Mandarin Chinese - Knowledge

6681:"without prior exposure, speakers of different Mandarin dialects often have considerable difficulty understanding each other's local vernacular even if they come from the same province, provided that two or more distinct groups of Mandarin are spoken therein. In some cases, mutual intelligibility is not guaranteed even if the Mandarin dialects concerned belong to the same group and are spoken within the same province. As reported by a native speaker of the Zhenjiang dialect (a Jianghuai (Lower Yangtze) Mandarin dialect spoken in the Jiangsu province), it is impossible for her to understand the Nantong dialect (another Jianghuai Mandarin dialect spoken around 140 kilometers away in the same province)." 1473: 6557: 6749: 950: 9649: 2507: 11668: 4006: 3988: 3997: 3979: 449: 6571: 885: 1732: 2801: 461: 61: 12318: 2478:, Gan and Xiang groups, is weakly defined due to centuries of diffusion of northern features. Many border varieties have a mixture of features that make them difficult to classify. The boundary between Southwestern Mandarin and Xiang is particularly weak, and in many early classifications the two were not separated. 888: 1362:

language; rather, there are strong regional identities centred on individual dialects because of the wide geographical distribution and cultural diversity of their speakers. Speakers of forms of Mandarin other than the standard typically refer to the variety they speak by a geographic name—for example the

2034:. Comparison of dictionaries produced in the two areas will show that there are few substantial differences. However, both versions of "school-standard" Chinese are often quite different from the Mandarin varieties that are spoken in accordance with regional habits, and neither is wholly identical to the 887: 892: 891: 886: 2009:

because of their colonial and linguistic history. While Standard Mandarin is now the medium of instruction in schools throughout China, it still has yet to gain traction as a common language among the local population in areas where Mandarin dialects are not native. In these regions, people may be

5265:

Mandarin dialects frequently employ neutral tones in the second syllables of words, creating syllables whose tone contour is so short and light that it is difficult or impossible to discriminate. These atonal syllables also occur in non-Mandarin dialects, but in many southern dialects the tones of

4067:

stops and affricates had a three-way distinction between tenuis, voiceless aspirate and voiced (or breathy voiced) consonants. In Mandarin dialects the voicing is generally lost, yielding voiceless aspirates in syllables with a Middle Chinese level tone and non-aspirates in other syllables. Of the

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were colonized by speakers of Mandarin dialects at the same time, and the dialects in those areas similarly closely resemble their relatives in the core Mandarin area. The Southwest was settled early, but the population fell dramatically for obscure reasons in the 13th century, and did not recover

893: 5521:), which may be exclusive of the listener. Dialects of Mandarin agree with each other quite consistently on these pronouns. While the first and second person singular pronouns are cognate with forms in other varieties of Chinese, the rest of the pronominal system is a Mandarin innovation (e.g., 4072:

of Middle Chinese, the level, rising and departing tones have also developed into four modern tones in a uniform way across Mandarin dialects; the Middle Chinese level tone has split into two registers, conditioned on voicing of the Middle Chinese initial, while rising tone syllables with voiced

2252:

in 1979 by the government prioritized the language over traditional vernaculars in an attempt to create a common ethnic language and foster closer connections to China. This has led to a significant increase and presence of Mandarin usage in the country, coupled with a strong decline in usage of

1759:

The Chinese have different languages in different provinces, to such an extent that they cannot understand each other.... also have another language which is like a universal and common language; this is the official language of the mandarins and of the court; it is among them like Latin among

1590:

shows the typical Mandarin four-tone system resulting from a split of the "even" tone and loss of the entering tone, with its syllables distributed across the other tones (though their different origin is marked in the dictionary). Similarly, voiced plosives and affricates have become voiceless

1505:(Mongol) dynasties in northern China, a common form of speech developed based on the dialects of the North China Plain around the capital, a language referred to as Old Mandarin. New genres of vernacular literature were based on this language, including verse, drama and story forms, such as the 1361:

Native speakers who are not academic linguists may not recognize that the variants they speak are classified in linguistics as members of "Mandarin" (or so-called "Northern dialects") in a broader sense. Within Chinese social or cultural discourse, there is not a "Mandarin" identity based on

2014:

or speak the standard language with a notable accent. However, since the start of the 21st century, there has been an effort of mass education in Standard Mandarin Chinese and discouragement of local language usage by the Chinese government in order to erase these regional differences.

5624:

In general, the greatest variation occurs in slang, in kinship terms, in names for common crops and domesticated animals, for common verbs and adjectives, and other such everyday terms. The least variation occurs in "formal" vocabulary—terms dealing with science, law, or government.

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provided few barriers to migration, leading to relative linguistic homogeneity over a wide area in northern China. In contrast, the mountains and rivers of southern China have spawned the other six major groups of Chinese varieties, with great internal diversity, particularly in

894: 2264:

is used in informal daily life and is heavily influenced in terms of both grammar and vocabulary by local languages such as Cantonese, Hokkien, and Malay. Instances of code-switching with English, Hokkien, Cantonese, Malay, or a combination of any of these is also common.

1653:. Over time, the various spoken varieties diverged greatly from Literary Chinese, which was learned and composed as a special language. Preserved from the sound changes that affected the various spoken varieties, its economy of expression was greatly valued. For example, 890: 1544:, a rime dictionary based on 'Phags-pa. The rime books differ in some details, but overall show many of the features characteristic of modern Mandarin dialects, such as the reduction and disappearance of final plosives and the reorganization of the Middle Chinese tones. 1583:, each of the tones had split into two registers conditioned by the initials. When voicing was lost in all languages except the Wu subfamily, this distinction became phonemic and the system of initials and tones was rearranged differently in each of the major groups. 5896:

Some characters in Mandarin can be combined with others to indicate a particular meaning just like prefix and suffix in English. For example, the suffix -er which means the person who is doing the action, e.g. teacher, person who teaches. In Mandarin the character

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in 1960 kept Xiang and Gan separate, with Mandarin divided into Northern, Northwestern, Southwestern and Jiang–Huai (Lower Yangtze) subgroups. Of Yuan's four Mandarin subgroups, the Northwestern dialects are the most diverse, particularly in the province of

1674:

The literary language was less appropriate for documents that were meant to be performed or recited, such as plays or stories. From at least the Yuan dynasty plays that recounted the subversive tales of China's Robin Hoods to the Ming dynasty novels such as

6675:"the common term assigned by linguists to this group of languages implies a certain homogeneity which is more likely to be related to the sociopolitical context than to linguistic reality, since most of those varieties are not mutually intelligible." 1978:'common speech'). Some 54% of speakers of Mandarin varieties could understand the standard language in the early 1950s, rising to 91% in 1984. Nationally, the proportion understanding the standard rose from 41% to 90% over the same period. 1861:

on this koiné as the standard of the time, though he conceded that the Beijing dialect was gaining in influence. By the middle of the 19th century, the Beijing dialect had become dominant and was essential for any business with the imperial court.

