Varieties of Chinese

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intelligibility between 15 Chinese provinces. In each province, 15 university students were recruited as speakers and 15 older rural inhabitants recruited as listeners. The listeners were then tested on their comprehension of isolated words and of particular words in the context of sentences spoken by speakers from all 15 of the provinces surveyed. The results demonstrated significant levels of unintelligibility between areas, even within the Mandarin group. In a few cases, listeners understood fewer than 70% of words spoken by speakers from the same province, indicating significant differences between urban and rural varieties. As expected from the wide use of

2413: 2551: 5417: 1526: 16379: 257: 6410: 11131: 13150: 1301:, and form the only branch of Chinese that cannot be directly derived from Middle Chinese. It is also the most diverse, with many of the varieties used in neighbouring counties—and, in the mountains of western Fujian, even in adjacent villages—being mutually unintelligible. Early classifications divided Min into Northern and Southern subgroups, but a survey in the early 1960s found that the primary split was between inland and coastal groups. Varieties from the coastal region around 6731:, improve communication between them, and create a Mandarin-speaking environment conducive to the successful implementation of the bilingual education program. The initial goal of the campaign was for all young Chinese to stop speaking dialects in five years, and to establish Mandarin as the language of choice in public places within 10 years. According to the government, for the bilingual policy to be effective, Mandarin should be spoken at home and should serve as the 6653: 6368:

speakers of the local dialect. The choice of dialect varies based on the social situation. Standard Chinese is usually considered more formal and is required when speaking to a person who does not understand the local dialect. The local dialect (be it non-Standard Chinese or non-Mandarin altogether) is generally considered more intimate and is used among close family members and friends and in everyday conversation within the local area. Chinese speakers will frequently

6319: 1678: 16367: 6432: 6262: 13800: 6221: 1651:, and has had a range of meanings in the millennia since. It is used for any regional subdivision of Chinese, from the speech of a village to major branches such as Mandarin and Wu. Linguists writing in Chinese often qualify the term to distinguish different levels of classification. All these terms have customarily been translated into English as 5428:, with other orders used for emphasis or contrast. Modifiers usually precede the word they modify, so that adjectives precede nouns. Instances in which the modifier follows the head are mainly found in the south, and are attributed to substrate influences from languages formerly dominant in the area, especially 6556:. One consequence of this is that China does not have a well-developed tradition of spoken political rhetoric, and most Chinese political works are intended primarily as written works rather than spoken works. Another factor that limits the political implications of dialect is that it is very common within an 6609:

in 1949, they brought a substantial influx of speakers of Northern Chinese (and other dialects from across China), and viewed the use of Mandarin as part of their claim to be a legitimate government of the whole of China. Education policy promoted the use of Mandarin over the local languages, and was

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In southern China (not including Hong Kong and Macau), where the difference between Standard Chinese and local dialects is particularly pronounced, well-educated Chinese are generally fluent in Standard Chinese, and most people have at least a good passive knowledge of it, in addition to being native

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may be used to move the object before the verb (the "disposal" construction). Similar structures using several different prepositions are used in the south, but tend to be avoided in more colloquial speech. Comparative constructions are expressed with a prepositional phrase before the stative verb in

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People generally are tied to the hometown and therefore the hometown dialect, instead of a broad linguistic classification. For example, a person from Wuxi may claim that he speaks Wuxi dialect, even though it is similar to Shanghainese (another Wu dialect). Likewise, a person from Xiaogan may claim

1021:

However, the rate of change in mutual intelligibility varies immensely depending on region. For example, the varieties of Mandarin spoken in all three northeastern Chinese provinces are mutually intelligible, but in the province of Fujian, where Min varieties predominate, the speech of neighbouring

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using markers following the main verb. The markers, usually derived from verbs, vary widely in both their forms and their degree of grammaticalization, from independent verbs, through complements to bound suffixes. Southern varieties tend to have richer aspect systems making more distinctions than

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From the 1970s, the government promoted adult education in Mandarin, required Mandarin for official purposes, and encouraged its increased use in broadcasting. Over a 40-year period, these policies succeeded in spreading the use and prestige of Mandarin through society at the expense of the other

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a third tone changes to a second tone when followed by another third tone. Particularly complex sandhi patterns are found in Wu dialects and coastal Min dialects. In Shanghainese, the tone of all syllables in a word is determined by the tone of the first, so that Shanghainese has word rather than

3247:

In Wu, voiced obstruents were retained, and the tone split never became phonemic: the higher-pitched allophones occur with initial voiceless consonants, and the lower-pitched allophones occur with initial voiced consonants. (Traditional Chinese classification nonetheless counts these as different

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among Chinese Singaporeans. They also argued that Mandarin was more economically valuable, and speaking Mandarin would help Chinese Singaporeans retain their heritage, as Mandarin contains a cultural repository of values and traditions that are identifiable to all Chinese, regardless of dialect

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However, most Chinese varieties have reduced the number of tonal distinctions. For example, in Mandarin, the tones resulting from the split of Middle Chinese rising and departing tones merged, leaving four tones. Furthermore, final stop consonants disappeared in most Mandarin dialects, and such

1139:

Classifications of Chinese varieties in the late 19th century and early 20th century were based on impressionistic criteria. They often followed river systems, which were historically the main routes of migration and communication in southern China. The first scientific classifications, based

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is not used in formal documents, and within the PRC a character set closer to Mandarin tends to be used. At the national level, differences in dialect generally do not correspond to political divisions or categories, and this has for the most part prevented dialect from becoming the basis of

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Most assessments of mutual intelligibility of varieties of Chinese in the literature are impressionistic. Functional intelligibility testing is time-consuming in any language family, and usually not done when more than 10 varieties are to be compared. However, one 2009 study aimed to measure

988:, a unity that has persisted with relatively brief interludes until the present day. Meanwhile, Europe remained politically decentralized, and developed numerous independent states. Vernacular writing using the Latin alphabet supplanted Latin itself, and states eventually developed their own 6400:

Due to the variety in Chinese speech, Mandarin speakers from each area of China are very often prone to fuse or "translate" words from their local language into their Mandarin conversations. In addition, each area of China has its recognizable accents while speaking Mandarin. Generally, the

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The forms of demonstratives vary greatly, with few cognates between different areas. A two-way distinction between proximal and distal is most common, but some varieties have a single neutral demonstrative, while others distinguish three or more on the basis of distance, visibility or other

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provided few barriers to migration, which resulted in relative linguistic homogeneity over a wide area. Contrastingly, the mountains and rivers of southern China contain all six of the other major Chinese dialect groups, with each in turn featuring great internal diversity, particularly in

1610:, and have a common cultural heritage with long periods of political unity, the varieties are popularly perceived among native speakers as variants of a single Chinese language, and this is also the official position. Conventional English-language usage in Chinese linguistics is to use 793:

valley and the hills of south China. Chinese eventually replaced many of the languages previously dominant in these areas, and forms of the language spoken in different regions began to diverge. During periods of political unity there was a tendency for states to promote the use of a

6717:, Cantonese, and Hakka. Hence, the government decided to rectify problems facing implementation of the bilingual education policy, by launching a campaign to promote Mandarin as a common language among the Chinese population, and to discourage use of other Chinese varieties. 1397:

southwest of Guangzhou, was historically the most common Yue variety among overseas communities in the West until the late 20th century. Not all Yue varieties are mutually intelligible. Most Yue varieties retain the full complement of Middle Chinese word-final consonants

1577:, such as between Wu and Min, are particularly abrupt, while others, such as between Mandarin and Xiang or between Min and Hakka, are much less clearly defined. Several east-west isoglosses run along the Huai and Yangtze Rivers. A north-south barrier is formed by the 1537:

classified the traditional seven dialect groups into three zones: Northern (Mandarin), Central (Wu, Gan, and Xiang) and Southern (Hakka, Yue, and Min). He argued that the dialects of the Southern zone are derived from a standard used in the Yangtze valley during the

2655:, though cognate tonal categories in different dialects are often realized as quite different pitch contours. Middle Chinese had a three-way tonal contrast in syllables with vocalic or nasal endings. The traditional names of the tonal categories are 'level'/'even' ( 6148:. In Mandarin varieties this word is also used for 'not yet', whereas in Wu and other groups a different form is typically used. In Southern varieties, negators tend to come from the second family. The ordinary negators in these varieties are all derived from a 928:

Standard Chinese is much more widely studied than any other variety of Chinese, and its use is now dominant in public life on the mainland. Outside of China and Taiwan, the only varieties of Chinese commonly taught in university courses are Standard Chinese and

6039:, but many southern varieties distinguish between manner and extent complements using different markers. Standard Chinese does not allow an object to co-occur with a verbal complement, but other varieties permit an object between the marker and the complement. 1546:

proposed a refined model, dividing Norman's Northern zone into Northern and Southwestern areas, and his Southern zone into Southeastern (Min) and Far Southern (Yue and Hakka) areas, with Pinghua transitional between Southwestern and Far Southern areas.

6092:+ V, repeating the same verb. When the verb takes an object, some northwestern Mandarin varieties tend to place it after the first occurrence of the verb, while other Mandarin varieties and most southern varieties place it after the second occurrence. 992:. In China, Literary Chinese was predominantly used in formal writing until the early 20th century. Written Chinese, read with different local pronunciations, continued to serve as a source of vocabulary for the local varieties. The new standard 5934:

in the north or a classifier in the south. The latter pattern is also common in the languages of Southeast Asia. A few varieties in the Jiang–Huai, Wu, southern Min and Yue areas feature the old southern pattern of a zero attributive marker.

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assign language codes to each of the top-level groups listed above except Min and Pinghua, whose subdivisions are assigned five and two codes respectively. Some linguists refer to the local varieties as languages, numbering in the hundreds.

2775:). When voicing was lost in all dialects except in the Wu and Old Xiang groups, this distinction became phonemic, yielding eight tonal categories, with a six-way contrast in unchecked syllables and a two-way contrast in checked syllables. 1512:

appears to be related to Chinese words, though many are clearly loans from the last few centuries. Some scholars have suggested that it represents a very early branching from Chinese, while others argue that it is a more distantly related

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First- and second-person pronouns are cognate across all varieties. For third-person pronouns, Jin, Mandarin, and Xiang varieties have cognate forms, but other varieties generally use forms that originally had a velar or glottal initial:

6393:. Generally the differences are more pronounced lexically than grammatically. Typically, a speaker of one dialect of Chinese will need about a year of immersion to understand the local dialect and about three to five years to become 6384:

Knowing the local dialect is of considerable social benefit, and most Chinese who permanently move to a new area will attempt to pick up the local dialect. Learning a new dialect is usually done informally through a process of

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In northern varieties, many particles or suffixes are weakly stressed or atonic syllables. These are much rarer in southern varieties. Such syllables have a reduced pitch range that is determined by the preceding syllable.

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verbs. Varieties differ in the set of prepositions used, with northern varieties tending to use a substantially larger inventory, including disyllabic and trisyllabic prepositions. In northern varieties, the preposition

2518:, are best preserved in southern dialects, particularly Yue dialects such as Cantonese. In some Min dialects, nasals and stops following open vowels have shifted to nasalization and glottal stops respectively. In Jin, 6401:

nationalized standard form of Mandarin pronunciation is only heard on news and radio broadcasts. Even in the streets of Beijing, the flavor of Mandarin varies in pronunciation from the Mandarin heard on the media.

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most northern and central varieties, as well as Northern Min and Hakka, while other southern varieties retain the older form in which the prepositional phrase follows the stative verb. The preposition is usually

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languages. They also aggravated social divisions, as Mandarin speakers found it difficult to find jobs in private companies but were favored for government positions. From the 1990s, Taiwanese native languages (

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Map of the spread of 16 features identified by Norman as characteristic of northern dialects. Areas with all these features are shown in darkest blue; those with none in darkest red. The central dialects lie in

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drive; for instance, the education system is entirely Mandarin-medium from the second year onward. However, usage of local dialect is tolerated and socially preferred in many informal situations. In Hong Kong,

1598:, speakers from Beijing were understood more than speakers from elsewhere. The scores supported a primary division between northern groups (Mandarin and Jin) and all others, with Min as an identifiable branch. 1693:. In general, southern varieties have fewer initial consonants than northern and central varieties, but more often preserve the Middle Chinese final consonants. Some varieties, such as Cantonese, Hokkien and 1542:(206 BC – 220 AD), which he called Old Southern Chinese, while the Central zone was a transitional area of dialects that were originally of southern type, but overlain with centuries of Northern influence. 6372:

between Standard Chinese and the local dialect. Parents will generally speak to their children in the local variety, and the relationship between dialect and Mandarin appears to be mostly stable, even a

829:

published in 601, noted wide variations in pronunciation between regions, and was created with the goal of defining a standard system of pronunciation for reading the classics. This standard is known as

2640:, in which the pitch contour of a syllable is affected by the tones of adjacent syllables in a compound word or phrase. This process is so extensive in Shanghainese that the tone system is reduced to a 913:

was adopted, but with vocabulary drawn from a range of Mandarin varieties, and grammar based on literature in the modern written vernacular. Standard Chinese is the official spoken language of the

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is common in the north, but several different suffixes are use elsewhere. In some varieties, especially in the Wu area, different suffixes are used for first, second and third person pronouns.

1445:, share different features with Wu, Gan and Mandarin, making them difficult to classify. Earlier scholars had assigned to them one or other of these groups, or to a group of their own. 11543: 11534: 711:. Southern varieties tend to have fewer initial consonants than northern and central varieties, but more often preserve the Middle Chinese final consonants. All have phonemic 6381:

that he speaks Xiaogan dialect. Linguistically, Xiaogan dialect is a dialect of Mandarin, but the pronunciation and diction are quite different from spoken Standard Chinese.

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and Chinese. The precise affiliation of Bai remains uncertain, but the term "Sinitic" is usually used as a synonym for Chinese, especially when viewed as a language family.

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by placing a conjunction between the alternatives, though some also use particles to mark the disjuncts. Standard Chinese is unusual in allowing a form with no conjunction.

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living in the hills of northeastern Guangdong, southwestern Fujian and many other parts of southern China, as well as Taiwan and parts of Southeast Asia such as Singapore,

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maintains these eight tonal categories and has developed an additional distinction in checked syllables. (The latter distinction has disappeared again in many varieties.)

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in two languages. It was later determined that the learning of Mandarin among Singaporean Chinese was hindered by home use of other Chinese varieties, such as Hokkien,

10635:, Studies in the Theory and History of Linguistic Science, Series IV: Current Issues in Linguistic Theory, vol. 271, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 233–254, 5939:

of verb phrases or predicates is achieved by following them with a marker, usually the same as the attributive marker, though some varieties use a different marker.

2636:'to scold'). The number of tonal contrasts varies between dialects, with Northern dialects tending to have fewer distinctions than Southern ones. Many dialects have 2570:. Each syllable may be pronounced with between three and seven distinct pitch contours, denoting different morphemes. For example, the Beijing dialect distinguishes 12535: 6848: 1257:

because of the way Middle Chinese voiced initials became voiceless aspirated initials as in Hakka, and were hence called by the umbrella term "Hakka–Gan dialects".

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in 1937, with minor modifications by other linguists since. The conventionally accepted set of seven dialect groups first appeared in the second edition (1980) of

9718:——— (2015b), "Linguistic areas in China for differential object marking, passive, and comparative constructions", in Chappell, Hilary M. (ed.), 6028:+ VP2, with a verbal complement VP2 containing a stative verb describing the manner or extent of the main verb. In northern varieties, the marker is a cognate of 2389: 2370: 1161:

This is the group spoken in northern and southwestern China and has by far the most speakers. This group includes the Beijing dialect, which forms the basis for

2264:, which is often merged with the zero initial, the initials of this dialect are present in all Chinese varieties, although several varieties do not distinguish 13275: 12057: 5499:

or numeral. The inventory of classifiers tends to be larger in the south than in the north, where some varieties use only the general classifier cognate with

2320:(as in Suzhou), or both. In many places, including Beijing, palatalized dental affricates and palatalized velars have merged to form a new palatal series. 13082: 13072: 10022: 656:. Variation is particularly strong in the more mountainous southeast part of mainland China. The varieties are typically classified into several groups: 5408:. There are major differences between northern and southern varieties, but often some northern areas share features found in the south, and vice versa. 13077: 12836: 12384: 2354: 12991: 10928: 6536:, and this is reflected in their conventional English names reflecting Cantonese pronunciations for their given names, and differing from their 2330: 1618:. Other linguists choose to refer to the major groups as languages. However, each of these groups contains mutually unintelligible varieties. 984:

However, a major difference between China and Western Europe is the historical reestablishment of political unity in 6th century China by the

5955:

sentences vary, with northern varieties placing the indirect object before the direct object and southern varieties using the reverse order.

10813: (archived 18 October 2005), compiled by William Wang and Chin-Chuan Cheng (archived from the originals at City University of Hong Kong) 6610:

implemented especially rigidly in elementary schools, with punishments and public humiliation for children using other languages at school.

16123: 13834: 2342: 2272:. However, most varieties have additional initials, due to a combination of innovations and retention of distinctions from Middle Chinese: 6513:

were from southern China and did not natively speak Mandarin, and even leaders from northern China rarely spoke with the standard accent.

13158: 12396: 10593:

Handel, Zev (2015), "The Classification of Chinese: Sinitic (The Chinese Language Family)", in Wang, William S. Y.; Sun, Chaofen (eds.),

9385: 6602: 5478:

Compounds consisting of an attributive following a noun are less common, but some are found in the south as well as a few northern areas.

1711: 1018:, in which differences in speech generally become more pronounced as distances increase, although there are also some sharp boundaries. 11785: 10575:"Language or Dialect – or Topolect? A Comparison of the Attitudes of Hong Kongers and Mainland Chinese towards the Status of Cantonese" 10826: 973:

remained the standard for scholarly and administrative writing in Western Europe for centuries, influencing local varieties much like

9403: 894:'officer speech'). While never formally defined, knowledge of this language was essential for a career in the imperial bureaucracy. 12360: 12348: 10379:

Ben Hamed, Mahé (2005), "Neighbour-nets portray the Chinese dialect continuum and the linguistic legacy of China's demic history",

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varieties have an unrelated series of voiced initials resulting from devoicing of nasal initials in syllables without nasal finals.

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The long history of migration of peoples and interaction between speakers of different dialects makes it difficult to apply the

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in speaking it. Because of the variety of dialects spoken, there are usually few formal methods for learning a local dialect.

12695: 10816: 10774: 10729: 10702: 10683: 10640: 10621: 10602: 10538: 10486: 10460: 10316: 10297: 10275: 10256: 10228: 10148: 10129: 10107: 10080: 10016: 9967: 9948: 9925: 9836: 9808: 9786: 9767: 9746: 9727: 9708: 9686: 9660: 9634: 9603: 9581: 9512: 9440: 6453: 6279: 6234: 1501:. She Chinese, Xiangnan Tuhua, Shaozhou Tuhua and unclassified varieties of southwest Jiangxi appear to be related to Hakka. 1457:, predating the later influx of Yue and Southwest Mandarin speakers. Some linguists treat them as a mixture of Yue and Xiang. 733:

takes its phonology from the Beijing dialect, with vocabulary from the Mandarin group and grammar based on literature in the

2309:

initials are retained in many Mandarin dialects, including Beijing but not southwestern and southeastern Mandarin varieties.

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conditioned by syllabic onsets. Syllables with voiced initials tended to be pronounced with a lower pitch, and by the late

9560: 9457: 5420:

Map of the variation in the placement of animal gender markers in local Chinese dialects in the core Chinese-speaking area

864:

Until the mid-20th century, most Chinese people spoke only their local language. As a practical measure, officials of the

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royal domain was no longer politically powerful, its speech still represented a model for communication across China. The

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Li, Ying-Che (2001), "Aspects of historical-comparative syntax: functions of prepositions in Taiwanese and Mandarin", in

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Chen, Yujie (2015), "The semantic differentiation of demonstratives in Sinitic languages", in Chappell, Hilary M. (ed.),

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tones.) Most Wu dialects retain the tone categories of Middle Chinese, but in Shanghainese several of these have merged.

1357:, though there is a tendency for Middle Chinese velar codas -ŋ and -k to yield dental codas -n and -t after front vowels. 941:

Local varieties from different areas of China are often mutually unintelligible, differing at least as much as different

1429:

and adjacent areas, were formerly included in Mandarin. They are distinguished by their retention of the Middle Chinese

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education, where Singaporean students learn both English and their designated native language, which was Mandarin for

6155:, though it has a level tone in Hakka and Yue and a rising tone in Min. Existential negators derive from a proto-form 5475:) 'rooster', but most southern varieties use the reverse order, while others use different orders for different words. 977:

did in China. In both cases, local forms of speech diverged from both the literary standard and each other, producing

6479: 6354: 6301: 6248: 6131:, as the ordinary negator. A word from the second family is used as an existential negator 'have not', as in Beijing 898: 10356:

Baron, Stephen P. (1983), "Chain shifts in Chinese historical phonology: problems of motivation and functionality",

6461: 16116: 13827: 11130: 6010:, which can also be used as a transitive verb indicating possession. Most varieties use a locative verb cognate to 909:, which was based on northern dialects. In the 1930s, a standard national language with pronunciation based on the 10471: 6783:

The colloquial layers of many varieties, particularly Min varieties, reflect features that predate Middle Chinese.

798:

across the territory they controlled, in order to facilitate communication between people from different regions.

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Tang, Chaoju; van Heuven, Vincent J. (2009), "Mutual intelligibility of Chinese dialects experimentally tested",

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Map of the variation in the number of tone categories in local Chinese dialects in the core Chinese-speaking area

2277: 1614:

for the speech of a particular place (regardless of status), with regional groupings like Mandarin and Wu called

996:, the counterpart of spoken Standard Chinese, is similarly used as a literary form by speakers of all varieties. 10292:, Paris: École des hautes études en sciences sociales, Centre de recherches linguistiques sur l'Asie orientale, 1715:, the number of initials (including a zero initial) ranges from 15 in some southern dialects to a high of 35 in 16319: 16289: 16274: 12135: 11778: 10914: 10047: 6457: 6283: 1221:

features several atypical innovations. Wu varieties are distinguished by their retention of voiced or murmured

523: 310: 9828: 9803:, Language and linguistics Monograph Series, vol. 63, Taipei: Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica, 6120:, respectively. Northern and Central varieties tend to use a word from the first family, cognate with Beijing 692:

nor individual languages defined by mutual intelligibility, but reflect common phonological developments from

16404: 16399: 13744: 13198: 9900: 5951:, which can function as predicates but differ from intransitive verbs in being modifiable by degree adverbs. 2313: 914: 443: 294: 2783:

syllables were distributed amongst the four remaining tones in a manner that is only partially predictable.

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estimated that there are hundreds of mutually unintelligible varieties of Chinese. These varieties form a

16109: 13874: 13820: 13719: 13591: 13516: 13173: 11706: 11361: 11283: 10999: 9859:

Exploring teachers' views about native language instruction and education in Taiwanese elementary schools

6721: 5425: 773:

At the end of the 2nd millennium BC, a form of Chinese was spoken in a compact area along the lower

399: 9699:(2015a), "Introduction: Ways of tackling diversity in Sinitic languages", in Chappell, Hilary M. (ed.), 5883:

Plural personal pronouns may be marked with a suffix, noun or phrase in different varieties. The suffix

5436:

Adverbs generally precede verbs, but in some southern varieties certain kinds of adverb follow the verb.

2467:. Many dialects, particularly in northern and central China, have apical or retroflex vowels, which are 2412: 16357: 16309: 13761: 13734: 13611: 13523: 13270: 13250: 10676:

Chinese Dialect Classification: A comparative approach to Harngjou, Old Jintarn, and Common Northern Wu

9737:———; Li, Lan (2016), "Mandarin and other Sinitic languages", in Chan, Sin-wai (ed.), 2550: 1607: 993: 906: 734: 481: 10307:

Yue, Anne O. (2017), "The Sinitic languages: grammar", in Thurgood, Graham; LaPolla, Randy J. (eds.),

3255:, in which the realization of a tone varies depending on the context of the syllable. For example, in 815:(early 1st century AD) is devoted to differences in vocabulary between regions. Commentaries from the 16229: 14868: 13313: 12011: 11771: 11606: 11053: 10974: 10068: 6240: 1534: 1011: 502: 15349: 14888: 14853: 13954: 13687: 13672: 13662: 13376: 11687: 11290: 11103: 9591: 6442: 5947:

All varieties have transitive and intransitive verbs. Instead of adjectives, Chinese varieties use

5416: 802: 229: 9914:

Chinese Language(s): A Look Through the Prism of "The Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects"

757:, with differences in pronunciation and vocabulary between the three forms. It is also one of the 16050: 15744: 15002: 14913: 14795: 14790: 13699: 11938: 11681: 11467: 11351: 10239: 10218: 6446: 6272: 5397: 5385: 5381: 2733:

The tones of Middle Chinese, as well as similar systems in neighbouring languages, experienced a

2651:

The tonal categories of modern varieties can be related by considering their derivation from the

2416:

Map of the distribution of stop codas in local Chinese dialects in the core Chinese-speaking area

1408: 946: 263: 13692: 13541: 5923:+ NP, where the last noun phrase is the head and the attributive marker is usually a cognate of 2741:, each of the tones had split into two registers conditioned by the initials, known as "upper" ( 16249: 15773: 15590: 15272: 14097: 14092: 14063: 14051: 13633: 13476: 12074: 11727: 11720: 11500: 11434: 10937: 9981: 6643: 6493: 2707:) had no tonal contrasts but were traditionally treated as a fourth tone category, 'entering' ( 2519: 1685:

The usual unit of analysis is the syllable, traditionally analysed as consisting of an initial

1570:

valley and thence to southwestern areas, leaving the hills of the southeast largely untouched.

