, and Burmese). They find that the evidence for the subclassification or even ST affiliation in all of several minor

2263:

In response, Matisoff notes that the existence of shared lexical material only serves to establish an absolute relationship between two language families, not their relative relationship to one another. Although some cognate sets presented by van Driem are confined to Chinese and Bodic, many others

1186:

The descriptions of non-literary languages used by Shafer and Benedict were often produced by missionaries and colonial administrators of varying linguistic skills. Most of the smaller Sino-Tibetan languages are spoken in inaccessible mountainous areas, many of which are politically or militarily

991:, though Benedict's supporters attribute it to the effects of prefixes that have been lost and are often unrecoverable. The issue remains unsolved today. It was cited together with the lack of reconstructable shared morphology, and evidence that much shared lexical material has been borrowed from 1655:

systems and some vocabulary with Chinese. At the time, tone was considered so fundamental to language that tonal typology could be used as the basis for classification. In the Western scholarly community, these languages are no longer included in Sino-Tibetan, with the similarities attributed to

2532:

While relatively little has been known about the languages of this region up to and including the present time, this has not stopped scholars from proposing that these languages either constitute or fall within some other Tibeto-Burman subgroup. However, in the absence of any sort of systematic

1095:

Karlgren's reconstruction was somewhat unwieldy, with many sounds having a highly non-uniform distribution. Later scholars have revised it by drawing on a range of other sources. Some proposals were based on cognates in other Sino-Tibetan languages, though workers have also found solely Chinese

4648:

Archaeological evidence for initial migration of Neolithic Proto Sino-Tibetan speakers from Yellow River valley to Tibetan Plateau. Li Liua,, Jian Chen, Jiajing Wang, Yanan Zhao, and Xingcan Chen. Edited by Melinda Zeder, Smithsonian Institution, Frederick, MD; received July 12, 2022; accepted

2714:

Following that, because they propose that the three best-known branches may be much closer related to each other than they are to "minor" Sino-Tibetan languages, Blench and Post argue that "Sino-Tibetan" or "Tibeto-Burman" are inappropriate names for a family whose earliest divergences led to

1520:

Zhang et al. (2019) performed a computational phylogenetic analysis of 109 Sino-Tibetan languages to suggest a Sino-Tibetan homeland in northern China near the Yellow River basin. The study further suggests that there was an initial major split between the Sinitic and Tibeto-Burman languages

3703:(2014) to look into support for the Sino–Dené hypothesis. Caveney considered a link between Sino-Tibetan, Na-Dené, and Yeniseian to be plausible but did not support the hypothesis that Sino-Tibetan and Na-Dené were related to the Caucasian languages (Sino–Caucasian and Dené–Caucasian). 3710:

using the standard techniques of comparative linguistics supports a distant genetic link between the Sino-Tibetan, Na-Dené, and Yeniseian language families. Bradley argues that any similarities Sino-Tibetan shares with other language families of the East Asia area such as Hmong-Mien,

2272:

Van Driem has also proposed a "fallen leaves" model that lists dozens of well-established low-level groups while remaining agnostic about intermediate groupings of these. In the most recent version (van Driem 2014), 42 groups are identified (with individual languages highlighted in

1687:), because the Chinese cognates that form the basis of the putative relationship are not found in all branches of the family and have not been reconstructed for the family as a whole. In addition, Kam–Tai itself no longer appears to be a valid node within Kra–Dai. 3773:

The volumes were: 1. Introduction and bibliography, 2. Bhotish, 3. West Himalayish, 4. West Central Himalayish, 5. East Himalayish, 6. Digarish, 7. Nungish, 8. Dzorgaish, 9. Hruso, 10. Dhimalish, 11. Baric, 12. Burmish–Lolish, 13. Kachinish, 14. Kukish, 15.

3090:. It was not until Benedict that the inflectional systems of these languages were recognized as (partially) native to the family. Scholars disagree over the extent to which the agreement system in the various languages can be reconstructed for the 1410:, which are believed to be the homeland of the group. The highlands stretching from northeast India to northern Myanmar contain over 100 highly diverse Sino-Tibetan languages. Other Sino-Tibetan languages are found along the southern slopes of the 2533:

comparison – whether the data are thought reliable or not – such "subgroupings" are essentially vacuous. The use of pseudo-genetic labels such as "Himalayish" and "Kamarupan" inevitably gives an impression of coherence which is at best misleading.

2890:

languages in the world in placing relative clauses before the nouns they modify. Most scholars believe SOV to be the original order, with Chinese, Karen, and Bai having acquired SVO order due to the influence of neighbouring languages in the

1507:

argues that agriculture cannot be reconstructed for Proto-Sino-Tibetan. Blench and Mark Post have proposed that the earliest speakers of Sino-Tibetan were not farmers but highly diverse foragers in the eastern foothills of the

3760:, p. 189: "wir das Tibetisch-Barmanische einerseits, das Chinesisch-Siamesische anderseits als deutlich geschiedene und doch wieder verwandte Gruppen einer einheitlichen Sprachfamilie anzuerkennen haben." (also quoted in 2251:

Van Driem points to two main pieces of evidence establishing a special relationship between Sinitic and Bodic and thus placing Chinese within the Tibeto-Burman family. First, there are some parallels between the morphology of

3719:), Austroasiatic, Kra–Dai, Austronesian came through contact; but as there has been no recent contact between the Sino-Tibetan, Na-Dené, and Yeniseian language families, any similarities these groups share must be residual. 3637:. Gao Jingyi (2014) identified twelve Sinitic and Yeniseian shared etymologies that belonged to the basic vocabulary, and argued that these Sino-Yeniseian etymologies could not be loans from either language into the other. 1169:

correspond to two Old Chinese vowels, *a and *ə. While this has been considered evidence for a separate Tibeto-Burman subgroup, Hill (2014) finds that Burmese has distinct correspondences for Old Chinese rhymes

385:

called this group Indo-Chinese in his influential 1896 classification, though he had doubts about Karen. Conrady's terminology was widely used, but there was uncertainty regarding his exclusion of Vietnamese.

1500:

before 9000 years BP, with an associated taxonomy reflecting various outward migrations over time, first into northeast India, and later north (the predecessors of Chinese and Tibetic) and south (Karen and

3699:. Around 1920 Sapir became convinced that Na-Dené was more closely related to Sino-Tibetan than to other American families. Edward Vadja's Dené–Yeniseian proposal renewed interest among linguists such as 3824:

les travaux de comparatisme n'ont jamais pu mettre en évidence l'existence d'innovations communes à toutes les langues « tibéto-birmanes » (les langues sino-tibétaines à l'exclusion du chinois)

6655: 320:

and others noted that many non-literary languages of the highlands of northeast India and Southeast Asia were also related to these. The name "Tibeto-Burman" was first applied to this group in 1856 by

2516:

Orlandi (2021) also considers the van Driem's Trans-Himalayan fallen leaves model to be more plausible than the bifurcate classification of Sino-Tibetan being split into Sinitic and Tibeto-Burman.

1516:, the area of greatest diversity, around 9000 years BP. They then envisage a series of migrations over the following millennia, with Sinitic representing one of the groups that migrated into China. 7335:

Starosta, Stanley (2005), "Proto-East Asian and the origin and dispersal of languages of east and southeast Asia and the Pacific", in Sagart, Laurent; Blench, Roger; Sanchez-Mazas, Alicia (eds.),

6175: 2546:

In their view, many such languages would for now be best considered unclassified, or "internal isolates" within the family. They propose a provisional classification of the remaining languages:

444:. Under their direction, the staff of 30 non-linguists collated all the available documentation of Sino-Tibetan languages. The result was eight copies of a 15-volume typescript entitled 2074:

and Chinese are divergent from a "core" Tibeto-Burman of at least Bodish, Lolo-Burmese, Tamangic, Jinghpaw, Kukish, and Karen (other families were not analysed) in a hypothesis called

3741:

In the 20th century, R. Shafer put forward the conjecture of a Eurasial language super-family and listed hundreds of similar words between Tibeto-Burman and Indo-European languages.

1591:, the higher-level structure of the family remains unclear. Thus, a conservative classification of Sino-Tibetan/Tibeto-Burman would posit several dozen small coordinate families and 3036:(an argument that is not an actor) case marking. However, the anti-ergative case markings can not be reconstructed at higher levels in the family and are thought to be innovations. 1675:

Many Chinese linguists continue to follow Li's classification. However, this arrangement remains problematic. For example, there is disagreement over whether to include the entire

267:

for the family as a whole is still at an early stage, so the higher-level structure of Sino-Tibetan remains unclear. Although the family is traditionally presented as divided into

11472: 8530: 8521: 1159:(1038–1227). Tangut is recorded in a Chinese-inspired logographic script, whose interpretation presents many difficulties, even though multilingual dictionaries have been found. 2078:. The proposal takes two forms: that Sinitic and Kiranti are themselves a valid node or that the two are not demonstrably close so that Sino-Tibetan has three primary branches: 1438:, reflecting the uncertainty about the classification of the family and its time depth. Three major hypotheses for the place and time of Sino-Tibetan unity have been presented: 316:

During the 18th century, several scholars noticed parallels between Tibetan and Burmese, both languages with extensive literary traditions. Early in the following century,

7588:(1995), "'A Stronger Affinity ... Than Could Have Been Produced by Accident': A Probabilistic Comparison of Old Chinese and Tibeto-Burman", in Wang, William S.-Y. (ed.), 7119:; Lai, Yunfan; Ryder, Robin; Thouzeau, Valentin; Greenhill, Simon J.; List, Johann-Mattis (2019), "Dated language phylogenies shed light on the history of Sino-Tibetan", 6155:

Blench, Roger; Post, Mark (2014), "Rethinking Sino-Tibetan phylogeny from the perspective of North East Indian languages", in Hill, Nathan W.; Owen-Smith, Thomas (eds.),

6383: 5181: 2923:

would have a two-tone system, Matisoff refrained from reconstructing it since tones in individual languages may have developed independently through the process of

459:

Benedict completed the manuscript of his work in 1941, but it was not published until 1972. Instead of building the entire family tree, he set out to reconstruct a

5970: 345:

Studies of the "Indo-Chinese" languages of Southeast Asia from the mid-19th century by Logan and others revealed that they comprised four families: Tibeto-Burman,

6450:

Dryer, Matthew S. (2003), "Word order in Sino-Tibetan languages from a typological and geographical perspective", in Thurgood, Graham; LaPolla, Randy J. (eds.),

2940:

Sino-Tibetan is structurally one of the most diverse language families in the world, including all of the gradation of morphological complexity from isolating (

1195:. In the 1980s and 1990s, new surveys were published from the Himalayas and southwestern China. Of particular interest was the increasing literature on the 7174:

San Roque, Lila; Floyd, Simeon; Norcliffe, Elisabeth (2018), "Egophoricity: An introduction", in Simeon Floyd; Elisabeth Norcliffe; Lila San Roque (eds.),

3582: 284: 2256:

and the modern Bodic languages. Second, there is a body of lexical cognates between the Chinese and Bodic languages, represented by the Kirantic language

216:

in number of native speakers. Around 1.4 billion people speak a Sino-Tibetan language. The vast majority of these are the 1.3 billion native speakers of

6172: 1786:

Shafer was sceptical of the inclusion of Daic, but after meeting Maspero in Paris decided to retain it pending a definitive resolution of the question.

3700: 1829: 6717:

Sitzungsberichte der Königlichen Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Philosophisch-Philologische und Historische Klasse, Sitzung vom 2 März 1889

5783: 1165:

has compared Old Chinese, Tibetic, Burmese, and Tangut to establish sound correspondences between those languages. He found that Tibetic and Burmese

7684: 2895:. This has been criticized as being insufficiently corroborated by Djamouri et al. 2007, who instead reconstruct a VO order for Proto-Sino-Tibetan. 6189:(1980), "Proto-Chinese and Sino-Tibetan: data towards establishing the nature of the relationship", in van Coetsem, Frans; Waugh, Linda R. (eds.), 7915: 10670: 1360:

are spoken by 9 million people in the mountains of western Sichuan, Yunnan, and nearby areas in northern Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam.

1136:) are more limited, but later an extensive literature developed. Both languages are recorded in alphabetic scripts ultimately derived from the 283:

are generally included within Sino-Tibetan by Chinese linguists but have been excluded by the international community since the 1940s. Several

5752:(1996). "The Classification of the Native Languages of North America". In Ives Goddard, ed., "Languages". Vol. 17 of William Sturtevant, ed., 2513:

He also suggested (van Driem 2007) that the Sino-Tibetan language family be renamed "Trans-Himalayan", which he considers to be more neutral.

3086:, with the idea that Indo-Chinese languages were essentially isolating as well as tonal. Maspero later attributed the putative substratum to 10805: 1415: 11522: 8772: 3684:

family has recently been well received. The validity of the rest of the family, however, is viewed as doubtful or rejected by nearly all

7717:——— (2003), "Tibeto-Burman vs. Sino-Tibetan", in Winter, Werner; Bauer, Brigitte L. M.; Pinault, Georges-Jean (eds.), 3815:

For Shafer, the suffix "-ic" denoted a primary division of the family, whereas the suffix "-ish" denoted a sub-division of one of those.

1474:

proposes a split around 6000 years BP, with Chinese-speakers settling along the Yellow River and other groups migrating south down the

2992:

that existed in earlier stages of the family. Even in Chinese, one would find semantically-related pairs of verbs such as 見 'to see' (

2264:

are found in Sino-Tibetan languages generally and thus do not serve as evidence for a special relationship between Chinese and Bodic.

11462: 3894: 6142: 4764: 1140:

of Ancient India. Most comparative work has used the conservative written forms of these languages, following the dictionaries of

2892: 1657: 412:

in 1924. He divided them into three groups: Tibeto-Burman, Chinese and Tai, and was uncertain about the affinity of Karen and

7755: 7726: 7670: 7452: 7430: 7411: 7392: 7373: 7344: 7325: 7306: 7191: 7102: 7021: 6945: 6737: 6519: 6459: 6440: 6372: 6346: 6298: 6276: 6198: 6164: 6128: 6070: 6051: 6020: 6001: 5305: 5286: 5243: 5201: 7402:

Tournadre, Nicolas (2014), "The Tibetic languages and their classification", in Owen-Smith, Thomas; Hill, Nathan W. (eds.),

11677: 10185: 9766: 6035:

Pan-Asiatic Linguistics: Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Languages and Linguistics, January 8–10, 1996

10295: 5876:

Caveney, Geoffrey (2014). "Sino-Tibetan ŋ- and Na-Dene *kw- / *gw- / *xw-: 1st Person Pronouns and Lexical Cognate Sets".

448:. This work was never published, but furnished the data for a series of papers by Shafer, as well as Shafer's five-volume 7908: 7592:, Journal of Chinese Linguistics Monograph Series, vol. 8, Berkeley: Project on Linguistic Analysis, pp. 1–39, 7525:

Zhang, Shuya; Jacques, Guillaume; Lai, Yunfan (2019), "A study of cognates between Gyalrong languages and Old Chinese",

5129:

Djamouri, Redouane; Paul, Wautraud; Whitman, John (2007). "Reconstructing VO constituent order for proto-Sino-Tibetan".

2964:

morphological type, southern Chinese languages express this trait far more strongly than northern Chinese languages do.

1746:

and Sino-Daic branches, which he attributed to the different groups of languages studied by Konow and other scholars in

9267: 7383:

Thurgood, Graham (2003), "A subgrouping of the Sino-Tibetan languages", in Thurgood, Graham; LaPolla, Randy J. (eds.),

1406:, spoken by 4 million people in the hill country along the Myanmar–Thailand border, with the greatest diversity in the 437: 296: 6115: 1055: 10452: 5793: 3833:

il ne semble plus justifié de traiter le chinois comme le premier embranchement primaire de la famille sino-tibétaine

3145: 11545: 10798: 10428: 9667: 8117: 7685:"Black Mountain Conjugational Morphology, Proto-Tibeto-Burman Morphosyntax, and the Linguistic Position of Chinese" 5043: 300:

or never, been written. However, the reconstruction of the family is much less developed than for families such as

7641: 11667: 9586: 9522: 8765: 8642: 6616: 11387: 11375: 3661: 3620: 1833:(STEDT) in 2015. Matisoff acknowledges that the position of Chinese within the family remains an open question. 10199: 9441: 7901: 6937: 1097: 9950: 2980:

are pervasive in Sino-Tibetan; while devoicing (or aspiration) of the initial is associated with a transitive/

1754:

and other French linguists on the other. He proposed a detailed classification, with six top-level divisions:

1287:, with 1.3 billion speakers, most of whom live in the eastern half of China. The first records of Chinese are 1178: : *-əj, and hence argues that the development *ə > *a occurred independently in Tibetan and Burmese. 11602: 11592: 11587: 11452: 11280: 11064: 11059: 10665: 10312: 9447: 9272: 9058: 9052: 8976: 7709: 6416: 5456:

Tian Desheng and He Tianzhen, et al., eds. 1986. . Beijing: Nationalities Press. Accessed via STEDT database

3056:

marker prefixed to a transitive verb when the agent is lower than the patient in a certain person hierarchy.

2924: 1537: 244:

have a Sino-Tibetan language as their main native language. Other languages of the family are spoken in the

11607: 11577: 11432: 10675: 10660: 10359: 9660: 9647: 9418: 9379: 8700: 8647: 8303: 7466:; Jin, Li (2019), "Phylogenetic evidence for Sino-Tibetan origin in northern China in the Late Neolithic", 6708: 3053: 2920: 2595: 2417: 1884: 1669: 1549: 1306:. Chinese has since expanded throughout China, forming a family whose diversity has been compared with the 460: 433: 256:. Most of these have small speech communities in remote mountain areas, and as such are poorly documented. 1665: 1166: 11555: 11457: 10896: 10791: 10655: 10649: 10434: 9707: 9625: 9598: 9302: 9292: 8693: 8348: 8270: 7986: 5507:

Li, Paul Jenkuei (1995). "Is Chinese genetically related to Austronesian?". In Wang, William S-Y. (ed.).

3594: 2887: 2883: 354: 135: 72: 7443:(2006), "Notes on the evolution of the Burmese phonological system", in Beckwith, Christopher I. (ed.), 1664:. The exclusions of Vietnamese by Kuhn and of Tai and Miao–Yao by Benedict were vindicated in 1954 when 11672: 11224: 10221: 9882: 9679: 9477: 9337: 9307: 9297: 9287: 8993: 8758: 7803: 6781:"Preface: 'Old Chinese and Friends': new approaches to historical linguistics of the Sino-Tibetan area" 1561: 330: 1141: 11622: 11617: 11612: 11480: 11402: 11397: 11053: 11039: 10814: 10633: 10440: 10416: 10391: 10364: 10347: 9357: 9312: 9282: 9255: 8826: 8781: 8593: 8040: 7961: 7009: 3107: 3025: 2973: 2496: 2294: 2182: 2162: 1952: 1935: 260: 6357: 5534:

Blust, Robert (1995). "An Austronesianist looks at Sino-Austronesian". In Wang, William S-Y. (ed.).

1587:, have been securely reconstructed, but in the absence of a secure reconstruction of a Sino-Tibetan 11447: 11392: 11163: 10993: 10882: 10680: 10487: 10124: 10112: 9944: 9006: 8999: 8815: 8674: 8277: 8090: 7035: 5697:"Xia and Ket Identified by Sinitic and Yeniseian Shared Etymologies // 確定夏國及凱特人的語言為屬於漢語族和葉尼塞語系共同詞源" 5110:

Charles N. Li & Sandra A. Thompson (1974). "An explanation of word order change SVO > SOV".