1358:; 'Northern dialects'), is used less and less among Chinese linguists. By extension, the term "Old Mandarin" or "Early Mandarin" is used by linguists to refer to the northern dialects recorded in materials from the Yuan dynasty. 1705:). In many cases, this written language reflected Mandarin varieties and since pronunciation differences were not conveyed in this written form, this tradition had a unifying force across all the Mandarin-speaking regions and beyond. 1599:

in modern dialects and initial voiced fricatives. It also retained the distinction between velars and alveolar sibilants in palatal environments, which later merged in most Mandarin dialects to yield a palatal series (rendered

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In the Beijing dialect that underlies the standard language, syllables beginning with original voiceless consonants were redistributed across the four tones in a completely random pattern. For example, the three characters

2299:, where Mandarin is increasingly used alongside Cantonese as a lingua franca in part due to Singaporean influence. As in Singapore, the local colloquial variant of Mandarin exhibits influences from Cantonese and Malay. 3696:. In other dialects they have been lost, with varying effects on the vowel. As a result, Beijing Mandarin and Northeastern Mandarin underwent more vowel mergers than many other varieties of Mandarin. For example: 4060:

tones of (55), (35), (214), and (51). The exception to this rule lies in the distribution of syllables formerly ending in a stop consonant, which are treated differently in different dialects of Mandarin.

4486:. In line with traditional Chinese phonology, dialects such as Lower Yangtze and Minjiang are thus said to have five tones instead of four. However, modern linguistics considers these syllables as having no 2259:

is nearly identical to the standards of China and Taiwan, with minor vocabulary differences. It is the Mandarin variant used in education, media, and official settings. Meanwhile, a colloquial form called

1780:

spoke only their local variety. As a practical measure, officials of the Ming and Qing dynasties carried out the administration of the empire using a common language based on Mandarin varieties, known as

4025: 951: 3345:, though they often have a different distribution than in the standard language. In most dialects of the southeast and southwest the retroflex initials have merged with the alveolar sibilants, so that 889: 1134:

for government officials and the courts since the 14th century. In the early 20th century, a standard form based on the Beijing dialect, with elements from other Mandarin dialects, was adopted as the

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The classification of Chinese dialects evolved during the 20th century, and many points remain unsettled. Early classifications tended to follow provincial boundaries or major geographical features.

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Because of contact with Mongolian and Manchurian peoples, Mandarin (especially the Northeastern varieties) has some loanwords from these languages not present in other varieties of Chinese, such as

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For purposes of this Law, the standard spoken and written Chinese language means Putonghua (a common speech with pronunciation based on the Beijing dialect) and the standardized Chinese characters.

2283:, Mandarin has been adopted by local Chinese-language schools as the medium of instruction with the standard based on that of Singapore. However, it is not as widespread in daily life among the 5858:) is characteristic of Mandarin dialects. Some southern dialects, and a few Lower Yangtze dialects, preserve an older pattern of subordination without a marking particle, while in others a 4452:

mark characters whose pronunciation formerly ended with a stop with a superscript 5; however, this tone number is more commonly used for syllables that always have a neutral tone (see below).

1711:, a pivotal figure of the first half of the twentieth century, wrote an influential and perceptive study of this literary tradition, entitled "A History of Vernacular Literature" ( 2565:. The Beijing dialect forms the basis of Standard Chinese. This classification is controversial, as a number of researchers view Beijing and Northeastern Mandarin as a single dialect group. 4073:

obstruent initials have shifted to the departing tone. The following examples from the standard language illustrate the regular development common to Mandarin dialects (recall that pinyin

2711:, etc. There are significant phonological and lexical changes to varying degrees, and intelligibility with Beijing is limited. Lower Yangtze Mandarin has been significantly influenced by 2057:

Mandarin is spoken across northern and southwestern China, with some pockets in neighbouring countries. Unlike their compatriots on the southeast coast, few Mandarin speakers engaged in

4406:". These final stops have disappeared in most Mandarin dialects, with the syllables distributed over the other four modern tones in different ways in the various Mandarin subgroups. 4023: 7716: 2173:

While the spoken standard of Taiwanese Mandarin is nearly identical to that of mainland China, the colloquial form has been heavily influenced by other local languages, especially

10061: 10052: 1154:. Recent increased migration from Mandarin-speaking regions of China and Taiwan has now resulted in the language being one of the more frequently used varieties of Chinese among 6672:"Hence we see that even Mandarin includes within it an unspecified number of languages, very few of which have ever been reduced to writing, that are mutually unintelligible." 2170:. The Taiwanese standard of Mandarin differs very little from that of mainland China, with differences largely in some technical vocabulary developed from the 1950s onwards. 2018:

From an official point of view, the mainland Chinese and the Taiwanese governments maintain their own forms of the standard under different names. The codified forms of both

1800:, issued a decree requiring the governors of those provinces to provide for the teaching of proper pronunciation. Although the resulting Academies for Correct Pronunciation ( 10546: 11091: 7681: 6542:

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

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In traditional Chinese phonology, syllables that ended in a stop in Middle Chinese (i.e. /p/, /t/ or /k/) were considered to belong to a special category known as the "

4024: 2609:, due to migration. Very noticeable tonal changes, different in "flavour" from Ji–Lu Mandarin, but with more variance. There is moderate intelligibility with Beijing. 9171: 11053: 1534:

tradition that had evolved over the previous centuries, this dictionary contains a wealth of information on the phonology of Old Mandarin. Further sources are the

5671:. Although modern varieties, including the Mandarin dialects, use a small number of particles in a similar fashion to suffixes, they are still strongly analytic. 2494:

dialects have features of both Mandarin and Wu, and have been assigned to one or other of these groups or treated as separate by various authors. Li Rong and the