1563: 1525: 1377:, and have been carried by immigrants to Southeast Asia and many other parts of the world. The 918: 746: 653: 649: 551: 77: 9876:

Iwata, Ray (1995), "Linguistic geography of Chinese dialects: Project on Han dialects (PHD)",

9404:

A Critical Evaluation of Singapore's Language Policy and its Implications for English Teaching

9389: 1554:

to Chinese. Scholars account for the transitional nature of the central varieties in terms of

838:, based on a compromise between the reading traditions of the northern and southern capitals. 16132: 16062: 16038: 15761: 15724: 14222: 13628: 13551: 13265: 13243: 11998: 11831: 11670: 11620: 11176: 9982:"What Is a Chinese 'Dialect/Topolect'? Reflections on Some Key Sino-English Linguistic terms" 6710: 5429: 5377: 1514: 922: 754: 20: 16259: 15936: 10497: 2479:, producing a rich inventory of vowels in open syllables. Reduction of medials is common in 16169: 15570: 15389: 15369: 15354: 15090: 15055: 14863: 13396: 13364: 13193: 12318: 11482: 11328: 11274: 10117: 6728: 6688: 6627: 6591: 6096: 5996: 5959: 5401: 715:, with northern varieties tending to have fewer distinctions than southern ones. Many have 16294: 9503:: Language ideological debates and the imagining of the nation". In Blommaert, Jan (ed.). 9486: 6709:, showed that less than 40% of the student population managed to attain minimum levels of 1309:(named from a dialectical pronunciation of "Fujian"), and Taiwan, where they are known as 1173:

in Chinese, and often also translated as "Mandarin" or simply "Chinese". In addition, the

8: 16284: 16214: 16209: 16149: 16022: 16002: 15766: 15693: 15394: 15344: 15339: 14750: 14317: 13901: 13640: 13606: 13441: 13408: 13255: 13183: 13100: 12941: 12936: 12690: 12500: 12006: 11665: 11255: 11082: 11013: 10574: 9796: 6692: 6569: 6510: 6329: with: Info on Taiwan, e.g. for Hakka-Mandarin and Hokkien-Mandarin. You can help by 6060: 2325:

Maps of the distributions of various initial consonants in the core Chinese-speaking area

2306: 1997: 1781: 1234: 1230: 109: 15379: 15364: 13979: 6084:

in the north, but varies between other varieties. Other question forms are also common:

5471: 5453: 1639: 1349:

is the prestige form. Most Hakka varieties retain the full complement of nasal endings,

16334: 16279: 16264: 16184: 16164: 16154: 15967: 15739: 15673: 15622: 15575: 15519: 15249: 15192: 14918: 14074: 13843: 13756: 13623: 13586: 13471: 13369: 13303: 13298: 13188: 13178: 12804: 12782: 12675: 12483: 12478: 12401: 12389: 12377: 12365: 12353: 11877: 11506: 11115: 10981: 10662: 10517: 10409: 10396: 10214: 10056: 10009:

Breaking Down the Barriers: Interdisciplinary Studies in Chinese Linguistics and Beyond

6747: 6623: 6595: 6414: 6386: 6198: 6167: 6054: 5492: 5487:

Nouns in Chinese varieties are generally not marked for number. As in languages of the

3377: 2776: 2567: 2468: 1690: 1574: 1413: 1286: 1141: 954: 738: 712: 573: 565: 27: 15374: 13984: 5966:+ NP2, though the copula varies. Most Yue and Hakka varieties use a form cognate with 593: 256: 247: 16299: 16254: 16239: 16219: 16159: 16144: 15946: 15606: 15480: 15425: 15317: 15225: 15220: 15177: 15099: 14830: 14810: 14735: 14712: 14485: 14367: 14337: 14179: 14170: 14122: 14112: 13959: 13891: 13667: 13657: 13536: 13501: 13356: 13308: 13260: 13027: 12880: 12814: 12670: 12655: 12326: 12303: 12257: 12182: 12108: 11988: 11956: 11910: 11849: 11839: 11804: 11614: 11574: 11552: 11517: 11511: 11476: 11414: 11408: 11388: 11182: 11170: 11153: 11061: 11007: 10987: 10770: 10750: 10725: 10698: 10679: 10636: 10617: 10598: 10534: 10531:

Creole and Dialect Continua: standard acquisition processes in Belize and China (PRC)

10521: 10482: 10456: 10414: 10348: 10312: 10293: 10271: 10252: 10224: 10144: 10125: 10103: 10076: 10012: 9963: 9944: 9921: 9917: 9832: 9804: 9782: 9763: 9757: 9742: 9723: 9704: 9682: 9656: 9630: 9599: 9577: 9541: 9508: 9436: 9430: 6793: 6615: 6606: 6583: 6503: 6498: 2527: 2290:

The voiced initials of Middle Chinese are retained in Wu dialects such as Suzhou and

1716: 1318: 1310: 1015: 989: 942: 842: 795: 782: 617: 465: 457: 82: 10007:, in Cao, Guangshun; Djamouri, Redouane; Chappell, Hilary; Wiebusch, Thekla (eds.), 6409: 6162:

Chinese varieties generally indicate the roles of nouns with respect to verbs using

2538:, while some central dialects have a single nasal coda, in some cases realized as a 2298:

dialects and a few Gan dialects, but have merged with voiceless initials elsewhere.

819:(25–220 AD) provide significant evidence of local differences in pronunciation. The 16344: 16339: 16329: 16324: 16314: 16304: 16189: 16179: 16017: 16012: 15982: 15941: 15921: 15810: 15805: 15749: 15719: 15668: 15557: 15430: 15410: 15359: 15326: 15287: 15282: 15277: 15235: 15230: 15212: 15060: 15050: 14954: 14903: 14898: 14873: 14800: 14493: 14470: 14465: 14395: 14390: 14385: 14347: 14287: 14212: 14155: 14150: 14135: 13906: 13857: 13773: 13293: 13168: 13032: 13022: 13007: 12953: 12875: 12826: 12787: 12736: 12650: 12602: 12586: 12466: 12426: 12421: 12308: 12262: 12208: 12203: 12193: 12187: 12016: 11961: 11946: 11822: 11794: 11635: 11595: 11565: 11539: 11489: 11447: 11356: 11333: 11226: 11206: 11163: 11088: 10951: 10850: 10717: 10633:

The Chinese Rime Tables: Linguistic Philosophy and Historical-Comparative Phonology

10561: 10509: 10472:"Synchrony and diachrony of Sinitic languages: A brief history of Chinese dialects" 10453:

Problems in Comparative Chinese Dialectology – the Classification of Miin and Hakka

10439: 10404: 10388: 10365: 10344: 10198: 10175: 10167: 9885: 9862: 9537: 6803: 5901: 5536: 3384: 3370: 3342: 3297: 3256: 2704: 2291: 1768: 1720: 1595: 1378: 1278: 1250: 1162: 1156: 1040: 978: 974: 902: 859: 730: 657: 645: 364: 131: 15565: 11213: 10900: 10631:

Norman, Jerry (2006), "Common Dialectal Chinese", in Branner, David Prager (ed.),

1453:

These varieties are descended from the speech of the earliest Chinese migrants to

16371: 16269: 16244: 16224: 16199: 16174: 15997: 15987: 15977: 15926: 15916: 15790: 15663: 15658: 15653: 15542: 15532: 15527: 15495: 15485: 15470: 15460: 15450: 15420: 15384: 15334: 15297: 15262: 15202: 15182: 15162: 15127: 15112: 15107: 15030: 14969: 14949: 14944: 14939: 14883: 14775: 14745: 14694: 14669: 14654: 14628: 14623: 14603: 14588: 14533: 14475: 14460: 14455: 14440: 14435: 14380: 14312: 14292: 14227: 14202: 14130: 14107: 14009: 13974: 13969: 13944: 13916: 13911: 13724: 13704: 13601: 13561: 13546: 13285: 13135: 13125: 13105: 13062: 13057: 12923: 12887: 12870: 12860: 12799: 12617: 12553: 12495: 12443: 12438: 12340: 12236: 12231: 12140: 12087: 12082: 12062: 12047: 12042: 11983: 11978: 11968: 11951: 11923: 11895: 11872: 11627: 11581: 11440: 11322: 11261: 11095: 11042: 11033: 11019: 10820: 10810: 10740: 10285: 10171: 10091: 9960:

Language Attitudes and Identities in Multilingual China: A Linguistic Ethnography

9936: 9696: 6714: 6619: 6575: 6543: 6525: 3419: 3398: 3356: 3349: 3335: 2645: 2317: 2177: 1764: 1578: 1543: 1474: 1462: 1436: 1346: 1186: 1174: 1120: 910: 826: 429: 186: 181: 146: 72: 9415:

Bokhorst-Heng, W.D. (1998). "Unpacking the Nation". In Allison D. et al. (Ed.),

6413:

A school in Guangdong with writing "Please speak Standard Chinese. Please write

1558:. Iwata argues that innovations have been transmitted from the north across the 317: 301: 16204: 16007: 15951: 15931: 15734: 15699: 15688: 15683: 15678: 15585: 15537: 15475: 15445: 15440: 15302: 15292: 15257: 15167: 15132: 15117: 15065: 15025: 15020: 15015: 14964: 14908: 14878: 14858: 14848: 14843: 14820: 14740: 14725: 14720: 14689: 14664: 14649: 14644: 14613: 14608: 14598: 14593: 14583: 14578: 14573: 14568: 14523: 14498: 14445: 14357: 14342: 14307: 14277: 14272: 14252: 14242: 14237: 14232: 14160: 14145: 14087: 14082: 13989: 13949: 13934: 13778: 13768: 13739: 13729: 13446: 13418: 13130: 13115: 13017: 12968: 12963: 12948: 12892: 12831: 12713: 12685: 12665: 12612: 12581: 12558: 12548: 12543: 12505: 12488: 12433: 12298: 12280: 12198: 12172: 12113: 12033: 12021: 11973: 11928: 11918: 11844: 11697: 11675: 11589: 11558: 11494: 11454: 11428: 11402: 11379: 11302: 11248: 11220: 11189: 11067: 10993: 10650: 9977: 9818: 8598: 6891:

The colloquial layers of southern Wu and coastal Min varieties use cognates of

6819: 6663: with: How did dialect speakers react to Mandarinization?. You can help by 6369: 6149: 5936: 5913: 3412: 3405: 3391: 2689: 2257: 1776: 1752: 1740: 1698: 1644: 1582: 1486: 1482: 1226: 1214: 1140:

primarily on the evolution of Middle Chinese voiced initials, were produced by

970: 950: 831: 811: 762: 693: 614: 413: 201: 196: 114: 13964: 13149: 10335:

Ao, Benjamin (1991), "Comparative reconstruction of proto-Chinese revisited",

6893: 6190: 6178: 6138: 6127: 6080: 6035: 6017: 6006: 5984: 5973: 5930: 5896: 5512: 1253:

is taken as representative. In the past, Gan was viewed as closely related to

16393: 15992: 15866: 15842: 15785: 15614: 15547: 15505: 15490: 15415: 15267: 15172: 15045: 15040: 14893: 14805: 14785: 14780: 14770: 14760: 14755: 14730: 14684: 14679: 14674: 14659: 14618: 14563: 14558: 14553: 14548: 14543: 14538: 14528: 14518: 14513: 14503: 14450: 14430: 14425: 14420: 14415: 14410: 14405: 14400: 14352: 14332: 14327: 14322: 14302: 14282: 14267: 14262: 14257: 14217: 14207: 14192: 14187: 14140: 14102: 14004: 13994: 13579: 13391: 13386: 12958: 12902: 12897: 12865: 12852: 12728: 12680: 12607: 12563: 12453: 12290: 12213: 12052: 11900: 11887: 11421: 11343: 11109: 11074: 11026: 10095: 7690: 6733: 6706: 6697: 6587: 6523:

in speaking, rendering much of what he said incomprehensible to many Chinese.

5989: 5561: 5541: 5496: 3322: 3302: 2559: 2284: 1567: 1430: 1324: 1260: 1254: 1110: 1100: 790: 681: 669: 495: 166: 156: 11756:

indicates single languages that are also considered to be separate branches.

10754: 10513: 5439:

In the north, animal gender markers are prefixed to the noun, as in Beijing

5380:

of vocabulary of non-Chinese origin. Some of these words may have come from

1297:

These varieties originated in the mountainous terrain of Fujian and eastern

925:, with differences in pronunciation and vocabulary between the three forms. 16383: 15972: 15837: 15800: 15500: 15465: 15455: 15435: 15307: 15187: 15152: 15142: 15137: 15122: 15010: 14934: 14838: 14815: 14508: 14375: 14297: 14247: 14197: 13999: 13939: 13451: 13401: 12777: 12660: 12633: 12177: 12167: 11395: 11311: 11267: 11196: 10854: 10443: 10418: 10392: 10370: 10210: 10202: 9890: 6807: 6798: 6724: 6390: 5992:

in Classical Chinese but began to be used as a copula from the Han period.

5952: 5948: 2738: 2641: 2523: 2480: 2428: 2299: 1694: 1505: 1330: 1218: 1145: 966: 869: 865: 806: 778: 583: 371: 330: 10721: 10565: 10455:, Trends in Linguistics series, vol. 123, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 9594:(1992), "Chinese as a Pluricentric Language", in Clyne, Michael G. (ed.), 221: 26:"Spoken Chinese" redirects here. For other languages spoken in China, see 16101: 15883: 15859: 15832: 15822: 15795: 15780: 15756: 15580: 15157: 15080: 15075: 15035: 14765: 13596: 13570: 13466: 13436: 13413: 13381: 13120: 13110: 12914: 12809: 12794: 12757: 12705: 12526: 12517: 12413: 12252: 12127: 11854: 11741: 10956: 10767:

Summary of Local Chinese Dialects in Southeast Asian Overseas Communities

9528:

Wee, Lionel (2006). "The semiotics of language ideologies in Singapore".

6861:

Some words of literary origin with voiced initials shifted to category 6.

6833: 6579: 6557: 6551: 6533: 6529: 6163: 6109: 6050: 5566: 5556: 5546: 5531: 5405: 3327: 3317: 3307: 3292: 3277: 3252: 2788: 2637: 2539: 2476: 2472: 2252:

Map of the extent of the palatal merger in the core Chinese-speaking area

1744: 1648: 1539: 1498: 1494: 1470: 1420: 1360: 1334: 1292: 1240: 1149: 1090: 1080: 1070: 1050: 985: 962: 958: 816: 716: 685: 677: 673: 665: 607: 347: 206: 191: 171: 161: 151: 136: 104: 10906: 10666: 10400: 10060: 9629:] (in Chinese), vol. 1 (Phonetics), Beijing: Commercial Press, 7564: 7528: 6652: 6318: 5400:

and instead express grammatical categories using analytic means such as

1677: 15911: 15849: 15827: 15197: 15070: 13012: 12986: 12752: 12718: 12223: 12150: 10011:, Taipei: Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica, pp. 735–754, 9901:"Chinese Geolinguistics: History, Current Trend and Theoretical Issues" 9613: 6599: 6516: 6286: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 5551: 3312: 2734: 1756: 1624: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1490: 1390: 1192: 1182: 1178: 1060: 801:

The first evidence of dialectal variation is found in the texts of the

704: 661: 474: 141: 10549: 10180: 9846:

Eberhard, David M.; Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D., eds. (2024),

9681:] (in Chinese), vol. 3 (Grammar), Beijing: Commercial Press, 9655:] (in Chinese), vol. 2 (Lexicon), Beijing: Commercial Press, 7702: 5297: 5219: 5141: 5063: 4985: 4907: 4829: 4751: 4673: 4595: 4517: 4439: 4361: 4283: 4205: 4127: 4049: 3971: 3893: 3815: 3737: 3659: 3581: 3503: 3434: 688:, though some varieties remain unclassified. These groups are neither 15888: 15876: 15871: 15815: 15147: 13886: 13812: 13461: 13212: 13203: 12931: 12821: 12473: 12461: 12272: 12103: 11734: 11375: 11140: 10947: 10887: 10695:

Studies in Colloquial Chinese and Its History : Dialect and Text

9867: 8130: 6684: 6374: 3426: 2464: 2421: 2295: 1686: 1619: 1566:

area and from there southeast to the Wu area and westwards along the

1386: 1382: 1370: 1342: 1298: 1282: 1274: 1222: 930: 835: 774: 750: 724: 700: 516: 241: 215: 61: 10090:——— (2003), "The Chinese dialects: phonology", in 6431: 6261: 1281:, have been significantly influenced by Southwest Mandarin, whereas 981:

with mutually unintelligible varieties separated by long distances.

16366: 15854: 13751: 13337: 12978: 12159: 11763: 10427: 9165: 3363: 3273: 2124: 1724: 1655:, a practice that has been criticized as confusing. The neologisms 1394: 1338: 1202: 1198: 786: 720: 537: 385: 272: 65: 13783: 10903:, by Dylan W.H. Sung (Phonology and Official Romanization Schemes) 10867: 10251:] (in Chinese) (2nd ed.), Beijing: The Commercial Press, 10189:

Wang, Feng (2005), "On the genetic position of the Bai language",

9237: 8576: 8574: 8438: 8436: 7678: 7316: 15893: 13650: 13330: 13217: 13046: 12642: 11236: 10290:

Comparative Chinese Dialectal Grammar: Handbook for Investigators

9054: 9042: 8922: 7837: 7825: 7813: 7789: 6939: 6394: 1454: 1448: 1366: 1306: 1246: 1206: 1130: 590: 176: 9153: 8346: 7885: 6806:

proposed a subgroup of Sino-Tibetan called "Sinitic" comprising

13709: 13511: 11149: 10964: 9117: 9095: 9093: 9018: 8571: 8559: 8433: 8298: 8094: 6537: 5912:

properties. An extreme example is found in a variety spoken in

2260:

of northern Fujian is a minimal example. With the exception of

1509: 1466: 1426: 1314: 1302: 953:, the ancestral language was spread by imperial expansion over 872:

dynasties carried out the administration of the empire using a

847: 821: 708: 268: 57: 8721: 8610: 8082: 6727:, the campaign aimed to simplify the language environment for 2471:

derived from high vowels following sibilant initials. In many

622: 13222: 11145: 10960: 10002:"The Classification of Sinitic Languages: What Is 'Chinese'?" 9576:(in Chinese) (2nd ed.), Beijing: Wenzi gaige chubanshe, 9261: 8946: 8709: 8697: 8685: 7801: 7777: 7352: 6520: 6377:. Local dialects are valued as symbols of regional cultures. 6088:

Most varieties have neutral questions employing the form V +

6021:, but Min, Wu and Yue varieties use several different forms. 2526:, while in most northern varieties they have disappeared. In 2455:-like vowel. In other dialects, including Mandarin dialects, 1489:(northern Guangdong), and the forms of Chinese spoken by the 1478: 1442: 1374: 1270: 1266: 1210: 742: 689: 598: 53: 9847: 9596:

Pluricentric Languages: Differing Norms in Different Nations

9288: 9105: 9090: 9006: 8958: 8448: 7719: 7717: 7480: 7268: 7243: 7241: 6683:

In 1966, the Singaporean government implemented a policy of

6578:-speaking population, most of the population of Taiwan were 5916:, Jiangxi, where five grades of distance are distinguished. 10428:"Stuck in the forest: Trees, networks and Chinese dialects" 9406:", Karen's Linguistics Issues. Retrieved on 4 November 2010 8748: 8673: 8547: 8310: 8238: 8010: 7668: 7666: 6108:

A sentence is negated by placing a marker before the verb.

10653:(1998), "On distinguishing Hakka and non-Hakka dialects", 9570:

Dictionary of Dialect Pronunciations of Chinese Characters

9189: 9066: 8910: 8661: 8535: 8499: 8487: 8421: 8409: 8274: 8262: 8214: 8106: 8070: 8034: 8022: 7952: 7950: 7948: 7729: 7110: 7098: 7002: 6626:) were offered in elementary and middle schools, first in 5977:'to connect'. All other varieties use a form cognate with 5919:

Attributive constructions typically have the form NP/VP +

1022:

counties or even villages may be mutually unintelligible.

719:, with the most complex patterns in the coastal area from 10496:———; Li, Ming; Peyraube, Alain (2007), 9432:

From Third World to First: The Singapore Story: 1965–2000

8477: 8475: 7986: 7974: 7714: 7612: 7600: 7552: 7492: 7415: 7376: 7340: 7292: 7280: 7238: 7050: 7026: 6560:

for different people to know and use different dialects.

6159:, though again the tonal category varies between groups. 949:

as a whole. As with the Romance languages descended from

699:

Chinese varieties have the greatest differences in their

570: 556: 542: 528: 10823: (archived 27 June 2015) compiled by Dylan W.H. Sung 10498:"Chinese linguistics and typology: the state of the art" 9141: 8385: 8373: 8363: 8361: 8202: 7765: 7753: 7663: 7653: 7651: 7624: 7446: 7444: 7442: 7405: 7403: 7258: 7256: 7151: 7149: 6915: 6849:

The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language

6143: 6053:

are formed by replacing the desired information with an

486: 10807:

DOC (Dialects of China or Dictionary on Computer) files

10479:

Sinitic grammar: synchronic and diachronic perspectives

10381:

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

9941:

Sinitic grammar: synchronic and diachronic perspectives

9366: 9356: 9354: 9339: 9329: 9327: 9312: 9249: 9225: 9129: 9078: 9030: 8637: 8586: 8460: 8226: 8190: 8178: 8166: 8154: 8142: 7945: 7228: 7226: 7224: 7209: 7038: 6992: 6990: 6927: 1305:

have spread to Southeast Asia, where they are known as

9278: 9276: 9213: 9177: 8994: 8970: 8900: 8898: 8849: 8847: 8832: 8820: 8808: 8796: 8784: 8772: 8760: 8738: 8736: 8627: 8625: 8523: 8472: 8322: 8286: 8250: 8118: 8046: 7933: 7897: 7516: 7388: 7086: 6634:(DPP) politicians, and finally throughout the island. 5424:

The usual unmarked word order in Chinese varieties is

3276:

in Chinese varieties are monosyllables descended from

16355: 10749:] (in Japanese), Yokohama shiritsu daigaku kiyō, 9419:(pp. 202–204). Singapore: Singapore University Press. 9201: 8397: 8358: 7998: 7921: 7849: 7648: 7588: 7456: 7439: 7427: 7400: 7304: 7253: 7197: 7146: 7134: 7122: 7074: 7014: 6841: 6832:

when referring to mutually unintelligible divisions.

6827: 6549: 6541: 6184: 6172: 6132: 6121: 6068: 6029: 6024:

All varieties allow sentences of the form NP + VP1 +

6011: 6000: 5978: 5967: 5924: 5884: 5500: 5458: 5440: 2770: 2753: 2713: 2683: 2672: 2661: 2619: 2601: 2589: 2571: 2420:

Chinese finals may be analysed as an optional medial

1664: 1633: 1321:, with smaller communities throughout southern China. 877: 781:. Use of this language expanded eastwards across the 462: 448: 434: 418: 404: 390: 376: 9845: 9351: 9324: 8883: 8334: 7891: 7741: 7504: 7468: 7221: 7062: 6987: 10829:: search interface to the DOC database, at StarLing 10747:

Compilation of Chinese dialects in local chronicles

10124:, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 9300: 9273: 8982: 8934: 8895: 8871: 8859: 8844: 8733: 8649: 8622: 8511: 7909: 7861: 7185: 7161: 6877:

are used to facilitate comparison between dialects.

6705:, an evaluation of Singapore's education system by 6492:Within mainland China, there has been a persistent 6112:had two families of negation markers starting with 6063:

are formed by appending a particle to the sentence.