3707: 2989: 2331: 1947: 1696: 1632: 1071: 280: 162: 7888: 7873: 11261: 11156: 11106: 11085: 11076: 10958: 10875: 10835: 9685: 9610: 9013: 8963: 8668: 8454: 8338: 7566: 7160: 6030: 5966: 3728: 3115: 3083: 2668: 2663: 2154: 1924: 1774: 1743: 1595:; attempts at subgrouping are either geographic conveniences or hypotheses for further research. 1459: 1215:

Distribution of the larger branches of Sino-Tibetan, with proportion of first-language speakers:

1084: 498: 350: 305: 301: 272: 213: 110: 7719:

Language in time and space: a Festschrift for Werner Winter on the occasion of his 80th birthday

6728:(2003), "Overview of Sino-Tibetan morphosyntax", in Thurgood, Graham; LaPolla, Randy J. (eds.), 5628: 5624: 5612: 5600: 5588: 1324:, and the first language of some 33 million people. Burmese speakers first entered the northern 11417: 11412: 11177: 11140: 10699: 10547: 10342: 10118: 10071: 9701: 9618: 9277: 9261: 8970: 8833: 8809: 8714: 8707: 8487: 8421: 6824: 6425: 4765:"NE Indian languages and NE Indian languages and the origin of Sino the origin of Sino-Tibetan" 3685: 3600: 2977: 2941: 2916: 2683: 2471: 2399: 2205: 2037: 1707:). He otherwise retained the outlines of Conrady's Indo-Chinese classification, though putting 1584: 1268: 984: 321: 317: 249: 95: 10337: 7355: 5728: 5696: 11569: 11442: 11422: 11170: 10965: 10903: 10745: 10643: 10332: 10135: 9925: 9914: 9876: 9483: 9457: 9362: 9352: 9035: 8951: 8802: 8657: 8607: 8163: 6845: 5193: 3802: 3604: 2619: 2491: 2017: 1700: 1680: 1676: 1626: 980: 276: 10446: 10171: 3681: 11550: 11540: 11530: 11380: 11234: 11047: 10931: 10720: 10477: 10285: 10258: 10241: 10209: 10107: 9821: 9746: 9673: 9452: 9429: 9401: 9332: 9243: 9024: 8469: 8315: 8261: 7475: 6480: 6384:"The diversity of the Tibeto-Burman language family and the linguistic ancestry of Chinese" 6212: 6061:——— (2002b), "The Sino-Tibetan problem", in Beckwith, Christopher (ed.), 5822: 3608: 3087: 3045: 2949: 2677: 2406: 1704: 1466:(5300–4000 years BP) in the upper reaches of the Yellow River on the northeast edge of the 1455: 1000: 387: 89: 10605: 3665: 8: 11597: 11370: 11355: 11290: 11092: 11014: 10924: 10917: 10868: 10826: 10497: 10401: 10301: 10290: 10252: 10231: 10129: 10088: 9863: 9845: 9839: 9814: 9807: 9800: 9713: 9696: 9435: 9101: 9088: 8982: 8932: 8789: 8652: 8242: 8069: 8000: 7654: 7511: 7404:

Trans-Himalayan Linguistics: Historical and Descriptive Linguistics of the Himalayan Area

7047: 6715: 6433:

Trans-Himalayan Linguistics: Historical and Descriptive Linguistics of the Himalayan Area

5782:

Sanchez-Mazas, Alicia; Blench, Roger; Ross, Malcolm D.; Peiros, Ilia; Lin, Marie (2008).

3669: 3649: 3626: 3127: 2871: 2658: 2583: 2394: 2326: 2219: 2122: 1997: 1353: 1187:

sensitive and thus closed to investigators. Until the 1980s, the best-studied areas were

1133: 416:. The English translation "Sino-Tibetan" first appeared in a short note by Przyluski and 374: 115: 7479: 6828: 6144:

If agriculture cannot be reconstructed for proto-Sino-Tibetan what are the consequences?

5826: 4650: 3630: 3625:

As noted by Tailleur and Werner, some of the earliest proposals of genetic relations of

3139: 275:

branches, a common origin of the non-Sinitic languages has never been demonstrated. The

11331: 11285: 11200: 11195: 11190: 10411: 10406: 10396: 10379: 10374: 10369: 10353: 10322: 10317: 10270: 10264: 10215: 10160: 10083: 9967: 9931: 9892: 9834: 9641: 9636: 9347: 9106: 9075: 9041: 9029: 8988: 8863: 8493: 8102: 7968: 7625: 7593: 7499: 7262: 7233: 7143: 7074: 6997: 6918: 6910: 6893:——— (2000), "On 'Sino-Bodic' and Other Symptoms of Neosubgroupitis", 6881: 6812: 6767: 6694: 6639: 6603: 6339:

Languages of the Himalayas: An Ethnolinguistic Handbook of the Greater Himalayan Region

6325: 6251: 6102: 5885: 5732: 5724: 5677: 5669: 5642:"The Yeniseian Languages of the 18th Century and Ket and Sino-Tibetan Word Comparisons" 5570: 5543: 5516: 3076: 3060: 2961: 2904: 2631: 2587: 2422: 2299: 2186: 1967: 1896: 1652: 1648: 1079: 125: 10508: 10471: 7421:

Wheatley, Julian K. (2003), "Burmese", in Thurgood, Graham; LaPolla, Randy J. (eds.),

1003:, one of the few scholars still arguing that Chinese is not related to Tibeto-Burman. 180: 11535: 11512: 11507: 11485: 11427: 11205: 11128: 11021: 10422: 10327: 10307: 10246: 10226: 9937: 9898: 9869: 9857: 9794: 9740: 9718: 9691: 9631: 9604: 9423: 9384: 9374: 9342: 9215: 9141: 9123: 9117: 9019: 8937: 8851: 8601: 8561: 8539: 8504: 8498: 8463: 8401: 8395: 8375: 8169: 8157: 8140: 8048: 7994: 7974: 7869: 7854: 7830: 7807: 7765: 7751: 7736: 7722: 7703: 7666: 7585: 7544: 7503: 7491: 7448: 7426: 7407: 7388: 7369: 7340: 7321: 7302: 7266: 7197: 7187: 7148: 7116: 7098: 7078: 7017: 6977: 6965: 6941: 6933:

Handbook of Proto-Tibeto-Burman: System and Philosophy of Sino-Tibetan Reconstruction

6922: 6816: 6807: 6733: 6678: 6651: 6607: 6546: 6515: 6494: 6455: 6436: 6410: 6368: 6342: 6329: 6294: 6272: 6255: 6194: 6160: 6124: 6066: 6047: 6016: 5997: 5989: 5926: 5858: 5853: 5840: 5810: 5789: 5736: 5716: 5681: 5661: 5197: 3677: 3049: 2957: 2953: 2875: 2732: 2699: 2627: 2528:

languages of northeastern India, in particular, is either poor or absent altogether.

2506: 2501: 2476: 2456: 2374: 2369: 2364: 2321: 2309: 2304: 2288: 2237: 2233: 2215: 2193: 2178: 2071: 2049: 2024: 2012: 1993: 1984: 1823:

The internal structure of Sino-Tibetan has been tentatively revised as the following

1487: 1414:

and the eastern edge of the Tibetan plateau. The 22 official languages listed in the

1392: 1364: 1357: 1345: 1341: 1311: 1307: 1284: 1196: 1162: 1121: 988: 473: 268: 225: 217: 105: 100: 85: 10513: 10502: 10482: 8820: 6956: 6877: 6643: 5561:

Vovin, Alexander (1997). "The comparative method and ventures beyond Sino-Tibetan".

3783:

Karlgren's reconstruction, with aspiration as 'h' and 'i̯' as 'j' to aid comparison.

987:, voicing and aspiration are often unpredictable. This irregularity was attacked by 11497: 11490: 11437: 11365: 11360: 11317: 11310: 11240: 11184: 11122: 11028: 11000: 10986: 10972: 10889: 10861: 10849: 10842: 10730: 10590: 10580: 10575: 10529: 10523: 10492: 10385: 10280: 10204: 10142: 10094: 10029: 10022: 10015: 10008: 10001: 9990: 9974: 9909: 9904: 9887: 9828: 9722: 9654: 9565: 9532: 9500: 9396: 9368: 9317: 9238: 9222: 9208: 9190: 9183: 9169: 9129: 9111: 9095: 9081: 8903: 8886: 8622: 8582: 8552: 8526: 8476: 8434: 8343: 8320: 8213: 8193: 8150: 8075: 7938: 7841: 7795: 7680: 7617: 7605: 7534: 7483: 7361: 7288: 7283: 7254: 7225: 7179: 7138: 7128: 7066: 6989: 6902: 6873: 6802: 6792: 6670: 6631: 6595: 6570: 6542: 6514:, State-of-the-art report, Trends in linguistics, vol. 14, Walter de Gruyter, 6484: 6398: 6317: 6286: 6243: 6092: 6080: 5916: 5848: 5830: 5712: 5708: 5653: 5189: 4499: 4463: 3712: 3645: 3189: 3174: 3068: 2692: 2615: 2611: 2439: 2433: 2379: 2351: 2344: 2282: 2174: 2158: 2150: 2126: 2115: 1972: 1957: 1930: 1865: 1858: 1592: 1493: 1463: 1443: 1396: 1317: 1129: 1089: 992: 483: 478: 441: 221: 10570: 10518: 9510: 8200: 7365: 6497:(1980), "A Comparative Study of the Chinese, Tibetan, and Burmese Vowel Systems", 6097: 5785:

Past Human Migrations in East Asia: Matching Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics

2715:

different languages altogether. They support the proposed name "Trans-Himalayan".

1070:

of the language from the written records. Scholars have sought to reconstruct the

11324: 11275: 11229: 11112: 11007: 10979: 10938: 10855: 10725: 10600: 10585: 10554: 10275: 10236: 10101: 10047: 9919: 9781: 9547: 9542: 9407: 9322: 9203: 9196: 9176: 9158: 9063: 9046: 8845: 8614: 8568: 8427: 8309: 8248: 8082: 8029: 8020: 8006: 7337:

The Peopling of East Asia: Putting Together Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics

7095:

The Peopling of East Asia: Putting Together Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics

7039: 6750:(1937), "Languages and Dialects", in Shih, Ch'ao-ying; Chang, Ch'i-hsien (eds.), 6690: 6635: 6365:

The Peopling of East Asia: Putting Together Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics

6208: 6186: 6179: 3673: 3080: 2879: 2640: 2635: 2623: 2599: 2560: 2451: 2358: 2315: 2209: 2134: 2007: 1962: 1914: 1903: 1708: 1668:

demonstrated that the tones of Vietnamese were reflexes of final consonants from

1513: 1467: 1419: 1403: 1368: 1337: 1325: 1272: 1152: 1145: 1101: 1082:

and the rhyming patterns of early poetry. The first complete reconstruction, the

401: 358: 325: 253: 209: 120: 62: 56: 7883:"Why Sino-Tibetan reconstruction is not like Indo-European reconstruction (yet)" 5657: 5471: 1100:

have reduced Karlgren's 15 vowels to a six-vowel system originally suggested by

11502: 11270: 10783: 10735: 10595: 10564: 10535: 10166: 10052: 10035: 9985: 9980: 9851: 9788: 9558: 9552: 9472: 9467: 9413: 9390: 9135: 8957: 8914: 8897: 8891: 8869: 8857: 8684: 8662: 8576: 8545: 8481: 8441: 8415: 8389: 8366: 8289: 8235: 8207: 8176: 8054: 7980: 7826: 7121:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

7112: 7086: 7031: 6861: 6554: 6264: 6231: 6042:——— (2002a), "Introduction", in Beckwith, Christopher (ed.), 4722: 4720: 4718: 3641: 3194: 3184: 3091: 2993: 2945: 2908: 2687: 2653: 2591: 2573: 2554: 2486: 2481: 2466: 2445: 2427: 2389: 2384: 2257: 2229: 2042: 2029: 1979: 1909: 1890: 1871: 1853: 1794: 1588: 1522: 1471: 1454:

agriculture. This scenario is associated with a proposed primary split between

1388: 1384: 1211: 1125: 1075: 429: 413: 393: 382: 264: 82:

Some 40 well-established subgroups, of which those with the most speakers are:

49: 7539: 7487: 7274:——— (1955), "Classification of the Sino-Tibetan languages", 7070: 6906: 6797: 6599: 6574: 6402: 6321: 1006:

Benedict also reconstructed, at least for Tibeto-Burman, prefixes such as the

11661: 10619: 10559: 10541: 10057: 10041: 9995: 9752: 9572: 9537: 9527: 9505: 9462: 9327: 8908: 8840: 8408: 8330: 8096: 8061: 8013: 7882: 7548: 7440: 7357:

The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia Volume 1: From Early Times to c. 1800

7201: 7057:

Przyluski, J.; Luce, G. H. (1931), "The Number 'A Hundred' in Sino-Tibetan",

6725: 6682: 6247: 6083:(1942), "Thai, Kadai, and Indonesian: A New Alignment in Southeastern Asia", 5930: 5921: 5904: 5844: 5835: 5720: 5665: 3735: 3179: 3111: 3079:) languages. Konow (1909) explained the pronominalized languages as due to a 3033: 3029: 2985: 2907:

are a feature found across the family although absent in some languages like

2645: 2461: 2337: 2146: 2130: 1989: 1919: 1751: 1747: 1684: 1638: 1622: 1497: 1483: 1423: 1349: 1137: 1060: 996: 493: 488: 366: 361:

had noted in 1823 that Burmese, Tibetan, and Chinese all shared common basic

346: 339: 189: 8750: 8743:

indicates single languages that are also considered to be separate branches.

7811: 7133: 6964:, Berkeley: The Sino-Tibetan Etymological Dictionary and Thesaurus Project, 6931: 6780: 5039:"Once again on the history and validity of the Sino-Tibetan bifurcate model" 4715: 3044:

Many Sino-Tibetan languages exhibit a system of person indexation. Notably,

1442:

The most commonly cited hypothesis associates the family with the Neolithic

1391:

in the seventh century. Although the empire collapsed in the ninth century,

1310:. Diversity is greater in the rugged terrain of southeast China than in the 1263:

languages are spoken in mountainous areas, along the southern slopes of the

11407: 11215: 10949: 9516: 8382: 8298: 8254: 8183: 7637: 7495: 7209: 7152: 7043: 6747: 6138: 5749: 5542:

Monograph Series. Vol. 8. Chinese University Press. pp. 283–298.

4157: 3696: 3599:

Laurent Sagart proposes a "Sino-Austronesian" family with Sino-Tibetan and

3123: 2579: 2524: 2412: 2267: 2054: 1878: 1608: 1504: 1447: 1303: 1014: 440:. The project was supervised by Robert Shafer until late 1938, and then by 405: 370: 130: 37: 7860:

Behind the Sino-Tibetan Database of Lexical Cognates: Introductory remarks

7183: 6674: 5952:

R. Shafer. The Eurasial Linguistic Superfamily. Anthropos. 1965, 60: 1965.

5862: 5515:

Monograph Series. Vol. 8. Chinese University Press. pp. 92–112.

3691:

A link between the Na–Dené languages and Sino-Tibetan languages, known as

1695:

Benedict overtly excluded Vietnamese (placing it in Mon–Khmer) as well as

154: 8728: 7943: 7878: 6531:"What is Sino-Tibetan? Snapshot of a Field and a Language Family in Flux" 6234:(1997), "Mirativity: The grammatical marking of unexpected information", 5765: 3169: 3164: 3159: 3013: 2253: 1817: 1407: 1402:

The remaining languages are spoken in upland areas. Southernmost are the

1380: 1299: 1288: 1156: 1111: 1066: 503: 417: 7893: 7597: 7354:

Taylor, Keith (1992), "The Early Kingdoms", in Tarling, Nicholas (ed.),

6864:(1991), "Sino-Tibetan Linguistics: Present State and Future Prospects", 6771: 6033:(1996), "The Morphological Argument for the Existence of Sino-Tibetan", 5889: 5673: 5641: 5574: 5547: 5520: 5038: 381:

envisaged a group with two branches, Chinese-Siamese and Tibeto-Burman.

11582: 11301: 11251: 11117: 9163: 7864: 7237: 6914: 6885: 6704: 6617:"The Contribution of Tangut to Trans-Himalayan Comparative Linguistics" 6150:, Chiang Mai: 42nd Conference on Sino-Tibetan Language and Linguistics. 5372: 3716: 3119: 3103: 1107: 378: 362: 335: 45: 7629: 7001: 6469:

Eberhard, David M.; Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D., eds. (2019),

6106: 5109: 3520: 3488: 3456: 3424: 3392: 3360: 3328: 3296: 3264: 3233: 3204: 220:. Other Sino-Tibetan languages with large numbers of speakers include 8721: 8362: 8127: 7934: 7463: 6656:"Phylogenies based on lexical innovations refute the Rung hypothesis" 5457: 3920: 3581:

Beyond the traditionally recognized families of Southeast Asia, some

2981: 2912: 2724: 1824: 1543:

Hypothesised homeland and dispersal according to Sagart et al. (2019)

1509: 1411: 1372: 1264: 1148:(Burmese), though both contain entries from a wide range of periods. 1007: 245: 233: 174: 148: 144: 41: 7838:

Sino-Tibetan Etymological Dictionary and Thesaurus Database Software

7229: 6583: 6558: 5233: 5231: 4934: 2121:

Like Matisoff, van Driem acknowledges that the relationships of the

7859: 7846: 7769: 7621: 7258: 7093:, in Sagart, Laurent; Blench, Roger; Sanchez-Mazas, Alicia (eds.), 7090: 6993: 6530: 6363:, in Sagart, Laurent; Blench, Roger; Sanchez-Mazas, Alicia (eds.), 4453: 4451: 3634: 3064: 1435: 1192: 6969: 6584:"Cognates of Old Chinese *-n, *-r, and *-j in Tibetan and Burmese" 6293:, Mouton grammar library, vol. 4, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1124:

has extensive written records from the adoption of writing by the

979:

Although the initial consonants of cognates tend to have the same

10818: 8223: 7836:

Bruhn, Daniel; Lowe, John; Mortensen, David; Yu, Dominic (2015),

7782: 7161:"Origin of Sino-Tibetan language family revealed by new research" 5228: 2960:

languages are normally taken to be a prototypical example of the

1555:

Hypothesised homeland and dispersal according to van Driem (2005)

1475: 1376: 1352:

had expanded over the whole basin. The oldest texts, such as the

1333: 1321: 1200: 237: 11259: 7643:(De)classifying Arunachal languages: Reconstructing the evidence 6559:"The six vowel hypothesis of Old Chinese in comparative context" 5360: 4632: 4630: 4628: 4448: 4412: 3983: 3660:. The Sino-Caucasian hypothesis has been expanded by others to " 3059:

Hodgson had in 1849 noted a dichotomy between "pronominalized" (

10910: 10759:

Families with question marks (?) are disputed or controversial.

10740: 10638: 8136: 7951: 7178:, Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, pp. 1–78, 5336: 2728: 1479: 1451: 1332:

in the early ninth century, in conjunction with an invasion by

1329: 1115: 241: 5293: 5055: 4292: 3114:(grammatical marking of information source) are found in many 3097: 1567:

Hypothesised homeland and dispersal according to Blench (2009)

8132: 7947: 7091:"Sino-Tibetan–Austronesian: an updated and improved argument" 6846:"The West-Himalaic or Tibetan tribes of Asam, Burma and Pegu" 6470: 6191:

Contributions to historical linguistics: issues and materials

5781: 4625: 4316: 3908: 3653: 3072: 2882:

languages, the usual word order in Sino-Tibetan languages is

1283:

The branch with the largest number of speakers by far is the

1188: 229: 7512:"Linguistics: The roots of the Sino-Tibetan language family" 6779:

List, Johann-Mattis; Lai, Yunfan; Starostin, George (2019),

5971:"New perspectives on evidentials: a view from Tibeto-Burman" 5274: 4922: 4703: 4174: 4172: 3863: 2228:

Some other small families and isolates as primary branches (

7659:

A Sinologist's Handlist of Sino-Tibetan Lexical Comparisons

6263:——— (2009), "Sino-Tibetan languages", in 5426: 5250: 5180:

Arcodia, Giorgio Francesco; Basciano, Bianca (2020-01-30).