2471:(1987). Many other linguists continue to include these dialects in the Mandarin group, pointing out that the Lower Yangtze dialects also retain the glottal stop. 8938:

Szeto, Pui Yiu; Ansaldo, Umberto; Matthews, Stephen (2018), "Typological variation across Mandarin dialects: An areal perspective with a quantitative approach",

11793: 10575: 3384:. In about 20% of dialects, the alveolar sibilants did not palatalize, remaining separate from the alveolo-palatal initials. (The unique pronunciation used in 8470: 2777:, recorded in the 19th century in the Tibetan foothills, who the Chinese apparently did not recognize as Chinese. Some northwestern Mandarin varieties in the 2528:

calls the remainder of Mandarin a "supergroup", divided into eight dialect groups distinguished by their treatment of the Middle Chinese entering tone (see

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The flourishing vernacular literature of the period also shows distinctively Mandarin vocabulary and syntax, though some, such as the third-person pronoun

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aspirates in the "even" tone and voiceless non-aspirates in others, another distinctive Mandarin development. However, the language still retained a final

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has been within the Mandarin-speaking area for most of the last millennium, making these dialects very influential. Some form of Mandarin has served as a

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The maximal inventory of initials of a Mandarin dialect is as follows, with bracketed pinyin spellings given for those present in the standard language:

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Rénrén shēng ér zìyóu, zài zūnyán hé quánlì shàng yīlù píngděng. Tāmen fùyǒu lǐxìng hé liángxīn, bìng yīng yǐ xiōngdì guānxì de jīngshén hùxiāng duìdài.

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alter the inherent meaning of a sentence. Like much vocabulary, particles can vary a great deal with regards to the locale. For example, the particle

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Linguists use the term "Mandarin" to refer to the diverse group of dialects spoken in northern and southwestern China, which Chinese linguists call

15268: 11509: 6678:"A speaker of only standard Mandarin might take a week or two to comprehend even simple Kunminghua with ease—and then only if willing to learn it." 5278:. This is partly because Mandarin has undergone many more sound changes than southern varieties of Chinese have, and needed to deal with many more 8496: 2081:

However, the varieties of Mandarin cover a huge area containing nearly a billion people. As a result, there are pronounced regional variations in

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In the early 1950s, only 54% of people in the Mandarin-speaking area could understand Standard Chinese, which was based on the Beijing dialect.

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sentences. In northern dialects the indirect object precedes the direct object (as in English), for example in the Standard Chinese sentence:

1810:) were short-lived, the decree did spawn a number of textbooks that give some insight into the ideal pronunciation. Common features included: 14641: 2193:

between Mandarin and Taiwanese Hokkien is common, as the majority of the population continues to also speak the latter as a native language.

8971:, Journal of Chinese Linguistics Monograph Series, vol. 3, Chinese University Press, Project on Linguistic Analysis, pp. 185–234, 3469:

corresponding to the zero initial of the standard language. This initial is the result of a merger of the Middle Chinese zero initial with

12352: 4425: 15373: 16889: 11676: 10914: 7287: 6794: 3946:, a characteristic feature of Mandarin, works quite differently in the southwest. Whereas Beijing dialect generally removes only a final 7717:"The Lost Hui: How a People from China Mastered the Cyrillic Alphabet and Found Themselves on the Other Side of the Celestial Mountains" 2030:

on the Beijing accent, and also take some elements from other sources, and deviate from the Beijing dialect in vocabulary, grammar, and

10303: 8772: 7744:"Dispatch from the Chüy Valley Since ethnic violence in 2020, Dungans on the Kyrgyz-Kazakh border have straddled two different worlds" 453:

Mandarin area in China as of 1987, including Sichuanese, Lower Yangtze and (in light green) Jin, which are arguably separate languages

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remain in use in Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau. Singapore has followed mainland China in officially adopting simplified characters.

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until the 17th century. The dialects in this area are now relatively uniform. However, long-established cities even very close to

17053: 14247: 12396: 10890: 10382: 6827: 2550: 255: 7671: 7603: 2457:

proposed that the northwestern dialects of Shanxi and neighbouring areas that retain a final glottal stop in the Middle Chinese

1538:

based on the Tibetan alphabet, which was used to write several of the languages of the Mongol empire, including Chinese and the

11974: 9418: 5348:), made from elements meaning "hurried" and "busy". A distinctive feature of southwestern Mandarin is its frequent use of noun 4448: 2869:. Not all combinations occur. For example, Standard Chinese (based on the Beijing dialect) has about 1,200 distinct syllables. 1830:

the characteristic Mandarin four-tone system in open syllables, but retaining a final glottal stop in "entering tone" syllables

1726: 197: 24: 7562: 16523: 15779: 11213: 9092: 9069: 9050: 9031: 9012: 8993: 8899: 8880: 8861: 8842: 8743: 8688: 8669: 8589: 8563: 8540: 6902: 6589: 6329: 3636:

in contrast to the larger sets of monophthongs common in other dialect groups (and some widely scattered Mandarin dialects).

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with the standard language (or are only partially intelligible). Nevertheless, Mandarin as a group is often placed first in

15261: 12414: 12024: 6610: 4459:) and Jin Chinese (sometimes considered non-Mandarin), former final stops were not deleted entirely, but were reduced to a 2749:. There are sharp phonological, lexical, and tonal changes, and intelligibility with Beijing is limited to varying degrees. 1952:

finally settled on the Beijing dialect in 1932. The People's Republic, founded in 1949, retained this standard, calling it

1858: 7518:

Yao, Qian (September 2014). "Analysis of Computer Terminology Translation Differences between Taiwan and Mainland China".

6795:"Law of the People's Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (Order of the President No.37)" 2635:, due to recent migration. There are significant phonological differences, with partial intelligibility with Beijing. The 15689: 11866: 9439: 9159: 8714: 3289: 3277: 3246: 3147: 2322: 513: 5258:* Dialects in and around the Nantong area typically have many more than 4 tones, due to influence from the neighbouring 1370:, all being regarded as distinct from the standard language, with which they may not share much mutual intelligibility. 12541: 8909:

Rimsky-Korsakoff Dyer, Svetlana (1977–1978), "Soviet Dungan nationalism: a few comments on their origin and language",

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In southern dialects, as well as many southwestern and Lower Yangtze dialects, the objects occur in the reverse order.