507: 10481:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 3–28, 9739:The Routledge Encyclopedia of the Chinese Language 9558: 8580: 8058: 7540: 7364: 6963: 6951: 6210: 2522:and Wu dialects, the stops have merged as a final 2463:, leaving a single mid vowel with a wide range of 1461:Some varieties remain unclassified, including the 10769:] (in Chinese), Guangzhou: World Publishing, 10041:Nakanishi, Hiroki (2010), "Lùn Shēhuà de guīshǔ" 7962: 7576: 7328: 6042:A characteristic feature of Chinese varieties is 1643:, literally 'place speech', was the title of the 16391: 10901:Technical Notes on the Chinese Language Dialects 10209: 10045:[On the genetic affiliation of Shehua], 7873: 7636: 7486: 7173: 6975: 6945: 6869: 6867: 6057:, though the words vary between different areas. 2312:In many northern and central varieties there is 1663:have been proposed as alternative renderings of 10238:Xiong, Zhenghui; Zhang, Zhenxing, eds. (2012), 10122:Middle Chinese: A Study in Historical Phonology 9852:(27th ed.), Dallas, TX: SIL International. 6194:in the north, with other forms used elsewhere. 3284:Colloquial pronunciations of cognate morphemes 2718:), corresponding to syllables ending in nasals 2486:The Middle Chinese codas, consisting of glides 11605: 11052: 10883:(revised ed.), Beijing: Commercial Press. 10157: 9801:Common Neo-Hakka: A Comparative Reconstruction 7843: 7831: 7819: 7807: 7795: 6509:Historically, many of the people who promoted 16117: 13828: 11779: 10922: 10311:(2nd ed.), Routledge, pp. 114–163, 10284: 9943:, Oxford University Press, pp. 340–368, 9861:(PhD thesis), University of Texas at Austin, 9498: 9294: 9267: 9243: 9123: 9111: 9099: 9060: 9048: 9024: 9012: 8964: 8952: 8928: 8715: 8703: 8691: 8679: 6864: 6073: 5889: 5505: 5464: 5446: 2765: 2759: 2748: 2742: 2708: 2678: 2667: 2656: 2631: 2625: 2613: 2607: 2595: 2583: 2577: 2443:, which also function as medials, mid vowels 2427:Conservative vowel systems, such as those of 889: 883: 315: 299: 261:Primary branches of Chinese according to the 19:For the varieties of Han Chinese people, see 13578: 11466: 10800:Dictionary of Chinese dialect pronunciations 10761:Chen Xiaojin (陈晓锦) Gan Yu'en (甘于恩) (2010), 9781:, Oxford University Press, pp. 81–109, 9759:Modern Chinese: History and sociolinguistics 5376:Southern varieties also include distinctive 1333:(literally "guest families") are a group of 1217:is usually taken as representative, because 10714:Dialect and Nationalism in China, 1860–1960 10597:, Oxford University Press, pp. 34–44, 10116: 9722:, Oxford University Press, pp. 13–52, 9456:Lim, Siew Yeen; Yak, Jessie (4 July 2013). 6933: 6460:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 6249:Learn how and when to remove these messages 5491:, Chinese varieties require an intervening 3280:words, and have cognates in all varieties: 1712:Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects 1381:and by far most commonly spoken variety is 874:common language based on Mandarin varieties 16131: 16124: 16110: 14050: 13835: 13821: 13799: 13569: 11786: 11772: 10929: 10915: 10595:The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Linguistics 10426:———; Wang, Feng (2006), 10241:Zhōngguó yǔyán dìtú jí: Hànyǔ fāngyán juǎn 10237: 9736: 9703:, Oxford University Press, pp. 3–12, 9499:Bokhorst-Heng, Wendy (1999). "Singapore's 9195: 9072: 8916: 8727: 8667: 8616: 7570: 7274: 6887: 6885: 6883: 6630:, then in other areas governed by elected 5904:is not marked, except in varieties in the 1588: 1289:, retain features such as voiced initials. 936: 10936: 10408: 10369: 10249:Language Atlas of China: Chinese dialects 10179: 10040: 9889: 9866: 9817: 9717: 9695: 7956: 7903: 7735: 7594: 6480:Learn how and when to remove this message 6355:Learn how and when to remove this message 6302:Learn how and when to remove this message 6089: 1365:These varieties are spoken in Guangdong, 10890:– linguistic maps and commentaries from 9911: 9878:Cahiers de linguistique – Asie orientale 9762:, New York: Cambridge University Press, 8607:, pp. 17–19, 213–214, 219, 231–232. 8016: 7939: 7927: 7558: 7534: 7498: 7394: 7358: 7322: 7298: 7286: 6408: 5415: 2549: 2411: 2247: 1676: 1524: 905:was replaced as the written standard by 13494: 9598:, Walter de Gruyter, pp. 305–324, 9590: 9507:. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 235–265. 7116: 7104: 6880: 5942: 5489:Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area 2564:Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area 1416:, distinguishing three further groups: 1033:Proportions of first-language speakers 16392: 13842: 10738: 10358:Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orientale 10191:Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orientale 10138: 10089: 10067: 9824:The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy 9795: 9455: 9207: 9183: 9171: 9159: 9147: 9000: 8976: 8838: 8826: 8814: 8802: 8790: 8778: 8766: 8754: 8604: 8565: 8553: 8541: 8529: 8505: 8493: 8481: 8442: 8427: 8415: 8403: 8391: 8379: 8367: 8352: 8340: 8316: 8304: 8292: 8280: 8268: 8256: 8244: 8220: 8136: 8124: 8112: 8088: 8076: 8040: 8004: 7992: 7980: 7855: 7747: 7723: 7672: 7657: 7630: 7618: 7606: 7474: 7462: 7450: 7433: 7421: 7409: 7382: 7346: 7310: 7262: 7247: 7232: 7215: 7203: 7191: 7167: 7155: 7140: 7092: 7080: 7068: 7056: 7044: 7032: 7020: 7008: 6996: 6921: 6765:Protection of the Varieties of Chinese 2283:, which developed from Middle Chinese 1681:Traditional Chinese syllable structure 1517:overlaid with two millennia of loans. 1313:. Other offshoots of Min are found in 572: 464: 16105: 14990: 14049: 13816: 11767: 10910: 10894:Interpretive maps of Chinese dialects 10849:CLDF dataset (Version v4.0). Zenodo. 10217:; Baumann, Theo; Lee, Mei W. (1987), 9957: 9898: 9875: 9856: 9372: 9360: 9345: 9333: 9318: 7867: 7783: 7771: 7759: 2795: 2424:, a main vowel and an optional coda. 1441:The Hui dialects, spoken in southern 1402:) and have rich inventories of tones. 1185:is a Mandarin variety written in the 11793: 10268:Introduction to Chinese Dialectology 10188: 9999: 9976: 9776: 9755: 9679:Linguistic Atlas of Chinese Dialects 9670:———, ed. (2008c), 9669: 9653:Linguistic Atlas of Chinese Dialects 9644:———, ed. (2008b), 9643: 9627:Linguistic Atlas of Chinese Dialects 9612: 9306: 8889: 8877: 8643: 8592: 8328: 8208: 8196: 8184: 8172: 8160: 8148: 8052: 7968: 7915: 7892:Eberhard, Simons & Fennig (2024) 7879: 7708: 7696: 7684: 7642: 7582: 7128: 6981: 6969: 6957: 6759:Linguistic Atlas of Chinese Dialects 6647: 6458:adding citations to reliable sources 6425: 6313: 6284:adding citations to reliable sources 6255: 6214: 5411: 1709:In the 42 varieties surveyed in the 1520: 14991: 10693:———, ed. (2022), 10306: 10265: 9527: 9464:. National Library Board, Singapore 9428: 9282: 9255: 9231: 9135: 9084: 9036: 8988: 8940: 8904: 8865: 8853: 8742: 8655: 8631: 8517: 8466: 8454: 8232: 8100: 8064: 8028: 7546: 7522: 7510: 7370: 7334: 7179: 6205: 6197:Chinese varieties tend to indicate 6025: 5920: 1412:(1987) follows a classification of 853: 13: 10864:Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 10327: 9934: 9849:Ethnologue: Languages of the World 9219: 6404: 1645:first work of Chinese dialectology 1265:The Xiang varieties are spoken in 648:varieties forming a branch of the 16:Family of local language varieties 14: 16416: 10785: 10674:Simmons, Richard VanNess (1999), 6840:as a translation for all uses of 6421: 6230:This section has multiple issues. 5396:Chinese varieties generally lack 1025: 999: 267:. The Mandarin area extends into 16377: 16365: 13798: 13276:Literary and colloquial readings 13148: 11129: 10845:], Beijing University, 1964. 10802:], Beijing University, 1962. 9542:10.1111/j.1360-6441.2006.00331.x 9521: 9492: 9489:", Hua Sheng Bao, 17 March 2009. 9476: 9449: 9422: 9409: 9396: 9378: 7699:, Maps 5, 52, 79, 109, 134, 138. 7537:, pp. 43–44, 48, 69, 75–76. 6855: 6651: 6574:Before 1945, other than a small 6519:often emphasized his origins in 6430: 6317: 6260: 6219: 2798:Middle Chinese tone and initial 2388: 2369: 2353: 2341: 2329: 805:(771–476 BC). Although the 255: 10616:, University of Hawaiʻi Press, 10550:"Language and dialect in China" 9741:, Routledge, pp. 606–628, 6813: 6271:needs additional citations for 6238:or discuss these issues on the 6211:Bilingualism and code-switching 6103: 3251:Many Chinese varieties exhibit 2475:, vowels and final glides have 1731:Initials of selected varieties 789:, and then southwards into the 623: 599: 571: 557: 543: 529: 508: 487: 10877:Dialect survey character table 10716:, Cambridge University Press, 10697:, Hong Kong University Press, 10655:Journal of Chinese Linguistics 10554:Chinese Language and Discourse 10451:Branner, David Prager (2000), 10143:, Princeton University Press, 10075:, Cambridge University Press, 10048:Journal of Chinese Linguistics 10000:——— (2013), 9899:——— (2010), 9779:Diversity in Sinitic Languages 9720:Diversity in Sinitic Languages 9701:Diversity in Sinitic Languages 9551: 8139:, pp. 182, 193, 200, 205. 7573:, pp. 161, 188, 189, 195. 6826:to serve as a translation for 6786: 6777: 6074: 6067:This particle is a cognate of 5963: 5890: 5506: 2766: 2760: 2749: 2743: 2709: 2679: 2668: 2657: 2632: 2626: 2614: 2608: 2596: 2584: 2578: 2276:Most non-Min varieties have a 1601: 1504:Most of the vocabulary of the 1285:varieties, represented by the 1277:varieties, represented by the 1245:These varieties are spoken in 1197:These varieties are spoken in 921:of Singapore. It has become a 917:and Taiwan, and is one of the 890: 884: 463: 449: 435: 419: 405: 391: 377: 316: 300: 1: 10477:, in Chappell, Hilary (ed.), 10102:, Routledge, pp. 72–83, 9417:Text in Education and Society 6904: 6846:. The latter term appears in 5495:when a noun is preceded by a 3267: 13804:List of varieties of Chinese 10843:Chinese dialect vocabularies 10739:Hatano Tarō (波多野太郎) (1966), 10349:10.1016/0388-0001(91)90022-S 10172:10.1016/j.lingua.2008.10.001 9505:Language Ideological Debates 9174:, pp. 196–197, 203–204. 8103:, pp. 91, 108–109, 152. 7844:Tang & van Heuven (2009) 7832:Tang & van Heuven (2009) 7820:Tang & van Heuven (2009) 7808:Tang & van Heuven (2009) 7796:Tang & van Heuven (2009) 6909: 6753:List of varieties of Chinese 6637: 6632:Democratic Progressive Party 6144: 5962:sentences of the form NP1 + 2653:four tones of Middle Chinese 1672: 1249:and neighbouring areas. The 1006:List of varieties of Chinese 945:and perhaps even as much as 703:, and to a lesser extent in 650:Sino-Tibetan language family 644:There are hundreds of local 7: 10614:Asia's Orthographic Dilemma 10612:Hannas, William C. (1997), 10266:Yan, Margaret Mian (2006), 9829:University of Hawaiʻi Press 9559:Beijing University (1989), 9530:Journal of Sociolinguistics 6842: 6828: 6741: 6550: 6542: 6185: 6173: 6133: 6122: 6069: 6030: 6012: 6001: 5979: 5968: 5925: 5885: 5501: 5482: 5459: 5441: 2771: 2754: 2714: 2684: 2677:) and 'departing'/'going' ( 2673: 2662: 2620: 2602: 2590: 2572: 2560:like neighbouring languages 1704: 1665: 1634: 1425:These varieties, spoken in 1393:, from the coastal area of 878: 10: 16421: 13762:Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols 10896:, Tokyo: Hakuteisha Press. 10862:Institute of Linguistics, 10529:Escure, Geneviève (1997), 10309:The Sino-Tibetan Languages 10139:Ramsey, S. Robert (1987), 10100:The Sino-Tibetan languages 9907:, Special issue I: 97–121. 7325:, pp. 53–55, 61, 215. 6874: 6802:, "the Chinese". In 1982, 6695:had previously been their 6641: 6567: 5391: 2797: 2558:All varieties of Chinese, 2256:The initial system of the 1701:as independent syllables. 1205:and the southern parts of 1152:'s dialectology handbook: 1003: 994:written vernacular Chinese 965:empires in China, and the 915:People's Republic of China 907:written vernacular Chinese 897:In the early years of the 857: 834:, and is believed to be a 768: 25: 18: 16140: 16073: 16046:Southern (Shanghai) Sign 16031: 15960: 15904: 15708: 15646: 15599: 15556: 15518: 15403: 15325: 15316: 15248: 15211: 15098: 15089: 15001: 14997: 14986: 14927: 14829: 14711: 14637: 14484: 14366: 14178: 14169: 14121: 14073: 14062: 14058: 14045: 14038: 14018: 13925: 13873: 13866: 13850: 13796: 13680: 13649: 13560: 13485: 13427: 13347: 13322: 13284: 13231: 13157: 13146: 13093: 13045: 13000: 12977: 12922: 12913: 12851: 12770: 12745: 12727: 12704: 12641: 12632: 12595: 12572: 12534: 12525: 12516: 12452: 12412: 12339: 12317: 12289: 12271: 12245: 12222: 12158: 12149: 12126: 12096: 12073: 11997: 11937: 11909: 11886: 11863: 11830: 11821: 11812: 11801: 11751: 11696: 11648: 11533: 11374: 11342: 11300: 11235: 11138: 11127: 10945: 10888:Chinese Dialect Geography 10573:Groves, Julie M. (2008), 10548:Francis, Norbert (2016), 10470:Chappell, Hilary (2001), 10118:Pulleyblank, Edwin George 9458:"Speak Mandarin Campaign" 9162:, pp. 196, 200, 204. 8581:Beijing University (1989) 8355:, pp. 147, 202, 239. 7711:, Maps 3, 28, 38, 41, 76. 6892: 6720:Launched in 1979 by then 6563: 6189: 6177: 6137: 6126: 6079: 6034: 6016: 6005: 5999:with a verb cognate with 5983: 5972: 5929: 5895: 5555: 5550: 5540: 5535: 5528: 5511: 5470: 5465: 5452: 5447: 3316: 3311: 3301: 3296: 3288: 3240: 3231: 3225: 3219: 3205: 3202: 3199: 3187: 3173: 3170: 3167: 3158: 3155: 3141: 3138: 3135: 3129: 3123: 3112: 3109: 3106: 3097: 3094: 3083: 3080: 3077: 3068: 3065: 3056: 3051: 3048: 3045: 3036: 3033: 3019: 3016: 3007: 3004: 2993: 2990: 2981: 2978: 2969: 2964: 2961: 2958: 2955: 2944: 2941: 2938: 2935: 2918: 2915: 2912: 2909: 2895: 2892: 2889: 2886: 2877: 2869: 2866: 2863: 2860: 2843: 2811: 2808: 2805: 2802: 2688:). Syllables ending in a 2407: 2336:voiced obstruent initials 2176: 2123: 2119: 2110: 2108: 2082: 1996: 1992: 1966: 1775: 1763: 1761: 1751: 1749: 1739: 1737: 1735: 1638: 1606:Because speakers share a 1400:/p/,/t/,/k/,/m/,/n/and/ŋ/ 735:modern written vernacular 638: 634: 613: 606: 589: 582: 564: 550: 536: 522: 515: 501: 494: 480: 473: 456: 442: 428: 412: 398: 384: 370: 363: 358: 354: 343: 339: 329: 325: 309: 293: 288: 284: 280: 254: 240: 228: 214: 125: 97: 73:Linguistic classification 71: 47: 42: 37: 10892:Iwata, Ray, ed. (2009), 10871: 10838: 10795: 10762: 10741: 10243: 10042: 9912:Kurpaska, Maria (2010), 9857:Hsieh, Hsiu-Mei (2007), 9674: 9648: 9621: 9564: 9196:Chappell & Li (2016) 9073:Chappell & Li (2016) 8917:Chappell & Li (2016) 8728:Chappell & Li (2016) 8668:Chappell & Li (2016) 8617:Chappell & Li (2016) 8568:, pp. 148–149, 195. 8457:, pp. 108, 116–117. 8445:, pp. 195–196, 272. 8307:, pp. 193, 201–202. 8091:, pp. 199–200, 207. 7786:, pp. 215–216, 218. 7571:Xiong & Zhang (2012) 7275:Xiong & Zhang (2012) 6770: 5906:Qinghai–Gansu sprachbund 2545: 2287:in certain environments. 803:Spring and Autumn period 652:, many of which are not 311:Traditional Chinese 16043:Northern (Beijing) Sign 10712:Tam, Gina Anne (2020), 10514:10.1515/LINGTY.2007.014 10220:Language Atlas of China 9501:Speak Mandarin Campaign 9402:Manfred Whoa Man-Fat, " 8031:, pp. 69, 90, 127. 6822:proposed the neologism 6603:retreated to the island 5398:inflectional morphology 1589:Intelligibility testing 1409:Language Atlas of China 957:2000 years ago, by the 947:Indo-European languages 937:Comparison with Romance 747:four official languages 295:Simplified Chinese 264:Language Atlas of China 14052:Sino-Tibetan languages 10869:Fāngyán diàochá zìbiǎo 10855:10.5281/zenodo.3534942 10444:10.1075/dia.23.1.04ham 10393:10.1098/rspb.2004.3015 10371:10.3406/clao.1983.1125 10203:10.3406/clao.2005.1728 10141:The Languages of China 9891:10.3406/clao.1995.1475 9429:Lee, Kuan Yew (2000). 6644:Languages of Singapore 6494:Promotion of Putonghua 6418: 5421: 2555: 2520:Lower Yangtze Mandarin 2417: 2316:of dental affricates, 2253: 1682: 1564:Lower Yangtze Mandarin 1531: 759:six official languages 11656:Central Tibeto-Burman 10722:10.1017/9781108776400 10566:10.1075/cld.7.1.05fra 10211:Wurm, Stephen Adolphe 9958:Liang, Sihua (2014), 9672:Hànyǔ fāngyán dìtú jí 9646:Hànyǔ fāngyán dìtú jí 9619:Hànyǔ fāngyán dìtú jí 7687:, Maps 4, 52, 66, 73. 7361:, pp. 46, 49–50. 6642:Further information: 6590:, with a minority of 6568:Further information: 6412: 6097:disjunctive questions 5997:existential sentences 5419: 2791:in colloquial layers 2787:Tonal categories and 2553: 2415: 2360:velar nasal initial ( 2278:labiodental fricative 2251: 1875:voiceless unaspirated 1680: 1608:standard written form 1528: 1515:Sino-Tibetan language 1004:Further information: 923:pluricentric language 755:pluricentric language 654:mutually intelligible 21:Han Chinese subgroups 16405:Dialects by language 16400:Varieties of Chinese 10582:Sino-Platonic Papers 9989:Sino-Platonic Papers 9295:Yue-Hashimoto (1993) 9268:Yue-Hashimoto (1993) 9246:, pp. 143, 146. 9244:Yue-Hashimoto (1993) 9124:Yue-Hashimoto (1993) 9112:Yue-Hashimoto (1993) 9100:Yue-Hashimoto (1993) 9061:Yue-Hashimoto (1993) 9049:Yue-Hashimoto (1993) 9025:Yue-Hashimoto (1993) 9013:Yue-Hashimoto (1993) 8965:Yue-Hashimoto (1993) 8953:Yue-Hashimoto (1993) 8929:Yue-Hashimoto (1993) 8757:, pp. 182, 214. 8716:Yue-Hashimoto (1993) 8704:Yue-Hashimoto (1993) 8692:Yue-Hashimoto (1993) 8680:Yue-Hashimoto (1993) 8556:, pp. 202, 239. 8319:, pp. 193, 201. 8247:, pp. 141, 198. 8079:, pp. 211, 233. 8043:, pp. 139, 236. 7011:, pp. 183, 185. 6873:The tone numbers of 6729:Chinese Singaporeans 6689:Chinese Singaporeans 6592:Taiwanese aborigines 6454:improve this section 6280:improve this article 6095:Most varieties form 5943:Major sentence types 574:[hɔ̄ːn.jy̬ː] 16086:NM = Inner Mongolia 11714:Proto-Tibeto-Burman 10836:Hànyǔ Fāngyīn Cíhuì 10793:Hànyǔ Fāngyīn Zìhuì 10502:Linguistic Typology 10387:(1567): 1015–1022, 10286:Yue-Hashimoto, Anne 9937:Chappell, Hilary M. 9756:Chen, Ping (1999), 9697:Chappell, Hilary M. 9562:Hànyǔ fāngyīn zìhuì 9462:Singapore Infopedia 9258:, pp. 147–148. 9234:, pp. 141–142. 9222:, pp. 341–343. 9138:, pp. 136–137. 9087:, pp. 135–136. 9063:, pp. 173–174. 9051:, pp. 173–178. 9039:, pp. 153–154. 8931:, pp. 227–232. 8730:, pp. 607–608. 8619:, pp. 606–607. 8544:, pp. 146–147. 8508:, pp. 225–226. 8496:, pp. 238–239. 8469:, pp. 162–163. 