4655: 4388: 4244: 4024: 4022: 390:

in 1909 placed Karen as a third branch of Chinese-Siamese.

7665:

monograph series, vol. 18, Nettetal: Steyler Verlag,

6720:, Munich: Verlag der Königlich Akademie, pp. 189–236. 6037:, Bangkok: Mahidol University at Salaya, pp. 812–826. 4732: 4667: 4531: 4529: 4232: 432:

started the Sino-Tibetan Philology Project, funded by the

6758:

Li, Fang-Kuei (1973), "Languages and Dialects of China",

5416: 5414: 5324: 5262: 5018: 4601: 4487: 4304: 4169: 4145: 4094: 4058: 1434:

There has been a range of proposals for the Sino-Tibetan

7052:, Librairie ancienne Édouard Champion, pp. 361–384. 5770:

The Dictionary of Historical and Comparative Linguistics

5149: 4994: 4958: 4946: 4886: 4828: 4826: 4824: 4691: 4577: 4565: 4553: 4516: 4514: 4135: 4133: 4046: 4019: 3995: 3971: 2886:. However, Chinese and Bai differ from almost all other 2718: 1356:, date from the early 12th century. The closely related 7800:

A Comparative Vocabulary of Five Sino-Tibetan Languages

7698:: 229–259, archived from the original on April 7, 2014. 7173: 5378: 5161: 5137: 5091: 5006: 4910: 4874: 4862: 4850: 4838: 4797: 4541: 4526: 4436: 4268: 4118: 4070: 1583:

Several low-level branches of the family, particularly

1074:

by comparing the obscure descriptions of the sounds of

7784:Über Herkunft und Sprache der transgangetischen Völker 7245:

Shafer, Robert (1952), "Athapaskan and Sino-Tibetan",

7059:

Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies

6958:

The Sino-Tibetan Etymological Dictionary and Thesaurus

6895:

Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies

6310:

Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies

5488: 5438: 5411: 5312: 5216: 5131:

8th International Conference on Historical Linguistics

4589: 4376: 4328: 4196: 3851: 2915:

contrasts are also present among many, notably in the

1348:

in the far west of Yunnan. By the 11th century, their

7111: 5348: 5242:

sfn error: no target: CITEREFShuyaJacquesYunfan2019 (

4970: 4821: 4785: 4726: 4651:

https://www.pnas.org/doi/epdf/10.1073/pnas.2212006119

4613: 4511: 4424: 4364: 4220: 4184: 4130: 4106: 4082: 3926: 1611:

described the family as consisting of four branches:

7790:, Munich: Verlag der Königlich Bayerischen Akademie. 6980:(1974), "Sino-Tibetan: Inspection of a Conspectus", 6468: 5756:. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. pg. 318 5401: 5399: 5079: 5067: 4982: 4744: 4505: 4469: 4457: 4280: 4256: 4208: 4034: 3875: 287:

have been proposed, but none have broad acceptance.

7276:

Word (Journal of the Linguistic Circle of New York)