2547:. This dialect is closely related to Standard Chinese, with little variation in lexicon and very few tonal differences. 9421:

Comprehensive tone comparison charts for 523 Mandarin dialects. (Compiled by James Campbell) – Internet Archive mirror

2591:. Tones and vocabulary are markedly different. In general, there is substantial intelligibility with Beijing Mandarin. 14634: 8037: 7633: 2840: 2818: 2380: 2376: 1885: 1837:

velars and dental affricates, the source of the spellings "Peking" and "Tientsin" for modern "Beijing" and "Tianjin".

957: 9024:

Atlas of Languages of Intercultural Communication in the Pacific, Asia, and the Americas: Vol I: Maps. Vol II: Texts

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also includes several unclassified Mandarin dialects spoken in scattered pockets across southeastern China, such as

2441:, while splitting the remaining Mandarin dialects between Northern, Lower Yangtze and Southwestern Mandarin groups. 1248:, with some lexical and syntactic influence from other Mandarin dialects. It is the official spoken language of the 16783: 12345: 9648: 8466: 8967:

Ting, Pang-Hsin (1991), "Some theoretical issues in the study of Mandarin dialects", in Wang, William S-Y. (ed.),

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missionaries learned this standard language in the 16th century, they called it "Mandarin", from its Chinese name

1104:

compared to the more mountainous south, combined with the relatively recent spread of Mandarin to frontier areas.

17063: 17043: 15254: 12444: 11946: 10173: 3210: 2933: 1849:

area, though not identical to any single dialect. This form remained prestigious long after the capital moved to

1379: 503: 2005:, the standard form of Chinese used in education, the media, formal speech, and everyday life remains the local 1908:, which was based on northern dialects. A parallel priority was the definition of a standard national language ( 17048: 16228: 15682: 10653: 10296: 9432: 2822: 2046: 1965: 1909: 1215:

empires. Since their native varieties were often mutually unintelligible, these officials communicated using a

1038: 976: 861: 729: 692: 558: 314: 82: 2421:

voiced initials. His Mandarin group included dialects of northern and southwestern China, as well as those of

17068: 15465: 15324: 15131: 12262: 11716: 3234: 3135: 2877: 2256: 2069:

Most Han Chinese living in northern and southwestern China are native speakers of a dialect of Mandarin. The

2042: 1957: 1917: 1834: 1396:. Traditionally, seven major groups of dialects have been recognized. Aside from Mandarin, the other six are 1159: 1030: 966: 715: 542: 439: 310: 78: 3684:

The Middle Chinese final stops have undergone a variety of developments in different Mandarin dialects (see

17038: 16793: 16223: 14627: 13477: 12537: 12321: 12232: 11756: 10231: 10178: 9834: 6604: 3301: 3222: 3123: 2885: 2778: 2405: 2116:

of the area now speak these dialects exclusively; their native language is only maintained in northwestern

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until the late 20th century, but there are now significant communities of them in cities across the world.

1949: 1854: 1785:. Knowledge of this language was thus essential for an official career, but it was never formally defined. 1127: 6706: 5249: 5245: 5239: 5235: 5229: 5223: 5217: 5204: 5198: 5192: 5186: 5180: 5164: 5158: 5152: 5146: 5133: 5127: 5121: 5115: 5102: 5096: 5090: 5084: 5071: 5065: 5059: 5053: 5047: 5034: 5028: 5022: 5016: 5000: 4994: 4988: 4975: 4969: 4963: 4957: 4941: 4935: 4929: 4916: 4910: 4904: 4898: 4885: 4879: 4873: 4867: 4854: 4848: 4842: 4836: 4820: 4814: 4808: 4802: 4789: 4783: 4777: 4771: 4755: 4749: 4743: 4736: 4720: 4714: 4708: 4702: 4686: 4680: 4674: 4668: 4463: 4086: 4078: 3958: 3951: 3947: 3935: 3930: 3925: 3920: 3896: 3891: 3886: 3881: 3876: 3871: 3866: 3842: 3837: 3832: 3827: 3822: 3817: 3800: 3795: 3790: 3785: 3780: 3775: 3770: 3670: 3663: 3656: 3652: 3648: 3640: 3625: 3621: 3586: 3579: 3575: 3568: 3564: 3548: 3544: 3540: 3527: 3517: 3513: 3503: 3499: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3447: 3443: 3433: 3429: 3425: 3421: 3414: 3407: 3400: 3396: 3381: 3377: 3373: 3342: 3338: 2903: 17033: 14922: 14722: 12392: 12338: 12237: 12109: 12034: 11691: 10224: 9879: 9801: 9517: 5675: 1560: 1498: 795: 626: 7743: 7115:

Linguae Sinarum Mandarinicae hieroglyphicae grammatica duplex, latinè, & cum characteribus Sinensium

2295:

serves as the common language (especially in commerce and local media). An exception is in the state of

1088:; it is spoken by 70 percent of all Chinese speakers over a large geographical area that stretches from 16263: 15663: 12279: 12252: 12129: 12041: 11788: 11768: 8834: 8492: 3321: 3309: 3044: 3032: 2790: 1945: 1905: 1688: 1944:). After much dispute between proponents of northern and southern dialects and an abortive attempt at 1746:("Middle Kingdom's Common Speech"), used on the frontispiece of an early Chinese grammar published by 1100:

in the northeast. This is generally attributed to the greater ease of travel and communication in the

17028: 16118: 15784: 13386: 11831: 10529: 10289: 10124: 9571: 9492: 8826: 8360: 5376:). There are also a small number of words that have been polysyllabic since Old Chinese, such as 3319: 3307: 3299: 3287: 3275: 3258: 3256: 3244: 3232: 3220: 3208: 3187: 3175: 3163: 3145: 3133: 3121: 3100: 3084: 3072: 3058: 3042: 3030: 3013: 2997: 2985: 2968: 2308: 2185:

series (z, c, s), frequent mergers of the "neutral tone" with a word's original tone, and absence of

2104:, did not receive significant settlements by Han Chinese until the 18th century, and as a result the 7527: 6748: 1472: 16148: 15804: 13867: 13406: 13371: 12472: 12205: 12190: 12180: 11894: 10205: 9808: 9621: 5879:), which is used in most northern dialects to denote obviousness or contention, is replaced by 5859: 5567: 3620:, are common in Mandarin dialects, though they also occur elsewhere. The Middle Chinese off-glides 3589:. This is a stereotypical feature of southwestern Mandarin, since it is so easily noticeable. E.g. 3439:

People in many Mandarin-speaking areas may use different initial sounds where Beijing uses initial

2321:

variant close to the Yunnanese dialect is spoken by local Chinese and other ethnic groups. In some

1683: 1494: 433: 330: 320: 8732:

Chinese Language(s): A Look Through the Prism of "The Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects"

5274:

There are more polysyllabic words in Mandarin than in all other major varieties of Chinese except

1264:. It also functions as the language of instruction in mainland China and Taiwan. It is one of the 16961: 16874: 16605: 16358: 16308: 16288: 16208: 16193: 16128: 15762: 14799: 14568: 14262: 13520: 13431: 13313: 13308: 12217: 10456: 10199: 9985: 9869: 9060:

Yue, Anne O. (2003), "Chinese dialects: grammar", in Thurgood, Graham; LaPolla, Randy J. (eds.),

5575: 3060: 2811: 2612: 2516: 2467: 2384: 2249: 1422: 903: 382: 275: 19:

This article is about the group of Chinese language varieties. For the standardized variety, see

12210: 12059: 7628:

Lee Kuan Yew, "From Third World to First: The Singapore Story: 1965–2000", HarperCollins, 2000 (

5485:) added for the plural. Further, there is a distinction between the plural first-person pronoun 16989: 16926: 16452: 16113: 16018: 15973: 15913: 15774: 15532: 15352: 15277: 14957: 14762: 14757: 14752: 14747: 14658: 14291: 14108: 13790: 12615: 12610: 12581: 12569: 12151: 11994: 10592: 10245: 10238: 10018: 9952: 9455: 8807: 5678:

is common across Chinese dialects, but there are variations in the order of the two objects of

5579: 3689: 2680: 1147: 1070: 270: 137: 16423: 9137:

Dwyer, Arienne M. (1995), "From the Northwest China Sprachbund: Xúnhuà Chinese dialect data",

7284: 6798: 6692:

Speaker numbers are rounded to the nearest million from figures in the revised edition of the

16831: 16333: 16213: 15958: 15811: 15705: 15378: 15235: 14580: 14556: 14279: 14242: 12740: 12146: 12069: 11783: 11761: 10516: 10349: 10188: 10138: 9694: 9297:

Kong, Huifang; Wu, Shengyi; Li, Mingxing (2022). "Hefei Mandarin". Illustrations of the IPA.

8793:"What Is a Chinese "Dialect/Topolect"? Reflections on Some Key Sino-English Linguistic terms" 2999: 2987: 2926: 2922: 2718: 2536: 2318: 2105: 1646: 1579:). Syllables with voiced initials tended to be pronounced with a lower pitch and by the late 1367: 1204: 1074: 1062: 389: 285: 250: 14454: 9337:

Western Mandarin: or the spoken language of western China, with syllabic and English indexes

8757: 1853:

in 1421, though the speech of the new capital emerged as a rival standard. As late as 1815,

16984: 16966: 16708: 16687: 16278: 15968: 15799: 15789: 15587: 15490: 15139: 14227: 14088: 13907: 13887: 13872: 13608: 13573: 13381: 11914: 11882: 11711: 10836: 10331: 10000: 9846: 9792: 2895:

one syllable contains maximum four phonemes (maximum three vowels and no consonant cluster)

2417:

produced the first classification based on phonetic criteria, principally the evolution of

2229: 2207: 1990: 1889: 1764: 1385: 243: 1637:

Until the early 20th century, formal writing and even much poetry and fiction was done in

8: 16936: 16884: 16849: 16682: 16576: 16467: 16313: 16258: 16003: 15858: 15833: 15643: 15565: 15560: 15473: 15448: 15230: 15218: 14898: 14650: 14540: 14520: 14284: 14211: 13912: 13862: 13857: 13268: 12835: 12419: 12158: 12124: 11959: 11926: 11773: 11701: 11618: 11459: 11454: 11208: 11018: 10524: 10183: 9773: 9600: 9531: 9401: 9335: 8599: 7164: 5475: 4471: 3203: 3189: 3177: 3165: 3114: 3102: 3086: 3074: 2963: 2918: 2889: 1981:

This standard language is now used in education, the media, and formal occasions in both

1552: 1535: 1363: 1171: 1066: 1025:

and most Mandarin dialects are found in the north, the group is sometimes referred to as

182: 13897: 13882: 12497: 9379: 9368: 9324: 8631:——— (2003), "Robert Morrison and the Phonology of Mid-Qīng Mandarin", 5511: 5493: 5384: 1747: 16650: 16556: 16398: 16363: 16328: 16183: 16163: 16133: 15873: 15478: 15213: 15111: 14983: 14817: 14735: 14676: 14667: 14485: 14257: 14191: 14140: 14093: 14037: 13767: 13710: 13436: 12592: 12361: 12274: 12141: 12104: 11989: 11887: 11821: 11816: 11706: 11696: 11322: 11300: 11193: 11001: 10996: 10919: 10907: 10895: 10883: 10871: 10395: 10024: 9633: 9499: 9202: 8972: 8955: 8926: 8648: 8619: 8529: 7531: 6973: 6849: 6705:

The development is purely due to the preservation of an early glide which later became

6599: 6584: 5866: 5804: 5772: 5656: 5652: 4037: 3609: 3015: 2862: 2602: 2598: 2580: 2544: 2454: 2414: 2274: 2182: 2161: 1884:

in the early 1900s and the successive Republican government. In the early years of the

1108: 306: 265: 172: 73: 15878: 13892: 12502: 6823: 4595:

Although the system of tones is common across Mandarin dialects, their realization as

2651:

have reported being understood by speakers of the Beijing dialect, but not vice versa.