8430:, pp. 194–195. 8418:, pp. 217–218. 8283:, pp. 216–217. 8271:, pp. 200–201. 8235:, pp. 150–151. 8223:, pp. 28, 141. 8115:, pp. 235–236. 8019:, pp. 186–188. 7995:, pp. 212–213. 7983:, pp. 138–139. 7846:, pp. 721–722. 7834:, pp. 718–722. 7822:, pp. 715–717. 7798:, pp. 713–714. 7774:, pp. 211–212. 7762:, pp. 102–108. 7726:, pp. 182–183. 7621:, pp. 290–291. 7525:, pp. 222–223. 7424:, pp. 232–233. 7385:, pp. 207–209. 7349:, pp. 199–200. 7250:, pp. 189–190. 7119:, pp. 313–318. 7107:, pp. 309–312. 7059:, pp. 183–190. 7035:, pp. 116–117. 6924:, pp. 211–214. 6693:Singaporean Hokkien 6570:Languages of Taiwan 6511:Chinese nationalism 6415:standard characters 5995:All varieties form 5958:All varieties have 5525: 5426:subject–verb–object 3285: 2792: 2469:syllabic fricatives 2431:, have high vowels 2305:The Middle Chinese 1787:voiceless aspirated 1732: 1473:(southern Hainan), 1385:, from the city of 955:substrate languages 737:. It is one of the 552:Canton Romanization 110:Eastern Han Chinese 15623:Formosan languages 13844:Languages of China 13757:Cantonese Bopomofo 13624:Chinese characters 13552:Written Sichuanese 12136:Zhangjiakou–Hohhot 11707:Proto-Sino-Tibetan 11649:Proposed groupings 10678:, John Benjamins, 10533:, John Benjamins, 9392:on 2 October 2013. 7675:, pp. 73, 76. 7633:, pp. 73, 75. 7609:, p. 438–443. 7487:Wurm et al. (1987) 7277:, pp. 3, 125. 6946:Wurm et al. (1987) 6934:Pulleyblank (1984) 6796:, from Late Latin 6792:Also known as the 6748:Languages of China 6624:Formosan languages 6596:Formosan languages 6419: 6055:interrogative word 5524:Personal pronouns 5523: 5422: 3283: 2786: 2556: 2418: 2399:where Beijing has 2380:where Beijing has 2348:retroflex initials 2254: 1730: 1683: 1575:dialect boundaries 1532: 1485:(southern Hunan), 1287:Shuangfeng dialect 990:standard languages 919:official languages 753:. It has become a 739:official languages 28:Languages of China 16353: 16352: 16099: 16098: 15642: 15641: 15638: 15637: 15634: 15633: 15627: 15619: 15611: 15514: 15513: 15244: 15243: 14982: 14981: 14978: 14977: 14707: 14706: 14703: 14702: 14034: 14033: 13810: 13809: 13792: 13791: 13619: 13618: 13537:Written Cantonese 13532: 13531: 13314:Classical grammar 13309:Cantonese grammar 13144: 13143: 13041: 13040: 12847: 12846: 12766: 12765: 12628: 12627: 12335: 12334: 12122: 12121: 12012:Chengdu–Chongqing 11805:Sinitic languages 11761: 11760: 11644: 11643: 11529: 11528: 11370: 11369: 11125: 11124: 10776:978-7-510-08769-1 10731:978-1-108-77640-0 10704:978-988-8754-09-0 10685:978-90-272-8433-4 10642:978-90-272-4785-8 10623:978-0-8248-1892-0 10604:978-0-19-985633-6 10540:978-90-272-5240-1 10488:978-0-19-829977-6 10462:978-3-11-015831-1 10337:Language Sciences 10318:978-1-138-78332-4 10299:978-2-910216-00-9 10277:978-3-89586-629-6 10270:, LINCOM Europa, 10258:978-7-10-007054-6 10230:978-962-359-085-3 10150:978-0-691-01468-5 10131:978-0-7748-0192-8 10109:978-0-7007-1129-1 10096:LaPolla, Randy J. 10082:978-0-521-29653-3 10018:978-986-03-7678-4 9969:978-3-319-12618-0 9950:978-0-19-829977-6 9927:978-3-11-021914-2 9918:Walter de Gruyter 9838:978-0-8248-1068-9 9810:978-986-54-3228-7 9788:978-0-19-872379-0 9769:978-0-521-64572-0 9748:978-0-415-53970-8 9729:978-0-19-872379-0 9710:978-0-19-872379-0 9688:978-7-100-05785-1 9662:978-7-100-05784-4 9636:978-7-100-05774-5 9605:978-3-11-012855-0 9583:978-7-80029-000-8 9514:978-3-11-016350-6 9487:讲华语运动30年对象随大环境改变 9442:978-0-06-019776-6 9435:. HarperCollins. 9375:, pp. 20–21. 9348:, pp. 16–17. 9321:, pp. 12–13. 9150:, pp. 97–98. 9126:, pp. 44–47. 9027:, pp. 32–33. 8394:, pp. 53–54. 8382:, pp. 34–36. 7738:, pp. 45–51. 7561:, pp. 72–73. 7513:, pp. 60–61. 7501:, pp. 55–56. 7301:, pp. 41–53. 7289:, pp. 36–41. 7218:, pp. 16–18. 7131:, pp. 46–49. 7047:, pp. 24–25. 6794:Sinitic languages 6681: 6680: 6616:Taiwanese Hokkien 6607:Chinese Civil War 6605:after losing the 6584:Taiwanese Hokkien 6504:identity politics 6499:written Cantonese 6490: 6489: 6482: 6365: 6364: 6357: 6347: 6346: 6312: 6311: 6304: 6253: 5881: 5880: 5640: 5635: 5630: 5625: 5620: 5615: 5610: 5605: 5600: 5595: 5590: 5585: 5580: 5575: 5430:Kra–Dai languages 5412:Constituent order 5374: 5373: 3429: 3422: 3415: 3408: 3401: 3394: 3387: 3380: 3373: 3366: 3359: 3352: 3345: 3338: 3245: 3244: 2705:checked syllables 2644:system much like 2528:Mandarin dialects 2246: 2245: 2080: 2004: 1964: 1876: 1788: 1717:Chongming dialect 1632:The Chinese term 1521:Dialect geography 1353:and stop endings 1319:Leizhou Peninsula 1016:dialect continuum 943:Romance languages 899:Republic of China 843:North China Plain 796:standard language 783:North China Plain 642: 641: 630: 629: 524:Yale Romanization 444:Yale Romanization 365:Standard Mandarin 16412: 16382: 16381: 16380: 16370: 16369: 16361: 16126: 16119: 16112: 16103: 16102: 16055: 15625: 15617: 15609: 15323: 15322: 15096: 15095: 14999: 14998: 14988: 14987: 14176: 14175: 14071: 14070: 14060: 14059: 14047: 14046: 14043: 14042: 13871: 13870: 13858:Standard Chinese 13837: 13830: 13823: 13814: 13813: 13802: 13801: 13774:Taiwanese Hangul 13663:Mainland Chinese 13576: 13575: 13567: 13566: 13492: 13491: 13169:Standard Chinese 13152: 12920: 12919: 12639: 12638: 12532: 12531: 12523: 12522: 12405: 12393: 12381: 12369: 12357: 12156: 12155: 11828: 11827: 11819: 11818: 11795:Chinese language 11788: 11781: 11774: 11765: 11764: 11603: 11602: 11464: 11463: 11298: 11297: 11133: 11050: 11049: 10931: 10924: 10917: 10908: 10907: 10897: 10884: 10882: 10846: 10827:Chinese Dialects 10803: 10780: 10757: 10735: 10708: 10689: 10670: 10646: 10627: 10608: 10589: 10579: 10569: 10544: 10525: 10492: 10476: 10466: 10447: 10422: 10412: 10375: 10373: 10352: 10343:(3/4): 335–379, 10322: 10303: 10281: 10262: 10234: 10206: 10185: 10183: 10154: 10135: 10113: 10092:Thurgood, Graham 10086: 10064: 10037: 10035: 10033: 10028:on 16 April 2018 10027: 10021:, archived from 10006: 9996: 9986: 9973: 9954: 9931: 9908: 9895: 9893: 9872: 9870: 9853: 9842: 9814: 9797:Coblin, W. South 9792: 9773: 9752: 9733: 9714: 9692: 9666: 9640: 9609: 9587: 9575: 9546: 9545: 9525: 9519: 9518: 9496: 9490: 9484: 9480: 9474: 9473: 9471: 9469: 9453: 9447: 9446: 9426: 9420: 9413: 9407: 9400: 9394: 9393: 9388:. Archived from 9386:"The Goh Report" 9382: 9376: 9370: 9364: 9358: 9349: 9343: 9337: 9331: 9322: 9316: 9310: 9304: 9298: 9292: 9286: 9280: 9271: 9265: 9259: 9253: 9247: 9241: 9235: 9229: 9223: 9217: 9211: 9205: 9199: 9193: 9187: 9181: 9175: 9169: 9163: 9157: 9151: 9145: 9139: 9133: 9127: 9121: 9115: 9109: 9103: 9097: 9088: 9082: 9076: 9070: 9064: 9058: 9052: 9046: 9040: 9034: 9028: 9022: 9016: 9010: 9004: 8998: 8992: 8986: 8980: 8974: 8968: 8962: 8956: 8950: 8944: 8938: 8932: 8926: 8920: 8914: 8908: 8902: 8893: 8887: 8881: 8875: 8869: 8863: 8857: 8851: 8842: 8836: 8830: 8824: 8818: 8812: 8806: 8800: 8794: 8788: 8782: 8776: 8770: 8764: 8758: 8752: 8746: 8740: 8731: 8725: 8719: 8713: 8707: 8701: 8695: 8689: 8683: 8677: 8671: 8665: 8659: 8653: 8647: 8641: 8635: 8629: 8620: 8614: 8608: 8602: 8596: 8590: 8584: 8578: 8569: 8563: 8557: 8551: 8545: 8539: 8533: 8527: 8521: 8515: 8509: 8503: 8497: 8491: 8485: 8479: 8470: 8464: 8458: 8452: 8446: 8440: 8431: 8425: 8419: 8413: 8407: 8401: 8395: 8389: 8383: 8377: 8371: 8365: 8356: 8350: 8344: 8338: 8332: 8326: 8320: 8314: 8308: 8302: 8296: 8290: 8284: 8278: 8272: 8266: 8260: 8254: 8248: 8242: 8236: 8230: 8224: 8218: 8212: 8206: 8200: 8194: 8188: 8182: 8176: 8170: 8164: 8158: 8152: 8146: 8140: 8134: 8128: 8122: 8116: 8110: 8104: 8098: 8092: 8086: 8080: 8074: 8068: 8062: 8056: 8050: 8044: 8038: 8032: 8026: 8020: 8014: 8008: 8002: 7996: 7990: 7984: 7978: 7972: 7966: 7960: 7957:DeFrancis (1984) 7954: 7943: 7937: 7931: 7925: 7919: 7913: 7907: 7904:Chappell (2015a) 7901: 7895: 7889: 7883: 7877: 7871: 7865: 7859: 7853: 7847: 7841: 7835: 7829: 7823: 7817: 7811: 7805: 7799: 7793: 7787: 7781: 7775: 7769: 7763: 7757: 7751: 7745: 7739: 7736:Chappell (2015b) 7733: 7727: 7721: 7712: 7706: 7700: 7694: 7688: 7682: 7676: 7670: 7661: 7655: 7646: 7640: 7634: 7628: 7622: 7616: 7610: 7604: 7598: 7595:Nakanishi (2010) 7592: 7586: 7580: 7574: 7568: 7562: 7556: 7550: 7544: 7538: 7532: 7526: 7520: 7514: 7508: 7502: 7496: 7490: 7484: 7478: 7472: 7466: 7460: 7454: 7448: 7437: 7431: 7425: 7419: 7413: 7407: 7398: 7392: 7386: 7380: 7374: 7368: 7362: 7356: 7350: 7344: 7338: 7332: 7326: 7320: 7314: 7308: 7302: 7296: 7290: 7284: 7278: 7272: 7266: 7260: 7251: 7245: 7236: 7230: 7219: 7213: 7207: 7201: 7195: 7189: 7183: 7177: 7171: 7165: 7159: 7153: 7144: 7138: 7132: 7126: 7120: 7114: 7108: 7102: 7096: 7095:, pp. 3–15. 7090: 7084: 7078: 7072: 7066: 7060: 7054: 7048: 7042: 7036: 7030: 7024: 7018: 7012: 7006: 7000: 6994: 6985: 6979: 6973: 6967: 6961: 6955: 6949: 6943: 6937: 6931: 6925: 6919: 6898: 6896: 6889: 6878: 6871: 6862: 6859: 6853: 6845: 6836:coined the term 6831: 6817: 6811: 6804:Paul K. Benedict 6790: 6784: 6781: 6676: 6673: 6655: 6648: 6555: 6547: 6524: 6485: 6478: 6474: 6471: 6465: 6434: 6426: 6389:and recognizing 6360: 6353: 6342: 6339: 6321: 6314: 6307: 6300: 6296: 6293: 6287: 6264: 6256: 6245: 6223: 6222: 6215: 6206:Sociolinguistics 6193: 6188: 6181: 6176: 6158: 6154: 6147: 6141: 6136: 6130: 6125: 6119: 6115: 6091: 6083: 6077: 6076: 6072: 6061:Yes–no questions 6038: 6033: 6027: 6020: 6015: 6009: 6004: 5987: 5982: 5976: 5971: 5965: 5933: 5928: 5922: 5899: 5893: 5892: 5888: 5877: 5872: 5867: 5862: 5857: 5852: 5847: 5842: 5837: 5832: 5827: 5822: 5817: 5812: 5802: 5797: 5793: 5788: 5783: 5778: 5773: 5768: 5764: 5759: 5754: 5750: 5745: 5740: 5735: 5730: 5725: 5715: 5710: 5705: 5700: 5695: 5690: 5685: 5680: 5675: 5670: 5665: 5660: 5655: 5650: 5638: 5633: 5628: 5623: 5618: 5613: 5608: 5603: 5598: 5593: 5588: 5583: 5578: 5573: 5526: 5522: 5515: 5509: 5508: 5504: 5474: 5468: 5467: 5462: 5456: 5450: 5449: 5444: 5370: 5365: 5360: 5355: 5350: 5345: 5340: 5335: 5330: 5325: 5320: 5315: 5310: 5305: 5292: 5287: 5282: 5277: 5272: 5267: 5262: 5257: 5252: 5247: 5242: 5237: 5232: 5227: 5214: 5209: 5204: 5199: 5194: 5189: 5184: 5179: 5174: 5169: 5164: 5159: 5154: 5149: 5136: 5131: 5126: 5121: 5116: 5111: 5106: 5101: 5096: 5091: 5086: 5081: 5076: 5071: 5058: 5053: 5048: 5043: 5038: 5033: 5028: 5023: 5018: 5013: 5008: 5003: 4998: 4993: 4980: 4975: 4970: 4965: 4960: 4955: 4950: 4945: 4940: 4935: 4930: 4925: 4920: 4915: 4902: 4897: 4892: 4887: 4882: 4877: 4872: 4867: 4862: 4857: 4852: 4847: 4842: 4837: 4824: 4819: 4814: 4809: 4804: 4799: 4794: 4789: 4784: 4779: 4774: 4769: 4764: 4759: 4746: 4741: 4736: 4731: 4726: 4721: 4716: 4711: 4706: 4701: 4696: 4691: 4686: 4681: 4668: 4663: 4658: 4653: 4648: 4643: 4638: 4633: 4628: 4623: 4618: 4613: 4608: 4603: 4590: 4585: 4580: 4575: 4570: 4565: 4560: 4555: 4550: 4545: 4540: 4535: 4530: 4525: 4512: 4507: 4502: 4497: 4492: 4487: 4482: 4477: 4472: 4467: 4462: 4457: 4452: 4447: 4434: 4429: 4424: 4419: 4414: 4409: 4404: 4399: 4394: 4389: 4384: 4379: 4374: 4369: 4356: 4351: 4346: 4341: 4336: 4331: 4326: 4321: 4316: 4311: 4306: 4301: 4296: 4291: 4278: 4273: 4268: 4263: 4258: 4253: 4248: 4243: 4238: 4233: 4228: 4223: 4218: 4213: 4200: 4195: 4190: 4185: 4180: 4175: 4170: 4165: 4160: 4155: 4150: 4145: 4140: 4135: 4122: 4117: 4112: 4107: 4102: 4097: 4092: 4087: 4082: 4077: 4072: 4067: 4062: 4057: 4044: 4039: 4034: 4029: 4024: 4019: 4014: 4009: 4004: 3999: 3994: 3989: 3984: 3979: 3966: 3961: 3956: 3951: 3946: 3941: 3936: 3931: 3926: 3921: 3916: 3911: 3906: 3901: 3888: 3883: 3878: 3873: 3868: 3863: 3858: 3853: 3848: 3843: 3838: 3833: 3828: 3823: 3810: 3805: 3800: 3795: 3790: 3785: 3780: 3775: 3770: 3765: 3760: 3755: 3750: 3745: 3732: 3727: 3722: 3717: 3712: 3707: 3702: 3697: 3692: 3687: 3682: 3677: 3672: 3667: 3654: 3649: 3644: 3639: 3634: 3629: 3624: 3619: 3614: 3609: 3604: 3599: 3594: 3589: 3576: 3571: 3566: 3561: 3556: 3551: 3546: 3541: 3536: 3531: 3526: 3521: 3516: 3511: 3498: 3493: 3482: 3477: 3472: 3467: 3462: 3457: 3452: 3447: 3442: 3425: 3418: 3411: 3404: 3397: 3390: 3383: 3376: 3369: 3362: 3355: 3348: 3341: 3334: 3286: 3282: 3257:Standard Chinese 2793: 2785: 2774: 2769: 2768: 2763: 2762: 2757: 2752: 2751: 2746: 2745: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2712: 2711: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2687: 2682: 2681: 2676: 2671: 2670: 2665: 2660: 2659: 2635: 2634: 2629: 2628: 2623: 2617: 2616: 2611: 2610: 2605: 2599: 2598: 2593: 2587: 2586: 2581: 2580: 2575: 2566:, have phonemic 2537: 2534:has merged with 2533: 2517: 2513: 2509: 2505: 2501: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2462: 2459:has merged with 2458: 2454: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2434: 2392: 2373: 2363: 2357: 2345: 2333: 2282: 2271: 2267: 2263: 2232: 2227: 2220: 2215: 2208: 2203: 2196: 2189: 2184: 2163: 2147: 2133: 2117: 2113: 2106: 2099: 2094: 2087: 2078: 2071: 2066: 2061: 2056: 2049: 2044: 2037: 2032: 2025: 2018: 2013: 2002: 1988: 1983: 1976: 1971: 1962: 1955: 1950: 1945: 1940: 1935: 1930: 1923: 1918: 1913: 1908: 1903: 1896: 1891: 1886: 1881: 1874: 1867: 1862: 1857: 1852: 1847: 1842: 1835: 1830: 1825: 1820: 1815: 1808: 1803: 1798: 1793: 1786: 1733: 1729: 1721:Chongming Island 1689:, a final and a 1668: 1642: 1637: 1596:Standard Chinese 1401: 1379:prestige variety 1356: 1352: 1279:Changsha dialect 1251:Nanchang dialect 1163:Standard Chinese 1128: 1118: 1108: 1098: 1088: 1078: 1068: 1058: 1048: 1038: 979:dialect continua 975:Literary Chinese 903:Literary Chinese 893: 892: 887: 886: 881: 860:Standard Chinese 854:Standard Chinese 731:Standard Chinese 646:Chinese language 626: 625: 602: 601: 578: 577: 576: 560: 559: 546: 545: 532: 531: 511: 510: 490: 489: 469: 468: 467: 452: 451: 438: 437: 424: 423: 422: 408: 407: 394: 393: 380: 379: 356: 355: 321: 320: 305: 304: 259: 250: 236: 224: 35: 34: 16420: 16419: 16415: 16414: 16413: 16411: 16410: 16409: 16390: 16389: 16388: 16378: 16376: 16364: 16356: 16354: 16349: 16136: 16130: 16100: 16095: 16069: 16049: 16027: 15956: 15900: 15711: 15704: 15630: 15610:(Indo-European) 15595: 15552: 15510: 15399: 15312: 15240: 15207: 15085: 14993: 14992:Other languages 14974: 14923: 14854:Central Tibetan 14825: 14699: 14633: 14480: 14362: 14165: 14117: 14065: 14054: 14030: 14014: 13921: 13862: 13846: 13841: 13811: 13806: 13788: 13725:Tongyong Pinyin 13705:Gwoyeu Romatzyh 13693:Dungan Cyrillic 13676: 13645: 13615: 13556: 13547:Written Hokkien 13528: 13487: 13481: 13457:Middle Mandarin 13423: 13343: 13318: 13280: 13227: 13160: 13153: 13140: 13089: 13037: 12996: 12973: 12909: 12843: 12762: 12741: 12723: 12700: 12624: 12591: 12568: 12512: 12448: 12408: 12399: 12387: 12375: 12363: 12351: 12331: 12313: 12285: 12267: 12241: 12218: 12145: 12118: 12092: 12069: 11993: 11933: 11905: 11882: 11859: 11808: 11797: 11792: 11762: 11757: 11747: 11698:Proto-languages 11692: 11640: 11607:Greater Siangic 11601: 11538: 11525: 11462: 11366: 11338: 11296: 11240: 11231: 11143: 11134: 11121: 11054:Greater Magaric 11048: 10975:West Himalayish 10955: 10941: 10935: 10891: 10880: 10873: 10861: 10840: 10834: 10821:Wayback Machine 10811:Wayback Machine 10797: 10791: 10788: 10783: 10777: 10764: 10760: 10743: 10732: 10711: 10705: 10692: 10686: 10673: 10651:Sagart, Laurent 10649: 10643: 10630: 10624: 10611: 10605: 10592: 10577: 10572: 10547: 10541: 10528: 10495: 10489: 10474: 10469: 10463: 10450: 10425: 10378: 10355: 10334: 10330: 10328:Further reading 10325: 10319: 10300: 10278: 10259: 10245: 10231: 10151: 10132: 10110: 10083: 10044: 10031: 10029: 10025: 10019: 10004: 9984: 9978:Mair, Victor H. 9970: 9951: 9928: 9839: 9819:DeFrancis, John 9811: 9789: 9770: 9749: 9730: 9711: 9689: 9676: 9663: 9650: 9637: 9623: 9616:, ed. (2008a), 9606: 9584: 9573: 9566: 9554: 9549: 9526: 9522: 9515: 9497: 9493: 9482: 9481: 9477: 9467: 9465: 9454: 9450: 9443: 9427: 9423: 9414: 9410: 9401: 9397: 9384: 9383: 9379: 9371: 9367: 9359: 9352: 9344: 9340: 9332: 9325: 9317: 9313: 9305: 9301: 9293: 9289: 9281: 9274: 9266: 9262: 9254: 9250: 9242: 9238: 9230: 9226: 9218: 9214: 9206: 9202: 9194: 9190: 9182: 9178: 9170: 9166: 9158: 9154: 9146: 9142: 9134: 9130: 9122: 9118: 9110: 9106: 9098: 9091: 9083: 9079: 9071: 9067: 9059: 9055: 9047: 9043: 9035: 9031: 9023: 9019: 9011: 9007: 8999: 8995: 8987: 8983: 8975: 8971: 8963: 8959: 8951: 8947: 8939: 8935: 8927: 8923: 8915: 8911: 8903: 8896: 8888: 8884: 8876: 8872: 8864: 8860: 8852: 8845: 8837: 8833: 8825: 8821: 8813: 8809: 8801: 8797: 8789: 8785: 8777: 8773: 8765: 8761: 8753: 8749: 8741: 8734: 8726: 8722: 8718:, pp. 4–5. 8714: 8710: 8706:, pp. 2–4. 8702: 8698: 8694:, pp. 1–2. 8690: 8686: 8678: 8674: 8666: 8662: 8654: 8650: 8642: 8638: 8630: 8623: 8615: 8611: 8603: 8599: 8591: 8587: 8579: 8572: 8564: 8560: 8552: 8548: 8540: 8536: 8528: 8524: 8516: 8512: 8504: 8500: 8492: 8488: 8480: 8473: 8465: 8461: 8453: 8449: 8441: 8434: 8426: 8422: 8414: 8410: 8402: 8398: 8390: 8386: 8378: 8374: 8366: 8359: 8351: 8347: 8339: 8335: 8327: 8323: 8315: 8311: 8303: 8299: 8291: 8287: 8279: 8275: 8267: 8263: 8255: 8251: 8243: 8239: 8231: 8227: 8219: 8215: 8207: 8203: 8195: 8191: 8183: 8179: 8171: 8167: 8159: 8155: 8147: 8143: 8135: 8131: 8123: 8119: 8111: 8107: 8099: 8095: 8087: 8083: 8075: 8071: 8063: 8059: 8051: 8047: 8039: 8035: 8027: 8023: 8017:Kurpaska (2010) 8015: 8011: 8003: 7999: 7991: 7987: 7979: 7975: 7967: 7963: 7955: 7946: 7940:Kurpaska (2010) 7938: 7934: 7928:Kurpaska (2010) 7926: 7922: 7918:, pp. 3–6. 7914: 7910: 7902: 7898: 7890: 7886: 7878: 7874: 7866: 7862: 7858:, pp. 1–2. 7854: 7850: 7842: 7838: 7830: 7826: 7818: 7814: 7806: 7802: 7794: 7790: 7782: 7778: 7770: 7766: 7758: 7754: 7746: 7742: 7734: 7730: 7722: 7715: 7707: 7703: 7695: 7691: 7683: 7679: 7671: 7664: 7656: 7649: 7641: 7637: 7629: 7625: 7617: 7613: 7605: 7601: 7593: 7589: 7581: 7577: 7569: 7565: 7559:Kurpaska (2010) 7557: 7553: 7545: 7541: 7535:Kurpaska (2010) 7533: 7529: 7521: 7517: 7509: 7505: 7499:Kurpaska (2010) 7497: 7493: 7485: 7481: 7473: 7469: 7461: 7457: 7449: 7440: 7432: 7428: 7420: 7416: 7408: 7401: 7395:Kurpaska (2010) 7393: 7389: 7381: 7377: 7369: 7365: 7359:Kurpaska (2010) 7357: 7353: 7345: 7341: 7333: 7329: 7323:Kurpaska (2010) 7321: 7317: 7309: 7305: 7299:Kurpaska (2010) 7297: 7293: 7287:Kurpaska (2010) 7285: 7281: 7273: 7269: 7261: 7254: 7246: 7239: 7231: 7222: 7214: 7210: 7206:, pp. 2–3. 