5384: 5128: 4898: 4809: 4475: 4400: 4007: 3961: 3959: 1647:Tai and Miao–Yao were included because they shared 1395:remained influential as the liturgical language of 1078:in medieval dictionaries with phonetic elements in 6850:Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia 6833:Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia 6499:Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology 6475:(22nd ed.), Dallas, Texas: SIL International. 5237: 4679: 3932: 3576: 3118:. The family has also contributed to the study of 1830:Sino-Tibetan Etymological Dictionary and Thesaurus 1742:Shafer criticized the division of the family into 7774:La Linguistique Comparative en France Aujourd'hui 6431:, in Owen-Smith, Thomas; Hill, Nathan W. (eds.), 5965: 5396: 5366: 5342: 5304:sfn error: no target: CITEREFJacquesPellard2022 ( 5285:sfn error: no target: CITEREFJacquesPellard2022 ( 11659: 10813: 7360:, Cambridge University Press, pp. 137–182, 6778: 6650: 4352: 4340: 3956: 3944: 3869: 2967: 1418:include only two Sino-Tibetan languages, namely 1128:in the mid-7th century. The earliest records of 338:, was devoted to the Tibeto-Burman languages of 7831:"Tibeto-Burman languages and their subgrouping" 7524: 6011:———; Sagart, Laurent (2014), 5815:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 5772:. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. pg. 85 5179: 2268:Van Driem's "fallen leaves" model (2001, 2014) 259:Several low-level subgroups have been securely 8592: 8039: 7461: 7339:, London: Routledge Curzon, pp. 182–197, 7097:, London: Routledge Curzon, pp. 161–176, 6405:, archived from the original on March 7, 2016. 6159:, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 71–104, 5299: 5280: 5061: 4636: 3102:Although not very common in some families and 1827:by Matisoff in the final print release of the 1797:abandoned Benedict's Tibeto-Karen hypothesis: 1050: 10799: 8780: 8766: 7909: 7567:"Pronominal Verb Morphology in Tibeto-Burman" 7301:, vol. 1, Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 7247:International Journal of American Linguistics 7056: 6367:, London: Routledge Curzon, pp. 81–106, 6271:(2nd ed.), Routledge, pp. 693–702, 4064: 3146:Proto-Sino-Tibetan language § Vocabulary 1387:before it was spread by the expansion of the 11643:Families with more than 30 languages are in 10769:Families with more than 30 languages are in 8453: 7748:Collected papers on Sino-Tibetan linguistics 6308:——— (1997), "Sino-Bodic", 6010: 5943:R. Shafer. Eurasial. Orbis. 1963, 12: 19–14. 5256: 2984:verb, voicing is linked to its intransitive/ 1416:Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India 1302:was spoken around the middle reaches of the 400:as the title of his chapter on the group in 5554: 5527: 5186:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics 3792:See, for example, the "Sino-Tibetan" (汉藏语系 3098:Evidentiality, mirativity, and egophoricity 3004:), which are respectively reconstructed as 1367:are spoken by some 6 million people on the 1035:of uncertain function, as well as suffixes 212:of more than 400 languages, second only to 10806: 10792: 8773: 8759: 7916: 7902: 6709:"Beiträge zur Sprachenkunde Hinterindiens" 6154: 4762: 4709: 4697: 2538: 7923: 7845: 7538: 7401: 7287: 7142: 7132: 7030: 7016:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 6806: 6796: 6423: 6381: 6355: 6336: 6307: 6285: 6096: 6060: 6041: 5920: 5852: 5834: 5432: 5024: 5012: 5000: 4976: 4964: 4928: 4738: 4673: 4583: 4571: 4559: 4322: 4226: 4076: 4052: 4028: 4001: 3977: 3857: 3761: 2935: 2519: 2110: 1278: 7889:"Linking the Sino-Tibetan fallen leaves" 7610:Journal of the American Oriental Society 7420: 7382: 7334: 6982:Journal of the American Oriental Society 6954: 6929: 6892: 6860: 6689: 6262: 6230: 6193:, Leiden: E. J. Brill, pp. 34–199, 6113: 6079: 6029: 5639: 5500: 5354: 5167: 5155: 5143: 4988: 4952: 4940: 4868: 4856: 4844: 4803: 4661: 4595: 4547: 4535: 4442: 4418: 4394: 4334: 4250: 4238: 4214: 4202: 4163: 4151: 4124: 4112: 3989: 2070:Sergei Starostin proposed that both the 1789: 1661: 1496:proposes a Sino-Tibetan homeland in the 1210: 1106: 1054: 7721:, Walter de Gruyter, pp. 101–119, 7425:, London: Routledge, pp. 195–207, 6724: 6207: 5902: 5875: 5617: 5605: 5593: 5581: 5420: 5330: 5268: 5222: 5036: 3126:, which are relatively new concepts in 2988:counterpart. This is argued to reflect 2893:Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area 1658:Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area 1096:evidence for them. For example, recent 228:(6 million). The four UN member states 11660: 7608:(1976), "Sino-Tibetan: Another Look", 7439: 7353: 7315: 7296: 7273: 7244: 7085: 7008: 6976: 6588:Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orientale 6528: 6435:, Berlin: de Gruyter, pp. 11–40, 6185: 6137: 5988: 5808: 5494: 5444: 5390: 5318: 5194:10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.530 5182:"Morphology in Sino-Tibetan Languages" 4916: 4904: 4892: 4880: 4832: 4791: 4750: 4685: 4619: 4607: 4520: 4493: 4481: 4430: 4370: 4310: 4298: 4286: 4274: 4262: 4190: 4178: 4139: 4100: 4088: 3914: 3881: 464:reconstructed the following initials: 423: 10787: 8754: 7897: 7865:Sinotibetan Lexical Homology Database 7574:Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 7208: 6843: 6823: 6732:, London: Routledge, pp. 22–42, 6479: 6454:, London: Routledge, pp. 43–55, 6449: 6220:Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 5978:Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 5560: 5533: 5379:San Roque, Floyd & Norcliffe 2018 5097: 5085: 5073: 4040: 4013: 3950: 3938: 2919:group. While Benedict contended that 2719:Menghan Zhang, Shi Yan, et al. (2019) 1383:, which was originally spoken in the 7855:Sino-Tibetan Branches Project (STBP) 7590:The Ancestry of the Chinese Language 7387:, London: Routledge, pp. 3–21, 6703: 6614: 6581: 6553: 6509: 6493: 5536:The Ancestry of the Chinese Language 5509:The Ancestry of the Chinese Language 5405: 4506:Eberhard, Simons & Fennig (2019) 4470:Eberhard, Simons & Fennig (2019) 4458:Eberhard, Simons & Fennig (2019) 4406: 4382: 4358: 4346: 3965: 3757: 3039: 3028:, many Tibeto-Burman languages have 1217: 1151:There are also extensive records in 7447:, Leiden: Brill, pp. 103–120, 7445:Medieval Tibeto-Burman Languages II 6754:, Commercial Press, pp. 59–65, 6512:Research on Tibeto-Burman Languages 5994:A Handbook of Old Chinese Phonology 5694: 4166:, pp. 17–18, 133–139, 164–171. 3656:with Sino-Tibetan, which he called 3063:) languages, stretching across the 2065: 1450:basin, with an expansion driven by 1092:, was used by Benedict and Shafer. 194:Groupings of Sino-Tibetan languages 13: 6829:"The Maruwi of the Baniak Islands" 6746: 6472:Ethnologue: Languages of the World 5754:Handbook of North American Indians 5506: 5469: 5458:https://stedt.berkeley.edu/search/ 4815: 4763:Blench, Roger; Post, Mark (2010). 3796:) entry in the "languages" (語言文字, 1690: 438:University of California, Berkeley 14: 11689: 7874:"The Genetic Position of Chinese" 7820: 7770:"La morphologie du sino-tibétain" 7533:(1–2), Gorgias Press LLC: 73–92, 7318:A Descriptive Grammar of Kinnauri 6013:Old Chinese: A New Reconstruction 3614: 3140:Old Chinese § Classification 2735:in 2019, based on lexical items: 2145:Western (Baric, Brahmaputran, or 1578: 1422:(officially called Manipuri) and 328:in 1858. The third volume of the 8116: 7750:], Taipei: Academia Sinica, 7527:Journal of Language Relationship 7406:, De Gruyter, pp. 103–129, 6785:Journal of Language Relationship 6547:10.1111/j.1749-818X.2008.00061.x 6535:Language and Linguistics Compass 6063:Medieval Tibeto-Burman languages 6044:Medieval Tibeto-Burman languages 5946: 5937: 5905:"Ancient Connections of Sinitic" 5896: 5869: 5802: 5775: 5759: 5743: 5688: 5633: 5463: 5450: 5238:Shuya, Jacques & Yunfan 2019 5173: 5122: 5103: 5044:Journal of Language Relationship 5030: 3870:List, Lai & Starostin (2019) 3722: 1737: 1560: 1548: 1536: 285:links to other language families 188: 6878:10.1146/annurev.anthro.20.1.469 6563:Bulletin of Chinese Linguistics 6486:Die Sprachstämme des Erdkreises 6391:Bulletin of Chinese Linguistics 6358:"Tibeto-Burman vs Indo-Chinese" 4756: 4642: 3827: 3818: 3809: 3786: 3777: 3767: 3751: 3588: 3577:Proposed external relationships 3012:in the Baxter-Sagart system of 1527: 1328:basin from what is now western 1206: 7840:, Software, UC Berkeley Dash, 7297:——— (1966), 7289:10.1080/00437956.1955.11659552 6955:——— (2015), 6938:University of California Press 6930:——— (2003), 6844:——— (1858), 6760:Journal of Chinese Linguistics 6615:——— (2015), 6582:——— (2014), 6424:——— (2014), 6382:——— (2007), 6356:——— (2005), 6337:——— (2001), 6123:, Cambridge University Press, 6114:——— (1972), 5958: 5878:Journal of Chinese Linguistics 5809:Ruhlen, Merritt (1998-11-10). 5729:10.13173/centasiaj.60.1-2.0051 5713:10.13173/centasiaj.60.1-2.0051 5563:Journal of Chinese Linguistics 5540:Journal of Chinese Linguistics 5513:Journal of Chinese Linguistics 3887: 3583:possible broader relationships 1371:and neighbouring areas in the 1098:reconstructions of Old Chinese 252:, and the eastern edge of the 16:Language family native to Asia 1: 7366:10.1017/CHOL9780521355056.005 7167:(Press release). May 6, 2019. 6866:Annual Review of Anthropology 6098:10.1525/aa.1942.44.4.02a00040 5996:, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 5903:Bradley, David (2023-07-24). 5367:Aikhenvald & LaPolla 2007 5343:Aikhenvald & LaPolla 2007 3840: 3133: 3019: 2968:Voice and Voicing alternation 2930: 2865: 2834:Ersuish, Qiangic, Rgyalrongic 2723:A team of researchers led by 1847:Northeast Indian areal group 1711:in an intermediate position: 1292: 311: 271:(i.e. Chinese languages) and 7741:Hàn Zàng yǔ yánjiū lùnwén jí 7299:Introduction to Sino-Tibetan 6636:10.47979/aror.j.83.1.187-200 6046:, Brill, pp. xiii–xix, 5969:; LaPolla, Randy J. (2007), 4943:, pp. xxxii, 1123–1127. 3845: 3734:18th-century Nordic scholar 3110:, fairly complex systems of 3075:, and "non-pronominalized" ( 2898: 1616:Indo-Chinese (Sino-Tibetan) 1598: 1525:and early Yangshao culture. 1446:(7000–5000 years BP) of the 1320:is the national language of 1271:and the eastern edge of the 1181: 461:Proto-Tibeto-Burman language 450:Introduction to Sino-Tibetan 434:Works Project Administration 428:In 1935, the anthropologist 7: 11678:Sino-Austronesian languages 6269:The World's Major Languages 6157:Trans-Himalayan Linguistics 6065:, Brill, pp. 113–158, 6015:, Oxford University Press, 5811:"The origin of the Na-Dene" 4065:Przyluski & Luce (1931) 3595:Sino-Austronesian languages 2860: 1429: 1051:Study of literary languages 396:introduced the French term 61:One of the world's primary 10: 11694: 11463:Chukotko-Kamchatkan–Amuric 7804:Melbourne University Press 7692:Senri Ethnological Studies 7557: 7462:Zhang, Menghan; Yan, Shi; 7423:The Sino-Tibetan languages 7385:The Sino-Tibetan languages 7316:Sharma, Devidatta (1988), 6730:The Sino-Tibetan languages 6654:; Pellard, Thomas (2020), 6452:The Sino-Tibetan languages 6117:Sino-Tibetan: A Conspectus 5300:Jacques & Pellard 2022 5281:Jacques & Pellard 2022 3726: 3695:had also been proposed by 3618: 3592: 3143: 3137: 1683:(Zhuang–Dong excludes the 1379:. They are descended from 1132:(such as the 12th-century 454:Sino-Tibetan, a Conspectus 331:Linguistic Survey of India 290: 263:, but reconstruction of a 11631: 11568: 11521: 11471: 11351: 11344: 11299: 11250: 11214: 11139: 11075: 11038: 10948: 10825: 10754: 10713: 10690: 10629: 10618: 10462: 10195: 10184: 10152: 10079: 10070: 9959: 9776: 9765: 9732: 9594: 9585: 9493: 9251: 9237: 9151: 8946: 8928: 8879: 8797: 8788: 8782:Primary language families 8738: 8683: 8635: 8520: 8361: 8329: 8287: 8222: 8125: 8114: 7932: 7708:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 7540:10.31826/jlr-2019-171-210 7488:10.1038/s41586-019-1153-z 7071:10.1017/S0041977X00093150 7036:"Langues sino-tibétaines" 6907:10.1017/s0041977x00008442 6808:21.11116/0000-0004-5BF7-0 6798:10.31826/jlr-2019-171-204 6600:10.1163/19606028-00432p02 6575:10.1163/2405478x-90000100 6415:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 6403:10.1163/2405478X-90000023 6322:10.1017/S0041977X0003250X 3516: 3200: 3108:Standard Average European 3026:morphosyntactic alignment 2990:morphological derivations 2094:Sino-Tibetan (version 2) 2083:Sino-Tibetan (version 1) 1666:André-Georges Haudricourt 1231: Lolo–Burmese (3.4%) 187: 173: 161: 143: 78: 68: 57:Linguistic classification 55: 31: 26: 21: 9599:Arnhem/Macro-Gunwinyguan 7743: 6489:, Leipzig: B.G. Teubner. 6248:10.1515/lity.1997.1.1.33 6031:Beckwith, Christopher I. 5967:Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. 5922:10.3390/languages8030176 5836:10.1073/pnas.95.23.13994 5695:高晶一, Jingyi Gao (2017). 5640:Sedláček, Kamil (2008). 5257:Baxter & Sagart 2014 4710:Blench & Post (2014) 4698:Blench & Post (2014) 4649:October 22, 2022. PNAS. 4421:, pp. 470, 476–478. 4301:, pp. 197, 199–202. 3992:, pp. 346, 363–365. 3917:, pp. 422, 434–436. 3895:"Sino Tibetan Languages" 3744: 3621:Dené–Yeniseian languages 2870:Except for the Chinese, 2539:Blench & Post (2014) 1603:In a survey in the 1937 1462:, often assigned to the 1072:phonology of Old Chinese 1059:Ancient Chinese text on 446:Sino-Tibetan Linguistics 11640:have no living members. 11523:East and Southeast Asia 10766:have no living members. 7798:; Peiros, Ilia (1996), 7320:, Mittal Publications, 7134:10.1073/pnas.1817972116 6085:American Anthropologist 5701:Central Asiatic Journal 5646:Central Asiatic Journal 5112:Foundations of Language 5037:Orlandi, Georg (2021). 4729:, pp. 10319–10320. 3729:Indo-European languages 3116:Tibeto-Burman languages 2731:proposed the following 1750:on the one hand and by 1460:Tibeto-Burman languages 1085:Grammata Serica Recensa 208:in a few sources, is a 11668:Sino-Tibetan languages 10746:Unclassified languages 10700:list of sign languages 9668:Northeastern Tasmanian 7565:Bauman, James (1974), 6699:, Paris: B.A. Shubart. 3151:Sino-Tibetan numerals 2936:The structure of words 2544: 2520:Blench and Post (2014) 2173:Northwestern (Bodic): 2170:Northern (Sino-Bodic) 2111:Van Driem (1997, 2001) 1279:Contemporary languages 1269:Southeast Asian Massif 1259: 1155:, the language of the 1118: 1063: 985:manner of articulation 377:were quite different. 322:James Richardson Logan 318:Brian Houghton Hodgson 250:Southeast Asian Massif 10721:Constructed languages 8643:Central Tibeto-Burman 7640:; Post, Mark (2011), 7218:Modern Language Notes 7184:10.1075/tsl.118.01san 6752:The Chinese Year Book 6675:10.1075/dia.19058.jac 6510:Hale, Austin (1982), 6481:Finck, Franz Nikolaus 5658:10.13173/CAJ/2008/2/6 3803:Encyclopedia of China 3727:Further information: 3619:Further information: 3585:have been suggested. 3000:) and 現 'to appear' ( 2530: 2123:"Kuki–Naga" languages 1790:Matisoff (1978, 2015) 1656:diffusion across the 1225: Sinitic (94.3%) 1214: 1110: 1058: 224:(33 million) and the 9268:Binanderean–Goilalan 7887:Andrew Hsiu (2018), 7781:Kuhn, Ernst (1883), 7214:Les Langues du Monde 7049:Les langues du monde 6529:Handel, Zev (2008), 4727:Sagart et al. (2019) 4325:, pp. xiii–xiv. 3927:Sagart et al. (2019) 3686:historical linguists 3680:. A narrower binary 2948:) to polysynthetic ( 2628:Kham–Magaric–Chepang 2189:and several isolates 1458:in the east and the 1344:are still spoken in 1245: Karenic (0.3%) 1237: Tibetic (0.4%) 1203:and adjacent areas. 1001:Christopher Beckwith 410:Les langues du monde 388:Franz Nikolaus Finck 297:genetic relationship 281:Hmong–Mien languages 11281:Chukotko-Kamchatkan 11065:Northwest Caucasian 11060:Northeast Caucasian 10550:(Maku-Auari/Jukude) 10453:Tequiraca–Canichana 10296:Harákmbut–Katukinan 9059:Northwest Caucasian 9053:Northeast Caucasian 8977:Chukotko-Kamchatkan 8701:Proto-Tibeto-Burman 7480:2019Natur.569..112Z 7127:(21): 10317–10322, 6236:Linguistic Typology 6213:"The Sal Languages" 6187:Bodman, Nicholas C. 5827:1998PNAS...9513994R 5821:(23): 13994–13996. 5470:Gutman, Alejandro. 5062:Zhang et al. (2019) 4931:, pp. 343–344. 4664:, pp. 470–471. 4637:Zhang et al. (2019) 4610:, pp. 424–425. 4496:, pp. 187–188. 4397:, pp. 472–473. 4313:, pp. 315–317. 4253:, pp. 471–472. 4181:, pp. 425–426. 4103:, pp. 195–196. 3706:A 2023 analysis by 3676:and, occasionally, 3650:Yeniseian languages 3152: 3128:linguistic typology 2956:) languages. While 2921:Proto-Tibeto-Burman 2888:subject–verb–object 2646:Jingpho–Konyak–Bodo 1660:, especially since 1625:(later expanded to 1354:Myazedi inscription 1336:that shattered the 1251: others (1.6%) 1134:Myazedi inscription 424:Shafer and Benedict 11546:Austronesian–Ongan 11345:Proposed groupings 10172:Tarascan/Purépecha 9661:Northern Tasmanian 9419:South Bougainville 9380:North Bougainville 8694:Proto-Sino-Tibetan 8636:Proposed groupings 7766:Jacques, Guillaume 7737:Gong, Hwang-cherng 7586:Baxter, William H. 7117:Jacques, Guillaume 6978:Miller, Roy Andrew 6862:Matisoff, James A. 6652:Guillaume, Jacques 6495:Gong, Hwang-cherng 6291:A grammar of Limbu 6178:2020-04-26 at the 5990:Baxter, William H. 4895:, pp. 99–108. 4712:, pp. 90, 92. 4385:, pp. 97–104. 4241:, pp. 98–123. 3668:of North America, 3150: 2972:Initial consonant 2034:Lolo-Burmese–Naxi 1953:Western Himalayish 1291:inscriptions from 1260: 1119: 1080:Chinese characters 1064: 73:Proto-Sino-Tibetan 11673:Language families 11655: 11654: 11564: 11563: 11556:Sino-Austronesian 11340: 11339: 10815:Language families 10781: 10780: 10731:Language isolates 10709: 10708: 10614: 10613: 10180: 10179: 10066: 10065: 9761: 9760: 9708:Western Tasmanian 9626:Eastern Tasmanian 9581: 9580: 9303:East Geelvink Bay 9233: 9232: 8924: 8923: 8748: 8747: 8631: 8630: 8516: 8515: 8357: 8356: 8112: 8111: 7870:Guillaume Jacques 7796:Starostin, Sergei 7757:978-957-671-872-4 7728:978-3-11-017648-3 7681:van Driem, George 7672:978-3-87787-208-6 7606:Benedict, Paul K. 7518:. April 25, 2019. 7474:(7754): 112–115, 7454:978-90-04-15014-0 7441:Yanson, Rudolf A. 7432:978-0-7007-1129-1 7413:978-3-11-031074-0 7394:978-0-7007-1129-1 7375:978-0-521-35505-6 7346:978-0-415-32242-3 7327:978-81-7099-049-9 7308:978-3-447-01559-2 7212:(1925), "Review: 7193:978-90-272-0699-2 7104:978-0-415-32242-3 7023:978-0-521-29653-3 6947:978-0-520-09843-5 6739:978-0-7007-1129-1 6726:LaPolla, Randy J. 6624:Archiv Orientální 6521:978-90-279-3379-9 6461:978-0-7007-1129-1 6442:978-3-11-031083-2 6426:"Trans-Himalayan" 6374:978-0-415-32242-3 6348:978-90-04-12062-4 6300:978-3-11-011282-5 6287:van Driem, George 6278:978-1-134-26156-7 6200:978-90-04-06130-9 6166:978-3-11-031083-2 6130:978-0-521-08175-7 6081:Benedict, Paul K. 6072:978-90-04-12424-0 6053:978-90-04-12424-0 6022:978-0-19-994537-5 6003:978-3-11-012324-1 5435:, pp. 32–33. 5333:, pp. 29–32. 5271:, pp. 34–35. 5203:978-0-19-938465-5 5100:, pp. 43–45. 4919:, pp. 97–99. 4883:, pp. 94–96. 4818:, pp. 60–63. 4741:, pp. 94–97. 4676:, pp. 91–95. 4277:, pp. 25–26. 4154:, pp. 20–21. 3666:Na-Dené languages 3664:" to include the 3574: 3573: 3040:Person indexation 2733:phylogenetic tree 2072:Kiranti languages 1703:(placing them in 1576: 1575: 1393:Classical Tibetan 1365:Tibetic languages 1358:Loloish languages 1346:Dehong Prefecture 1342:Burmish languages 1312:North China Plain 1308:Romance languages 1285:Sinitic languages 1257: 1256: 1197:Qiangic languages 1174: : *-aj and 1163:Gong Hwang-cherng 989:Roy Andrew Miller 977: 976: 436:and based at the 355:Malayo-Polynesian 226:Tibetic languages 218:Sinitic languages 199: 198: 63:language families 11685: 11623:Proto-Euphratean 11349: 11348: 11257: 11256: 11225:Great Andamanese 10808: 10801: 10794: 10785: 10784: 10627: 10626: 10581:Huaorani/Waorani 10465:(extant in 2000) 10429:Esmeralda–Yaruro 10200:Andoque–Urequena 10193: 10192: 10077: 10076: 9883:Plateau Penutian 9774: 9773: 9749:(Northern Daly?) 9592: 9591: 9478:Northwest Papuan 9442:Trans–New Guinea 9308:East New Britain 9283:Central Solomons 9249: 9248: 8994:Great Andamanese 8944: 8943: 8795: 8794: 8775: 8768: 8761: 8752: 8751: 8590: 8589: 8451: 8450: 8285: 8284: 8120: 8037: 8036: 7918: 7911: 7904: 7895: 7894: 7851: 7849: 7815: 7791: 7789: 7777: 7761: 7732: 7713: 7707: 7699: 7689: 7676: 7663:Monumenta Serica 7655:Coblin, W. South 7650: 7648: 7633: 7601: 7581: 7571: 7552: 7542: 7519: 7507: 7458: 7436: 7417: 7398: 7379: 7350: 7331: 7312: 7293: 7291: 7270: 7241: 7205: 7168: 7156: 7146: 7136: 7108: 7082: 7053: 7040:Meillet, Antoine 7027: 7005: 6973: 6963: 6951: 6926: 6889: 6857: 6840: 6820: 6810: 6800: 6775: 6755: 6743: 6721: 6713: 6700: 6691:Klaproth, Julius 6686: 6660: 6647: 6621: 6611: 6578: 6550: 6525: 6506: 6490: 6476: 6465: 6446: 6430: 6420: 6414: 6406: 6388: 6378: 6362: 6352: 6333: 6304: 6282: 6259: 6227: 6217: 6209:Burling, Robbins 6204: 6170: 6151: 6149: 6134: 6122: 6110: 6100: 6076: 6057: 6038: 6026: 6007: 5985: 5975: 5953: 5950: 5944: 5941: 5935: 5934: 5924: 5900: 5894: 5893: 5873: 5867: 5866: 5856: 5838: 5806: 5800: 5799: 5779: 5773: 5763: 5757: 5747: 5741: 5740: 5692: 5686: 5685: 5637: 5631: 5621: 5615: 5609: 5603: 5597: 5591: 5585: 5579: 5578: 5558: 5552: 5551: 5531: 5525: 5524: 5504: 5498: 5492: 5486: 5485: 5483: 5482: 5476:Languages Gulper 5467: 5461: 5454: 5448: 5442: 5436: 5433:van Driem (1987) 5430: 5424: 5418: 5409: 5403: 5394: 5388: 5382: 5376: 5370: 5364: 5358: 5352: 5346: 5340: 5334: 5328: 5322: 5316: 5310: 5309: 5297: 5291: 5290: 5278: 5272: 5266: 5260: 5254: 5248: 5247: 5235: 5226: 5220: 5214: 5213: 5211: 5210: 5177: 5171: 5165: 5159: 5153: 5147: 5141: 5135: 5134: 5126: 5120: 5119: 5107: 5101: 5095: 5089: 5083: 5077: 5071: 5065: 5059: 5053: 5052: 5034: 5028: 5025:van Driem (2007) 5022: 5016: 5013:van Driem (2014) 5010: 5004: 5001:van Driem (2001) 4998: 4992: 4986: 4980: 4977:van Driem (1997) 4974: 4968: 4965:van Driem (2001) 4962: 4956: 4950: 4944: 4938: 4932: 4929:van Driem (2001) 4926: 4920: 4914: 4908: 4902: 4896: 4890: 4884: 4878: 4872: 4866: 4860: 4854: 4848: 4842: 4836: 4830: 4819: 4813: 4807: 4801: 4795: 4789: 4783: 4782: 4780: 4779: 4772:rogerblench.info 4769: 4760: 4754: 4748: 4742: 4739:van Driem (2005) 4736: 4730: 4724: 4713: 4707: 4701: 4695: 4689: 4683: 4677: 4674:van Driem (2005) 4671: 4665: 4659: 4653: 4646: 4640: 4634: 4623: 4617: 4611: 4605: 4599: 4593: 4587: 4584:Tournadre (2014) 4581: 4575: 4572:Tournadre (2014) 4569: 4563: 4560:Tournadre (2014) 4557: 4551: 4545: 4539: 4533: 4524: 4518: 4509: 4503: 4497: 4491: 4485: 4479: 4473: 4467: 4461: 4455: 4446: 4440: 4434: 4428: 4422: 4416: 4410: 4404: 4398: 4392: 4386: 4380: 4374: 4368: 4362: 4356: 4350: 4344: 4338: 4332: 4326: 4323:Beckwith (2002a) 4320: 4314: 4308: 4302: 4296: 4290: 4284: 4278: 4272: 4266: 4260: 4254: 4248: 4242: 4236: 4230: 4227:Beckwith (2002b) 4224: 4218: 4212: 4206: 4200: 4194: 4188: 4182: 4176: 4167: 4161: 4155: 4149: 4143: 4137: 4128: 4122: 4116: 4110: 4104: 4098: 4092: 4086: 4080: 4077:van Driem (2014) 4074: 4068: 4062: 4056: 4053:Przyluski (1924) 4050: 4044: 4038: 4032: 4029:Przyluski (1924) 4026: 4017: 4011: 4005: 4002:van Driem (2001) 3999: 3993: 3987: 3981: 3978:van Driem (2001) 3975: 3969: 3963: 3954: 3948: 3942: 3936: 3930: 3929:, p. 10317. 3924: 3918: 3912: 3906: 3905: 3903: 3901: 3891: 3885: 3879: 3873: 3867: 3861: 3858:van Driem (2014) 3855: 3834: 3831: 3825: 3822: 3816: 3813: 3807: 3800:) volume of the 3790: 3784: 3781: 3775: 3771: 3765: 3762:van Driem (2001) 3755: 3701:Geoffrey Caveney 3648:posits that the 3646:Sergei Starostin 3644:" hypothesis of 3153: 3149: 3104:linguistic areas 3069:Himachal Pradesh 2669:Southern Qiangic 2664:Northern Qiangic 2542: 2116:George van Driem 2066:Starostin (1996) 1929:Northern Naga / 1605:Chinese Yearbook 1564: 1552: 1540: 1528: 1494:George van Driem 1464:Majiayao culture 1444:Yangshao culture 1397:Tibetan Buddhism 1297: 1294: 1250: 1244: 1236: 1230: 1224: 1218: 1168: 1090:Bernard Karlgren 467: 466: 442:Paul K. Benedict 204:, also cited as 192: 183: 169: 157: 19: 18: 11693: 11692: 11688: 11687: 11686: 11684: 11683: 11682: 11658: 11657: 11656: 11651: 11650: 11627: 11618:Paleo-Laplandic 11613:Pre-Finno-Ugric 11560: 11517: 11481:Greater Siangic 11467: 11453:Uralic–Yukaghir 11403:Ibero-Caucasian 11398:Elamo-Dravidian 11336: 11295: 11246: 11210: 11135: 11071: 11054:North Caucasian 11034: 10944: 10883:Paleo-Sardinian 10821: 10812: 10782: 10777: 10776: 10750: 10736:Mixed languages 10705: 10686: 10621: 10610: 10464: 10458: 10313:Katembri–Taruma 10187: 10176: 10148: 10062: 9955: 9768: 9757: 9728: 9577: 9489: 9448:Turama–Kikorian 9358:Lower Mamberamo 9313:East Strickland 9241: 9229: 9147: 8935: 8930: 8920: 8875: 8784: 8779: 8749: 8744: 8734: 8685:Proto-languages 8679: 8627: 8594:Greater Siangic 8588: 8525: 8512: 8449: 8353: 8325: 8283: 8227: 8218: 8130: 8121: 8108: 8041:Greater Magaric 8035: 7962:West Himalayish 7942: 7928: 7922: 7835: 7823: 7818: 7794: 7787: 7780: 7764: 7758: 7745: 7735: 7729: 7716: 7701: 7700: 7687: 7679: 7673: 7653: 7646: 7636: 7604: 7584: 7569: 7564: 7560: 7555: 7510: 7455: 7433: 7414: 7395: 7376: 7347: 7328: 7309: 7230:10.2307/2914102 7194: 7159: 7113:Sagart, Laurent 7105: 7087:Sagart, Laurent 7032:Przyluski, Jean 7024: 6961: 6948: 6825:Logan, James R. 6757: 6740: 6711: 6696:Asia Polyglotta 6658: 6619: 6555:Hill, Nathan W. 6522: 6462: 6443: 6428: 6408: 6407: 6386: 6375: 6360: 6349: 6301: 6279: 6265:Comrie, Bernard 6232:DeLancey, Scott 6215: 6201: 6180:Wayback Machine 6167: 6147: 6131: 6120: 6073: 6054: 6023: 6004: 5973: 5961: 5956: 5951: 5947: 5942: 5938: 5901: 5897: 5874: 5870: 5807: 5803: 5796: 5780: 5776: 5764: 5760: 5748: 5744: 5693: 5689: 5638: 5634: 5622: 5618: 5610: 5606: 5598: 5594: 5586: 5582: 5559: 5555: 5532: 5528: 5505: 5501: 5493: 5489: 5480: 5478: 5468: 5464: 5455: 5451: 5443: 5439: 5431: 5427: 5419: 5412: 5404: 5397: 5389: 5385: 5381:, pp. 5–6. 5377: 5373: 5365: 5361: 5353: 5349: 5341: 5337: 5329: 5325: 5317: 5313: 5303: 5302:, pp. 3–4. 5298: 5294: 5284: 5279: 5275: 5267: 5263: 5255: 5251: 5241: 5236: 5229: 5221: 5217: 5208: 5206: 5204: 5178: 5174: 5166: 5162: 5154: 5150: 5142: 5138: 5127: 5123: 5108: 5104: 5096: 5092: 5084: 5080: 5072: 5068: 5060: 5056: 5051:(3–4): 263–292. 5035: 5031: 5023: 5019: 5011: 5007: 4999: 4995: 4989:Matisoff (2000) 4987: 4983: 4975: 4971: 4963: 4959: 4955:, p. xxxi. 4953:Matisoff (2015) 4951: 4947: 4941:Matisoff (2015) 4939: 4935: 4927: 4923: 4915: 4911: 4903: 4899: 4891: 4887: 4879: 4875: 4871:, pp. 2–4. 4869:Benedict (1972) 4867: 4863: 4857:Benedict (1942) 4855: 4851: 4845:Matisoff (1991) 4843: 4839: 4831: 4822: 4814: 4810: 4804:DeLancey (2009) 4802: 4798: 4790: 4786: 4777: 4775: 4767: 4761: 4757: 4749: 4745: 4737: 4733: 4725: 4716: 4708: 4704: 4696: 4692: 4684: 4680: 4672: 4668: 4662:Matisoff (1991) 4660: 4656: 4647: 4643: 4635: 4626: 4618: 4614: 4606: 4602: 4596:Thurgood (2003) 4594: 4590: 4582: 4578: 4570: 4566: 4558: 4554: 4550:, pp. 8–9. 4548:Thurgood (2003) 4546: 4542: 4536:Wheatley (2003) 4534: 4527: 4519: 4512: 4504: 4500: 4492: 4488: 4480: 4476: 4468: 4464: 4456: 4449: 4443:Matisoff (1991) 4441: 4437: 4429: 4425: 4419:Matisoff (1991) 4417: 4413: 4409:, pp. 4–5. 4405: 4401: 4395:Matisoff (1991) 4393: 4389: 4381: 4377: 4369: 4365: 4357: 4353: 4345: 4341: 4335:Thurgood (2003) 4333: 4329: 4321: 4317: 4309: 4305: 4297: 4293: 4285: 4281: 4273: 4269: 4261: 4257: 4251:Matisoff (1991) 4249: 4245: 4239:Benedict (1972) 4237: 4233: 4225: 4221: 4215:Beckwith (1996) 4213: 4209: 4203:Matisoff (2003) 4201: 4197: 4189: 4185: 4177: 4170: 4164:Benedict (1972) 4162: 4158: 4152:Benedict (1972) 4150: 4146: 4138: 4131: 4125:Matisoff (1991) 4123: 4119: 4113:Benedict (1972) 4111: 4107: 4099: 4095: 4087: 4083: 4075: 4071: 4063: 4059: 4051: 4047: 4039: 4035: 4027: 4020: 4012: 4008: 4000: 3996: 3990:Klaproth (1823) 3988: 3984: 3976: 3972: 3964: 3957: 3949: 3945: 3937: 3933: 3925: 3921: 3913: 3909: 3899: 3897: 3893: 3892: 3888: 3880: 3876: 3868: 3864: 3856: 3852: 3848: 3843: 3838: 3837: 3832: 3828: 3823: 3819: 3814: 3810: 3791: 3787: 3782: 3778: 3772: 3768: 3764:, p. 264.) 3756: 3752: 3747: 3731: 3725: 3623: 3617: 3597: 3591: 3579: 3148: 3142: 3136: 3100: 3042: 3022: 2970: 2938: 2933: 2901: 2868: 2863: 2858: 2721: 2712: 2543: 2537: 2522: 2511: 2295:West Himalayish 2270: 2249: 2183:West Himalayish 2113: 2108: 2068: 2063: 1936:Jingpho–Asakian 1813: 1792: 1784: 1740: 1735: 1693: 1691:Benedict (1942) 1679:family or just 1670:Proto-Mon–Khmer 1662:Benedict (1942) 1645: 1601: 1581: 1572: 1571: 1570: 1569: 1568: 1565: 1557: 1556: 1553: 1545: 1544: 1541: 1514:Northeast India 1470:. For example, 1468:Tibetan plateau 1432: 1404:Karen languages 1369:Tibetan Plateau 1338:Pyu city-states 1295: 1281: 1273:Tibetan Plateau 1258: 1252: 1248: 1246: 1242: 1238: 1234: 1232: 1228: 1226: 1222: 1209: 1184: 1102:Nicholas Bodman 1053: 452:and Benedict's 426: 359:Julius Klaproth 314: 293: 254:Tibetan Plateau 206:Trans-Himalayan 195: 179: 168:79- (phylozone) 167: 153: 33: 27:Trans-Himalayan 17: 12: 11: 5: 11691: 11681: 11680: 11675: 11670: 11653: 11652: 11649: 11648: 11641: 11633: 11632: 11629: 11628: 11626: 11625: 11620: 11615: 11610: 11605: 11600: 11595: 11590: 11585: 11580: 11574: 11572: 11566: 11565: 11562: 11561: 11559: 11558: 11553: 11548: 11543: 11538: 11533: 11527: 11525: 11519: 11518: 11516: 11515: 11510: 11505: 11500: 11495: 11494: 11493: 11488: 11477: 11475: 11469: 11468: 11466: 11465: 11460: 11455: 11450: 11448:Uralo-Siberian 11445: 11440: 11435: 11433:Serbi–Mongolic 11430: 11425: 11420: 11415: 11410: 11405: 11400: 11395: 11393:Dravido-Korean 11390: 11388:Dené–Yeniseian 11385: 11384: 11383: 11378: 11376:Dené–Caucasian 11373: 11363: 11358: 11352: 11346: 11342: 11341: 11338: 11337: 11335: 11334: 11329: 11321: 11314: 11306: 11304: 11297: 11296: 11294: 11293: 11288: 11283: 11278: 11273: 11267: 11265: 11254: 11248: 11247: 11245: 11244: 11237: 11232: 11227: 11221: 11219: 11212: 11211: 11209: 11208: 11203: 11198: 11193: 11188: 11181: 11174: 11167: 11160: 11153: 11145: 11143: 11137: 11136: 11134: 11133: 11125: 11120: 11115: 11110: 11103: 11096: 11089: 11081: 11079: 11073: 11072: 11070: 11069: 11068: 11067: 11062: 11050: 11044: 11042: 11036: 11035: 11033: 11032: 11025: 11018: 11011: 11004: 10997: 10994:Hurro-Urartian 10990: 10983: 10976: 10969: 10962: 10954: 10952: 10946: 10945: 10943: 10942: 10935: 10928: 10921: 10914: 10907: 10900: 10893: 10886: 10879: 10876:Paleo-Corsican 10872: 10865: 10858: 10853: 10846: 10839: 10831: 10829: 10823: 10822: 10811: 10810: 10803: 10796: 10788: 10779: 10778: 10775: 10774: 10767: 10760: 10756: 10755: 10752: 10751: 10749: 10748: 10743: 10738: 10733: 10728: 10723: 10717: 10715: 10711: 10710: 10707: 10706: 10704: 10703: 10694: 10692: 10688: 10687: 10685: 10684: 10678: 10673: 10668: 10663: 10661:Indo-Pakistani 10658: 10653: 10646: 10641: 10636: 10630: 10624: 10616: 10615: 10612: 10611: 10609: 10608: 10603: 10598: 10593: 10588: 10583: 10578: 10573: 10568: 10562: 10557: 10552: 10544: 10539: 10532: 10527: 10521: 10516: 10511: 10506: 10500: 10495: 10490: 10485: 10480: 10475: 10468: 10466: 10460: 10459: 10457: 10456: 10450: 10444: 10438: 10432: 10426: 10420: 10414: 10409: 10404: 10399: 10394: 10389: 10382: 10377: 10372: 10367: 10362: 10360:Piaroa–Saliban 10357: 10350: 10345: 10340: 10335: 10330: 10325: 10320: 10315: 10310: 10305: 10298: 10293: 10288: 10283: 10278: 10273: 10268: 10261: 10256: 10249: 10244: 10239: 10234: 10229: 10224: 10219: 10212: 10207: 10202: 10196: 10190: 10182: 10181: 10178: 10177: 10175: 10174: 10169: 10164: 10156: 10154: 10150: 10149: 10147: 10146: 10139: 10132: 10127: 10125:Tequistlatecan 10122: 10115: 10110: 10105: 10098: 10091: 10086: 10080: 10074: 10068: 10067: 10064: 10063: 10061: 10060: 10055: 10050: 10045: 10038: 10033: 10026: 10019: 10012: 10005: 9998: 9993: 9988: 9983: 9978: 9971: 9963: 9961: 9957: 9956: 9954: 9953: 9948: 9941: 9934: 9929: 9922: 9917: 9912: 9907: 9902: 9895: 9890: 9885: 9880: 9873: 9866: 9861: 9854: 9849: 9842: 9837: 9832: 9825: 9818: 9811: 9804: 9797: 9792: 9785: 9777: 9771: 9763: 9762: 9759: 9758: 9756: 9755: 9750: 9744: 9736: 9734: 9730: 9729: 9727: 9726: 9716: 9711: 9704: 9699: 9694: 9689: 9683: 9676: 9671: 9664: 9657: 9652: 9648:Marrku–Wurrugu 9644: 9639: 9634: 9629: 9622: 9615: 9607: 9602: 9595: 9589: 9583: 9582: 9579: 9578: 9576: 9575: 9570: 9562: 9556: 9550: 9545: 9540: 9535: 9530: 9525: 9520: 9514: 9508: 9503: 9497: 9495: 9491: 9490: 9488: 9487: 9481: 9475: 9470: 9465: 9460: 9455: 9450: 9445: 9438: 9433: 9426: 9421: 9416: 9411: 9404: 9399: 9394: 9387: 9382: 9377: 9372: 9365: 9360: 9355: 9350: 9345: 9340: 9335: 9330: 9325: 9320: 9315: 9310: 9305: 9300: 9295: 9290: 9285: 9280: 9275: 