7202: 7198: 7190: 7186: 7178: 7174: 7166: 7162: 7154: 7147: 7139: 7135: 7127: 7123: 7115: 7111: 7103: 7099: 7091: 7087: 7079: 7075: 7067: 7063: 7055: 7051: 7043: 7039: 7031: 7027: 7019: 7015: 7007: 7003: 6995: 6988: 6980: 6976: 6968: 6964: 6956: 6952: 6944: 6940: 6932: 6928: 6920: 6916: 6912: 6907: 6902: 6901: 6890: 6881: 6872: 6865: 6860: 6856: 6818: 6814: 6791: 6787: 6782: 6778: 6773: 6744: 6677: 6671: 6668: 6661:needs expansion 6646: 6640: 6620:Taiwanese Hakka 6572: 6566: 6558:extended family 6532:were also from 6526:Chiang Kai-shek 6514: 6486: 6475: 6469: 6466: 6451: 6435: 6424: 6407: 6405:Language policy 6361: 6350: 6349: 6348: 6343: 6337: 6334: 6327:needs expansion 6308: 6297: 6291: 6288: 6277: 6265: 6224: 6220: 6213: 6208: 6202:northern ones. 6168:grammaticalized 6106: 5945: 5485: 5414: 5394: 4286:"moon", 'month' 3270: 3260:syllable tone. 2758:) and "lower" ( 2646:modern Japanese 2548: 2477:monophthongized 2410: 2403: 2393: 2384: 2374: 2365: 2358: 2349: 2346: 2337: 2334: 1780: 1707: 1699:syllabic nasals 1675: 1604: 1591: 1544:Hilary Chappell 1523: 1463:Danzhou dialect 1347:Meixian dialect 1187:Cyrillic script 1175:Dungan language 1137: 1136: 1135: 1134: 1133:, others (0.6%) 1126: 1124: 1116: 1114: 1106: 1104: 1096: 1094: 1086: 1084: 1076: 1074: 1066: 1064: 1056: 1054: 1046: 1044: 1036: 1028: 1010:Dialectologist 1008: 1002: 939: 911:Beijing dialect 862: 856: 827:rime dictionary 771: 745:and one of the 430:Tongyong Pinyin 420: 400:Gwoyeu Romatzyh 344:Literal meaning 276: 246: 234: 220: 121: 100: 49: 31: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 16418: 16408: 16407: 16402: 16387: 16386: 16374: 16351: 16350: 16348: 16347: 16342: 16337: 16332: 16327: 16322: 16317: 16312: 16310:Serbo-Croatian 16307: 16302: 16297: 16292: 16287: 16282: 16277: 16272: 16267: 16262: 16257: 16252: 16247: 16242: 16237: 16232: 16227: 16222: 16217: 16212: 16207: 16202: 16197: 16192: 16187: 16182: 16177: 16172: 16167: 16162: 16157: 16152: 16147: 16141: 16138: 16137: 16129: 16128: 16121: 16114: 16106: 16097: 16096: 16094: 16093: 16090: 16087: 16084: 16081: 16080:HK = Hong Kong 16078: 16074: 16071: 16070: 16068: 16067: 16060: 16059: 16058: 16057: 16056: 16051:Hong Kong Sign 16044: 16035: 16033: 16029: 16028: 16026: 16025: 16020: 16015: 16010: 16005: 16000: 15995: 15990: 15985: 15980: 15975: 15970: 15964: 15962: 15958: 15957: 15955: 15954: 15949: 15944: 15939: 15934: 15929: 15924: 15919: 15914: 15908: 15906: 15902: 15901: 15899: 15898: 15897: 15896: 15891: 15881: 15880: 15879: 15874: 15864: 15863: 15862: 15857: 15847: 15846: 15845: 15840: 15835: 15830: 15825: 15820: 15819: 15818: 15813: 15808: 15793: 15788: 15783: 15778: 15777: 15776: 15771: 15770: 15769: 15759: 15754: 15753: 15752: 15742: 15737: 15732: 15727: 15716: 15714: 15706: 15705: 15703: 15702: 15697: 15691: 15686: 15681: 15676: 15671: 15666: 15661: 15656: 15650: 15648: 15644: 15643: 15640: 15639: 15636: 15635: 15632: 15631: 15629: 15628: 15626:(Austronesian) 15620: 15618:(Austronesian) 15612: 15603: 15601: 15597: 15596: 15594: 15593: 15588: 15583: 15578: 15573: 15568: 15562: 15560: 15554: 15553: 15551: 15550: 15545: 15540: 15535: 15530: 15524: 15522: 15516: 15515: 15512: 15511: 15509: 15508: 15503: 15498: 15493: 15488: 15483: 15478: 15473: 15468: 15463: 15458: 15453: 15448: 15443: 15438: 15433: 15428: 15423: 15418: 15413: 15407: 15405: 15401: 15400: 15398: 15397: 15392: 15387: 15382: 15377: 15372: 15367: 15362: 15357: 15352: 15347: 15342: 15337: 15331: 15329: 15320: 15314: 15313: 15311: 15310: 15305: 15300: 15295: 15290: 15285: 15280: 15275: 15270: 15265: 15260: 15254: 15252: 15246: 15245: 15242: 15241: 15239: 15238: 15233: 15228: 15223: 15217: 15215: 15209: 15208: 15206: 15205: 15200: 15195: 15190: 15185: 15180: 15175: 15170: 15165: 15160: 15155: 15150: 15145: 15140: 15135: 15130: 15125: 15120: 15115: 15110: 15104: 15102: 15093: 15087: 15086: 15084: 15083: 15078: 15073: 15068: 15063: 15058: 15053: 15048: 15043: 15038: 15033: 15028: 15023: 15018: 15013: 15007: 15005: 14995: 14994: 14984: 14983: 14980: 14979: 14976: 14975: 14973: 14972: 14967: 14962: 14957: 14952: 14947: 14942: 14937: 14931: 14929: 14925: 14924: 14922: 14921: 14916: 14911: 14906: 14901: 14896: 14891: 14886: 14881: 14876: 14871: 14866: 14861: 14856: 14851: 14846: 14841: 14835: 14833: 14827: 14826: 14824: 14823: 14818: 14813: 14808: 14803: 14798: 14796:Southern Qiang 14793: 14791:Northern Qiang 14788: 14783: 14778: 14773: 14768: 14763: 14758: 14753: 14748: 14743: 14738: 14733: 14728: 14723: 14717: 14715: 14709: 14708: 14705: 14704: 14701: 14700: 14698: 14697: 14692: 14687: 14682: 14677: 14672: 14667: 14662: 14657: 14652: 14647: 14641: 14639: 14635: 14634: 14632: 14631: 14626: 14621: 14616: 14611: 14606: 14601: 14596: 14591: 14586: 14581: 14576: 14571: 14566: 14561: 14556: 14551: 14546: 14541: 14536: 14531: 14526: 14521: 14516: 14511: 14506: 14501: 14496: 14490: 14488: 14482: 14481: 14479: 14478: 14473: 14468: 14463: 14458: 14453: 14448: 14443: 14438: 14433: 14428: 14423: 14418: 14413: 14408: 14403: 14398: 14393: 14388: 14383: 14378: 14372: 14370: 14364: 14363: 14361: 14360: 14355: 14350: 14345: 14340: 14335: 14330: 14325: 14320: 14315: 14310: 14305: 14300: 14295: 14290: 14285: 14280: 14275: 14270: 14265: 14260: 14255: 14250: 14245: 14240: 14235: 14230: 14225: 14220: 14215: 14210: 14205: 14200: 14195: 14190: 14184: 14182: 14173: 14167: 14166: 14164: 14163: 14158: 14153: 14148: 14143: 14138: 14133: 14127: 14125: 14119: 14118: 14116: 14115: 14110: 14105: 14100: 14095: 14090: 14085: 14079: 14077: 14068: 14056: 14055: 14040: 14036: 14035: 14032: 14031: 14028: 14026: 14016: 14015: 14013: 14012: 14007: 14002: 13997: 13992: 13987: 13982: 13977: 13972: 13967: 13962: 13957: 13952: 13947: 13942: 13937: 13931: 13929: 13923: 13922: 13920: 13919: 13914: 13909: 13904: 13899: 13894: 13889: 13883: 13881: 13868: 13864: 13863: 13861: 13860: 13854: 13852: 13848: 13847: 13840: 13839: 13832: 13825: 13817: 13808: 13807: 13797: 13794: 13793: 13790: 13789: 13787: 13786: 13781: 13776: 13771: 13769:Taiwanese kana 13766: 13765: 13764: 13759: 13749: 13748: 13747: 13742: 13740:Lessing-Othmer 13737: 13732: 13727: 13722: 13717: 13712: 13707: 13697: 13696: 13695: 13684: 13682: 13678: 13677: 13675: 13670: 13665: 13660: 13655: 13653: 13647: 13646: 13644: 13643: 13638: 13637: 13636: 13631: 13620: 13617: 13616: 13614: 13609: 13604: 13599: 13594: 13589: 13584: 13582: 13573: 13564: 13558: 13557: 13555: 13554: 13549: 13544: 13542:Written Dungan 13539: 13533: 13530: 13529: 13527: 13526: 13521: 13520: 13519: 13514: 13509: 13498: 13496: 13489: 13483: 13482: 13480: 13479: 13474: 13469: 13464: 13459: 13454: 13449: 13447:Middle Chinese 13444: 13439: 13433: 13431: 13425: 13424: 13422: 13421: 13416: 13414:Wubi (Wang Ma) 13411: 13406: 13405: 13404: 13399: 13394: 13384: 13379: 13374: 13373: 13372: 13362: 13359: 13353: 13351: 13345: 13344: 13342: 13341: 13334: 13326: 13324: 13320: 13319: 13317: 13316: 13311: 13306: 13301: 13296: 13290: 13288: 13282: 13281: 13279: 13278: 13273: 13268: 13263: 13258: 13253: 13248: 13247: 13246: 13235: 13233: 13229: 13228: 13226: 13225: 13220: 13215: 13210: 13209: 13208: 13207: 13206: 13201: 13191: 13186: 13181: 13176: 13165: 13163: 13155: 13154: 13147: 13145: 13142: 13141: 13139: 13138: 13133: 13131:Xiangnan Tuhua 13128: 13123: 13118: 13116:Shaozhou Tuhua 13113: 13108: 13103: 13097: 13095: 13091: 13090: 13088: 13087: 13086: 13085: 13080: 13075: 13067: 13066: 13065: 13060: 13051: 13049: 13043: 13042: 13039: 13038: 13036: 13035: 13030: 13025: 13020: 13015: 13010: 13004: 13002: 12998: 12997: 12995: 12994: 12989: 12983: 12981: 12975: 12974: 12972: 12971: 12966: 12961: 12956: 12951: 12946: 12945: 12944: 12939: 12928: 12926: 12917: 12911: 12910: 12908: 12907: 12906: 12905: 12900: 12895: 12885: 12884: 12883: 12873: 12868: 12863: 12857: 12855: 12849: 12848: 12845: 12844: 12842: 12841: 12840: 12839: 12834: 12829: 12819: 12818: 12817: 12807: 12802: 12797: 12792: 12791: 12790: 12785: 12774: 12772: 12768: 12767: 12764: 12763: 12761: 12760: 12755: 12749: 12747: 12743: 12742: 12740: 12739: 12733: 12731: 12725: 12724: 12722: 12721: 12716: 12710: 12708: 12702: 12701: 12699: 12698: 12693: 12688: 12683: 12678: 12673: 12668: 12663: 12658: 12653: 12647: 12645: 12636: 12630: 12629: 12626: 12625: 12623: 12622: 12621: 12620: 12615: 12605: 12599: 12597: 12593: 12592: 12590: 12589: 12584: 12578: 12576: 12570: 12569: 12567: 12566: 12561: 12556: 12551: 12546: 12540: 12538: 12529: 12520: 12514: 12513: 12511: 12510: 12509: 12508: 12498: 12493: 12492: 12491: 12486: 12481: 12471: 12470: 12469: 12458: 12456: 12450: 12449: 12447: 12446: 12441: 12436: 12431: 12430: 12429: 12418: 12416: 12410: 12409: 12407: 12406: 12394: 12382: 12370: 12358: 12345: 12343: 12337: 12336: 12333: 12332: 12330: 12329: 12323: 12321: 12315: 12314: 12312: 12311: 12306: 12301: 12295: 12293: 12287: 12286: 12284: 12283: 12277: 12275: 12269: 12268: 12266: 12265: 12260: 12255: 12249: 12247: 12243: 12242: 12240: 12239: 12234: 12228: 12226: 12220: 12219: 12217: 12216: 12211: 12206: 12201: 12196: 12191: 12185: 12180: 12175: 12170: 12164: 12162: 12153: 12147: 12146: 12144: 12143: 12138: 12132: 12130: 12124: 12123: 12120: 12119: 12117: 12116: 12111: 12106: 12100: 12098: 12094: 12093: 12091: 12090: 12085: 12079: 12077: 12071: 12070: 12068: 12067: 12066: 12065: 12055: 12050: 12045: 12040: 12039: 12038: 12037: 12036: 12029:Renshou–Fushun 12026: 12025: 12024: 12014: 12003: 12001: 11995: 11994: 11992: 11991: 11986: 11981: 11976: 11971: 11966: 11965: 11964: 11954: 11949: 11943: 11941: 11939:Central Plains 11935: 11934: 11932: 11931: 11926: 11921: 11915: 11913: 11907: 11906: 11904: 11903: 11898: 11892: 11890: 11884: 11883: 11881: 11880: 11875: 11869: 11867: 11861: 11860: 11858: 11857: 11852: 11847: 11842: 11836: 11834: 11825: 11816: 11810: 11809: 11802: 11799: 11798: 11791: 11790: 11783: 11776: 11768: 11759: 11758: 11752: 11749: 11748: 11746: 11745: 11738: 11731: 11724: 11717: 11710: 11702: 11700: 11694: 11693: 11691: 11690: 11688:Tibeto-Kanauri 11685: 11678: 11673: 11668: 11663: 11661:Kuki-Chin–Naga 11658: 11652: 11650: 11646: 11645: 11642: 11641: 11639: 11638: 11633: 11632: 11631: 11624: 11611: 11609: 11600: 11599: 11592: 11587: 11586: 11585: 11571: 11570: 11569: 11562: 11549: 11547: 11531: 11530: 11527: 11526: 11524: 11523: 11522: 11521: 11514: 11509: 11497: 11492: 11487: 11486: 11485: 11472: 11470: 11461: 11460: 11459: 11458: 11451: 11444: 11432: 11425: 11418: 11411: 11406: 11399: 11392: 11384: 11382: 11380:Southeast Asia 11372: 11371: 11368: 11367: 11365: 11364: 11359: 11354: 11348: 11346: 11340: 11339: 11337: 11336: 11331: 11326: 11319: 11317:Angami–Pochuri 11314: 11308: 11306: 11295: 11294: 11287: 11280: 11279: 11278: 11271: 11259: 11252: 11244: 11242: 11241:Burmese border 11233: 11232: 11230: 11229: 11224: 11217: 11210: 11203: 11202: 11201: 11193: 11186: 11179: 11174: 11159: 11157: 11136: 11135: 11128: 11126: 11123: 11122: 11120: 11119: 11106: 11101: 11100: 11099: 11092: 11080: 11079: 11078: 11071: 11058: 11056: 11047: 11046: 11039: 11038: 11037: 11030: 11023: 11011: 11004: 11003: 11002: 10997: 10985: 10978: 10970: 10968: 10943: 10942: 10934: 10933: 10926: 10919: 10911: 10905: 10904: 10898: 10885: 10859: 10858: 10857: 10832: 10831: 10830: 10824: 10814: 10787: 10786:External links 10784: 10782: 10781: 10775: 10758: 10736: 10730: 10709: 10703: 10690: 10684: 10671: 10661:(2): 281–302, 10647: 10641: 10628: 10622: 10609: 10603: 10590: 10570: 10560:(1): 136–149, 10545: 10539: 10526: 10508:(1): 187–211, 10493: 10487: 10467: 10461: 10448: 10423: 10376: 10353: 10331: 10329: 10326: 10324: 10323: 10317: 10304: 10298: 10282: 10276: 10263: 10257: 10235: 10229: 10207: 10197:(1): 101–127, 10186: 10166:(5): 709–732, 10155: 10149: 10136: 10130: 10114: 10108: 10087: 10081: 10065: 10051:(in Chinese), 10038: 10017: 9997: 9974: 9968: 9955: 9949: 9932: 9926: 9909: 9896: 9884:(2): 195–227, 9873: 9854: 9843: 9837: 9815: 9809: 9793: 9787: 9774: 9768: 9753: 9747: 9734: 9728: 9715: 9709: 9693: 9687: 9667: 9661: 9641: 9635: 9610: 9604: 9592:Bradley, David 9588: 9582: 9555: 9553: 9550: 9548: 9547: 9536:(3): 344–361. 9520: 9513: 9491: 9475: 9448: 9441: 9421: 9408: 9395: 9377: 9365: 9350: 9338: 9323: 9311: 9299: 9287: 9285:, p. 124. 9272: 9270:, p. 159. 9260: 9248: 9236: 9224: 9212: 9200: 9198:, p. 607. 9188: 9186:, p. 213. 9176: 9164: 9152: 9140: 9128: 9116: 9104: 9089: 9077: 9075:, p. 608. 9065: 9053: 9041: 9029: 9017: 9005: 9003:, p. 125. 8993: 8991:, p. 131. 8981: 8979:, p. 223. 8969: 8957: 8955:, p. 111. 8945: 8943:, p. 121. 8933: 8921: 8919:, p. 623. 8909: 8907:, p. 150. 8894: 8892:, p. 106. 8882: 8870: 8868:, p. 117. 8858: 8856:, p. 116. 8843: 8841:, p. 220. 8831: 8829:, p. 227. 8819: 8817:, p. 234. 8807: 8805:, p. 203. 8795: 8793:, p. 205. 8783: 8781:, p. 208. 8771: 8769:, p. 196. 8759: 8747: 8745:, p. 115. 8732: 8720: 8708: 8696: 8684: 8672: 8670:, p. 606. 8660: 8658:, p. 130. 8648: 8636: 8634:, p. 114. 8621: 8609: 8597: 8585: 8570: 8558: 8546: 8534: 8532:, p. 218. 8522: 8520:, p. 198. 8510: 8498: 8486: 8484:, p. 202. 8471: 8459: 8447: 8432: 8420: 8408: 8396: 8384: 8372: 8357: 8345: 8333: 8321: 8309: 8297: 8295:, p. 237. 8285: 8273: 8261: 8259:, p. 194. 8249: 8237: 8225: 8213: 8201: 8189: 8177: 8165: 8153: 8141: 8129: 8127:, p. 193. 8117: 8105: 8093: 8081: 8069: 8067:, p. 127. 8057: 8045: 8033: 8021: 8009: 8007:, p. 101. 7997: 7985: 7973: 7961: 7944: 7932: 7920: 7908: 7896: 7884: 7872: 7860: 7848: 7836: 7824: 7812: 7810:, p. 712. 7800: 7788: 7776: 7764: 7752: 7740: 7728: 7713: 7701: 7689: 7677: 7662: 7660:, p. 182. 7647: 7635: 7623: 7611: 7599: 7587: 7575: 7563: 7551: 7549:, p. 235. 7539: 7527: 7515: 7503: 7491: 7479: 7467: 7465:, p. 215. 7455: 7453:, p. 217. 7438: 7436:, p. 224. 7426: 7414: 7412:, p. 233. 7399: 7387: 7375: 7373:, p. 148. 7363: 7351: 7339: 7327: 7315: 7313:, p. 181. 7303: 7291: 7279: 7267: 7265:, p. 188. 7252: 7237: 7220: 7208: 7196: 7184: 7172: 7160: 7158:, p. 187. 7145: 7143:, p. 247. 7133: 7121: 7117:Bradley (1992) 7109: 7105:Bradley (1992) 7097: 7085: 7083:, p. 136. 7073: 7061: 7049: 7037: 7025: 7023:, p. 185. 7013: 7001: 6999:, p. 183. 6986: 6974: 6972:, p. 122. 6962: 6960:, p. 107. 6950: 6938: 6926: 6913: 6911: 6908: 6906: 6903: 6900: 6899: 6879: 6863: 6854: 6820:John DeFrancis 6812: 6785: 6775: 6774: 6772: 6769: 6768: 6767: 6762: 6755: 6750: 6743: 6740: 6722:Prime Minister 6679: 6678: 6658: 6656: 6639: 6636: 6565: 6562: 6534:southern China 6488: 6487: 6438: 6436: 6429: 6423: 6422:Mainland China 6420: 6417:" on the wall. 6406: 6403: 6363: 6362: 6345: 6344: 6324: 6322: 6310: 6309: 6292:September 2023 6268: 6266: 6259: 6254: 6228: 6227: 6225: 6218: 6212: 6209: 6207: 6204: 6150:syllabic nasal 6105: 6102: 6101: 6100: 6093: 6065: 6064: 6058: 6051:Open questions 5988:, which was a 5944: 5941: 5937:Nominalization 5914:Yongxin County 5879: 5878: 5873: 5868: 5863: 5858: 5853: 5848: 5843: 5838: 5833: 5828: 5823: 5818: 5813: 5808: 5804: 5803: 5798: 5789: 5784: 5779: 5774: 5769: 5760: 5755: 5746: 5741: 5736: 5731: 5726: 5721: 5717: 5716: 5711: 5706: 5701: 5696: 5691: 5686: 5681: 5676: 5671: 5666: 5661: 5656: 5651: 5646: 5642: 5641: 5636: 5631: 5626: 5621: 5616: 5611: 5606: 5601: 5596: 5591: 5586: 5581: 5576: 5570: 5569: 5564: 5559: 5554: 5549: 5544: 5539: 5534: 5529: 5484: 5481: 5480: 5479: 5476: 5437: 5413: 5410: 5393: 5390: 5372: 5371: 5366: 5361: 5356: 5351: 5346: 5341: 5336: 5331: 5326: 5321: 5316: 5311: 5306: 5301: 5294: 5293: 5288: 5283: 5278: 5273: 5268: 5263: 5258: 5253: 5248: 5243: 5238: 5233: 5228: 5223: 5216: 5215: 5210: 5205: 5200: 5195: 5190: 5185: 5180: 5175: 5170: 5165: 5160: 5155: 5150: 5145: 5138: 5137: 5132: 5127: 5122: 5117: 5112: 5107: 5102: 5097: 5092: 5087: 5082: 5077: 5072: 5067: 5060: 5059: 5054: 5049: 5044: 5039: 5034: 5029: 5024: 5019: 5014: 5009: 5004: 4999: 4994: 4989: 4982: 4981: 4976: 4971: 4966: 4961: 4956: 4951: 4946: 4941: 4936: 4931: 4926: 4921: 4916: 4911: 4904: 4903: 4898: 4893: 4888: 4883: 4878: 4873: 4868: 4863: 4858: 4853: 4848: 4843: 4838: 4833: 4826: 4825: 4820: 4815: 4810: 4805: 4800: 4795: 4790: 4785: 4780: 4775: 4770: 4765: 4760: 4755: 4748: 4747: 4742: 4737: 4732: 4727: 4722: 4717: 4712: 4707: 4702: 4697: 4692: 4687: 4682: 4677: 4670: 4669: 4664: 4659: 4654: 4649: 4644: 4639: 4634: 4629: 4624: 4619: 4614: 4609: 4604: 4599: 4592: 4591: 4586: 4581: 4576: 4571: 4566: 4561: 4556: 4551: 4546: 4541: 4536: 4531: 4526: 4521: 4514: 4513: 4508: 4503: 4498: 4493: 4488: 4483: 4478: 4473: 4468: 4463: 4458: 4453: 4448: 4443: 4436: 4435: 4430: 4425: 4420: 4415: 4410: 4405: 4400: 4395: 4390: 4385: 4380: 4375: 4370: 4365: 4358: 4357: 4352: 4347: 4342: 4337: 4332: 4327: 4322: 4317: 4312: 4307: 4302: 4297: 4292: 4287: 4280: 4279: 4274: 4269: 4264: 4259: 4254: 4249: 4244: 4239: 4234: 4229: 4224: 4219: 4214: 4209: 4202: 4201: 4196: 4191: 4186: 4181: 4176: 4171: 4166: 4161: 4156: 4151: 4146: 4141: 4136: 4131: 4124: 4123: 4118: 4113: 4108: 4103: 4098: 4093: 4088: 4083: 4078: 4073: 4068: 4063: 4058: 4053: 4046: 4045: 4040: 4035: 4030: 4025: 4020: 4015: 4010: 4005: 4000: 3995: 3990: 3985: 3980: 3975: 3968: 3967: 3962: 3957: 3952: 3947: 3942: 3937: 3932: 3927: 3922: 3917: 3912: 3907: 3902: 3897: 3890: 3889: 3884: 3879: 3874: 3869: 3864: 3859: 3854: 3849: 3844: 3839: 3834: 3829: 3824: 3819: 3812: 3811: 3806: 3801: 3796: 3791: 3786: 3781: 3776: 3771: 3766: 3761: 3756: 3751: 3746: 3741: 3734: 3733: 3728: 3723: 3718: 3713: 3708: 3703: 3698: 3693: 3688: 3683: 3678: 3673: 3668: 3663: 3656: 3655: 3650: 3645: 3640: 3635: 3630: 3625: 3620: 3615: 3610: 3605: 3600: 3595: 3590: 3585: 3578: 3577: 3572: 3567: 3562: 3557: 3552: 3547: 3542: 3537: 3532: 3527: 3522: 3517: 3512: 3507: 3500: 3499: 3494: 3489: 3487: 3485: 3483: 3478: 3473: 3468: 3463: 3458: 3453: 3448: 3443: 3438: 3431: 3430: 3423: 3416: 3409: 3402: 3395: 3388: 3381: 3374: 3367: 3360: 3353: 3346: 3339: 3331: 3330: 3325: 3320: 3315: 3310: 3305: 3300: 3295: 3290: 3269: 3266: 3243: 3242: 3239: 3236: 3233: 3230: 3227: 3224: 3221: 3218: 3215: 3212: 3208: 3207: 3204: 3201: 3198: 3195: 3192: 3189: 3186: 3183: 3180: 3176: 3175: 3172: 3169: 3166: 3163: 3160: 3157: 3154: 3151: 3148: 3144: 3143: 3140: 3137: 3134: 3131: 3128: 3125: 3122: 3119: 3115: 3114: 3111: 3108: 3105: 3102: 3099: 3096: 3093: 3090: 3086: 3085: 3082: 3079: 3076: 3073: 3070: 3067: 3064: 3061: 3058: 3054: 3053: 3050: 3047: 3044: 3041: 3038: 3035: 3032: 3029: 3026: 3022: 3021: 3018: 3015: 3012: 3009: 3006: 3003: 3000: 2996: 2995: 2992: 2989: 2986: 2983: 2980: 2977: 2974: 2971: 2967: 2966: 2963: 2960: 2957: 2954: 2951: 2947: 2946: 2943: 2940: 2937: 2934: 2931: 2927: 2926: 2923: 2920: 2917: 2914: 2911: 2908: 2905: 2901: 2900: 2897: 2894: 2891: 2888: 2885: 2882: 2879: 2875: 2874: 2871: 2868: 2865: 2862: 2859: 2856: 2852: 2851: 2848: 2845: 2842: 2839: 2836: 2833: 2830: 2827: 2824: 2821: 2818: 2814: 2813: 2810: 2807: 2804: 2800: 2799: 2796: 2789:pitch contours 2690:stop consonant 2547: 2544: 2542:of the vowel. 