9270: 9265: 9258: 9252: 9246: 9235: 9234: 9231: 9230: 9228: 9227: 9219: 9212: 9206: 9201: 9193: 9188: 9180: 9173: 9166: 9161: 9155: 9153: 9149: 9148: 9146: 9145: 9139: 9133: 9127: 9121: 9115: 9109: 9104: 9099: 9092: 9085: 9078: 9073: 9066: 9061: 9056: 9049: 9044: 9039: 9032: 9027: 9022: 9017: 9010: 9007:Hurro-Urartian 9003: 8996: 8991: 8986: 8979: 8974: 8967: 8960: 8955: 8947: 8941: 8926: 8925: 8922: 8921: 8919: 8918: 8912: 8906: 8901: 8894: 8889: 8883: 8881: 8877: 8876: 8874: 8873: 8867: 8861: 8855: 8849: 8843: 8838: 8830: 8823: 8818: 8813: 8806: 8798: 8792: 8786: 8785: 8778: 8777: 8770: 8763: 8755: 8746: 8745: 8739: 8736: 8735: 8733: 8732: 8725: 8718: 8711: 8704: 8697: 8689: 8687: 8681: 8680: 8678: 8677: 8675:Tibeto-Kanauri 8672: 8665: 8660: 8655: 8650: 8648:Kuki-Chin–Naga 8645: 8639: 8637: 8633: 8632: 8629: 8628: 8626: 8625: 8620: 8619: 8618: 8611: 8598: 8596: 8587: 8586: 8579: 8574: 8573: 8572: 8558: 8557: 8556: 8549: 8536: 8534: 8518: 8517: 8514: 8513: 8511: 8510: 8509: 8508: 8501: 8496: 8484: 8479: 8474: 8473: 8472: 8459: 8457: 8448: 8447: 8446: 8445: 8438: 8431: 8419: 8412: 8405: 8398: 8393: 8386: 8379: 8371: 8369: 8367:Southeast Asia 8359: 8358: 8355: 8354: 8352: 8351: 8346: 8341: 8335: 8333: 8327: 8326: 8324: 8323: 8318: 8313: 8306: 8304:Angami–Pochuri 8301: 8295: 8293: 8282: 8281: 8274: 8267: 8266: 8265: 8258: 8246: 8239: 8231: 8229: 8228:Burmese border 8220: 8219: 8217: 8216: 8211: 8204: 8197: 8190: 8189: 8188: 8180: 8173: 8166: 8161: 8146: 8144: 8123: 8122: 8115: 8113: 8110: 8109: 8107: 8106: 8093: 8088: 8087: 8086: 8079: 8067: 8066: 8065: 8058: 8045: 8043: 8034: 8033: 8026: 8025: 8024: 8017: 8010: 7998: 7991: 7990: 7989: 7984: 7972: 7965: 7957: 7955: 7930: 7929: 7921: 7920: 7913: 7906: 7898: 7892: 7891: 7885: 7876: 7867: 7862: 7857: 7852: 7847:10.6078/D1159Q 7833: 7827:James Matisoff 7822: 7821:External links 7819: 7817: 7816: 7792: 7778: 7762: 7756: 7733: 7727: 7714: 7677: 7671: 7651: 7634: 7622:10.2307/599822 7616:(2): 167–197, 7602: 7582: 7561: 7559: 7556: 7554: 7553: 7522: 7521: 7520: 7459: 7453: 7437: 7431: 7418: 7412: 7399: 7393: 7380: 7374: 7351: 7345: 7332: 7326: 7313: 7307: 7294: 7271: 7259:10.1086/464142 7242: 7224:(6): 373–375, 7206: 7192: 7171: 7170: 7169: 7109: 7103: 7083: 7065:(3): 667–668, 7054: 7028: 7022: 7006: 6994:10.2307/600891 6988:(2): 195–209, 6974: 6952: 6946: 6927: 6901:(3): 356–369, 6890: 6858: 6841: 6821: 6776: 6744: 6738: 6722: 6701: 6687: 6648: 6612: 6579: 6551: 6541:(3): 422–441, 6526: 6520: 6507: 6491: 6477: 6466: 6460: 6447: 6441: 6421: 6397:(2): 211–270, 6379: 6373: 6353: 6347: 6334: 6316:(3): 455–488, 6305: 6299: 6283: 6277: 6260: 6228: 6205: 6199: 6183: 6165: 6152: 6135: 6129: 6111: 6091:(4): 576–601, 6077: 6071: 6058: 6052: 6039: 6027: 6021: 6008: 6002: 5986: 5962: 5960: 5957: 5955: 5954: 5945: 5936: 5895: 5884:(2): 461–487. 5868: 5801: 5794: 5774: 5758: 5742: 5707:(1–2): 51–58. 5687: 5652:(2): 219–305. 5632: 5616: 5604: 5592: 5580: 5569:(2): 308–336. 5553: 5526: 5499: 5497:, p. 106. 5487: 5462: 5460:on 2021-04-05. 5449: 5447:, p. 116. 5437: 5425: 5421:Burling (1983) 5410: 5395: 5383: 5371: 5359: 5347: 5335: 5331:LaPolla (2003) 5323: 5321:, p. 430. 5311: 5292: 5273: 5269:LaPolla (2003) 5261: 5249: 5227: 5225:, pp. 23. 5223:LaPolla (2003) 5215: 5202: 5172: 5160: 5158:, p. 241. 5148: 5136: 5121: 5102: 5090: 5088:, pp. 50. 5078: 5066: 5064:, p. 113. 5054: 5029: 5027:, p. 226. 5017: 5005: 5003:, p. 403. 4993: 4981: 4969: 4967:, p. 383. 4957: 4945: 4933: 4921: 4909: 4897: 4885: 4873: 4861: 4859:, p. 600. 4849: 4847:, p. 487. 4837: 4835:, p. 424. 4820: 4808: 4806:, p. 695. 4796: 4794:, p. 426. 4784: 4755: 4743: 4731: 4714: 4702: 4690: 4678: 4666: 4654: 4641: 4639:, p. 112. 4624: 4622:, p. 423. 4612: 4600: 4588: 4586:, p. 120. 4576: 4574:, p. 107. 4564: 4562:, p. 117. 4552: 4540: 4538:, p. 195. 4525: 4523:, p. 165. 4510: 4498: 4486: 4474: 4462: 4447: 4445:, p. 482. 4435: 4433:, p. 435. 4423: 4411: 4399: 4387: 4375: 4373:, p. 431. 4363: 4351: 4339: 4327: 4315: 4303: 4291: 4279: 4267: 4255: 4243: 4231: 4219: 4207: 4195: 4193:, p. 197. 4183: 4168: 4156: 4144: 4142:, p. 434. 4129: 4127:, p. 473. 4117: 4105: 4093: 4091:, p. 195. 4081: 4069: 4057: 4055:, p. 380. 4045: 4043:, p. 373. 4033: 4031:, p. 361. 4018: 4006: 4004:, p. 344. 3994: 3982: 3980:, p. 334. 3970: 3955: 3943: 3931: 3919: 3907: 3886: 3884:, p. 422. 3874: 3862: 3849: 3847: 3844: 3842: 3839: 3836: 3835: 3826: 3817: 3808: 3785: 3776: 3766: 3749: 3748: 3746: 3743: 3724: 3721: 3682:Dené–Yeniseian 3662:Dené–Caucasian 3658:Sino-Yeniseian 3642:Sino-Caucasian 3616: 3615:Dené–Yeniseian 3613: 3593:Main article: 3590: 3587: 3578: 3575: 3572: 3571: 3568: 3565: 3562: 3559: 3556: 3553: 3550: 3546: 3545: 3542: 3539: 3536: 3533: 3530: 3527: 3524: 3518: 3514: 3513: 3510: 3507: 3504: 3501: 3498: 3495: 3492: 3486: 3482: 3481: 3478: 3475: 3472: 3469: 3466: 3463: 3460: 3454: 3450: 3449: 3446: 3443: 3440: 3437: 3434: 3431: 3428: 3422: 3418: 3417: 3414: 3411: 3408: 3405: 3402: 3399: 3396: 3390: 3386: 3385: 3382: 3379: 3376: 3373: 3370: 3367: 3364: 3358: 3354: 3353: 3350: 3347: 3344: 3341: 3338: 3335: 3332: 3326: 3322: 3321: 3318: 3315: 3312: 3309: 3306: 3303: 3300: 3294: 3290: 3289: 3286: 3283: 3280: 3277: 3274: 3271: 3268: 3262: 3258: 3257: 3254: 3251: 3248: 3246: 3243: 3240: 3237: 3236:*tjek "single" 3230: 3229: 3226: 3223: 3220: 3217: 3214: 3211: 3208: 3202: 3198: 3197: 3192: 3187: 3182: 3177: 3172: 3167: 3162: 3157: 3135: 3132: 3099: 3096: 3092:proto-language 3041: 3038: 3021: 3018: 2969: 2966: 2937: 2934: 2932: 2929: 2900: 2897: 2867: 2864: 2862: 2859: 2857: 2856: 2855: 2854: 2853: 2852: 2851: 2850: 2849: 2848: 2847: 2846: 2845: 2844: 2843: 2842: 2841: 2840: 2837: 2836: 2835: 2832: 2827: 2823: 2821: 2820: 2819: 2816: 2811: 2807: 2805: 2800: 2798: 2797: 2796: 2793: 2788: 2784: 2782: 2781: 2780: 2777: 2772: 2768: 2766: 2761: 2759: 2758: 2757: 2756:Kuki-Chin–Naga 2754: 2749: 2746:Tibeto-Burman 2744: 2737: 2720: 2717: 2711: 2710: 2709: 2708: 2707: 2706: 2705: 2704: 2703: 2702: 2697: 2696: 2695: 2690: 2681: 2673: 2671: 2666: 2661: 2656: 2648: 2643: 2638: 2606: 2604: 2603: 2602: 2596:Angami–Pochuri 2576: 2569: 2565: 2563: 2558: 2548: 2535: 2521: 2518: 2510: 2509: 2504: 2499: 2494: 2489: 2484: 2479: 2474: 2469: 2464: 2459: 2454: 2449: 2442: 2437: 2430: 2425: 2420: 2418:Angami–Pochuri 2415: 2410: 2403: 2397: 2392: 2387: 2382: 2377: 2372: 2367: 2362: 2355: 2348: 2341: 2334: 2329: 2324: 2319: 2312: 2307: 2302: 2297: 2292: 2285: 2279: 2269: 2266: 2248: 2247: 2246: 2245: 2226: 2225: 2224: 2223: 2222: 2214:Southeastern: 2212: 2204:Southwestern: 2199: 2198: 2197: 2192:Northeastern ( 2190: 2165: 2142:Tibeto-Burman 2139: 2112: 2109: 2107: 2106: 2105: 2104: 2101: 2098: 2092: 2091: 2090: 2087: 2080: 2067: 2064: 2062: 2061: 2060: 2059: 2058: 2057: 2052: 2047: 2046: 2045: 2040: 2032: 2027: 2022: 2021: 2020: 2015: 2010: 2002: 2001: 2000: 1987: 1982: 1977: 1976: 1975: 1970: 1965: 1960: 1955: 1948:Tibeto-Kanauri 1942: 1941: 1940: 1939: 1938: 1933: 1927: 1917: 1912: 1906: 1901: 1900: 1899: 1894: 1888: 1885:Angami–Pochuri 1882: 1877:Central Naga ( 1874:" areal group 1868: 1863: 1862: 1861: 1856: 1850:"North Assam" 1844:Tibeto-Burman 1842: 1835: 1812: 1811: 1810: 1809: 1806: 1799: 1795:James Matisoff 1791: 1788: 1783: 1782: 1781: 1780: 1777: 1772: 1769: 1766: 1763: 1756: 1739: 1736: 1734: 1733: 1732: 1731: 1730: 1729: 1726: 1720: 1713: 1692: 1689: 1644: 1643: 1642: 1641: 1636: 1630: 1620: 1613: 1600: 1597: 1589:proto-language 1580: 1579:Classification 1577: 1574: 1573: 1566: 1559: 1558: 1554: 1547: 1546: 1542: 1535: 1534: 1533: 1532: 1531: 1523:Cishan culture 1518: 1517: 1502: 1501:Lolo–Burmese). 1491: 1472:James Matisoff 1431: 1428: 1389:Tibetan Empire 1385:Yarlung Valley 1296: 1250 BC 1280: 1277: 1255: 1254: 1247: 1241: 1239: 1233: 1227: 1221: 1216: 1208: 1205: 1183: 1180: 1144:(Tibetan) and 1126:Tibetan Empire 1114:text found at 1076:Middle Chinese 1052: 1049: 975: 974: 971: 968: 965: 962: 959: 956: 953: 949: 948: 945: 942: 939: 936: 933: 930: 927: 923: 922: 919: 916: 913: 910: 907: 904: 901: 897: 896: 893: 890: 887: 884: 881: 878: 875: 871: 870: 867: 864: 861: 858: 855: 852: 849: 845: 844: 841: 838: 835: 832: 829: 826: 823: 819: 818: 815: 812: 809: 806: 803: 800: 797: 793: 792: 789: 786: 783: 780: 777: 774: 771: 767: 766: 763: 760: 757: 754: 751: 748: 745: 741: 740: 737: 734: 731: 728: 725: 722: 719: 715: 714: 711: 708: 705: 702: 699: 696: 693: 689: 688: 685: 682: 679: 676: 673: 670: 667: 663: 662: 659: 656: 653: 650: 647: 644: 641: 637: 636: 633: 630: 627: 624: 621: 618: 615: 611: 610: 607: 604: 601: 598: 595: 592: 589: 585: 584: 581: 578: 575: 572: 569: 566: 563: 559: 558: 555: 552: 549: 546: 543: 540: 537: 533: 532: 529: 526: 523: 520: 517: 514: 511: 507: 506: 501: 496: 491: 486: 481: 476: 471: 430:Alfred Kroeber 425: 422: 394:Jean Przyluski 383:August Conrady 313: 310: 292: 289: 265:proto-language 197: 196: 193: 185: 184: 177: 171: 170: 165: 159: 158: 151: 141: 140: 139: 138: 133: 128: 123: 118: 113: 108: 103: 98: 93: 80: 76: 75: 70: 69:Proto-language 66: 65: 59: 53: 52: 50:Southeast Asia 35: 29: 28: 24: 23: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 11690: 11679: 11676: 11674: 11671: 11669: 11666: 11665: 11663: 11646: 11642: 11639: 11635: 11634: 11630: 11624: 11621: 11619: 11616: 11614: 11611: 11609: 11606: 11604: 11601: 11599: 11596: 11594: 11591: 11589: 11586: 11584: 11581: 11579: 11576: 11575: 11573: 11571: 11567: 11557: 11554: 11552: 11549: 11547: 11544: 11542: 11539: 11537: 11534: 11532: 11529: 11528: 11526: 11524: 11520: 11514: 11511: 11509: 11506: 11504: 11501: 11499: 11496: 11492: 11489: 11487: 11484: 11483: 11482: 11479: 11478: 11476: 11474: 11470: 11464: 11461: 11459: 11458:Eskimo–Uralic 11456: 11454: 11451: 11449: 11446: 11444: 11441: 11439: 11436: 11434: 11431: 11429: 11426: 11424: 11421: 11419: 11416: 11414: 11411: 11409: 11406: 11404: 11401: 11399: 11396: 11394: 11391: 11389: 11386: 11382: 11379: 11377: 11374: 11372: 11369: 11368: 11367: 11364: 11362: 11359: 11357: 11354: 11353: 11350: 11347: 11343: 11333: 11330: 11327: 11326: 11322: 11320: 11319: 11315: 11313: 11312: 11308: 11307: 11305: 11303: 11298: 11292: 11289: 11287: 11284: 11282: 11279: 11277: 11274: 11272: 11269: 11268: 11266: 11263: 11262:Paleosiberian 11258: 11255: 11253: 11249: 11243: 11242: 11238: 11236: 11233: 11231: 11228: 11226: 11223: 11222: 11220: 11217: 11213: 11207: 11204: 11202: 11199: 11197: 11194: 11192: 11189: 11187: 11186: 11182: 11180: 11179: 11175: 11173: 11172: 11168: 11166: 11165: 11161: 11159: 11158: 11157:Austroasiatic 11154: 11152: 11151: 11147: 11146: 11144: 11142: 11138: 11131: 11130: 11126: 11124: 11121: 11119: 11116: 11114: 11111: 11109: 11108: 11107:Austroasiatic 11104: 11102: 11101: 11097: 11095: 11094: 11090: 11088: 11087: 11086:Indo-European 11083: 11082: 11080: 11078: 11074: 11066: 11063: 11061: 11058: 11057: 11056: 11055: 11051: 11049: 11046: 11045: 11043: 11041: 11037: 11031: 11030: 11026: 11024: 11023: 11019: 11017: 11016: 11012: 11010: 11009: 11005: 11003: 11002: 10998: 10996: 10995: 10991: 10989: 10988: 10984: 10982: 10981: 10977: 10975: 10974: 10970: 10968: 10967: 10963: 10961: 10960: 10959:Indo-European 10956: 10955: 10953: 10951: 10947: 10941: 10940: 10936: 10934: 10933: 10929: 10927: 10926: 10922: 10920: 10919: 10915: 10913: 10912: 10908: 10906: 10905: 10901: 10899: 10898: 10894: 10892: 10891: 10887: 10885: 10884: 10880: 10878: 10877: 10873: 10871: 10870: 10866: 10864: 10863: 10859: 10857: 10854: 10852: 10851: 10847: 10845: 10844: 10840: 10838: 10837: 10836:Indo-European 10833: 10832: 10830: 10828: 10824: 10820: 10816: 10809: 10804: 10802: 10797: 10795: 10790: 10789: 10786: 10772: 10768: 10765: 10761: 10758: 10757: 10753: 10747: 10744: 10742: 10739: 10737: 10734: 10732: 10729: 10727: 10724: 10722: 10719: 10718: 10716: 10712: 10702: 10701: 10696: 10695: 10693: 10689: 10682: 10679: 10677: 10674: 10672: 10671:Original Thai 10669: 10667: 10664: 10662: 10659: 10657: 10654: 10652: 10651: 10647: 10645: 10642: 10640: 10637: 10635: 10632: 10631: 10628: 10625: 10623: 10617: 10607: 10604: 10602: 10599: 10597: 10594: 10592: 10589: 10587: 10584: 10582: 10579: 10577: 10574: 10572: 10569: 10566: 10563: 10561: 10558: 10556: 10553: 10551: 10549: 10545: 10543: 10540: 10538: 10537: 10533: 10531: 10528: 10525: 10522: 10520: 10517: 10515: 10512: 10510: 10507: 10504: 10501: 10499: 10496: 10494: 10491: 10489: 10486: 10484: 10481: 10479: 10476: 10473: 10470: 10469: 10467: 10461: 10454: 10451: 10448: 10445: 10442: 10439: 10436: 10435:Hibito–Cholón 10433: 10430: 10427: 10424: 10421: 10418: 10415: 10413: 10410: 10408: 10405: 10403: 10400: 10398: 10395: 10393: 10390: 10388: 10387: 10383: 10381: 10378: 10376: 10373: 10371: 10368: 10366: 10363: 10361: 10358: 10356: 10355: 10351: 10349: 10346: 10344: 10341: 10339: 10336: 10334: 10331: 10329: 10326: 10324: 10321: 10319: 10316: 10314: 10311: 10309: 10306: 10304: 10303: 10299: 10297: 10294: 10292: 10289: 10287: 10284: 10282: 10279: 10277: 10274: 10272: 10269: 10267: 10266: 10262: 10260: 10257: 10255: 10254: 10250: 10248: 10245: 10243: 10240: 10238: 10235: 10233: 10230: 10228: 10225: 10223: 10220: 10218: 10217: 10213: 10211: 10208: 10206: 10203: 10201: 10198: 10197: 10194: 10191: 10189: 10183: 10173: 10170: 10168: 10165: 10163: 10162: 10158: 10157: 10155: 10151: 10145: 10144: 10140: 10138: 10137: 10133: 10131: 10128: 10126: 10123: 10121: 10120: 10116: 10114: 10111: 10109: 10106: 10104: 10103: 10099: 10097: 10096: 10092: 10090: 10087: 10085: 10082: 10081: 10078: 10075: 10073: 10069: 10059: 10056: 10054: 10051: 10049: 10046: 10044: 10043: 10039: 10037: 10034: 10032: 10031: 10027: 10025: 10024: 10020: 10018: 10017: 10013: 10011: 10010: 10006: 10004: 10003: 9999: 9997: 9994: 9992: 9989: 9987: 9984: 9982: 9979: 9977: 9976: 9972: 9970: 9969: 9965: 9964: 9962: 9958: 9952: 9951:Yuman–Cochimí 9949: 9947: 9946: 9942: 9940: 9939: 9935: 9933: 9930: 9928: 9927: 9923: 9921: 9918: 9916: 9913: 9911: 9908: 9906: 9903: 9901: 9900: 9896: 9894: 9891: 9889: 9886: 9884: 9881: 9879: 9878: 9874: 9872: 9871: 9867: 9865: 9862: 9860: 9859: 9855: 9853: 9850: 9848: 9847: 9843: 9841: 9838: 9836: 9833: 9831: 9830: 9826: 9824: 9823: 9819: 9817: 9816: 9812: 9810: 9809: 9805: 9803: 9802: 9798: 9796: 9793: 9791: 9790: 9786: 9784: 9783: 9779: 9778: 9775: 9772: 9770: 9764: 9754: 9751: 9748: 9745: 9743: 9742: 9738: 9737: 9735: 9731: 9724: 9720: 9717: 9715: 9712: 9710: 9709: 9705: 9703: 9700: 9698: 9695: 9693: 9690: 9687: 9686:Southern Daly 9684: 9682: 9681: 9677: 9675: 9672: 9670: 9669: 9665: 9663: 9662: 9658: 9656: 9653: 9650: 9649: 9645: 9643: 9640: 9638: 9635: 9633: 9630: 9628: 9627: 9623: 9621: 9620: 9616: 9613: 9612: 9611:Darwin Region 9608: 9606: 9603: 9600: 9597: 9596: 9593: 9590: 9588: 9584: 9574: 9571: 9569: 9567: 9563: 9560: 9557: 9554: 9551: 9549: 9546: 9544: 9541: 9539: 9536: 9534: 9531: 9529: 9526: 9524: 9521: 9518: 9515: 9512: 9509: 9507: 9504: 9502: 9499: 9498: 9496: 9492: 9485: 9482: 9479: 9476: 9474: 9471: 9469: 9466: 9464: 9461: 9459: 9456: 9454: 9451: 9449: 9446: 9444: 9443: 9439: 9437: 9434: 9432: 9431: 9427: 9425: 9422: 9420: 9417: 9415: 9412: 9410: 9409: 9405: 9403: 9400: 9398: 9395: 9393: 9392: 9388: 9386: 9383: 9381: 9378: 9376: 9373: 9371: 9370: 9366: 9364: 9361: 9359: 9356: 9354: 9351: 9349: 9346: 9344: 9341: 9339: 9336: 9334: 9331: 9329: 9326: 9324: 9321: 9319: 9316: 9314: 9311: 9309: 9306: 9304: 9301: 9299: 9296: 9294: 9293:Demta–Sentani 9291: 9289: 9286: 9284: 9281: 9279: 9276: 9274: 9271: 9269: 9266: 9264: 9263: 9259: 9257: 9254: 9253: 9250: 9247: 9245: 9240: 9236: 9226: 9224: 9220: 9218: 9217: 9213: 9210: 9207: 9205: 9202: 9200: 9198: 9194: 9192: 9189: 9187: 9185: 9181: 9179: 9178: 9174: 9172: 9171: 9167: 9165: 9162: 9160: 9157: 9156: 9154: 9150: 9143: 9140: 9137: 9134: 9131: 9128: 9125: 9122: 9119: 9116: 9113: 9110: 9108: 9105: 9103: 9100: 9098: 9097: 9093: 9091: 9090: 9086: 9084: 9083: 9079: 9077: 9074: 9072: 9071: 9067: 9065: 9062: 9060: 9057: 9055: 9054: 9050: 9048: 9045: 9043: 9040: 9038: 9037: 9033: 9031: 9028: 9026: 9023: 9021: 9018: 9016: 9015: 9014:Indo-European 9011: 9009: 9008: 9004: 9002: 9001: 8997: 8995: 8992: 8990: 8987: 8985: 8984: 8980: 8978: 8975: 8973: 8972: 8968: 8966: 8965: 8964:Austroasiatic 8961: 8959: 8956: 8954: 8953: 8949: 8948: 8945: 8942: 8939: 8934: 8927: 8916: 8913: 8910: 8907: 8905: 8902: 8900: 8899: 8895: 8893: 8890: 8888: 8885: 8884: 8882: 8878: 8871: 8868: 8865: 8862: 8859: 8856: 8853: 8850: 8847: 8844: 8842: 8839: 8836: 8835: 8831: 8829: 8828: 8824: 8822: 8819: 8817: 8814: 8812: 8811: 8807: 8805: 8804: 8800: 8799: 8796: 8793: 8791: 8787: 8783: 8776: 8771: 8769: 8764: 8762: 8757: 8756: 8753: 8742: 8737: 8731: 8730: 8726: 8724: 8723: 8719: 8717: 8716: 8715:Proto-Karenic 8712: 8710: 8709: 8708:Proto-Loloish 8705: 8703: 8702: 8698: 8696: 8695: 8691: 8690: 8688: 8686: 8682: 8676: 8673: 8671: 8670: 8669:Tibeto-Burman 8666: 8664: 8661: 8659: 8656: 8654: 8651: 8649: 8646: 8644: 8641: 8640: 8638: 8634: 8624: 8621: 8617: 8616: 8612: 8610: 8609: 8605: 8604: 8603: 8600: 8599: 8597: 8595: 8591: 8585: 8584: 8580: 8578: 8575: 8571: 8570: 8566: 8565: 8564: 8563: 8559: 8555: 8554: 8550: 8548: 8547: 8543: 8542: 8541: 8538: 8537: 8535: 8532: 8528: 8523: 8519: 8507: 8506: 8502: 8500: 8497: 8495: 8492: 8491: 8490: 8489: 8485: 8483: 8480: 8478: 8475: 8471: 8468: 8467: 8466: 8465: 8461: 8460: 8458: 8456: 8455:Burmo-Qiangic 8452: 8444: 8443: 8439: 8437: 8436: 8432: 8430: 8429: 8425: 8424: 8423: 8420: 8418: 8417: 8413: 8411: 8410: 8406: 8404: 8403: 8399: 8397: 8394: 8392: 8391: 8387: 8385: 8384: 8380: 8378: 8377: 8373: 8372: 8370: 8368: 8364: 8360: 8350: 8349:Jingpho–Luish 8347: 8345: 8342: 8340: 8337: 8336: 8334: 8332: 8328: 8322: 8319: 8317: 8314: 8312: 8311: 8307: 8305: 8302: 8300: 8297: 8296: 8294: 8291: 8286: 8280: 8279: 8275: 8273: 8272: 8268: 8264: 8263: 8259: 8257: 8256: 8252: 8251: 8250: 8247: 8245: 8244: 8240: 8238: 8237: 8233: 8232: 8230: 8225: 8221: 8215: 8212: 8210: 8209: 8205: 8203: 8202: 8198: 8196: 8195: 8191: 8186: 8185: 8181: 8179: 8178: 8174: 8172: 8171: 8167: 8165: 8162: 8160: 8159: 8155: 8154: 8153: 8152: 8148: 8147: 8145: 8142: 8138: 8134: 8129: 8124: 8119: 8105: 8104: 8099: 8098: 8094: 8092: 8089: 8085: 8084: 8080: 8078: 8077: 8073: 8072: 8071: 8068: 8064: 8063: 8059: 8057: 8056: 8052: 8051: 8050: 8047: 8046: 8044: 8042: 8038: 8032: 8031: 8027: 8023: 8022: 8018: 8016: 8015: 8011: 8009: 8008: 8004: 8003: 8002: 7999: 7997: 7996: 7992: 7988: 7987:Baram–Thangmi 7985: 7983: 7982: 7978: 7977: 7976: 7973: 7971: 7970: 7966: 7964: 7963: 7959: 7958: 7956: 7953: 7949: 7945: 7940: 7936: 7931: 7926: 7919: 7914: 7912: 7907: 7905: 7900: 7899: 7896: 7890: 7886: 7884: 7880: 7877: 7875: 7871: 7868: 7866: 7863: 7861: 7858: 7856: 7853: 7848: 7843: 7839: 7834: 7832: 7828: 7825: 7824: 7813: 7809: 7805: 7801: 7797: 7793: 7786: 7785: 7779: 7775: 7771: 7767: 7763: 7759: 7753: 7749: 7742: 7738: 7734: 7730: 7724: 7720: 7715: 7711: 7705: 7697: 7693: 7686: 7682: 7678: 7674: 7668: 7664: 7660: 7656: 7652: 7645: 7644: 7639: 7638:Blench, Roger 7635: 7631: 7627: 7623: 7619: 7615: 7611: 7607: 7603: 7599: 7595: 7591: 7587: 7583: 7580:(1): 108–155. 7579: 7575: 7568: 7563: 7562: 7550: 7546: 7541: 7536: 7532: 7528: 7523: 7517: 7513: 7509: 7508: 7505: 7501: 7497: 7493: 7489: 7485: 7481: 7477: 7473: 7469: 7465: 7460: 7456: 7450: 7446: 7442: 7438: 7434: 7428: 7424: 7419: 7415: 7409: 7405: 7400: 7396: 7390: 7386: 7381: 7377: 7371: 7367: 7363: 7359: 7358: 7352: 7348: 7342: 7338: 7333: 7329: 7323: 7319: 7314: 7310: 7304: 7300: 7295: 7290: 7285: 7282:(1): 94–111, 7281: 7277: 7272: 7268: 7264: 7260: 7256: 7252: 7248: 7243: 7239: 7235: 7231: 7227: 7223: 7219: 7215: 7211: 7210:Sapir, Edward 7207: 7203: 7199: 7195: 7189: 7185: 7181: 7177: 7172: 7166: 7162: 7158: 7157: 7154: 7150: 7145: 7140: 7135: 7130: 7126: 7122: 7118: 7114: 7110: 7106: 7100: 7096: 7092: 7088: 7084: 7080: 7076: 7072: 7068: 7064: 7060: 7055: 7051: 7050: 7045: 7044:Cohen, Marcel 7041: 7037: 7033: 7029: 7025: 7019: 7015: 7011: 7010:Norman, Jerry 7007: 7003: 6999: 6995: 6991: 6987: 6983: 6979: 6975: 6971: 6967: 6960: 6959: 6953: 6949: 6943: 6939: 6935: 6934: 6928: 6924: 6920: 6916: 6912: 6908: 6904: 6900: 6896: 6891: 6887: 6883: 6879: 6875: 6871: 6867: 6863: 6859: 6855: 6851: 6847: 6842: 6838: 6834: 6830: 6826: 6822: 6818: 6814: 6809: 6804: 6799: 6794: 6790: 6786: 6782: 6777: 6773: 6769: 6765: 6761: 6756:reprinted as 6753: 6749: 6748:Li, Fang-Kuei 6745: 6741: 6735: 6731: 6727: 6723: 6719: 6718: 6710: 6706: 6702: 6698: 6697: 6692: 6688: 6684: 6680: 6676: 6672: 6668: 6664: 6657: 6653: 6649: 6645: 6641: 6637: 6633: 6629: 6625: 6618: 6613: 6609: 6605: 6601: 6597: 6594:(2): 91–109, 6593: 6589: 6585: 6580: 6576: 6572: 6568: 6564: 6560: 6556: 6552: 6548: 6544: 6540: 6536: 6532: 6527: 6523: 6517: 6513: 6508: 6504: 6500: 6496: 6492: 6488: 6487: 6482: 6478: 6474: 6473: 6467: 6463: 6457: 6453: 6448: 6444: 6438: 6434: 6427: 6422: 6418: 6412: 6404: 6400: 6396: 6392: 6385: 6380: 6376: 6370: 6366: 6359: 6354: 6350: 6344: 6340: 6335: 6331: 6327: 6323: 6319: 6315: 6311: 6306: 6302: 6296: 6292: 6288: 6284: 6280: 6274: 6270: 6266: 6261: 6257: 6253: 6249: 6245: 6241: 6237: 6233: 6229: 6225: 6221: 6214: 6210: 6206: 6202: 6196: 6192: 6188: 6184: 6181: 6177: 6174: 6168: 6162: 6158: 6153: 6146: 6145: 6140: 6139:Blench, Roger 6136: 6132: 6126: 6119: 6118: 6112: 6108: 6104: 6099: 6094: 6090: 6086: 6082: 6078: 6074: 6068: 6064: 6059: 6055: 6049: 6045: 6040: 6036: 6032: 6028: 6024: 6018: 6014: 6009: 6005: 5999: 5995: 5991: 5987: 5983: 5979: 5972: 5968: 5964: 5963: 5949: 5940: 5932: 5928: 5923: 5918: 5914: 5910: 5906: 5899: 5891: 5887: 5883: 5879: 5872: 5864: 5860: 5855: 5850: 5846: 5842: 5837: 5832: 5828: 5824: 5820: 5816: 5812: 5805: 5797: 5795:9781134149629 5791: 5788:. Routledge. 5787: 5786: 5778: 5771: 5767: 5762: 5755: 5751: 5750:Goddard, Ives 5746: 5738: 5734: 5730: 5726: 5722: 5718: 5714: 5710: 5706: 5702: 5698: 5691: 5683: 5679: 5675: 5671: 5667: 5663: 5659: 5655: 5651: 5647: 5643: 5636: 5630: 5626: 5620: 5614: 5608: 5602: 5596: 5590: 5589:Tailleur 1994 5584: 5576: 5572: 5568: 5564: 5557: 5549: 5545: 5541: 5537: 5530: 5522: 5518: 5514: 5510: 5503: 5496: 5495:Yanson (2006) 5491: 5477: 5473: 5466: 5459: 5453: 5446: 5445:Sharma (1988) 5441: 5434: 5429: 5423:, p. 28. 5422: 5417: 5415: 5407: 5402: 5400: 5392: 5391:Baxter (1992) 5387: 5380: 5375: 5369:, p. 11. 5368: 5363: 5356: 5355:DeLancey 1997 5351: 5344: 5339: 5332: 5327: 5320: 5319:Handel (2008) 5315: 5307: 5301: 5296: 5288: 5282: 5277: 5270: 5265: 5259:, p. 54. 5258: 5253: 5245: 5240:, p. 74. 5239: 5234: 5232: 5224: 5219: 5205: 5199: 5195: 5191: 5187: 5183: 5176: 5170:, p. 12. 5169: 5168:Matisoff 2003 5164: 5157: 5156:Matisoff 2003 5152: 5146:, p. 85. 5145: 5144:Benedict 1972 5140: 5132: 5125: 5117: 5113: 5106: 5099: 5094: 5087: 5082: 5076:, p. 43. 5075: 5070: 5063: 5058: 5050: 5046: 5045: 5040: 5033: 5026: 5021: 5015:, p. 19. 5014: 5009: 5002: 4997: 4990: 4985: 4978: 4973: 4966: 4961: 4954: 4949: 4942: 4937: 4930: 4925: 4918: 4917:Shafer (1955) 4913: 4906: 4905:Shafer (1966) 4901: 4894: 4893:Shafer (1955) 4889: 4882: 4881:Shafer (1955) 4877: 4870: 4865: 4858: 4853: 4846: 4841: 4834: 4833:Handel (2008) 4829: 4827: 4825: 4817: 4812: 4805: 4800: 4793: 4792:Handel (2008) 4788: 4773: 4766: 4759: 4753:, p. 14. 4752: 4751:Blench (2009) 4747: 4740: 4735: 4728: 4723: 4721: 4719: 4711: 4706: 4700:, p. 89. 4699: 4694: 4687: 4686:Blench (2009) 4682: 4675: 4670: 4663: 4658: 4652: 4645: 4638: 4633: 4631: 4629: 4621: 4620:Handel (2008) 4616: 4609: 4608:Handel (2008) 4604: 4598:, p. 18. 4597: 4592: 4585: 4580: 4573: 4568: 4561: 4556: 4549: 4544: 4537: 4532: 4530: 4522: 4521:Taylor (1992) 4517: 4515: 4507: 4502: 4495: 4494:Norman (1988) 4490: 4483: 4482:Norman (1988) 4478: 4471: 4466: 4459: 4454: 4452: 4444: 4439: 4432: 4431:Handel (2008) 4427: 4420: 4415: 4408: 4403: 4396: 4391: 4384: 4379: 4372: 4371:Handel (2008) 4367: 4360: 4355: 4348: 4343: 4337:, p. 17. 4336: 4331: 4324: 4319: 4312: 4311:Baxter (1992) 4307: 4300: 4299:Baxter (1992) 4295: 4289:, p. 47. 4288: 4287:Bodman (1980) 4283: 4276: 4275:Baxter (1992) 4271: 4265:, p. 45. 4264: 4263:Norman (1988) 4259: 4252: 4247: 4240: 4235: 4228: 4223: 4216: 4211: 4205:, p. 16. 4204: 4199: 4192: 4191:Miller (1974) 4187: 4180: 4179:Handel (2008) 4175: 4173: 4165: 4160: 4153: 4148: 4141: 4140:Handel (2008) 4136: 4134: 4126: 4121: 4114: 4109: 4102: 4101:Miller (1974) 4097: 4090: 4089:Miller (1974) 4085: 4079:, p. 15. 4078: 4073: 4066: 4061: 4054: 4049: 4042: 4037: 4030: 4025: 4023: 4016:, p. 57. 4015: 4010: 4003: 3998: 3991: 3986: 3979: 3974: 3967: 3962: 3960: 3952: 3947: 3941:, p. 31. 3940: 3935: 3928: 3923: 3916: 3915:Handel (2008) 3911: 3896: 3890: 3883: 3882:Handel (2008) 3878: 3871: 3866: 3860:, p. 16. 3859: 3854: 3850: 3830: 3821: 3812: 3805: 3804: 3799: 3795: 3794:Hàn-Zàng yǔxì 3789: 3780: 3770: 3763: 3759: 3754: 3750: 3742: 3739: 3737: 3736:Olaus Rudbeck 3730: 3723:Indo-European 3720: 3718: 3714: 3709: 3708:David Bradley 3704: 3702: 3698: 3694: 3689: 3687: 3683: 3679: 3675: 3671: 3667: 3663: 3659: 3655: 3651: 3647: 3643: 3638: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3622: 3612: 3610: 3606: 3602: 3596: 3586: 3584: 3569: 3566: 3563: 3560: 3557: 3554: 3551: 3548: 3547: 3543: 3540: 3537: 3534: 3531: 3528: 3525: 3522: 3519: 3515: 3511: 3508: 3505: 3502: 3499: 3496: 3493: 3490: 3487: 3484: 3483: 3479: 3476: 3473: 3470: 3467: 3464: 3461: 3458: 3455: 3452: 3451: 3447: 3444: 3441: 3438: 3435: 3432: 3429: 3426: 3423: 3420: 3419: 3415: 3412: 3409: 3406: 3403: 3400: 3397: 3394: 3391: 3388: 3387: 3383: 3380: 3377: 3374: 3371: 3368: 3365: 3362: 3359: 3356: 3355: 3351: 3348: 3345: 3342: 3339: 3336: 3333: 3330: 3327: 3324: 3323: 3319: 3316: 3313: 3310: 3307: 3304: 3301: 3298: 3295: 3292: 3291: 3287: 3284: 3281: 3278: 3275: 3272: 3269: 3266: 3263: 3260: 3259: 3255: 3252: 3249: 3247: 3244: 3241: 3238: 3235: 3232: 3231: 3227: 3224: 3221: 3218: 3215: 3212: 3209: 3206: 3203: 3199: 3196: 3193: 3191: 3188: 3186: 3183: 3181: 3178: 3176: 3173: 3171: 3168: 3166: 3163: 3161: 3158: 3155: 3154: 3147: 3141: 3131: 3129: 3125: 3121: 3117: 3113: 3112:evidentiality 3109: 3105: 3095: 3093: 3089: 3085: 3082: 3078: 3074: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3057: 3055: 3051: 3047: 3037: 3035: 3034:anti-ergative 3031: 3027: 3017: 3015: 3011: 3007: 3003: 2999: 2995: 2991: 2987: 2986:anticausative 2983: 2979: 2975: 2965: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2928: 2926: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2910: 2906: 2896: 2894: 2889: 2885: 2881: 2877: 2873: 2838: 2833: 2830: 2829: 2828: 2826: 2825: 2824: 2822: 2817: 2815:Gurung-Tamang 2814: 2813: 2812: 2810: 2809: 2808: 2806: 2803: 2802: 2801: 2799: 2794: 2791: 2790: 2789: 2787: 2786: 2785: 2783: 2778: 2775: 2774: 2773: 2771: 2770: 2769: 2767: 2764: 2763: 2762: 2760: 2755: 2752: 2751: 2750: 2748: 2747: 2745: 2742: 2741: 2740:Sino-Tibetan 2739: 2738: 2736: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2716: 2701: 2698: 2694: 2691: 2689: 2685: 2682: 2679: 2676: 2675: 2674: 2672: 2670: 2667: 2665: 2662: 2660: 2657: 2655: 2652: 2651: 2649: 2647: 2644: 2642: 2639: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2608: 2607: 2605: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2589: 2585: 2581: 2577: 2575: 2572: 2571: 2570: 2568: 2567: 2566: 2564: 2562: 2559: 2556: 2553: 2552: 2551:Sino-Tibetan 2550: 2549: 2547: 2540: 2534: 2529: 2526: 2517: 2514: 2508: 2505: 2503: 2500: 2498: 2495: 2493: 2490: 2488: 2485: 2483: 2480: 2478: 2475: 2473: 2470: 2468: 2465: 2463: 2460: 2458: 2455: 2453: 2450: 2448: 2447: 2443: 2441: 2438: 2436: 2435: 2431: 2429: 2426: 2424: 2421: 2419: 2416: 2414: 2411: 2409: 2408: 2404: 2401: 2398: 2396: 2393: 2391: 2388: 2386: 2383: 2381: 2378: 2376: 2373: 2371: 2368: 2366: 2363: 2361: 2360: 2356: 2354: 2353: 2349: 2347: 2346: 2342: 2340: 2339: 2335: 2333: 2330: 2328: 2325: 2323: 2320: 2318: 2317: 2313: 2311: 2308: 2306: 2303: 2301: 2298: 2296: 2293: 2291: 2290: 2286: 2284: 2281: 2280: 2278: 2276: 2265: 2261: 2259: 2255: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2227: 2221: 2217: 2213: 2211: 2207: 2203: 2202: 2200: 2195: 2191: 2188: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2172: 2171: 2169: 2168: 2166: 2164: 2160: 2156: 2152: 2148: 2144: 2143: 2141: 2140: 2138: 2136: 2132: 2128: 2124: 2119: 2117: 2103:Tibeto-Burman 2102: 2099: 2096: 2095: 2093: 2089:Tibeto-Burman 2088: 2085: 2084: 2082: 2081: 2079: 2077: 2073: 2056: 2053: 2051: 2048: 2044: 2041: 2039: 2036: 2035: 2033: 2031: 2028: 2026: 2023: 2019: 2016: 2014: 2011: 2009: 2006: 2005: 2004:Tangut-Qiang 2003: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1988: 1986: 1983: 1981: 1978: 1974: 1971: 1969: 1966: 1964: 1961: 1959: 1956: 1954: 1951: 1950: 1949: 1946: 1945: 1943: 1937: 1934: 1932: 1928: 1926: 1923: 1922: 1921: 1918: 1916: 1913: 1911: 1907: 1905: 1902: 1898: 1895: 1892: 1889: 1886: 1883: 1880: 1876: 1875: 1873: 1869: 1867: 1864: 1860: 1857: 1855: 1852: 1851: 1849: 1848: 1846: 1845: 1843: 1840: 1839: 1838:Sino-Tibetan 1837: 1836: 1834: 1832: 1831: 1826: 1821: 1819: 1808:Tibeto-Burman 1807: 1804: 1803: 1802:Sino-Tibetan 1801: 1800: 1798: 1796: 1787: 1778: 1776: 1773: 1770: 1767: 1764: 1761: 1760: 1759:Sino-Tibetan 1758: 1757: 1755: 1753: 1752:Henri Maspero 1749: 1748:British India 1745: 1744:Tibeto-Burman 1738:Shafer (1955) 1728:Tibeto-Burman 1727: 1724: 1723: 1722:Tibeto-Karen 1721: 1718: 1717: 1716:Sino-Tibetan 1715: 1714: 1712: 1710: 1706: 1702: 1698: 1688: 1686: 1685:Kra languages 1682: 1678: 1673: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1654: 1650: 1640: 1639:Tibeto-Burman 1637: 1634: 1631: 1628: 1624: 1621: 1618: 1617: 1615: 1614: 1612: 1610: 1606: 1596: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1563: 1551: 1539: 1530: 1529: 1526: 1524: 1515: 1511: 1506: 1503: 1499: 1498:Sichuan Basin 1495: 1492: 1489: 1485: 1481: 1477: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1440: 1439: 1437: 1427: 1425: 1421: 1417: 1413: 1409: 1405: 1400: 1398: 1394: 1390: 1386: 1382: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1361: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1350:Pagan Kingdom 1347: 1343: 1339: 1335: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1313: 1309: 1305: 1301: 1290: 1286: 1276: 1274: 1270: 1266: 1240: 1220: 1219: 1213: 1204: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1191:and northern 1190: 1179: 1177: 1173: 1164: 1160: 1158: 1154: 1149: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1138:Brahmi script 1135: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1105: 1103: 1099: 1093: 1091: 1087: 1086: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1068: 1062: 1061:bamboo strips 1057: 1048: 1046: 1042: 1038: 1034: 1030: 1027: 1023: 1019: 1016: 1012: 1009: 1004: 1002: 998: 997:Tibeto-Burman 994: 990: 986: 982: 972: 969: 966: 963: 960: 957: 954: 951: 950: 946: 943: 940: 937: 934: 931: 928: 925: 924: 920: 917: 914: 911: 908: 905: 902: 899: 898: 894: 891: 888: 885: 882: 879: 876: 873: 872: 868: 865: 862: 859: 856: 853: 850: 847: 846: 842: 839: 836: 833: 830: 827: 824: 821: 820: 816: 813: 810: 807: 804: 801: 798: 795: 794: 790: 787: 784: 781: 778: 775: 772: 769: 768: 764: 761: 758: 755: 752: 749: 746: 743: 742: 738: 735: 732: 729: 726: 723: 720: 717: 716: 712: 709: 706: 703: 700: 697: 694: 691: 690: 686: 683: 680: 677: 674: 671: 668: 665: 664: 660: 657: 654: 651: 648: 645: 642: 639: 638: 634: 631: 628: 625: 622: 619: 616: 613: 612: 608: 605: 602: 599: 596: 593: 590: 587: 586: 582: 579: 576: 573: 570: 567: 564: 561: 560: 556: 553: 550: 547: 544: 541: 538: 535: 534: 530: 527: 524: 521: 518: 515: 512: 509: 508: 505: 502: 500: 497: 495: 492: 490: 487: 485: 482: 480: 477: 475: 472: 469: 468: 465: 462: 457: 455: 451: 447: 443: 439: 435: 431: 421: 419: 415: 411: 407: 403: 399: 398:sino-tibétain 395: 391: 389: 384: 380: 376: 372: 368: 364: 360: 356: 352: 348: 343: 341: 340:British India 337: 333: 332: 327: 323: 319: 309: 307: 306:Austroasiatic 303: 302:Indo-European 298: 288: 286: 282: 278: 274: 273:Tibeto-Burman 270: 266: 262: 261:reconstructed 257: 255: 251: 247: 243: 239: 235: 231: 227: 223: 219: 215: 214:Indo-European 211: 207: 203: 191: 186: 182: 178: 176: 172: 166: 164: 160: 156: 152: 150: 146: 142: 137: 136:Jingpho–Luish 134: 132: 129: 127: 124: 122: 119: 117: 114: 112: 109: 107: 104: 102: 99: 97: 94: 91: 87: 84: 83: 81: 77: 74: 71: 67: 64: 60: 58: 54: 51: 47: 43: 39: 36: 30: 25: 20: 11644: 11637: 11636:Families in 11593:Pre-Goidelic 11588:Pre-Germanic 11418:Indo-Semitic 11413:Indo-Pacific 11408:Indo-Hittite 11323: 11316: 11309: 11239: 11216:Indian Ocean 11183: 11178:Austronesian 11176: 11169: 11162: 11155: 11150:Sino-Tibetan 11149: 11148: 11127: 11105: 11100:Sino-Tibetan 11099: 11098: 11091: 11084: 11052: 11027: 11020: 11013: 11006: 10999: 10992: 10985: 10978: 10971: 10964: 10957: 10937: 10930: 10923: 10916: 10909: 10904:North Picene 10902: 10895: 10888: 10881: 10874: 10867: 10860: 10848: 10841: 10834: 10770: 10763: 10762:Families in 10697: 10648: 10546: 10534: 10384: 10352: 10343:Pano-Tacanan 10300: 10263: 10251: 10222:Arutani–Sape 10214: 10159: 10141: 10134: 10119:Oto-Manguean 10117: 10100: 10093: 10040: 10028: 10021: 10014: 10007: 10000: 9973: 9966: 9943: 9936: 9924: 9897: 9875: 9868: 9856: 9844: 9827: 9820: 9813: 9806: 9799: 9787: 9780: 9739: 9706: 9702:Western Daly 9680:Pama–Nyungan 9678: 9666: 9659: 9646: 9624: 9619:Eastern Daly 9617: 9609: 9564: 9440: 9428: 9406: 9389: 9367: 9338:Kaure–Kosare 9298:Doso–Turumsa 9288:Chimbu–Wahgi 9278:Bulaka River 9262:Austronesian 9260: 9221: 9214: 9195: 9182: 9175: 9168: 9094: 9087: 9080: 9070:Sino-Tibetan 9069: 9068: 9051: 9034: 9012: 9005: 8998: 8981: 8971:Austronesian 8969: 8962: 8950: 8896: 8834:Nilo-Saharan 8832: 8825: 8810:Austronesian 8808: 8801: 8740: 8727: 8720: 8713: 8706: 8699: 8692: 8667: 8613: 8606: 8581: 8567: 8560: 8551: 8544: 8503: 8488:Lolo-Burmese 8486: 8462: 8440: 8433: 8426: 8414: 8407: 8400: 8388: 8381: 8374: 8308: 8276: 8269: 8260: 8253: 8241: 8234: 8206: 8199: 8192: 8182: 8175: 8168: 8156: 8149: 8101: 8095: 8081: 8074: 8060: 8053: 8028: 8019: 8012: 8005: 7993: 7979: 7967: 7960: 7925:Sino-Tibetan 7924: 7837: 7799: 7783: 7773: 7747: 7740: 7718: 7695: 7691: 7662: 7658: 7642: 7613: 7609: 7589: 7577: 7573: 7530: 7526: 7515: 7471: 7467: 7444: 7422: 7403: 7384: 7356: 7336: 7317: 7298: 7279: 7275: 7253:(1): 12–19, 7250: 7246: 7221: 7217: 7213: 7176:Egophoricity 7175: 7165:ScienceDaily 7164: 7124: 7120: 7094: 7062: 7058: 7048: 7013: 6985: 6981: 6957: 6936:, Berkeley: 6932: 6898: 6894: 6869: 6865: 6856:(1): 68–114. 