2409: 2406: 2405: 2404: 2394: 2387: 2385: 2375: 2368: 2366: 2359: 2352: 2350: 2347: 2340: 2338: 2335: 2328: 2326: 2322: 2321: 2314:palatalization 2310: 2303: 2288: 2285:bilabial stops 2258:Fuzhou dialect 2244: 2243: 2241: 2239: 2237: 2235: 2233: 2228: 2223: 2221: 2216: 2211: 2209: 2204: 2199: 2197: 2192: 2190: 2185: 2180: 2174: 2173: 2170: 2168: 2166: 2164: 2159: 2157: 2154: 2152: 2150: 2148: 2143: 2141: 2138: 2136: 2134: 2129: 2127: 2121: 2120: 2118: 2109: 2107: 2102: 2100: 2095: 2090: 2088: 2083: 2081: 2075: 2074: 2072: 2067: 2062: 2057: 2052: 2050: 2045: 2040: 2038: 2033: 2028: 2026: 2021: 2019: 2014: 2009: 2007: 2005: 2000: 1994: 1993: 1991: 1989: 1984: 1979: 1977: 1972: 1967: 1965: 1959: 1958: 1956: 1951: 1946: 1941: 1936: 1931: 1926: 1924: 1919: 1914: 1909: 1904: 1899: 1897: 1892: 1887: 1882: 1877: 1871: 1870: 1868: 1863: 1858: 1853: 1848: 1843: 1838: 1836: 1831: 1826: 1821: 1816: 1811: 1809: 1804: 1799: 1794: 1789: 1784: 1773: 1772: 1762: 1760: 1750: 1748: 1738: 1736: 1706: 1703: 1674: 1671: 1616:dialect groups 1603: 1600: 1590: 1587: 1583:Wuyi Mountains 1522: 1519: 1487:Shaozhou Tuhua 1483:Xiangnan Tuhua 1477:(northwestern 1465:(northwestern 1459: 1458: 1451: 1446: 1439: 1434: 1423: 1404: 1403: 1363: 1358: 1327: 1322: 1295: 1290: 1263: 1258: 1243: 1238: 1215:Suzhou dialect 1195: 1190: 1159: 1125: 1115: 1105: 1095: 1085: 1075: 1065: 1055: 1045: 1035: 1031: 1030: 1029: 1027: 1026:Dialect groups 1024: 1001: 1000:Classification 998: 971:Medieval Latin 938: 935: 858:Main article: 855: 852: 832:Middle Chinese 770: 767: 763:United Nations 694:Middle Chinese 640: 639: 636: 635: 632: 631: 628: 627: 620: 611: 610: 604: 603: 600:Hàn-gí, Hàn-gú 596: 587: 586: 580: 579: 568: 562: 561: 554: 548: 547: 540: 534: 533: 526: 520: 519: 517:Yue: Cantonese 513: 512: 505: 499: 498: 492: 491: 484: 478: 477: 471: 470: 460: 454: 453: 446: 440: 439: 432: 426: 425: 416: 410: 409: 402: 396: 395: 388: 382: 381: 374: 368: 367: 361: 360: 359:Transcriptions 352: 351: 345: 341: 340: 337: 336: 333: 327: 326: 323: 322: 313: 307: 306: 297: 291: 290: 286: 285: 282: 281: 278: 277: 260: 252: 251: 244: 238: 237: 232: 226: 225: 218: 212: 211: 210: 209: 204: 202:Shaozhou Tuhua 199: 197:Xiangnan Tuhua 194: 189: 184: 179: 174: 169: 164: 159: 154: 149: 144: 139: 134: 127: 123: 122: 120: 119: 118: 117: 115:Middle Chinese 103: 101: 98: 95: 94: 93: 92: 91: 90: 75: 69: 68: 51: 45: 44: 40: 39: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 16417: 16406: 16403: 16401: 16398: 16397: 16395: 16385: 16375: 16373: 16368: 16363: 16362: 16359: 16346: 16343: 16341: 16338: 16336: 16333: 16331: 16328: 16326: 16323: 16321: 16318: 16316: 16313: 16311: 16308: 16306: 16303: 16301: 16298: 16296: 16293: 16291: 16288: 16286: 16283: 16281: 16278: 16276: 16273: 16271: 16268: 16266: 16263: 16261: 16258: 16256: 16253: 16251: 16248: 16246: 16243: 16241: 16238: 16236: 16233: 16231: 16228: 16226: 16223: 16221: 16218: 16216: 16213: 16211: 16208: 16206: 16203: 16201: 16198: 16196: 16193: 16191: 16188: 16186: 16183: 16181: 16178: 16176: 16173: 16171: 16168: 16166: 16163: 16161: 16158: 16156: 16153: 16151: 16148: 16146: 16143: 16142: 16139: 16134: 16127: 16122: 16120: 16115: 16113: 16108: 16107: 16104: 16091: 16089:XJ = Xinjiang 16088: 16085: 16082: 16079: 16076: 16075: 16072: 16066: 16064: 16061: 16054: 16052: 16048: 16047: 16045: 16042: 16041: 16040: 16037: 16036: 16034: 16030: 16024: 16021: 16019: 16016: 16014: 16011: 16009: 16006: 16004: 16001: 15999: 15996: 15994: 15991: 15989: 15986: 15984: 15981: 15979: 15976: 15974: 15971: 15969: 15966: 15965: 15963: 15959: 15953: 15950: 15948: 15945: 15943: 15940: 15938: 15935: 15933: 15930: 15928: 15925: 15923: 15920: 15918: 15915: 15913: 15910: 15909: 15907: 15903: 15895: 15892: 15890: 15887: 15886: 15885: 15882: 15878: 15875: 15873: 15870: 15869: 15868: 15865: 15861: 15858: 15856: 15853: 15852: 15851: 15848: 15844: 15841: 15839: 15836: 15834: 15831: 15829: 15826: 15824: 15821: 15817: 15814: 15812: 15809: 15807: 15804: 15803: 15802: 15799: 15798: 15797: 15794: 15792: 15789: 15787: 15784: 15782: 15779: 15775: 15772: 15768: 15765: 15764: 15763: 15760: 15758: 15755: 15751: 15748: 15747: 15746: 15743: 15741: 15738: 15736: 15733: 15731: 15728: 15726: 15723: 15722: 15721: 15718: 15717: 15715: 15713: 15707: 15701: 15698: 15695: 15692: 15690: 15687: 15685: 15682: 15680: 15677: 15675: 15672: 15670: 15667: 15665: 15662: 15660: 15657: 15655: 15652: 15651: 15649: 15645: 15624: 15621: 15616: 15613: 15608: 15605: 15604: 15602: 15598: 15592: 15591:Western Yugur 15589: 15587: 15584: 15582: 15579: 15577: 15574: 15572: 15569: 15567: 15564: 15563: 15561: 15559: 15555: 15549: 15546: 15544: 15541: 15539: 15536: 15534: 15531: 15529: 15526: 15525: 15523: 15521: 15517: 15507: 15504: 15502: 15499: 15497: 15494: 15492: 15489: 15487: 15484: 15482: 15479: 15477: 15474: 15472: 15469: 15467: 15464: 15462: 15459: 15457: 15454: 15452: 15449: 15447: 15444: 15442: 15439: 15437: 15434: 15432: 15429: 15427: 15424: 15422: 15419: 15417: 15414: 15412: 15409: 15408: 15406: 15402: 15396: 15393: 15391: 15388: 15386: 15383: 15381: 15378: 15376: 15373: 15371: 15368: 15366: 15363: 15361: 15358: 15356: 15353: 15351: 15348: 15346: 15343: 15341: 15338: 15336: 15333: 15332: 15330: 15328: 15324: 15321: 15319: 15315: 15309: 15306: 15304: 15301: 15299: 15296: 15294: 15291: 15289: 15286: 15284: 15281: 15279: 15276: 15274: 15273:Eastern Yugur 15271: 15269: 15266: 15264: 15261: 15259: 15256: 15255: 15253: 15251: 15247: 15237: 15234: 15232: 15229: 15227: 15224: 15222: 15219: 15218: 15216: 15214: 15210: 15204: 15201: 15199: 15196: 15194: 15193:Small Flowery 15191: 15189: 15186: 15184: 15181: 15179: 15176: 15174: 15171: 15169: 15166: 15164: 15161: 15159: 15156: 15154: 15151: 15149: 15146: 15144: 15141: 15139: 15136: 15134: 15131: 15129: 15126: 15124: 15121: 15119: 15116: 15114: 15111: 15109: 15106: 15105: 15103: 15101: 15097: 15094: 15092: 15088: 15082: 15079: 15077: 15074: 15072: 15069: 15067: 15064: 15062: 15059: 15057: 15054: 15052: 15049: 15047: 15044: 15042: 15039: 15037: 15034: 15032: 15029: 15027: 15024: 15022: 15019: 15017: 15014: 15012: 15009: 15008: 15006: 15004: 15003:Austroasiatic 15000: 14996: 14989: 14985: 14971: 14968: 14966: 14963: 14961: 14958: 14956: 14953: 14951: 14948: 14946: 14943: 14941: 14938: 14936: 14933: 14932: 14930: 14926: 14920: 14917: 14915: 14912: 14910: 14907: 14905: 14902: 14900: 14897: 14895: 14892: 14890: 14887: 14885: 14882: 14880: 14877: 14875: 14872: 14870: 14867: 14865: 14862: 14860: 14857: 14855: 14852: 14850: 14847: 14845: 14842: 14840: 14837: 14836: 14834: 14832: 14828: 14822: 14819: 14817: 14814: 14812: 14809: 14807: 14804: 14802: 14799: 14797: 14794: 14792: 14789: 14787: 14784: 14782: 14779: 14777: 14774: 14772: 14769: 14767: 14764: 14762: 14759: 14757: 14754: 14752: 14749: 14747: 14744: 14742: 14739: 14737: 14734: 14732: 14729: 14727: 14724: 14722: 14719: 14718: 14716: 14714: 14710: 14696: 14693: 14691: 14688: 14686: 14683: 14681: 14678: 14676: 14673: 14671: 14668: 14666: 14663: 14661: 14658: 14656: 14653: 14651: 14648: 14646: 14643: 14642: 14640: 14636: 14630: 14627: 14625: 14622: 14620: 14617: 14615: 14612: 14610: 14607: 14605: 14602: 14600: 14597: 14595: 14592: 14590: 14587: 14585: 14582: 14580: 14577: 14575: 14572: 14570: 14567: 14565: 14562: 14560: 14557: 14555: 14552: 14550: 14547: 14545: 14542: 14540: 14537: 14535: 14532: 14530: 14527: 14525: 14522: 14520: 14517: 14515: 14512: 14510: 14507: 14505: 14502: 14500: 14497: 14495: 14492: 14491: 14489: 14487: 14483: 14477: 14474: 14472: 14469: 14467: 14464: 14462: 14459: 14457: 14454: 14452: 14449: 14447: 14444: 14442: 14439: 14437: 14434: 14432: 14429: 14427: 14424: 14422: 14419: 14417: 14414: 14412: 14409: 14407: 14404: 14402: 14399: 14397: 14394: 14392: 14389: 14387: 14384: 14382: 14379: 14377: 14374: 14373: 14371: 14369: 14365: 14359: 14356: 14354: 14351: 14349: 14346: 14344: 14341: 14339: 14336: 14334: 14331: 14329: 14326: 14324: 14321: 14319: 14316: 14314: 14311: 14309: 14306: 14304: 14301: 14299: 14296: 14294: 14291: 14289: 14286: 14284: 14281: 14279: 14276: 14274: 14271: 14269: 14266: 14264: 14261: 14259: 14256: 14254: 14251: 14249: 14246: 14244: 14241: 14239: 14236: 14234: 14231: 14229: 14226: 14224: 14221: 14219: 14216: 14214: 14211: 14209: 14206: 14204: 14201: 14199: 14196: 14194: 14191: 14189: 14186: 14185: 14183: 14181: 14177: 14174: 14172: 14168: 14162: 14159: 14157: 14154: 14152: 14149: 14147: 14144: 14142: 14139: 14137: 14134: 14132: 14129: 14128: 14126: 14124: 14120: 14114: 14111: 14109: 14106: 14104: 14101: 14099: 14096: 14094: 14091: 14089: 14086: 14084: 14081: 14080: 14078: 14076: 14072: 14069: 14067: 14061: 14057: 14053: 14048: 14044: 14041: 14037: 14027: 14025: 14021: 14017: 14011: 14008: 14006: 14003: 14001: 13998: 13996: 13993: 13991: 13988: 13986: 13983: 13981: 13978: 13976: 13973: 13971: 13968: 13966: 13963: 13961: 13958: 13956: 13953: 13951: 13948: 13946: 13943: 13941: 13938: 13936: 13933: 13932: 13930: 13928: 13924: 13918: 13915: 13913: 13910: 13908: 13905: 13903: 13900: 13898: 13895: 13893: 13890: 13888: 13885: 13884: 13882: 13880: 13876: 13872: 13869: 13865: 13859: 13856: 13855: 13853: 13849: 13845: 13838: 13833: 13831: 13826: 13824: 13819: 13818: 13815: 13805: 13795: 13785: 13782: 13780: 13777: 13775: 13772: 13770: 13767: 13763: 13760: 13758: 13755: 13754: 13753: 13750: 13746: 13743: 13741: 13738: 13736: 13733: 13731: 13728: 13726: 13723: 13721: 13718: 13716: 13713: 13711: 13708: 13706: 13703: 13702: 13701: 13698: 13694: 13691: 13690: 13689: 13688:Cyrillization 13686: 13685: 13683: 13679: 13674: 13671: 13669: 13666: 13664: 13661: 13659: 13656: 13654: 13652: 13648: 13642: 13639: 13635: 13632: 13630: 13627: 13626: 13625: 13622: 13621: 13613: 13610: 13608: 13605: 13603: 13600: 13598: 13595: 13593: 13590: 13588: 13585: 13583: 13581: 13580:Script styles 13577: 13574: 13572: 13568: 13565: 13563: 13559: 13553: 13550: 13548: 13545: 13543: 13540: 13538: 13535: 13534: 13525: 13522: 13518: 13515: 13513: 13510: 13508: 13505: 13504: 13503: 13500: 13499: 13497: 13493: 13490: 13484: 13478: 13475: 13473: 13470: 13468: 13465: 13463: 13460: 13458: 13455: 13453: 13450: 13448: 13445: 13443: 13440: 13438: 13435: 13434: 13432: 13430: 13426: 13420: 13417: 13415: 13412: 13410: 13407: 13403: 13400: 13398: 13395: 13393: 13390: 13389: 13388: 13385: 13383: 13380: 13378: 13375: 13371: 13368: 13367: 13366: 13363: 13360: 13358: 13355: 13354: 13352: 13350: 13346: 13340: 13339: 13335: 13333: 13332: 13328: 13327: 13325: 13321: 13315: 13312: 13310: 13307: 13305: 13302: 13300: 13297: 13295: 13292: 13291: 13289: 13287: 13283: 13277: 13274: 13272: 13269: 13267: 13264: 13262: 13259: 13257: 13254: 13252: 13249: 13245: 13242: 13241: 13240: 13237: 13236: 13234: 13230: 13224: 13221: 13219: 13216: 13214: 13211: 13205: 13202: 13200: 13197: 13196: 13195: 13192: 13190: 13187: 13185: 13182: 13180: 13177: 13175: 13172: 13171: 13170: 13167: 13166: 13164: 13162: 13156: 13151: 13137: 13134: 13132: 13129: 13127: 13124: 13122: 13119: 13117: 13114: 13112: 13109: 13107: 13104: 13102: 13099: 13098: 13096: 13092: 13084: 13081: 13079: 13076: 13074: 13071: 13070: 13068: 13064: 13061: 13059: 13056: 13055: 13053: 13052: 13050: 13048: 13044: 13034: 13031: 13029: 13026: 13024: 13021: 13019: 13016: 13014: 13011: 13009: 13006: 13005: 13003: 12999: 12993: 12990: 12988: 12985: 12984: 12982: 12980: 12976: 12970: 12967: 12965: 12962: 12960: 12957: 12955: 12952: 12950: 12947: 12943: 12940: 12938: 12935: 12934: 12933: 12930: 12929: 12927: 12925: 12921: 12918: 12916: 12912: 12904: 12901: 12899: 12896: 12894: 12891: 12890: 12889: 12886: 12882: 12879: 12878: 12877: 12874: 12872: 12869: 12867: 12864: 12862: 12859: 12858: 12856: 12854: 12850: 12838: 12835: 12833: 12830: 12828: 12825: 12824: 12823: 12820: 12816: 12813: 12812: 12811: 12808: 12806: 12803: 12801: 12798: 12796: 12793: 12789: 12786: 12784: 12781: 12780: 12779: 12776: 12775: 12773: 12769: 12759: 12756: 12754: 12751: 12750: 12748: 12744: 12738: 12735: 12734: 12732: 12730: 12726: 12720: 12717: 12715: 12712: 12711: 12709: 12707: 12703: 12697: 12694: 12692: 12689: 12687: 12684: 12682: 12679: 12677: 12674: 12672: 12669: 12667: 12664: 12662: 12659: 12657: 12654: 12652: 12649: 12648: 12646: 12644: 12640: 12637: 12635: 12631: 12619: 12616: 12614: 12611: 12610: 12609: 12606: 12604: 12601: 12600: 12598: 12594: 12588: 12585: 12583: 12580: 12579: 12577: 12575: 12571: 12565: 12562: 12560: 12557: 12555: 12552: 12550: 12547: 12545: 12542: 12541: 12539: 12537: 12533: 12530: 12528: 12524: 12521: 12519: 12515: 12507: 12504: 12503: 12502: 12499: 12497: 12494: 12490: 12487: 12485: 12482: 12480: 12477: 12476: 12475: 12472: 12468: 12465: 12464: 12463: 12460: 12459: 12457: 12455: 12451: 12445: 12442: 12440: 12437: 12435: 12432: 12428: 12425: 12424: 12423: 12420: 12419: 12417: 12415: 12411: 12403: 12398: 12395: 12391: 12386: 12383: 12379: 12374: 12371: 12367: 12362: 12359: 12355: 12350: 12347: 12346: 12344: 12342: 12338: 12328: 12325: 12324: 12322: 12320: 12316: 12310: 12307: 12305: 12302: 12300: 12297: 12296: 12294: 12292: 12288: 12282: 12279: 12278: 12276: 12274: 12270: 12264: 12261: 12259: 12256: 12254: 12251: 12250: 12248: 12244: 12238: 12235: 12233: 12230: 12229: 12227: 12225: 12221: 12215: 12212: 12210: 12207: 12205: 12202: 12200: 12197: 12195: 12192: 12189: 12186: 12184: 12181: 12179: 12176: 12174: 12171: 12169: 12166: 12165: 12163: 12161: 12157: 12154: 12152: 12148: 12142: 12139: 12137: 12134: 12133: 12131: 12129: 12125: 12115: 12112: 12110: 12107: 12105: 12102: 12101: 12099: 12095: 12089: 12086: 12084: 12081: 12080: 12078: 12076: 12072: 12064: 12061: 12060: 12059: 12056: 12054: 12051: 12049: 12046: 12044: 12041: 12035: 12032: 12031: 12030: 12027: 12023: 12020: 12019: 12018: 12015: 12013: 12010: 12009: 12008: 12005: 12004: 12002: 12000: 11996: 11990: 11987: 11985: 11982: 11980: 11977: 11975: 11972: 11970: 11967: 11963: 11960: 11959: 11958: 11955: 11953: 11950: 11948: 11945: 11944: 11942: 11940: 11936: 11930: 11927: 11925: 11922: 11920: 11917: 11916: 11914: 11912: 11908: 11902: 11899: 11897: 11894: 11893: 11891: 11889: 11885: 11879: 11876: 11874: 11871: 11870: 11868: 11866: 11862: 11856: 11853: 11851: 11848: 11846: 11843: 11841: 11838: 11837: 11835: 11833: 11829: 11826: 11824: 11820: 11817: 11815: 11811: 11807: 11806: 11800: 11796: 11789: 11784: 11782: 11777: 11775: 11770: 11769: 11766: 11755: 11750: 11744: 11743: 11739: 11737: 11736: 11732: 11730: 11729: 11728:Proto-Karenic 11725: 11723: 11722: 11721:Proto-Loloish 11718: 11716: 11715: 11711: 11709: 11708: 11704: 11703: 11701: 11699: 11695: 11689: 11686: 11684: 11683: 11682:Tibeto-Burman 11679: 11677: 11674: 11672: 11669: 11667: 11664: 11662: 11659: 11657: 11654: 11653: 11651: 11647: 11637: 11634: 11630: 11629: 11625: 11623: 11622: 11618: 11617: 11616: 11613: 11612: 11610: 11608: 11604: 11598: 11597: 11593: 11591: 11588: 11584: 11583: 11579: 11578: 11577: 11576: 11572: 11568: 11567: 11563: 11561: 11560: 11556: 11555: 11554: 11551: 11550: 11548: 11545: 11541: 11536: 11532: 11520: 11519: 11515: 11513: 11510: 11508: 11505: 11504: 11503: 11502: 11498: 11496: 11493: 11491: 11488: 11484: 11481: 11480: 11479: 11478: 11474: 11473: 11471: 11469: 11468:Burmo-Qiangic 11465: 11457: 11456: 11452: 11450: 11449: 11445: 11443: 11442: 11438: 11437: 11436: 11433: 11431: 11430: 11426: 11424: 11423: 11419: 11417: 11416: 11412: 11410: 11407: 11405: 11404: 11400: 11398: 11397: 11393: 11391: 11390: 11386: 11385: 11383: 11381: 11377: 11373: 11363: 11362:Jingpho–Luish 11360: 11358: 11355: 11353: 11350: 11349: 11347: 11345: 11341: 11335: 11332: 11330: 11327: 11325: 11324: 11320: 11318: 11315: 11313: 11310: 11309: 11307: 11304: 11299: 11293: 11292: 11288: 11286: 11285: 11281: 11277: 11276: 11272: 11270: 11269: 11265: 11264: 11263: 11260: 11258: 11257: 11253: 11251: 11250: 11246: 11245: 11243: 11238: 11234: 11228: 11225: 11223: 11222: 11218: 11216: 11215: 11211: 11209: 11208: 11204: 11199: 11198: 11194: 11192: 11191: 11187: 11185: 11184: 11180: 11178: 11175: 11173: 11172: 11168: 11167: 11166: 11165: 11161: 11160: 11158: 11155: 11151: 11147: 11142: 11137: 11132: 11118: 11117: 11112: 11111: 11107: 11105: 11102: 11098: 11097: 11093: 11091: 11090: 11086: 11085: 11084: 11081: 11077: 11076: 11072: 11070: 11069: 11065: 11064: 11063: 11060: 11059: 11057: 11055: 11051: 11045: 11044: 11040: 11036: 11035: 11031: 11029: 11028: 11024: 11022: 11021: 11017: 11016: 11015: 11012: 11010: 11009: 11005: 11001: 11000:Baram–Thangmi 10998: 10996: 10995: 10991: 10990: 10989: 10986: 10984: 10983: 10979: 10977: 10976: 10972: 10971: 10969: 10966: 10962: 10958: 10953: 10949: 10944: 10939: 10932: 10927: 10925: 10920: 10918: 10913: 10912: 10909: 10902: 10899: 10895: 10889: 10886: 10878: 10874: 10870: 10865: 10860: 10856: 10852: 10848: 10847: 10844: 10837: 10833: 10828: 10825: 10822: 10818: 10815: 10812: 10808: 10805: 10804: 10801: 10794: 10790: 10789: 10778: 10772: 10768: 10763:东南亚华人社区汉语方言概要 10759: 10756: 10752: 10748: 10744: 10737: 10733: 10727: 10723: 10719: 10715: 10710: 10706: 10700: 10696: 10691: 10687: 10681: 10677: 10672: 10668: 10664: 10660: 10656: 10652: 10648: 10644: 10638: 10634: 10629: 10625: 10619: 10615: 10610: 10606: 10600: 10596: 10591: 10587: 10583: 10576: 10571: 10567: 10563: 10559: 10555: 10551: 10546: 10542: 10536: 10532: 10527: 10523: 10519: 10515: 10511: 10507: 10503: 10499: 10494: 10490: 10484: 10480: 10473: 10468: 10464: 10458: 10454: 10449: 10445: 10441: 10437: 10433: 10429: 10424: 10420: 10416: 10411: 10406: 10402: 10398: 10394: 10390: 10386: 10382: 10377: 10372: 10367: 10363: 10359: 10354: 10350: 10346: 10342: 10338: 10333: 10332: 10320: 10314: 10310: 10305: 10301: 10295: 10291: 10287: 10283: 10279: 10273: 10269: 10264: 10260: 10254: 10250: 10246: 10244:中国语言地图集:汉语方言卷 10242: 10236: 10232: 10226: 10222: 10221: 10216: 10212: 10208: 10204: 10200: 10196: 10192: 10187: 10182: 10177: 10173: 10169: 10165: 10161: 10156: 10152: 10146: 10142: 10137: 10133: 10127: 10123: 10119: 10115: 10111: 10105: 10101: 10097: 10093: 10088: 10084: 10078: 10074: 10070: 10069:Norman, Jerry 10066: 10062: 10058: 10054: 10050: 10049: 10039: 10024: 10020: 10014: 10010: 10003: 9998: 9994: 9990: 9983: 9979: 9975: 9971: 9965: 9961: 9956: 9952: 9946: 9942: 9938: 9933: 9929: 9923: 9919: 9915: 9910: 9906: 9905:Dialectologia 9902: 9897: 9892: 9887: 9883: 9879: 9874: 9869: 9864: 9860: 9855: 9851: 9850: 9844: 9840: 9834: 9830: 9826: 9825: 9820: 9816: 9812: 9806: 9802: 9798: 9794: 9790: 9784: 9780: 9775: 9771: 9765: 9761: 9760: 9754: 9750: 9744: 9740: 9735: 9731: 9725: 9721: 9716: 9712: 9706: 9702: 9698: 9694: 9690: 9684: 9680: 9673: 9668: 9664: 9658: 9654: 9647: 9642: 9638: 9632: 9628: 9624: 9620: 9615: 9611: 9607: 9601: 9597: 9593: 9589: 9585: 9579: 9571: 9567: 9563: 9557: 9556: 9543: 9539: 9535: 9531: 9524: 9516: 9510: 9506: 9502: 9495: 9488: 9479: 9463: 9459: 9452: 9444: 9438: 9434: 9433: 9425: 9418: 9412: 9405: 9399: 9391: 9387: 9381: 9374: 9369: 9363:, p. 17. 9362: 9357: 9355: 9347: 9342: 9336:, p. 15. 9335: 9330: 9328: 9320: 9315: 9309:, p. 57. 9308: 9303: 9297:, p. 69. 9296: 9291: 9284: 9279: 9277: 9269: 9264: 9257: 9252: 9245: 9240: 9233: 9228: 9221: 9216: 9210:, p. 92. 9209: 9208:Norman (1988) 9204: 9197: 9192: 9185: 9184:Norman (1988) 9180: 9173: 9172:Norman (1988) 9168: 9161: 9160:Norman (1988) 9156: 9149: 9148:Norman (1988) 9144: 9137: 9132: 9125: 9120: 9114:, p. 42. 9113: 9108: 9102:, p. 49. 9101: 9096: 9094: 9086: 9081: 9074: 9069: 9062: 9057: 9050: 9045: 9038: 9033: 9026: 9021: 9015:, p. 31. 9014: 9009: 9002: 9001:Norman (1988) 8997: 8990: 8985: 8978: 8977:Norman (1988) 8973: 8967:, p. 23. 8966: 8961: 8954: 8949: 8942: 8937: 8930: 8925: 8918: 8913: 8906: 8901: 8899: 8891: 8886: 8880:, p. 81. 8879: 8874: 8867: 8862: 8855: 8850: 8848: 8840: 8839:Norman (1988) 8835: 8828: 8827:Norman (1988) 8823: 8816: 8815:Norman (1988) 8811: 8804: 8803:Norman (1988) 8799: 8792: 8791:Norman (1988) 8787: 8780: 8779:Norman (1988) 8775: 8768: 8767:Norman (1988) 8763: 8756: 8755:Norman (1988) 8751: 8744: 8739: 8737: 8729: 8724: 8717: 8712: 8705: 8700: 8693: 8688: 8681: 8676: 8669: 8664: 8657: 8652: 8645: 8640: 8633: 8628: 8626: 8618: 8613: 8606: 8605:Norman (1988) 8601: 8594: 8589: 8582: 8577: 8575: 8567: 8566:Norman (1988) 8562: 8555: 8554:Norman (1988) 8550: 8543: 8542:Norman (1988) 8538: 8531: 8530:Norman (1988) 8526: 8519: 8514: 8507: 8506:Norman (1988) 8502: 8495: 8494:Norman (1988) 8490: 8483: 8482:Norman (1988) 8478: 8476: 8468: 8463: 8456: 8451: 8444: 8443:Norman (1988) 8439: 8437: 8429: 8428:Norman (1988) 8424: 8417: 8416:Norman (1988) 8412: 8406:, p. 53. 8405: 8404:Norman (1988) 8400: 8393: 8392:Norman (1988) 8388: 8381: 8380:Norman (1988) 8376: 8370:, p. 54. 8369: 8368:Norman (1988) 8364: 8362: 8354: 8353:Norman (1988) 8349: 8342: 8341:Norman (1988) 8337: 8330: 8325: 8318: 8317:Norman (1988) 8313: 8306: 8305:Norman (1988) 8301: 8294: 8293:Norman (1988) 8289: 8282: 8281:Norman (1988) 8277: 8270: 8269:Norman (1988) 8265: 8258: 8257:Norman (1988) 8253: 8246: 8245:Norman (1988) 8241: 8234: 8229: 8222: 8221:Norman (1988) 8217: 8210: 8205: 8198: 8193: 8186: 8181: 8174: 8169: 8162: 8157: 8150: 8145: 8138: 8137:Norman (1988) 8133: 8126: 8125:Norman (1988) 8121: 8114: 8113:Norman (1988) 8109: 8102: 8097: 8090: 8089:Norman (1988) 8085: 8078: 8077:Norman (1988) 8073: 8066: 8061: 8054: 8049: 8042: 8041:Norman (1988) 8037: 8030: 8025: 8018: 8013: 8006: 8005:Ramsey (1987) 8001: 7994: 7993:Norman (1988) 7989: 7982: 7981:Norman (1988) 7977: 7970: 7965: 7959:, p. 57. 7958: 7953: 7951: 7949: 7942:, p. 63. 7941: 7936: 7929: 7924: 7917: 7912: 7905: 7900: 7893: 7888: 7881: 7876: 7870:, p. 14. 7869: 7864: 7857: 7856:Norman (1988) 7852: 7845: 7840: 7833: 7828: 7821: 7816: 7809: 7804: 7797: 7792: 7785: 7780: 7773: 7768: 7761: 7756: 7750:, p. 76. 7749: 7748:Norman (2003) 7744: 7737: 7732: 7725: 7724:Norman (1988) 7720: 7718: 7710: 7705: 7698: 7693: 7686: 7681: 7674: 7673:Norman (2003) 7669: 7667: 7659: 7658:Norman (1988) 7654: 7652: 7644: 7639: 7632: 7631:Norman (2003) 7627: 7620: 7619:Ramsey (1987) 7615: 7608: 7607:Coblin (2019) 7603: 7596: 7591: 7584: 7579: 7572: 7567: 7560: 7555: 7548: 7543: 7536: 7531: 7524: 7519: 7512: 7507: 7500: 7495: 7488: 7483: 7477:, p. 98. 7476: 7475:Ramsey (1987) 7471: 7464: 7463:Norman (1988) 7459: 7452: 7451:Norman (1988) 7447: 7445: 7443: 7435: 7434:Norman (1988) 7430: 7423: 7422:Norman (1988) 7418: 7411: 7410:Norman (1988) 7406: 7404: 7397:, p. 49. 7396: 7391: 7384: 7383:Norman (1988) 7379: 7372: 7367: 7360: 7355: 7348: 7347:Norman (1988) 7343: 7337:, p. 90. 7336: 7331: 7324: 7319: 7312: 7311:Norman (1988) 7307: 7300: 7295: 7288: 7283: 7276: 7271: 7264: 7263:Norman (1988) 7259: 7257: 7249: 7248:Norman (1988) 7244: 7242: 7235:, p. 72. 7234: 7233:Norman (2003) 7229: 7227: 7225: 7217: 7216:Ramsey (1987) 7212: 7205: 7204:Norman (1988) 7200: 7193: 7192:Ramsey (1987) 7188: 7181: 7176: 7169: 7168:Norman (1988) 7164: 7157: 7156:Norman (1988) 7152: 7150: 7142: 7141:Norman (1988) 7137: 7130: 7125: 7118: 7113: 7106: 7101: 7094: 7093:Ramsey (1987) 7089: 7082: 7081:Norman (1988) 7077: 7071:, p. 22. 7070: 7069:Ramsey (1987) 7065: 7058: 7057:Norman (1988) 7053: 7046: 7045:Norman (1988) 7041: 7034: 7033:Ramsey (1987) 7029: 7022: 7021:Norman (1988) 7017: 7010: 7009:Norman (1988) 7005: 6998: 6997:Norman (1988) 6993: 6991: 6983: 6978: 6971: 6966: 6959: 6954: 6947: 6942: 6935: 6930: 6923: 6922:Norman (1988) 6918: 6914: 6897:for 'person'. 6895: 6888: 6886: 6884: 6876: 6870: 6868: 6858: 6851: 6850: 6844: 6839: 6835: 6830: 6825: 6821: 6816: 6809: 6805: 6801: 6800: 6795: 6789: 6780: 6776: 6766: 6763: 6761: 6760: 6756: 6754: 6751: 6749: 6746: 6745: 6739: 6736: 6735: 6734:lingua franca 6730: 6726: 6723: 6718: 6716: 6712: 6708: 6707:Goh Keng Swee 6704: 6700: 6699: 6698:lingua franca 6694: 6691:(even though 6690: 6686: 6675: 6672:December 2018 6666: 6662: 6659:This section 6657: 6654: 6650: 6649: 6645: 6635: 6633: 6629: 6625: 6621: 6617: 6611: 6608: 6604: 6601: 6597: 6593: 6589: 6585: 6581: 6577: 6571: 6561: 6559: 6554: 6553: 6546: 6545: 6539: 6535: 6531: 6527: 6522: 6518: 6515:For example, 6512: 6507: 6505: 6500: 6495: 6484: 6481: 6473: 6470:November 2008 6463: 6459: 6455: 6449: 6448: 6444: 6439:This section 6437: 6433: 6428: 6427: 6416: 6411: 6402: 6398: 6396: 6392: 6388: 6382: 6378: 6376: 6371: 6359: 6356: 6341: 6338:December 2018 6332: 6328: 6325:This section 6323: 6320: 6316: 6315: 6306: 6303: 6295: 6285: 6281: 6275: 6274: 6269:This section 6267: 6263: 6258: 6257: 6252: 6250: 6243: 6242: 6237: 6236: 6231: 6226: 6217: 6216: 6203: 6200: 6195: 6192: 6187: 6180: 6175: 6169: 6166:derived from 6165: 6160: 6151: 6146: 6142:and Shanghai 6140: 6135: 6129: 6124: 6111: 6098: 6094: 6087: 6086: 6085: 6082: 6071: 6062: 6059: 6056: 6052: 6049: 6048: 6047: 6045: 6040: 6037: 6032: 6022: 6019: 6014: 6008: 6003: 5998: 5993: 5991: 5990:demonstrative 5986: 5981: 5975: 5970: 5961: 5956: 5954: 5950: 5949:stative verbs 5940: 5938: 5932: 5927: 5917: 5915: 5909: 5907: 5903: 5898: 5887: 5874: 5869: 5864: 5859: 5854: 5849: 5844: 5839: 5834: 5829: 5824: 5819: 5814: 5809: 5806: 5805: 5799: 5790: 5785: 5780: 5775: 5770: 5761: 5756: 5747: 5742: 5737: 5732: 5727: 5722: 5719: 5718: 5712: 5707: 5702: 5697: 5692: 5687: 5682: 5677: 5672: 5667: 5662: 5657: 5652: 5647: 5644: 5643: 5637: 5632: 5627: 5622: 5617: 5612: 5607: 5602: 5597: 5592: 5587: 5582: 5577: 5572: 5571: 5568: 5565: 5563: 5560: 5558: 5553: 5548: 5545: 5543: 5538: 5533: 5530: 5527: 5521: 5517: 5514: 5503: 5498: 5497:demonstrative 5494: 5490: 5477: 5473: 5461: 5455: 5443: 5438: 5435: 5434: 5433: 5431: 5427: 5418: 5409: 5407: 5403: 5399: 5389: 5387: 5386:Austroasiatic 5383: 5379: 5367: 5362: 5357: 5352: 5347: 5342: 5337: 5332: 5327: 5322: 5317: 5312: 5307: 5302: 5299: 5296: 5295: 5289: 5284: 5279: 5274: 5269: 5264: 5259: 5254: 5249: 5244: 5239: 5234: 5229: 5224: 5221: 5218: 5217: 5211: 5206: 5201: 5196: 5191: 5186: 5181: 5176: 5171: 5166: 5161: 5156: 5151: 5146: 5143: 5140: 5139: 5133: 5128: 5123: 5118: 5113: 5108: 5103: 5098: 5093: 5088: 5083: 5078: 5073: 5068: 5065: 5062: 5061: 5055: 5050: 5045: 5040: 5035: 5030: 5025: 5020: 5015: 5010: 5005: 5000: 4995: 4990: 4987: 4984: 4983: 4977: 4972: 4967: 4962: 4957: 4952: 4947: 4942: 4937: 4932: 4927: 4922: 4917: 4912: 4909: 4906: 4905: 4899: 4894: 4889: 4884: 4879: 4874: 4869: 4864: 4859: 4854: 4849: 4844: 4839: 4834: 4831: 4828: 4827: 4821: 4816: 4811: 4806: 4801: 4796: 4791: 4786: 4781: 4776: 4771: 4766: 4761: 4756: 4753: 4750: 4749: 4743: 4738: 4733: 4728: 4723: 4718: 4713: 4708: 4703: 4698: 4693: 4688: 4683: 4678: 4675: 4672: 4671: 4665: 4660: 4655: 4650: 4645: 4640: 4635: 4630: 4625: 4620: 4615: 4610: 4605: 4600: 4597: 4594: 4593: 4587: 4582: 4577: 4572: 4567: 4562: 4557: 4552: 4547: 4542: 4537: 4532: 4527: 4522: 4519: 4516: 4515: 4509: 4504: 4499: 4494: 4489: 4484: 4479: 4474: 4469: 4464: 4459: 4454: 4449: 4444: 4441: 4438: 4437: 4431: 4426: 4421: 4416: 4411: 4406: 4401: 4396: 4391: 4386: 4381: 4376: 4371: 4366: 4363: 4360: 4359: 4353: 4348: 4343: 4338: 4333: 4328: 4323: 4318: 4313: 4308: 4303: 4298: 4293: 4288: 4285: 4282: 4281: 4275: 4270: 4265: 4260: 4255: 4250: 4245: 4240: 4235: 4230: 4225: 4220: 4215: 4210: 4207: 4204: 4203: 4197: 4192: 4187: 4182: 4177: 4172: 4167: 4162: 4157: 4152: 4147: 4142: 4137: 4132: 4129: 4126: 4125: 4119: 4114: 4109: 4104: 4099: 4094: 4089: 4084: 4079: 4074: 4069: 4064: 4059: 4054: 4051: 4048: 4047: 4041: 4036: 4031: 4026: 4021: 4016: 4011: 4006: 4001: 3996: 3991: 3986: 3981: 3976: 3973: 3970: 3969: 3963: 3958: 3953: 3948: 3943: 3938: 3933: 3928: 3923: 3918: 3913: 3908: 3903: 3898: 3895: 3892: 3891: 3885: 3880: 3875: 3870: 3865: 3860: 3855: 3850: 3845: 3840: 3835: 3830: 3825: 3820: 3817: 3814: 3813: 3807: 3802: 3797: 3792: 3787: 3782: 3777: 3772: 3767: 3762: 3757: 3752: 3747: 3742: 3739: 3736: 3735: 3729: 3724: 3719: 3714: 3709: 3704: 3699: 3694: 3689: 3684: 3679: 3674: 3669: 3664: 3661: 3658: 3657: 3651: 3646: 3641: 3636: 3631: 3626: 3621: 3616: 3611: 3606: 3601: 3596: 3591: 3586: 3583: 3580: 3579: 3573: 3568: 3563: 3558: 3553: 3548: 3543: 3538: 3533: 3528: 3523: 3518: 3513: 3508: 3505: 3502: 3501: 3495: 3490: 3488: 3486: 3484: 3479: 3474: 3469: 3464: 3459: 3454: 3449: 3444: 3439: 3436: 3433: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3421: 3417: 3414: 3410: 3407: 3403: 3400: 3396: 3393: 3389: 3386: 3382: 3379: 3375: 3372: 3368: 3365: 3361: 3358: 3354: 3351: 3347: 3344: 3340: 3337: 3333: 3332: 3329: 3326: 3324: 3321: 3319: 3314: 3309: 3306: 3304: 3299: 3294: 3291: 3287: 3281: 3279: 3275: 3265: 3261: 3258: 3254: 3249: 3237: 3234: 3228: 3222: 3216: 3213: 3210: 3209: 3196: 3193: 3190: 3184: 3181: 3178: 3177: 3164: 3161: 3152: 3149: 3146: 3145: 3132: 3126: 3120: 3117: 3116: 3103: 3100: 3091: 3088: 3087: 3074: 3071: 3062: 3059: 3055: 3042: 3039: 3030: 3027: 3024: 3023: 3013: 3010: 3001: 2998: 2997: 2987: 2984: 2975: 2972: 2968: 2952: 2949: 2948: 2932: 2929: 2928: 2924: 2921: 2906: 2903: 2902: 2898: 2883: 2880: 2876: 2872: 2857: 2854: 2853: 2849: 2846: 2840: 2837: 2834: 2831: 2828: 2825: 2822: 2819: 2816: 2815: 2801: 2794: 2790: 2784: 2780: 2778: 2773: 2756: 2740: 2736: 2731: 2716: 2706: 2691: 2686: 2675: 2666:), 'rising' ( 2664: 2654: 2649: 2647: 2643: 2639: 2622: 2604: 2592: 2574: 2569: 2565: 2561: 2552: 2543: 2541: 2529: 2525: 2521: 2484: 2482: 2478: 2474: 2470: 2466: 2430: 2425: 2423: 2414: 2402: 2398: 2391: 2386: 2383: 2379: 2372: 2367: 2356: 2351: 2344: 2339: 2332: 2327: 2324: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2308: 2304: 2301: 2297: 2294:, as well as 2293: 2289: 2286: 2279: 2275: 2274: 2273: 2259: 2250: 2242: 2240: 2238: 2236: 2234: 2229: 2224: 2222: 2217: 2212: 2210: 2205: 2200: 2198: 2193: 2191: 2186: 2181: 2179: 2175: 2171: 2169: 2167: 2165: 2160: 2158: 2155: 2153: 2151: 2149: 2144: 2142: 2139: 2137: 2135: 2130: 2128: 2126: 2122: 2103: 2101: 2096: 2091: 2089: 2084: 2077: 2076: 2073: 2068: 2063: 2058: 2053: 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Mandarin 13409:Stroke count 13336: 13329: 13251:Old National 13094:Unclassified 11999:Southwestern 11832:Northeastern 11814:Major groups 11813: 11803: 11753: 11740: 11733: 11726: 11719: 11712: 11705: 11680: 11626: 11619: 11594: 11580: 11573: 11564: 11557: 11516: 11501:Lolo-Burmese 11499: 11475: 11453: 11446: 11439: 11427: 11420: 11413: 11401: 11394: 11387: 11321: 11289: 11282: 11273: 11266: 11254: 11247: 11219: 11212: 11205: 11195: 11188: 11181: 11169: 11162: 11114: 11108: 11094: 11087: 11073: 11066: 11041: 11032: 11025: 11018: 11006: 10992: 10980: 10973: 10938:Sino-Tibetan 10893: 10876: 10868: 10842: 10835: 10817:HTML version 10799: 10792: 10766: 10746: 10713: 10694: 10675: 10658: 10654: 10632: 10613: 10594: 10585: 10581: 10557: 10553: 10530: 10505: 10501: 10478: 10452: 10438:(1): 29–60, 10435: 10431: 10384: 10380: 10364:(1): 43–63, 10361: 10357: 10340: 10336: 10308: 10289: 10267: 10248: 10240: 10219: 10194: 10190: 10163: 10159: 10140: 10121: 10099: 10072: 10052: 10046: 10030:, retrieved 10023:the original 10008: 9992: 9988: 9962:, Springer, 9959: 9940: 9913: 9904: 9881: 9877: 9858: 9848: 9827:, Honolulu: 9823: 9800: 9778: 9758: 9738: 9719: 9700: 9678: 9671: 9652: 9645: 9626: 9618: 9595: 9569: 9561: 9533: 9529: 9523: 9504: 9500: 9494: 9483:(in Chinese) 9478: 9466:. Retrieved 9461: 9451: 9431: 9424: 9416: 9411: 9398: 9390:the original 9380: 9373:Hsieh (2007) 9368: 9361:Hsieh (2007) 9346:Hsieh (2007) 9341: 9334:Hsieh (2007) 9319:Hsieh (2007) 9314: 9302: 9290: 9263: 9251: 9239: 9227: 9215: 9203: 9191: 9179: 9167: 9155: 9143: 9131: 9119: 9107: 9080: 9068: 9056: 9044: 9032: 9020: 9008: 8996: 8984: 8972: 8960: 8948: 8936: 8924: 8912: 8885: 8873: 8861: 8834: 8822: 8810: 8798: 8786: 8774: 8762: 8750: 8723: 8711: 8699: 8687: 8682:, p. 1. 8675: 8663: 8651: 8639: 8612: 8600: 8588: 8561: 8549: 8537: 8525: 8513: 8501: 8489: 8462: 8450: 8423: 8411: 8399: 8387: 8375: 8348: 8343:, p. 9. 8336: 8324: 8312: 8300: 8288: 8276: 8264: 8252: 8240: 8228: 8216: 8204: 8192: 8180: 8168: 8156: 8144: 8132: 8120: 8108: 8096: 8084: 8072: 8060: 8048: 8036: 8024: 8012: 8000: 7988: 7976: 7971:, p. 7. 7964: 7935: 7930:, p. 2. 7923: 7911: 7906:, p. 8. 7899: 7887: 7875: 7868:Liang (2014) 7863: 7851: 7839: 7827: 7815: 7803: 7791: 7784:Iwata (1995) 7779: 7772:Iwata (1995) 7767: 7760:Iwata (2010) 7755: 7743: 7731: 7704: 7692: 7680: 7638: 7626: 7614: 7602: 7590: 7585:, p. 9. 7578: 7566: 7554: 7542: 7530: 7518: 7506: 7494: 7482: 7470: 7458: 7429: 7417: 7390: 7378: 7366: 7354: 7342: 7330: 7318: 7306: 7294: 7282: 7270: 7211: 7199: 7194:, p. 7. 7187: 7182:, p. 2. 7175: 7170:, p. 1. 7163: 7136: 7124: 7112: 7100: 7088: 7076: 7064: 7052: 7040: 7028: 7016: 7004: 6984:, p. 3. 6977: 6965: 6953: 6941: 6936:, p. 3. 6929: 6917: 6875:§ Tones 6857: 6847: 6837: 6823: 6815: 6797: 6788: 6779: 6757: 6732: 6725:Lee Kuan Yew 6719: 6702: 6696: 6682: 6669: 6665:adding to it 6660: 6628:Yilan county 6612: 6594:, who spoke 6582:, who spoke 6573: 6544:Jiǎng Jièshí 6508: 6491: 6476: 6467: 6452:Please help 6440: 6399: 6391:sound shifts 6383: 6379: 6366: 6351: 6335: 6331:adding to it 6326: 6298: 6289: 6278:Please help 6273:verification 6270: 6246: 6239: 6233: 6232:Please help 6229: 6196: 6164:prepositions 6161: 6107: 6104:Verb phrases 6066: 6043: 6041: 6023: 5994: 5957: 5953:Ditransitive 5946: 5918: 5910: 5882: 5518: 5486: 5457:) 'hen' and 5423: 5406:prepositions 5395: 5375: 4208:"sun", 'day' 3271: 3262: 3250: 3246: 2781: 2739:Tang dynasty 2732: 2650: 2642:pitch accent 2618:'horse) and 2557: 2540:nasalization 2524:glottal stop 2506:, and stops 2485: 2481:Yue dialects 2451:, and a low 2429:Gan dialects 2426: 2419: 2400: 2396: 2381: 2377: 2300:Southern Min 2255: 1719:, spoken in 1710: 1708: 1695:Shanghainese 1684: 1660: 1656: 1652: 1631: 1623: 1615: 1611: 1605: 1592: 1572: 1549: 1535:Jerry Norman 1533: 1506:Bai language 1503: 1460: 1407: 1405: 1219:Shanghainese 1170: 1166: 1146:Li Fang-Kuei 1144:in 1936 and 1138: 1032: 1020: 1012:Jerry Norman 1009: 983: 967:Roman Empire 940: 927: 896: 863: 840: 820: 810: 800: 779:Yellow River 772: 729: 698: 643: 584:Southern Min 503:Romanization 482:Romanization 372:Hanyu Pinyin 331:Hanyu Pinyin 289:Chinese name 275:(not shown). 262: 230:Linguasphere 126:Subdivisions 87: 78:Sino-Tibetan 50:distribution 32: 16170:Azerbaijani 15571:Fuyu Kyrgyz 15370:Tai Hongjin 15056:Muak Sa-aak 13779:Xiao'erjing 13641:Punctuation 13634:Traditional 13587:Oracle bone 13571:Logographic 13467:Proto-Hakka 13442:Eastern Han 13437:Old Chinese 13299:Classifiers 13266:Northern Wu 13194:Singaporean 12400: [ 12388: [ 12376: [ 12364: [ 12352: [ 11742:Proto-Hakka 11671:Mahakiranti 11177:East Bodish 10957:Uttarakhand 10432:Diachronica 10223:, Longman, 10055:: 247–267, 9614:Cao, Zhiyun 9552:Works cited 9307:Chen (1999) 8890:Chen (2015) 8878:Chen (2015) 8644:Cao (2008c) 8593:Cao (2008b) 8329:Cao (2008a) 8209:Cao (2008a) 8197:Cao (2008a) 8185:Cao (2008a) 8173:Cao (2008a) 8161:Cao (2008a) 8149:Cao (2008a) 8053:Cao (2008a) 7969:Mair (1991) 7916:Mair (1991) 7880:Mair (2013) 7709:Cao (2008c) 7697:Cao (2008b) 7685:Cao (2008a) 7643:Wang (2005) 7583:Cao (2008a) 7129:Chen (1999) 6982:Mair (1991) 6970:Wang (2005) 6958:Wang (2005) 6834:Victor Mair 6824:regionalect 6598:. When the 6580:Han Chinese 6530:Sun Yat-sen 6370:code switch 6110:Old Chinese 6046:questions: 5388:languages. 