6853: 6849: 6836: 6832: 6788: 6784: 6763: 6759: 6751: 6729: 6716: 6695: 6666: 6662: 6627: 6623: 6591: 6587: 6566: 6562: 6538: 6534: 6511: 6502: 6498: 6485: 6471: 6451: 6432: 6394: 6390: 6364: 6338: 6313: 6309: 6290: 6268: 6239: 6235: 6223: 6219: 6190: 6156: 6143: 6116: 6088: 6084: 6062: 6043: 6034: 6012: 5993: 5981: 5977: 5948: 5939: 5912: 5908: 5898: 5881: 5877: 5871: 5818: 5814: 5804: 5784: 5777: 5769: 5766:Trask, R. L. 5761: 5753: 5745: 5704: 5700: 5690: 5649: 5645: 5635: 5619: 5607: 5595: 5583: 5566: 5562: 5556: 5539: 5535: 5529: 5512: 5508: 5502: 5490: 5479:. Retrieved 5475: 5465: 5452: 5440: 5428: 5386: 5374: 5362: 5350: 5345:, p. 3. 5338: 5326: 5314: 5295: 5283:, p. 2. 5276: 5264: 5252: 5218: 5207:. Retrieved 5185: 5175: 5163: 5151: 5139: 5130: 5124: 5115: 5111: 5105: 5098:Dryer (2003) 5093: 5086:Dryer (2003) 5081: 5074:Dryer (2003) 5069: 5057: 5048: 5042: 5032: 5020: 5008: 4996: 4984: 4972: 4960: 4948: 4936: 4924: 4912: 4907:, p. 1. 4900: 4888: 4876: 4864: 4852: 4840: 4811: 4799: 4787: 4776:. Retrieved 4774:. p. 20 4771: 4758: 4746: 4734: 4705: 4693: 4681: 4669: 4657: 4644: 4615: 4603: 4591: 4579: 4567: 4555: 4543: 4508:, "Burmese". 4501: 4489: 4484:, p. 4. 4477: 4472:, "Chinese". 4465: 4438: 4426: 4414: 4402: 4390: 4378: 4366: 4354: 4342: 4330: 4318: 4306: 4294: 4282: 4270: 4258: 4246: 4234: 4222: 4210: 4198: 4186: 4159: 4147: 4120: 4115:, p. v. 4108: 4096: 4084: 4072: 4060: 4048: 4041:Sapir (1925) 4036: 4014:Finck (1909) 4009: 3997: 3985: 3973: 3968:, p. 4. 3951:Logan (1858) 3946: 3939:Logan (1856) 3934: 3922: 3910: 3900:December 30, 3898:. Retrieved 3889: 3877: 3872:, p. 1. 3865: 3853: 3829: 3820: 3811: 3801: 3797: 3793: 3788: 3779: 3769: 3753: 3740: 3732: 3715:(which is a 3705: 3697:Edward Sapir 3692: 3690: 3657: 3639: 3631:M.A. Castrén 3624: 3601:Austronesian 3598: 3589:Austronesian 3580: 3124:egophoricity 3101: 3058: 3043: 3023: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2997: 2978:transitivity 2974:alternations 2971: 2942:Lolo-Burmese 2939: 2917:Lolo-Burmese 2903:Contrastive 2902: 2869: 2839:Lolo-Burmese 2722: 2713: 2684:Lolo-Burmese 2545: 2531: 2525:Roger Blench 2523: 2515: 2512: 2472:Lolo-Burmese 2444: 2432: 2405: 2400:Brahmaputran 2357: 2350: 2343: 2336: 2314: 2287: 2274: 2271: 2262: 2250: 2241: 2206:Lolo-Burmese 2120: 2114: 2086:Sino-Kiranti 2076:Sino-Kiranti 2075: 2069: 2038:Lolo-Burmese 1828: 1822: 1814: 1793: 1785: 1741: 1694: 1674: 1646: 1635:(Hmong–Mien) 1609:Li Fang-Kuei 1604: 1602: 1585:Lolo-Burmese 1582: 1519: 1505:Roger Blench 1448:Yellow River 1433: 1401: 1375:and western 1362: 1316: 1304:Yellow River 1282: 1261: 1207:Distribution 1185: 1175: 1171: 1161: 1150: 1120: 1094: 1083: 1065: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1015:intransitive 1010: 1005: 978: 458: 453: 449: 445: 427: 409: 397: 392: 344: 334:, edited by 329: 324:, who added 315: 294: 258: 205: 202:Sino-Tibetan 201: 200: 163:Linguasphere 96:Lolo-Burmese 79:Subdivisions 38:Central Asia 34:distribution 22:Sino-Tibetan 11443:Ural-Altaic 11423:Indo-Uralic 11235:Sentinelese 10966:Afroasiatic 10932:Eteocypriot 10656:Germanosign 10560:Mura-Pirahã 10441:Lule–Vilela 10417:Bora-Witoto 10392:Uru–Chipaya 10365:Ticuna–Yuri 10348:Peba–Yaguan 10333:Nambikwaran 10136:Uto-Aztecan 10072:Mesoamerica 9926:Uto-Aztecan 9915:Tsimshianic 9877:Palaihnihan 9747:Malak-Malak 9484:Papuan Gulf 9458:West Papuan 9363:Lower Sepik 9353:Lakes Plain 9256:Arai–Samaia 9244:the Pacific 8952:Afroasiatic 8827:Niger–Congo 8803:Afroasiatic 8729:Proto-Hakka 8658:Mahakiranti 8164:East Bodish 7944:Uttarakhand 7879:Marc Miyake 6872:: 469–504, 6766:(1): 1–13, 6705:Kuhn, Ernst 6669:(1): 1–24, 6663:Diachronica 6630:: 187–200, 6569:(2): 1–69, 5959:Works cited 5613:Donner 1930 5601:Werner 1994 5406:Hill (2012) 4407:Hale (1982) 4383:Hill (2014) 4359:Gong (1980) 4347:Hill (2015) 3966:Hale (1982) 3798:Yǔyán-Wénzì 3758:Kuhn (1889) 3603:(including 3170:Old Burmese 3165:Old Tibetan 3160:Old Chinese 3071:to eastern 3014:Old Chinese 2976:related to 2925:tonogenesis 2884:object–verb 2620:Mahakiranti 2492:Rgyalrongic 2254:Old Chinese 2163:Kachin–Luic 2018:Rgyalrongic 1944:Himalayish 1818:Old Chinese 1488:Brahmaputra 1408:Karen Hills 1381:Old Tibetan 1300:Old Chinese 1289:oracle bone 1199:of western 1157:Western Xia 1112:Old Tibetan 1067:Old Chinese 776:dz ~ ts ~ ś 504:Old Chinese 499:S'gaw Karen 11662:Categories 11583:Pre-Celtic 11551:East Asian 11541:Austro-Tai 11531:Andamanese 11381:Eurasiatic 11302:North Asia 11252:North Asia 11164:Hmong–Mien 11118:Burushaski 11077:South Asia 11048:Kartvelian 11015:Philistine 10925:Eteocretan 10869:Tartessian 10650:Francosign 10498:Chiquitano 10478:Alacalufan 10286:Guaicuruan 10259:Chapacuran 10242:Cahuapanan 10210:Araucanian 10113:Mixe–Zoque 10108:Misumalpan 9822:Comecrudan 9674:Nyulnyulan 9453:Upper Yuat 9430:Torricelli 9402:Senu River 9333:Foja Range 9239:New Guinea 9164:Burushaski 9025:Kartvelian 9000:Hmong–Mien 8816:Khoe–Kwadi 8623:Idu–Taraon 8577:Miju–Meyor 8470:Gyalrongic 8316:Tangkhulic 8091:Raji–Raute 7464:Pan, Wuyun 6970:2014911220 6839:(1): 1–42. 6791:(1): 1–6, 6505:: 455–489. 6226:(2): 1–32. 5984:(2): 1–16. 5915:(3): 176. 5629:Bouda 1957 5625:Bouda 1963 5481:2020-12-18 5209:2021-11-26 5118:: 201–214. 4778:2021-10-28 3841:References 3717:sprachbund 3670:Burushaski 3144:See also: 3138:See also: 3134:Vocabulary 3120:mirativity 3088:Indo-Aryan 3084:substratum 3061:inflecting 3046:Gyalrongic 3020:Ergativity 2950:Gyalrongic 2931:Morphology 2866:Word order 2792:Himalayish 2332:Raji–Raute 1897:Tangkhulic 1705:Austro-Tai 1697:Hmong–Mien 1651:typology, 973:*dj ~ *zj 414:Hmong–Mien 379:Ernst Kuhn 375:Vietnamese 363:vocabulary 336:Sten Konow 312:Early work 46:South Asia 32:Geographic 11608:Pre-Vedic 11598:Pre-Greek 11570:Substrata 11473:Arunachal 11371:Nostratic 11356:Alarodian 11291:Yeniseian 11141:East Asia 11093:Dravidian 10950:West Asia 10918:Tyrsenian 10681:Tanzanian 10622:languages 10519:Hodï/Joti 10463:Isolates 10402:Yanomaman 10338:Otomákoan 10302:Jirajaran 10291:Guajiboan 10253:Catacaoan 10232:Barbacoan 10161:Cuitlatec 10130:Totonacan 10089:Jicaquean 9968:Chimariko 9864:Muskogean 9846:Kalapuyan 9840:Iroquoian 9815:Chumashan 9808:Chinookan 9801:Chimakuan 9719:Yangmanic 9714:Worrorran 9697:Wagaydyic 9587:Australia 9436:Trans-Fly 9102:Yeniseian 9089:Tyrsenian 8983:Dravidian 8722:Proto-Min 8653:Macro-Bai 8531:Arunachal 8524:(possible 8339:Boro–Garo 8243:Kuki-Chin 8226:and Indo- 8141:Arunachal 8128:Himalayas 8103:Tandrange 8070:Chepangic 8001:Dhimalish 7935:Himalayas 7549:2219-4029 7504:129946000 7267:144394083 7202:0167-7373 7079:176893024 6923:163147464 6817:203538127 6683:0176-4225 6608:170371949 6341:, Brill, 6330:246638512 6256:122264213 6242:: 33–52, 5931:2226-471X 5909:Languages 5845:0027-8424 5737:165893686 5721:0008-9192 5682:163603829 5666:0008-9192 4816:Li (1937) 3846:Citations 3693:Sino–Dené 3627:Yeniseian 3609:subbranch 3077:isolating 3065:Himalayas 2982:causative 2962:isolating 2913:Phonation 2899:Phonology 2725:Pan Wuyun 2680:(Sinitic) 2610:Western: 2584:Kuki-Chin 2395:Dhimalish 2327:Chepangic 2220:Jiarongic 2201:Southern 2155:Bodo–Garo 1968:Tamangish 1931:Konyakian 1925:Bodo–Garo 1866:Kuki-Chin 1825:Stammbaum 1649:isolating 1599:Li (1937) 1510:Himalayas 1412:Himalayas 1373:Himalayas 1326:Irrawaddy 1265:Himalayas 1182:Fieldwork 1008:causative 756:s ~ tś(h) 420:in 1931. 365:but that 351:Mon–Khmer 246:Himalayas 234:Singapore 175:Glottolog 145:ISO 639-2 116:Kuki-Chin 111:Bodo–Garo 42:East Asia 11603:Vasconic 11578:Atlantic 11332:Eskaleut 11286:Yukaghir 11201:Koreanic 11196:Tungusic 11191:Mongolic 11129:Harappan 11040:Caucasus 11022:Sumerian 10897:Ligurian 10714:See also 10691:Isolates 10666:Japanese 10606:Yuracaré 10488:Candoshi 10447:Macro-Jê 10412:Zaparoan 10407:Zamucoan 10397:Witotoan 10380:Tucanoan 10375:Tiniguan 10370:Timotean 10354:Quechuan 10323:Matacoan 10318:Mascoian 10308:Jivaroan 10271:Chibchan 10265:Charruan 10216:Arawakan 10153:Isolates 10084:Chibchan 9960:Isolates 9932:Wakashan 9893:Salishan 9835:Eskaleut 9741:Giimbiyu 9733:Isolates 9642:Jarrakan 9637:Iwaidjan 9494:Isolates 9348:Kutubuan 9216:Sumerian 9152:Isolates 9107:Yukaghir 9076:Tungusic 9042:Mongolic 9030:Koreanic 8989:Eskaleut 8880:Isolates 8864:Ubangian 8527:isolates 8494:Mondzish 8422:Cai–Long 8170:Tshangla 8126:Eastern 7969:Tamangic 7939:Himachal 7933:Western 7927:branches 7881:(2014), 7812:53387435 7768:(2006), 7744:漢藏語硏究論文集 7739:(2002), 7704:citation 7683:(1995), 7657:(1986), 7598:23826142 7496:31019300 7153:31061123 7089:(2005), 7046:(eds.), 7034:(1924), 7012:(1988), 6827:(1856), 6772:23749774 6707:(1889), 6693:(1823), 6644:56327032 6557:(2012), 6483:(1909), 6411:citation 6289:(1987), 6211:(1983), 6176:Archived 6173:preprint 6141:(2009), 5992:(1992), 5890:24774894 5768:(2000). 5674:41928491 5575:23756693 5548:23826144 5521:23826144 3678:Etruscan 3635:cognates 3468:mə̀tshát 3052:have an 3030:ergative 3010:*N-ˤen-s 2861:Typology 2776:Digarish 2650:Eastern 2632:Tamangic 2588:Tangkhul 2578:Nagish: 2536:— 2497:Kachinic 2423:Tangkhul 2385:Midžuish 2380:Digarish 2300:Tamangic 2289:Tshangla 2187:Tamangic 2179:Kirantic 2167:Eastern 1908:Mikir / 1633:Miao–Yao 1593:isolates 1436:urheimat 1430:Homeland 1340:. Other 1193:Thailand 704:b ~ p(h) 698:b ~ p(h) 678:p(h) ~ b 672:p(h) ~ b 661:*n ~ *ń 626:d ~ t(h) 620:d ~ t(h) 600:t(h) ~ d 594:t(h) ~ d 548:g ~ k(h) 542:g ~ k(h) 522:k(h) ~ g 516:k(h) ~ g 181:sino1245 126:Tamangic 11638:italics 11536:Austric 11513:Kho-Bwa 11508:Hrusish 11486:Siangic 11428:Karasuk 11328: ? 11241:Kenaboi 11206:Japonic 11171:Kra–Dai 11132: ? 11123:Kusunda 11029:Elamite 11001:Kassite 10987:Kaskian 10890:Camunic 10862:Iberian 10819:Eurasia 10764:italics 10741:Pidgins 10726:Creoles 10676:Swedish 10644:Chinese 10591:Urarina 10576:Puinave 10530:Itonama 10524:Irantxe 10493:Chimane 10423:Chimuan 10328:Nadahup 10247:Cariban 10227:Aymaran 10188:America 10030:Waikuri 10023:Tonkawa 10016:Timucua 10009:Takelma 10002:Siuslaw 9991:Kutenai 9975:Esselen 9938:Wintuan 9899:Shastan 9870:Na-Dene 9858:Maiduan 9795:Caddoan 9769:America 9723:Wagiman 9721:(incl. 9692:Tangkic 9632:Garawan 9605:Bunuban 9566:Tambora 9533:Maybrat 9501:Abinomn 9424:Teberan 9385:Pauwasi 9375:Mairasi 9343:Kiwaian 9223:Tambora 9209:Shompen 9191:Kusunda 9184:Kenaboi 9170:Elamite 9142:Siangic 9124:Kho-Bwa 9118:Hrusish 9036:Kra–Dai 9020:Japonic 8929:Eurasia 8904:Sandawe 8887:Bangime 8852:Songhay 8741:Italics 8602:Siangic 8583:Songlin 8562:Kho-Bwa 8540:Hrusish 8522:Dubious 8505:Loloish 8499:Burmish 8464:Qiangic 8435:Longjia 8402:Karenic 8396:Nungish 8376:Sinitic 8262:Hkongso 8224:Myanmar 8194:Gongduk 8158:Tibetic 8076:Chepang 8049:Magaric 7995:Kiranti 7975:Newaric 7558:General 7476:Bibcode 7238:2914102 7144:6534992 7014:Chinese 6915:1559492 6886:2155809 6267:(ed.), 5863:9811914 5823:Bibcode 3806:(1988). 3774:Mruish. 3652:form a 3605:Kra–Dai 3453:"eight" 3433:khu-nac 3427:*tsʰjit 3421:"seven" 3395:*C-rjuk 3293:"three" 3190:Kanauri 3175:Jingpho 3054:inverse 3050:Kiranti 3032:and/or 2958:Sinitic 2954:Kiranti 2876:Karenic 2804:Kinauri 2795:Nungish 2753:Karenic 2743:Sinitic 2700:Nungish 2678:Chinese 2641:Karenic 2612:Gongduk 2557:(Mikir) 2507:Karenic 2502:Nungish 2482:Ersuish 2477:Qiangic 2457:Sinitic 2434:Meithei 2375:Hrusish 2370:Kho-Bwa 2365:Siangic 2352:Gongduk 2322:Magaric 2310:Kiranti 2305:Newaric 2275:italics 2238:Magaric 2234:Nungish 2216:Qiangic 2210:Karenic 2194:Sinitic 2100:Kiranti 2097:Chinese 2050:Karenic 2013:Qiangic 1998:Chepang 1985:Kiranti 1841:Chinese 1805:Chinese 1779:Karenic 1762:Sinitic 1719:Chinese 1701:Kra–Dai 1681:Kam–Tai 1677:Kra–Dai 1627:Kam–Tai 1619:Chinese 1490:rivers. 1484:Salween 1476:Yangtze 1456:Sinitic 1377:Sichuan 1334:Nanzhao 1322:Myanmar 1318:Burmese 1298:, when 1201:Sichuan 1142:Jäschke 1130:Burmese 1122:Tibetic 993:Chinese 964:tś ~ dź 765:*ts(h) 750:ts ~ dz 484:Burmese 479:Jingpho 474:Tibetan 402:Meillet 291:History 277:Kra–Dai 269:Sinitic 238:Myanmar 222:Burmese 106:Karenic 101:Tibetic 90:Chinese 86:Sinitic 11498:Mijiic 11491:Digaro 11438:Pontic 11366:Borean 11361:Altaic 11325:Rouran 11318:Turkic 11311:Uralic 11300:Other 11185:Turkic 11113:Nihali 11008:Gutian 10980:Hattic 10973:Turkic 10939:Minoan 10911:Sicani 10856:Basque 10850:Turkic 10843:Uralic 10827:Europe 10639:BANZSL 10601:Yamana 10586:Trumai 10555:Movima 10509:Fulniô 10472:Aikanã 10386:Tupian 10281:Chonan 10205:Arauan 10143:Xincan 10095:Lencan 10048:Yokuts 9945:Yukian 9910:Tanoan 9905:Siouan 9888:Pomoan 9829:Coosan 9655:Mirndi 9548:Porome 9543:Pawaia 9397:Senagi 9369:Madang 9318:Eleman 9273:Border 9204:Nihali 9197:Minoan 9177:Hattic 9159:Basque 9130:Mijiic 9112:Digaro 9096:Uralic 9082:Turkic 8933:Europe 8790:Africa 8615:Milang 8569:Puroik 8553:Mijiic 8477:Ersuic 8428:Caijia 8344:Konyak 8310:Meitei 8214:Chamdo 8151:Bodish 8137:Bhutan 8083:Bhujel 8030:Lepcha 8021:Lhokpu 8007:Dhimal 7952:Sikkim 7810: 7754: 7725: 7669: 7630:599822 7628: 7596: 7547: 7516:Nature 7502: 7494: 7468:Nature 7451: 7429: 7410: 7391: 7372: 7343: 7324: 7305: 7265: 7236: 7200: 7190: 7151: 7141: 7101: 7077: 7020: 7002:600891 7000: 6968: 6944: 6921: 6913: 6884: 6815: 6770: 6736: 6681: 6642: 6606: 6518: 6458: 6439: 6371: 6345: 6328: 6297: 6275: 6254: 6197: 6163: 6127: 6107:663309 6105: 6069: 6050: 6019: 6000: 5929: 5888: 5861: 5851: 5843: 5792: 5735: 5727: 5719: 5680: 5672: 5664: 5573: 5546: 5519: 5472:"Garo" 5200: 3713:Altaic 3674:Basque 3561:chikuŋ 3517:"ten" 3512:kɨe⁵⁵ 3500:cə̀khù 3485:"nine" 3474:yɛtchi 3462:brgyad 3436:sə̀nìt 3357:"five" 3331:*sjijs 3325:"four" 3311:gittam 3308:mə̀sūm 3282:nɛtchi 3267:*njijs 3201:"one" 3156:gloss 3006:*ˤen-s 2878:, and 2818:Bodish 2729:Jin Li 2693:Bodish 2636:Lhokpu 2634:, and 2624:Lepcha 2600:Meitei 2561:Mruish 2541:, p. 3 2440:Kukish 2359:Lhokpu 2316:Lepcha 2283:Bodish 2175:Bodish 2159:Konyak 2151:Dhimal 2135:Meitei 2025:Nungic 2008:Tangut 1973:Dhimal 1963:Lepcha 1904:Meitei 1881:group) 1771:Burmic 1480:Mekong 1452:millet 1420:Meitei 1330:Yunnan 1267:, the 1253: 1249: 1243: 1235: 1229: 1223: 1153:Tangut 1146:Judson 1116:Turfan 1020:, and 1013:, the 687:*p(h) 609:*t(h) 531:*k(h) 373:, and 248:, the 242:Bhutan 240:, and 210:family 121:Meitei 11276:Nivkh 11230:Ongan 10596:Warao 10565:Nukak 10536:Kunza 10514:Guató 10503:Cofán 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