3278:Old Chinese 3253:tone sandhi 2999:Shuangfeng 2638:tone sandhi 2588:'mother'), 2473:Wu dialects 1657:regionalect 1649:Han dynasty 1602:Terminology 1556:wave models 1540:Han dynasty 1499:Miao people 1495:She Chinese 1335:Han Chinese 1150:Yuan Jiahua 986:Sui dynasty 969:in Europe. 876:, known as 817:Eastern Han 777:and middle 723:to eastern 717:tone sandhi 608:Eastern Min 105:Old Chinese 99:Early forms 16394:Categories 16285:Portuguese 16250:Macedonian 16092:XZ = Tibet 16083:MC = Macau 16023:Zhangzhung 15767:Sichuanese 15694:Vietnamese 15091:Hmong-Mien 14970:Waxianghua 14751:Khroskyabs 14039:Indigenous 13927:Prefecture 13902:Portuguese 13730:Wade–Giles 13629:Simplified 13524:Vernacular 13517:in Vietnam 13370:Simplified 13357:Biaoxingma 13304:Honorifics 13239:Historical 13184:Philippine 13174:Sichuanese 13101:Badong Yao 12805:Shao–Jiang 12676:Philippine 12484:Xiangxiang 12479:Shuangfeng 12224:Taizhou Wu 12007:Sichuanese 11636:Idu–Taraon 11590:Miju–Meyor 11483:Gyalrongic 11329:Tangkhulic 11104:Raji–Raute 10742:中国方志所錄方言滙編 10181:1887/14919 9283:Yue (2017) 9256:Yue (2017) 9232:Yue (2017) 9136:Yue (2017) 9085:Yue (2017) 9037:Yue (2017) 8989:Yue (2017) 8941:Yue (2017) 8905:Yue (2017) 8866:Yue (2017) 8854:Yue (2017) 8743:Yue (2017) 8656:Yue (2017) 8632:Yue (2017) 8518:Yan (2006) 8467:Yan (2006) 8455:Yan (2006) 8233:Yan (2006) 8211:, Map 124. 8101:Yan (2006) 8065:Yan (2006) 8029:Yan (2006) 7547:Yan (2006) 7523:Yan (2006) 7511:Yan (2006) 7371:Yan (2006) 7335:Yan (2006) 7180:Yan (2006) 6905:References 6711:competency 6703:Goh Report 6600:Kuomintang 6552:Sūn Yìxiān 6540:spellings 6517:Mao Zedong 6235:improve it 5604:Shuangfeng 5493:classifier 4442:'mountain' 3378:Shuangfeng 3268:Vocabulary 3214:Guangzhou 2809:departing 2735:tone split 2465:allophones 1998:Fricatives 1782:affricates 1697:, include 1625:Ethnologue 1560:Huai River 1552:tree model 1497:) and the 1491:She people 1391:Taishanese 1235:fricatives 1231:affricates 1225:initials ( 1201:, most of 1183:Kazakhstan 1179:Kyrgyzstan 705:vocabulary 488:hoe3 nyiu2 414:Wade–Giles 48:Geographic 16335:Ukrainian 16265:Norwegian 16185:Bulgarian 16165:Aromanian 16155:Aragonese 16133:Varieties 16003:Tocharian 15937:Qoqmončaq 15889:Cantonese 15843:Shaojiang 15816:Hainanese 15745:Zhongyuan 15740:Jiao-Liao 15674:Esperanto 15576:Ili Turki 15283:Khamnigan 15148:Kiong Nai 14919:Zitsadegu 13897:Mongolian 13887:Cantonese 13668:Taiwanese 13658:Cantonese 13502:Classical 13462:Proto-Min 13397:Microsoft 13256:Cantonese 13232:Phonology 13213:Cantonese 13204:Singdarin 13189:Malaysian 13179:Taiwanese 13083:Rongjiang 13073:Yongjiang 13069:Southern 13054:Northern 13028:Luo–Guang 12937:Hong Kong 12932:Guangzhou 12888:Taiwanese 12881:Changting 12815:Zhanjiang 12729:Zhongshan 12696:Malaysian 12691:Singapore 12656:Zhangzhou 12608:Zhongshan 12501:Yong–Quan 12397:Jing-Zhan 12327:Xuancheng 12304:Jiangshan 12183:Changzhou 12104:Junjiahua 11957:Guanzhong 11840:Changchun 11735:Proto-Min 11666:Macro-Bai 11544:Arunachal 11537:(possible 11352:Boro–Garo 11256:Kuki-Chin 11239:and Indo- 11154:Arunachal 11141:Himalayas 11116:Tandrange 11083:Chepangic 11014:Dhimalish 10948:Himalayas 10522:123103670 9868:2152/3598 9220:Li (2001) 8646:, Map 76. 8595:, Map 39. 8199:, Map 73. 8187:, Map 52. 8175:, Map 43. 8163:, Map 45. 8151:, Map 40. 8055:, Map 66. 6948:, Map A2. 6910:Citations 6685:bilingual 6638:Singapore 6441:does not 6387:immersion 6375:diglossia 6241:talk page 5639:Guangzhou 5402:particles 5382:Tai–Kadai 5378:substrata 3427:Guangzhou 3274:morphemes 3089:Shanghai 3028:Nanchang 2973:Changsha 2950:Yangzhou 2878:Mandarin 2812:entering 2777:Cantonese 2600:'hemp'), 2494:, nasals 2395:retained 2376:retained 2307:retroflex 2296:Old Xiang 2125:Sonorants 2003:voiceless 1687:consonant 1673:Phonology 1620:ISO 639-3 1433:category. 1387:Guangzhou 1383:Cantonese 1371:Hong Kong 1343:Indonesia 1311:Taiwanese 1299:Guangdong 1283:Old Xiang 1275:New Xiang 1223:obstruent 1167:Putonghua 1165:, called 931:Cantonese 836:diasystem 775:Wei River 751:Singapore 725:Guangdong 701:phonology 624:Háng-ngṳ̄ 544:hon3 jyu5 242:Glottolog 216:ISO 639-5 62:Singapore 16372:Language 16300:Romanian 16240:Japanese 16220:Georgian 16160:Armenian 16145:Albanian 15947:Tangwang 15927:Macanese 15922:Lingling 15855:Northern 15838:Northern 15801:Southern 15720:Mandarin 15647:Minority 15607:Sarikoli 15520:Tungusic 15481:Naxi Yao 15426:Cao Miao 15350:Ningming 15250:Mongolic 15226:Dzao Min 15221:Biao Min 15178:Qo Xiong 15173:Pingtang 14869:Dongwang 14811:Tshobdun 14736:Guiqiong 14338:Sangkong 14113:Muangphe 14075:Mondzish 14029:numerous 14020:Counties 13867:Regional 13851:Official 13752:Bopomofo 13681:Phonetic 13673:Two-cell 13602:Clerical 13512:in Japan 13507:Adoption 13495:Official 13486:Literary 13361:Boshiamy 13338:Xiehouyu 13294:Numerals 13271:Mandarin 13199:Standard 13159:Standard 13033:Qin–Lian 13023:Yong–Xun 13008:Gao–Yang 12954:Jiujiang 12942:Malaysia 12876:Tingzhou 12827:Wenchang 12788:Jianyang 12778:Northern 12737:Sanxiang 12651:Quanzhou 12634:Southern 12603:Manjiang 12467:Changsha 12427:Nanchang 12422:Chang–Du 12319:Xuanzhou 12309:Qingtian 12263:Wencheng 12209:Jiangyin 12204:Jinxiang 12194:Shaoxing 12188:Hangzhou 12168:Shanghai 12109:Qinjiang 12017:Minjiang 11989:Xinjiang 11947:Dongping 11911:Jiaoliao 11850:Shenyang 11823:Mandarin 11540:isolates 11507:Mondzish 11435:Cai–Long 11183:Tshangla 11139:Eastern 10982:Tamangic 10952:Himachal 10946:Western 10940:branches 10866:(1981), 10755:50634504 10667:23756757 10588:: 1–103. 10419:16024359 10401:30047639 10288:(1993), 10215:Li, Rong 10120:(1984), 10098:(eds.), 10071:(1988), 10061:23825447 10032:15 April 9980:(1991), 9821:(1984), 9799:(2019), 9468:16 March 8331:, Map 1. 6838:topolect 6742:See also 6622:and the 6576:Japanese 5807:'he/she' 5609:Nanchang 5599:Changsha 5594:Yangzhou 5537:Mandarin 5483:Nominals 5144:'middle' 4754:'yellow' 3437:'person' 3385:Nanchang 3371:Changsha 3364:Yangzhou 3298:Mandarin 3182:Meixian 3118:Wenzhou 2930:Chengdu 2904:Beijing 2858:Taiyuan 2292:Shanghai 1769:Mandarin 1725:Shanghai 1705:Initials 1661:topolect 1622:and the 1530:between. 1395:Jiangmen 1339:Malaysia 1317:and the 1203:Zhejiang 1199:Shanghai 1157:Mandarin 1041:Mandarin 787:Shandong 721:Zhejiang 658:Mandarin 538:Jyutping 386:Bopomofo 350:language 273:Xinjiang 248:sini1245 132:Mandarin 66:Malaysia 16358:Portals 16345:Yiddish 16330:Turkish 16325:Swedish 16320:Spanish 16315:Slovene 16305:Russian 16290:Punjabi 16275:Persian 16260:Maltese 16210:English 16195:Chinese 16190:Catalan 16180:Bengali 16018:Xianbei 16013:Tuyuhun 15983:Old Yue 15961:Extinct 15942:Sanqiao 15833:Central 15823:Eastern 15806:Hokkien 15750:Lan-Yin 15730:Beijing 15712:Chinese 15669:Russian 15431:Chadong 15411:Ai-Cham 15380:Tai Nüa 15365:Tai Dón 15360:Tai Dam 15318:Kra-Dai 15288:Monguor 15278:Kangjia 15236:Kim Mun 15231:Iu Mien 15153:Luobohe 15143:Huishui 15123:Guiyang 15100:Hmongic 15061:Palaung 15051:Man Met 14955:Longjia 14904:Ladakhi 14899:Kyirong 14889:Khalong 14874:Drugchu 14831:Tibetic 14801:Shixing 14713:Qiangic 14494:Alingpo 14486:Nisoish 14471:Yangliu 14466:Xuzhang 14396:Laizisi 14391:Kuamasi 14386:Kua-nsi 14368:Lisoish 14348:Tsukong 14288:Laomian 14213:Baihong 14180:Hanoish 14171:Loloish 14156:Lhao Vo 14151:Chashan 14136:Xiandao 14123:Burmish 14066:Burmese 14024:Banners 13980:Tai Nüa 13907:Tibetan 13892:English 13651:Braille 13612:Cursive 13562:Scripts 13429:History 13419:ZhengMa 13365:Cangjie 13331:Chengyu 13286:Grammar 13261:Hokkien 13218:Hokkien 13126:Waxiang 13106:Danzhou 13078:Guandao 13063:Younian 13058:Tongdao 13047:Pinghua 12987:Taishan 12903:Raoping 12871:Huizhou 12861:Meixian 12837:Banqiao 12810:Leizhou 12800:Pu–Xian 12795:Central 12783:Jian'ou 12758:Longyan 12706:Teochew 12643:Hokkien 12618:Nanlang 12574:Fu–Ning 12554:Changle 12536:Houguan 12527:Eastern 12474:Loushao 12462:Changyi 12444:Da–Tong 12439:Ying–Yi 12385:Yanzhou 12253:Wenzhou 12246:Oujiang 12237:Tiantai 12232:Taizhou 12141:Zhi–Yan 12088:Nantong 12083:Nanjing 12058:Gui–Liu 12048:Nanping 12043:Kunming 11969:Luoyang 11924:Qingdao 11896:Tianjin 11873:Beijing 11865:Beijing 11754:Italics 11615:Siangic 11596:Songlin 11575:Kho-Bwa 11553:Hrusish 11535:Dubious 11518:Loloish 11512:Burmish 11477:Qiangic 11448:Longjia 11415:Karenic 11409:Nungish 11389:Sinitic 11275:Hkongso 11237:Myanmar 11207:Gongduk 11171:Tibetic 11089:Chepang 11062:Magaric 11008:Kiranti 10988:Newaric 10819:at the 10809:at the 10410:1599877 10073:Chinese 9995:: 1–31. 9939:(ed.), 9675:汉语方言地图集 9649:汉语方言地图集 9622:汉语方言地图集 6843:fāngyán 6829:fāngyán 6738:group. 6715:Teochew 6701:). The 6462:removed 6447:sources 6044:in situ 5960:copular 5634:Meixian 5619:Wenzhou 5589:Chengdu 5584:Beijing 5574:Taiyuan 5392:Grammar 5300:'small' 5066:'below' 4988:'above' 4910:'black' 4832:'white' 4676:'green' 4520:'water' 3740:'snake' 3584:'woman' 3420:Meixian 3399:Wenzhou 3357:Chengdu 3350:Beijing 3336:Taiyuan 3217:1 ˥˧,˥ 3150:Xiamen 3060:Suzhou 2919:1,2,3,5 2806:rising 2562:in the 1765:Beijing 1666:fāngyán 1653:dialect 1647:in the 1635:fāngyán 1612:dialect 1562:to the 1475:Waxiang 1455:Guangxi 1449:Pinghua 1437:Huizhou 1414:Li Rong 1367:Guangxi 1307:Hokkien 1247:Jiangxi 1207:Jiangsu 1142:Wang Li 1131:Pinghua 1121:Huizhou 1043:(65.7%) 879:Guānhuà 812:Fangyan 769:History 761:of the 591:Hokkien 530:hon yúh 509:Hon Ngi 406:Hannyeu 187:Danzhou 182:Waxiang 88:Chinese 83:Sinitic 43:Sinitic 38:Chinese 16295:Romani 16280:Polish 16270:Pashto 16245:Korean 16225:German 16215:French 16200:Danish 16175:Basque 16150:Arabic 15998:Tangut 15988:Rouran 15978:Khitan 15968:Ba–Shu 15932:Maojia 15917:Hezhou 15828:Puxian 15811:Teoswa 15696:(Kinh) 15664:Kyrgyz 15659:Korean 15654:Kazakh 15558:Turkic 15543:Oroqen 15533:Manchu 15528:Evenki 15496:Qabiao 15486:Ong Be 15471:Maonan 15461:Lakkja 15451:Jiamao 15421:Buyang 15385:Tai Ya 15375:Tai Lü 15335:Bouyei 15327:Zhuang 15308:Torgut 15263:Buryat 15213:Mienic 15203:Younuo 15183:Raojia 15163:Pa-Hng 15158:Mashan 15128:Hm Nai 15113:Bu-Nao 15108:A-Hmao 15031:Bumang 14950:Jingpo 14945:Derung 14940:Caijia 14914:Zhongu 14884:Gserpa 14776:Namuyi 14746:Japhug 14695:Zauzou 14670:Namuyi 14655:Kucong 14629:Zokhuo 14624:Thopho 14604:Phupha 14589:Phukha 14534:Khlula 14476:Zibusi 14461:Toloza 14456:Sonaga 14441:Mangdi 14436:Lolopo 14381:Hlersu 14318:Phana’ 14313:Nuomei 14293:Laopin 14228:Bukong 14203:Angluo 14131:Achang 14108:Mondzi 14010:Zhuang 13985:Tai Lü 13975:Kazakh 13970:Kyrgyz 13955:Korean 13945:Bouyei 13917:Zhuang 13912:Uyghur 13720:Postal 13715:MPS II 13592:Bronze 13472:Ba–Shu 13392:Google 13387:Pinyin 13323:Idioms 13136:Yeheni 13018:Wu–Hua 13013:Goulou 12992:Xinhui 12969:Dapeng 12964:Weitou 12949:Xiguan 12924:Yuehai 12893:Sixian 12832:Haikou 12822:Hainan 12753:Zhenan 12719:Haklau 12714:Swatow 12686:Penang 12671:Taiwan 12666:Chawan 12613:Longdu 12582:Ningde 12559:Gutian 12549:Fuqing 12544:Fuzhou 12506:Qiyang 12489:Wugang 12434:Yi–Liu 12361:Xiu-Yi 12349:Ji-She 12299:Quzhou 12291:Chu–Qu 12281:Jinhua 12273:Wuzhou 12258:Rui'an 12199:Ningbo 12173:Suzhou 12063:Wuming 12034:Zigong 12022:Leshan 11984:Lanyin 11979:Dungan 11974:Xuzhou 11952:Gangou 11929:Weihai 11919:Dalian 11878:Taiwan 11845:Harbin 11628:Milang 11582:Puroik 11566:Mijiic 11490:Ersuic 11441:Caijia 11357:Konyak 11323:Meitei 11227:Chamdo 11164:Bodish 11150:Bhutan 11096:Bhujel 11043:Lepcha 11034:Lhokpu 11020:Dhimal 10965:Sikkim 10879:] 10872:方言调查字表 10839:汉語方音词汇 10796:汉語方音字汇 10773: 10753: 10728: 10701: 10682: 10665: 10639: 10620: 10601: 10537: 10520: 10485: 10459: 10417: 10407: 10399: 10315: 10296: 10274: 10255: 10227: 10160:Lingua 10147: 10128: 10106: 10079: 10059: 10043:论畬话的归属 10015: 9966: 9947: 9924: 9835: 9807: 9785: 9766: 9745: 9726: 9707: 9685: 9659: 9633: 9602: 9580: 9572:] 9565:汉语方音字汇 9511: 9439: 6564:Taiwan 6538:pinyin 6395:fluent 6199:aspect 5629:Xiamen 5624:Fuzhou 5614:Suzhou 5460:gōngjī 4364:'year' 4130:'nose' 3896:'bone' 3818:'meat' 3662:'fish' 3413:Xiamen 3406:Fuzhou 3392:Suzhou 3179:Hakka 3075:5 ˥˩˧ 3037:3 ˨˩˧ 2970:Xiang 2913:3 ˨˩˦ 2881:Xi'an 2803:level 2530:final 2408:Finals 2318:velars 2178:Nasals 2079:voiced 1963:voiced 1753:Suzhou 1741:Fuzhou 1579:Tianmu 1510:Yunnan 1467:Hainan 1427:Shanxi 1355:-p-t-k 1351:-m-n-ŋ 1345:. The 1315:Hainan 1303:Xiamen 1273:. The 1129: 1127: 1123:(0.3%) 1119: 1117: 1113:(3.0%) 1109: 1107: 1103:(3.5%) 1099: 1097: 1093:(3.9%) 1089: 1087: 1083:(5.2%) 1079: 1077: 1073:(5.6%) 1069: 1067: 1063:(6.1%) 1059: 1057: 1053:(6.2%) 1049: 1047: 1039: 1037: 848:Fujian 822:Qieyun 709:syntax 690:clades 615:Fuzhou 558:hon yü 450:Hàn-yǔ 436:Hàn-yǔ 421:Han-yu 392:ㄏㄢˋ ㄩˇ 269:Yunnan 235:79-AAA 58:Taiwan 16384:China 16255:Malay 16235:Hindi 16230:Greek 16205:Dutch 16008:Tuoba 15952:Wutun 15867:Xiang 15860:Auish 15786:Hakka 15735:Ji-Lu 15700:Wakhi 15689:Uzbek 15684:Tuvan 15679:Tatar 15600:Other 15586:Salar 15538:Nanai 15476:Mulam 15441:Gelao 15404:Other 15303:Santa 15298:Ordos 15293:Oirat 15258:Bonan 15198:Xixiu 15168:Pa Na 15133:Hmong 15118:Gejia 15066:Riang 15026:Bugan 15021:Bolyu 15016:Blang 14965:Tujia 14928:Other 14909:Tseku 14894:Khams 14879:Groma 14859:Choni 14849:Basum 14844:Baima 14821:Zhaba 14741:Horpa 14726:Choyo 14721:Baima 14690:Sanie 14665:Naruo 14650:Katso 14645:Gokhy 14638:Other 14614:Samei 14609:Phuza 14599:Phupa 14594:Phuma 14584:Phowa 14579:Phola 14574:Phala 14569:Nuosu 14524:Bokha 14499:Alugu 14446:Micha 14358:Yiche 14343:Suobi 14308:Nuobi 14278:Kaduo 14273:Kabie 14253:Habei 14243:Duota 14238:Duoni 14233:Cosao 14161:Zaiwa 14146:Lashi 14098:Mango 14093:Manga 14088:Maang 14083:Kathu 14064:Lolo- 13990:Zaiwa 13960:Qiang 13950:Tujia 13935:Hmong 13784:Nüshu 13488:forms 13402:Sogou 13349:Input 13223:Hakka 13161:forms 13001:Other 12959:Shiqi 12898:Hailu 12866:Wuhua 12853:Hakka 12771:Other 12746:Other 12681:Pedan 12596:Other 12587:Fu'an 12564:Matsu 12496:Ji–Xu 12454:Xiang 12404:] 12392:] 12380:] 12373:Qi-De 12368:] 12356:] 12214:Shadi 12160:Taihu 12114:Gyami 12097:Other 12053:Wuhan 11962:Xi'an 11901:Jinan 11559:Hruso 11455:Luren 11429:Kathu 11403:Tujia 11291:Taman 11262:Mruic 11249:Karbi 11190:Basum 11146:Tibet 11068:Magar 10994:Newar 10961:Nepal 10881:(PDF) 10875:[ 10841:[ 10798:[ 10765:[ 10745:[ 10663:JSTOR 10578:(PDF) 10518:S2CID 10475:(PDF) 10397:JSTOR 10247:[ 10057:JSTOR 10026:(PDF) 10005:(PDF) 9985:(PDF) 9677:[ 9651:[ 9625:[ 9574:(PDF) 9568:[ 6799:Sīnae 6771:Notes 6588:Hakka 6521:Hunan 5846:tɕʰiɛ 5720:'you' 5579:Xi'an 5562:Hakka 5542:Xiang 5222:'big' 5193:tɕyoŋ 4598:'red' 4052:'ear' 3974:'eye' 3506:'man' 3343:Xi'an 3323:Hakka 3303:Xiang 3289:Word 3272:Most 3238:7b ˧ 3226:4 ˨˧ 3223:3 ˧˥ 3220:2 ˨˩ 3203:7 ˨˩ 3200:5 ˦˨ 3191:3 ˧˩ 3188:2 ˩˨ 3171:7 ˧˨ 3159:3 ˥˩ 3156:2 ˨˦ 3142:8 ˩˨ 3139:7 ˨˧ 3133:5 ˦˨ 3130:4 ˨˦ 3127:3 ˦˥ 3124:2 ˧˩ 3113:8 ˨˧ 3098:3 ˧˥ 3095:2 ˨˦ 3092:1 ˦˨ 3084:8 ˨˧ 3078:6 ˧˩ 3069:3 ˦˩ 3066:2 ˨˦ 3052:8 ˨˩ 3046:6 ˨˩ 3043:5 ˦˥ 3034:2 ˨˦ 3031:1 ˦˨ 3020:2, 5 3014:5 ˧˥ 3008:3 ˨˩ 3005:2 ˨˧ 2994:7 ˨˦ 2991:6 ˨˩ 2982:3 ˦˩ 2979:2 ˩˧ 2959:3 ˧˩ 2956:2 ˧˥ 2953:1 ˨˩ 2942:5 ˩˧ 2939:3 ˥˧ 2936:2 ˧˩ 2916:5 ˥˩ 2910:2 ˧˥ 2890:3 ˦˨ 2887:2 ˨˦ 2884:1 ˧˩ 2873:8 ˥˦ 2870:7 ˨˩ 2864:3 ˥˧ 2726:, or 2674:shǎng 2568:tones 2546:Tones 2422:glide 2268:from 1777:Stops 1573:Some 1479:Hunan 1443:Anhui 1375:Macau 1331:Hakka 1325:Hakka 1271:Hubei 1267:Hunan 1261:Xiang 1255:Hakka 1227:stops 1211:Anhui 1171:Guoyu 1111:Xiang 1101:Hakka 951:Latin 785:into 743:China 713:tones 682:Hakka 670:Xiang 496:Hakka 378:Hànyǔ 335:Hànyǔ 167:Hakka 157:Xiang 54:China 16340:Urdu 16032:Sign 15993:Saka 15894:Ping 15615:Tsat 15566:Äynu 15548:Xibe 15506:Then 15491:Paha 15446:Hlai 15416:Biao 15390:Yang 15355:Nong 15268:Daur 15046:Mang 15041:Kuan 14960:Nung 14839:Amdo 14806:Situ 14786:Pumi 14781:Naxi 14771:Muya 14761:Lizu 14756:Laze 14731:Ersu 14685:Samu 14680:Nusu 14675:Naxi 14660:Lahu 14619:Sani 14564:Nisu 14559:Nasu 14554:Muzi 14549:Muji 14544:Moji 14539:Lope 14529:Gepo 14519:Azhe 14514:Azha 14504:Aluo 14451:Mili 14431:Lisu 14426:Lipo 14421:Limi 14416:Lawu 14411:Lavu 14406:Lamu 14401:Lalo 14353:Woni 14333:Sadu 14328:Qidi 14323:Piyo 14303:Muda 14283:Lami 14268:Jino 14263:Honi 14258:Hani 14223:Budu 14218:Bisu 14208:Asuo 14193:Akha 14188:Akeu 14141:Pela 14103:Maza 14005:Hani 13995:Lisu 13879:SARs 13745:Yale 13735:EFEO 13597:Seal 13382:Dayi 12979:Siyi 12661:Amoy 12178:Wuxi 12075:Huai 11888:Jilu 11676:Rung 11621:Koro 11495:Naic 11422:Gong 11378:and 11376:East 11334:Zeme 11303:Naga 11221:Tani 11214:ʼOle 11110:Dura 11075:Kham 11027:Toto 10771:ISBN 10751:OCLC 10726:ISBN 10699:ISBN 10680:ISBN 10637:ISBN 10618:ISBN 10599:ISBN 10535:ISBN 10483:ISBN 10457:ISBN 10415:PMID 10313:ISBN 10294:ISBN 10272:ISBN 10253:ISBN 10225:ISBN 10145:ISBN 10126:ISBN 10104:ISBN 10077:ISBN 10034:2018 10013:ISBN 9964:ISBN 9945:ISBN 9922:ISBN 9833:ISBN 9805:ISBN 9783:ISBN 9764:ISBN 9743:ISBN 9724:ISBN 9705:ISBN 9683:ISBN 9657:ISBN 9631:ISBN 9600:ISBN 9578:ISBN 9509:ISBN 9470:2024 9437:ISBN 6548:and 6528:and 6445:any 6443:cite 6157:*mau 6116:and 6026:COMP 5921:ATTR 5902:Case 5876:kʰøy 5699:ŋuai 5442:mǔjī 5404:and 5384:and 5364:siau 5354:sieu 5339:ɕiɛu 5329:ɕiau 5319:ɕiau 5314:ɕiau 5309:ɕiau 5304:ɕiau 5286:tʰai 5276:tuai 5213:tʃuŋ 5198:touŋ 5188:tsoŋ 5183:tsuŋ 5173:tʂən 5168:tsoŋ 5163:tsoŋ 5158:tʂuŋ 5153:pfəŋ 5148:tsuŋ 5047:tsiũ 5042:suɔŋ 5022:ɣiaŋ 4964:xaiʔ 4896:pʰak 4871:pʰak 4836:piəʔ 4798:ɦuɒŋ 4778:xuɑŋ 4773:xuaŋ 4768:xuaŋ 4763:xuaŋ 4758:xuɒ̃ 4740:liuk 4730:luɔʔ 4715:liuk 4680:luəʔ 4607:xuoŋ 4579:tsui 4549:ɕyei 4544:suəi 4539:suei 4534:ʂuei 4524:suei 4428:ɲian 4418:nieŋ 4403:ɲiɛn 4383:ɲiɛn 4378:niɛn 4373:ɲiæ̃ 4350:ɲiat 4340:ŋuɔʔ 4325:ɲyɔt 4257:ɲiai 4169:pʰit 4154:pieʔ 4134:pieʔ 4038:ɲian 4028:ŋiaŋ 3965:kuɐt 3950:kauʔ 3940:kuɤʔ 3920:kuəʔ 3900:kuəʔ 3882:ɲiuk 3867:ɲiəu 3862:ɲioʔ 3857:ɲiuk 3822:zuəʔ 3799:tsua 3530:liæ̃ 3471:ɲiɛn 3241:8 ˨ 3235:7a ˥ 3232:6 ˨ 3229:5 ˧ 3211:Yue 3206:8 ˦ 3194:1,3 3185:1 ˦ 3174:8 ˥ 3168:6 ˧ 3165:5 ˩ 3153:1 ˥ 3147:Min 3136:6 ˩ 3121:1 ˦ 3110:7 ˥ 3081:7 ˦ 3063:1 ˦ 3049:7 ˥ 3025:Gan 3017:6 ˧ 3002:1 ˦ 2988:5 ˥ 2976:1 ˧ 2965:7 ˦ 2962:5 ˥ 2933:1 ˦ 2907:1 ˥ 2893:5 ˥ 2867:5 ˥ 2861:1 ˩ 2855:Jin 2850:vd. 2841:vd. 2832:vd. 2823:vd. 2772:yáng 2663:píng 2514:and 2502:and 2490:and 2447:and 2439:and 1691:tone 1659:and 1581:and 1406:The 1373:and 1341:and 1329:The 1233:and 1209:and 1181:and 961:and 870:Qing 868:and 866:Ming 841:The 825:, a 807:Zhou 707:and 684:and 271:and 177:Ping 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