1272:, under the name "Chinese". Chinese speakers refer to the modern standard language as 425: 16901: 16879: 16773: 16672: 16667: 16655: 16645: 16610: 16408: 16373: 16203: 16173: 16043: 15943: 15933: 15794: 15733: 15720: 15623: 15618: 15608: 15582: 15577: 15572: 15540: 15500: 15418: 15383: 15314: 15198: 15193: 15155: 15015: 14966: 14931: 14844: 14784: 14464: 14124: 13998: 13943: 13835: 13743: 13738: 13695: 13617: 13348: 13328: 13253: 13230: 13003: 12885: 12855: 12697: 12688: 12640: 12630: 12477: 12409: 12185: 12175: 12054: 12019: 11874: 11826: 11778: 11545: 11398: 11332: 11188: 11173: 10844: 10821: 10775: 10700: 10626: 10506: 10474: 10428: 10367: 10357: 10322: 10132: 10092: 10070: 10035: 10029: 9994: 9932: 9926: 9906: 9700: 9688: 9671: 9579: 9525: 9505: 9111: 9088: 9065: 9046: 9027: 9008: 8989: 8959: 8895: 8876: 8857: 8838: 8739: 8735: 8684: 8665: 8662:

Creole and dialect continua: standard acquisition processes in Belize and China (PRC)

8652: 8585: 8559: 8552: 8536: 8033: 7629: 7607: 7535: 7170: 6977: 6965: 6898: 5786: 5660: 5640: 2594: 2284: 2174: 2070: 1789: 1139: 1135: 1101: 1002: 845: 837: 676: 668: 325: 142: 16153: 15993: 9370:

The Standard System of Mandarin Romanization: Introduction, Sound Table an Syllabary

9346: 1842: 1216: 509: 16896: 16864: 16859: 16718: 16692: 16677: 16620: 16393: 16353: 16273: 16268: 16248: 16238: 16198: 16188: 16178: 16123: 16093: 16083: 16038: 16008: 15918: 15883: 15767: 15613: 15555: 15520: 15510: 15495: 15410: 15171: 14890: 14854: 14839: 14834: 14827: 14812: 14535: 14530: 14500: 14459: 14439: 14328: 14323: 14267: 14186: 14075: 13948: 13928: 13877: 13844: 13805: 13800: 13795: 13753: 13748: 13730: 13578: 13568: 13472: 13421: 13416: 13391: 13318: 13011: 12988: 12983: 12913: 12908: 12903: 12865: 12805: 12730: 12673: 12668: 12653: 12424: 12375: 12291: 11811: 11686: 11550: 11540: 11525: 11471: 11393: 11344: 11305: 11254: 11168: 11120: 11104: 10984: 10944: 10939: 10826: 10780: 10726: 10721: 10711: 10705: 10534: 10479: 10464: 10312: 10153: 10113: 10083: 10057: 10007: 9965: 9874: 9851: 9744: 9724: 9681: 9606: 9469: 9357: 9302: 9283: 9258: 9146: 9123: 9083:

education and language policy in postcolonial Hong Kong", in Zhou, Minglang (ed.),

8947: 8922: 8918: 8640: 8611: 8380: 8376: 7523: 6957: 5668: 5664: 4456: 2958: 2953: 2766: 2506: 2387:

dialects of southeast Gansu and southwest Shaanxi, and write their language in the

2217: 2058: 1901: 1871: 1769:

Historia del principio y progresso de la Compañía de Jesús en las Indias Orientales

1668: 1642: 1638: 1556: 1526: 1241: 1155: 1018: 916: 760: 591: 280: 223: 147: 20: 14083: 9731: 6709:

and triggered palatalization, and does not indicate the absence of a vowel merger.

2872:

Phonological features that are generally shared by the Mandarin dialects include:

1115:

have disappeared in most of these varieties, but some have merged them as a final

16916: 16906: 16760: 16728: 16723: 16713: 16660: 16598: 16591: 16540: 16383: 16298: 16293: 16233: 16138: 16103: 16098: 16088: 16078: 16033: 16023: 16013: 15953: 15948: 15928: 15923: 15754: 15728: 15633: 15628: 15550: 15545: 15515: 15483: 15453: 15203: 15106: 15086: 15020: 14903: 14880: 14875: 14849: 14740: 14730: 14689: 14684: 14515: 14505: 14495: 14444: 14434: 14308: 14181: 14176: 14171: 14060: 14050: 14045: 14013: 14003: 13988: 13978: 13968: 13938: 13902: 13852: 13815: 13780: 13720: 13700: 13680: 13645: 13630: 13625: 13548: 13487: 13467: 13462: 13457: 13401: 13293: 13263: 13212: 13187: 13172: 13146: 13141: 13121: 13106: 13051: 12993: 12978: 12973: 12958: 12953: 12898: 12830: 12810: 12745: 12720: 12648: 12625: 12527: 12492: 12487: 12462: 12434: 12429: 12242: 12222: 12119: 12079: 12064: 11803: 11653: 11643: 11623: 11580: 11575: 11441: 11405: 11388: 11378: 11317: 11135: 11071: 11013: 10961: 10956: 10858: 10754: 10749: 10658: 10605: 10600: 10580: 10565: 10560: 10501: 10496: 10486: 10469: 10441: 10413: 10390: 10145: 10099: 9958: 9840: 9779: 9613: 9560: 9551: 9537: 9390: 9085:

Language policy in the People's Republic of China: theory and practice since 1949

7676: 7291: 6594: 6576: 5634: 4057: 3943: 3567:, is lost after apical initials in several areas. Thus Southwestern Mandarin has 2980: 2973: 2881: 2654: 2636: 2588: 2540: 2491: 2388: 2334: 2237: 2128: 2109: 2097: 2035: 1521: 1431: 1245: 1085: 1010: 823: 654: 369: 365: 129: 119: 2041:

The written forms of Standard Chinese are also essentially equivalent, although

1244:, which is often called simply "Chinese". Standard Mandarin Chinese is based on 981: 971: 565: 549: 16869: 16586: 16528: 16496: 16491: 16413: 16403: 16388: 16348: 16323: 16318: 16303: 16283: 16253: 16243: 16218: 16168: 16143: 16073: 16068: 16028: 15998: 15938: 15898: 15893: 15888: 15868: 15848: 15828: 15443: 15329: 15319: 15298: 15208: 15091: 15063: 14870: 14822: 14779: 14769: 14712: 14694: 14525: 14469: 14449: 14252: 14217: 14206: 14201: 14196: 14103: 14055: 13993: 13963: 13958: 13820: 13810: 13775: 13685: 13650: 13635: 13583: 13543: 13538: 13533: 13482: 13426: 13396: 13376: 13366: 13361: 13338: 13258: 13243: 13238: 13207: 13182: 13167: 13162: 13131: 13126: 13116: 13111: 13101: 13096: 13091: 13086: 13041: 13016: 12963: 12875: 12860: 12825: 12795: 12790: 12770: 12760: 12755: 12750: 12678: 12663: 12605: 12600: 12507: 12467: 12452: 12296: 12286: 12257: 12247: 11964: 11936: 11648: 11633: 11535: 11486: 11481: 11466: 11410: 11349: 11231: 11203: 11183: 11130: 11099: 11076: 11066: 11061: 11023: 11006: 10951: 10816: 10798: 10716: 10690: 10631: 10551: 10539: 10491: 10446: 10436: 10362: 10215: 10193: 10107: 10076: 10012: 9972: 9946: 9920: 9897: 9820: 9766: 9738: 9707: 9585: 9511: 8753: 7985: 7771: 6636: 4064: 3428:

are not distinguished. In Southwestern Mandarin, these sounds usually merge to

3025: 2899: 2418: 2360: 2225: 2221: 2190: 1982: 1935: 1548: 1435: 1393: 1269: 1180: 1151: 1112: 809: 640: 355: 296: 260: 187: 114: 12482: 11667: 9306: 9287: 9263: 9246: 8702: 8644: 5545: 5530: 5463: 5457: 5451: 5445: 5433: 5421: 5415: 5403: 4229: 4222: 4215: 4208: 4201: 4194: 4187: 4180: 4173: 4166: 4159: 4152: 2291:

speakers continue to form a plurality among the ethnic Chinese population and

1760:

ourselves.... Two of our fathers have been learning this mandarin language...

17022: 16946: 16931: 16921: 16746: 16476: 16418: 16378: 16368: 16343: 16338: 16158: 16063: 16053: 15816: 15638: 15433: 15225: 15096: 15078: 15043: 14939: 14908: 14807: 14789: 14510: 14384: 14360: 14303: 14132: 14065: 14023: 14008: 13933: 13785: 13690: 13563: 13558: 13411: 13323: 13303: 13298: 13288: 13278: 13273: 13248: 13202: 13197: 13192: 13177: 13136: 13081: 13076: 13071: 13066: 13061: 13056: 13046: 13036: 13031: 13021: 12968: 12948: 12943: 12938: 12933: 12928: 12923: 12918: 12870: 12850: 12845: 12840: 12820: 12800: 12785: 12780: 12775: 12735: 12725: 12710: 12705: 12658: 12620: 12522: 12512: 12097: 11909: 11904: 11476: 11420: 11415: 11383: 11370: 11246: 11198: 11125: 11081: 10971: 10808: 10731: 10570: 10418: 10405: 9939: 9861: 9627: 9592: 9544: 9160:"Contributions to the Study of Loan-Words and Hybrid Words in Modern Chinese" 8951: 8698: 7174: 6969: 6826:. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Republic of China (Taiwan). 31 December 2014. 6654: 5571: 5349: 4403: 2648: 2568: 2461:(plosive-final) category should constitute a separate top-level group called 2458: 2434: 2340: 2245: 2121: 2113: 2082: 1751: 1413: 1405: 1131: 899: 359: 10274:

indicates single languages that are also considered to be separate branches.

8367:(1976). "The Austroasiatics in ancient South China: some lexical evidence". 7672:"In Myanmar's Remote Mongla Region, Mandarin Supplants The Burmese Language" 5585:

There are also many Chinese words which come from foreign languages such as

2865:. In the traditional analysis, the medial, vowel and coda are combined as a 2561:, as well as some areas of recent large-scale immigration, such as northern 1731: 448: 16911: 16821: 16535: 16513: 16108: 15978: 15186: 15007: 14490: 14355: 14318: 14018: 13983: 13973: 13953: 13825: 13705: 13670: 13660: 13655: 13640: 13528: 13452: 13356: 13333: 13026: 12893: 12815: 12765: 12715: 12517: 12457: 11969: 11919: 11295: 11178: 11151: 10695: 10685: 9913: 9829: 9785: 9714: 9128: 8070: 6562: 5679: 5522: 5338:), or by compounding, e.g. by combining two words of similar meaning as in 5275: 4797: 4596: 4483: 4460: 3693: 3644: 3385: 2911: 2624: 2606: 2584: 2486:

dialects within Southwestern Mandarin, treating only the more conservative

2430: 1881: 1677: 1580: 1564: 1540: 1502: 1478: 1467: 1256:(Republic of China, ROC), as well as one of the four official languages of 1212: 1208: 1123:

initial consonants, which have been lost in southern varieties of Chinese.

1116: 1097: 1005:

dialects that are natively spoken across most of northern and southwestern

767: 598: 344: 192: 9395:, Shanghai: Statistical Department of the Inspectorate General of Customs. 9274:

Chen, Yiya; Guo, Li (2022). "Zhushan Mandarin". Illustrations of the IPA.

6736: 5807:. Other Chinese varieties tend to use different particles, e.g. Cantonese 3388:

falls into this category.) On the other side, in some dialects of eastern

2498:

treated it as a separate top-level group, but this remains controversial.

409: 16841: 16803: 16798: 16508: 16486: 16481: 16457: 15988: 15983: 15908: 15903: 15438: 15246: 15055: 15030: 14998: 14401: 14377: 14350: 14340: 14313: 14298: 14274: 14098: 13675: 13598: 13593: 13553: 13283: 12114: 12088: 11984: 11954: 11931: 11899: 11638: 11628: 11432: 11327: 11312: 11275: 11223: 11044: 11035: 10931: 10770: 10645: 10372: 10259: 9474: 8892:

The unending frontier: an environmental history of the early modern world

8364: 8082: 7793: 7696: 6961: 4005: 3987: 2907: 2511: 2479: 2462: 2445: 2438: 2372: 1777: 1663:; 'wing') is unambiguous in written Chinese, but has over 75 1650: 1507: 1427: 1417: 1409: 1401: 1389: 1022: 177: 15674: 9424: 9206: 8976: 8930: 4036:

In general, no two Mandarin-speaking areas have exactly the same set of

3996: 3978: 3337:

Most Mandarin-speaking areas distinguish between the retroflex initials

1776:

Until the mid-20th century, most Chinese people living in many parts of

16788: 15963: 15368: 15181: 15038: 14429: 14367: 14345: 13715: 13588: 11530: 11504: 11270: 11236: 10741: 10668: 8118: 8094: 8058: 8009: 7458: 6741: 5775:, but the particles used vary. Most Mandarin dialects use the particle 5644: 5259: 4479: 4069: 3651:

in the modern dialects. In some areas (especially the southwest) final

3633: 2825: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 2712: 2644: 2640: 2475: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2086: 2031: 1897: 1531: 1397: 14619: 9362:(revised 2nd ed.), Shanghai: American Presbyterian Mission Press. 8623: 6944: 4417: 4414: 4411: 3524: 3510: 3496: 23:. For the court lingua franca during the Ming and Qing dynasties, see 16768: 16581: 16503: 16462: 15428: 15423: 15393: 15176: 14988: 14406: 14394: 14389: 14333: 13665: 12404: 12330: 11979: 11730: 11721: 11449: 11339: 10991: 10979: 10790: 10621: 10252: 9893: 9658: 9465: 9150: 8531:

Portraits of "primitives": Ordering human kinds in the Chinese nation

5279: 4831: 4455:

In Lower Yangtze dialects, a minority of Southwestern dialects (e.g.

3629: 2858: 2773:. Another Mandarin variety of uncertain classification is apparently 2514:, which many linguists include as part of Mandarin, according to the 2487: 2483: 2368: 2364: 2292: 2261: 2241: 2213: 2178: 2027: 2011: 2006: 1998: 1994: 1793: 1664: 1257: 1120: 1014: 854: 685: 418: 402: 9296: 9003:

Wurm, Stephen Adolphe; Li, Rong; Baumann, Theo; Lee, Mei W. (1987),

7563:"Code-switching and Identity Constructions in Taiwan TV Commercials" 6536:人人生而自由, 在尊嚴和權利上一律平等。他們賦有理性和良心, 並應以兄弟關係的精神互相對待。 3403:, substituting one for the other in some or all cases. For example, 2936:

of stops and sibilants (also common to most non-Mandarin varieties).

2800: 16826: 16778: 15388: 14372: 12269: 11855: 11496: 10677: 10281: 9326:

Idiomatic Dialogues in the Peking Colloquial for the Use of Student

8633:

Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland

8615: 7639: 6570: 5175: 4983: 4924: 4893: 4511: 4487: 4053: 3389: 3376:

are the result of merger between the historical palatalized velars

3270: 2854: 2704: 2674: 2670: 2632: 2576: 2562: 2280: 2145: 2117: 2101: 1443: 1261: 1189: 1093: 781: 612: 521: 12301: 9406:(2nd ed.), London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Company. 8572: 8190: 8106: 8046: 7997: 7991: 7961: 5639:

Chinese varieties of all periods are considered prime examples of

4494:

Reflexes of the Middle Chinese entering tone in Mandarin dialects

2781:

have undergone drastic changes in phonology, lexicon and grammar.

460: 60: 16518: 14411: 12168: 11848: 11735: 11564: 11160: 9754: 5392: 5353: 5212: 5141: 5079: 5042: 5011: 4952: 4862: 4766: 4663: 4467: 4093:

Reflexes of Middle Chinese initials and tones in modern Mandarin

4049: 2758: 2746: 2742: 2730: 2726: 2708: 2700: 2696: 2692: 2684: 2666: 2662: 2620: 2554: 2433:'s classification of 1937 distinguished the latter two groups as 2426: 2314: 2288: 2233: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2090: 1893: 1877: 1850: 1846: 1708: 1451: 1447: 1119:. Many Mandarin varieties, including the Beijing dialect, retain 1021:, the official language of China. Because Mandarin originated in 517: 9022:

Wurm, Stephen A.; Mühlhäusler, Peter; Tryon, Darrell T. (2011).

7889: 7392: 5771:

Most varieties of Chinese use post-verbal particles to indicate

4056:

and so on all have four tones that correspond quite well to the

4040:

values, but most Mandarin-speaking areas have very similar tone

2325:-controlled regions, Mandarin also serves as the lingua franca. 1841:

As the last two of these features indicate, this language was a

1061:'northern speech'). Many varieties of Mandarin, such as 16854: 15603: 12227: 12029: 9667: 9482: 8873:

Applying Linguistics in the Classroom: A Sociocultural Approach

8329: 7013: 7011: 5555: 4731: 4697: 3628:

are generally preserved in Mandarin dialects, yielding several

3480:

Many dialects of Northwestern and Central Plains Mandarin have

2770: 2762: 2734: 2450: 2167: 2149: 2075: 1986: 1925: 1797: 1613: 1455: 1322: 1253: 1220: 1143: 1089: 1046: 986: 350: 340: 7604:"Envisioning Chinese Identity and Multiracialism in Singapore" 7166:

A dictionary of the Chinese language: in three parts, Volume 1

7059: 4015: 934: 16615: 15505: 11740: 9663: 9478: 9244: 8582:

Language Atlas of China (2nd edition): Chinese dialect volume

8306:

Li Rong's 1985 article on Mandarin classification, quoted in

6897:. Vol. 1 (6th ed.). Oxford University Press. 2007. 5648: 5283: 5110: 4603:

Phonetic realization of Mandarin tones in principal dialects

4045: 2774: 2738: 2722: 2688: 2658: 2628: 2616: 2572: 2558: 2474:

The southern boundary of the Mandarin area, with the central

2422: 2296: 2186: 2093:, and many Mandarin varieties are not mutually intelligible. 2002: 1788:

Officials varied widely in their pronunciation; in 1728, the

1513: 1439: 1249: 1006: 94: 8467:"Universal Declaration of Human Rights – Chinese (Mandarin)" 7313: 7008: 6911: 6881:

China in the Sixteenth Century: The Journals of Mathew Ricci

3692:

and some north-western dialects they have merged as a final

1520:

The rhyming conventions of the new verse were codified in a

465:

Countries and regions where Mandarin is spoken as L1 or L2

16625: 9381:

The Standard System of Mandarin Romanization: Radical Index

8703:"Typological interaction in the Qinghai linguistic complex" 7780:

Institute of Linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences

7470: 1183: 8908: 8317: 8271: 8259: 8088: 7853: 7799: 7702: 2232:, which primarily spoke the Southern Chinese languages of 1150:. It is also used as one of the official languages of the 520:

characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see

8290: 8288: 8286: 8249: 8247: 8234: 8232: 8166: 8154: 8130: 7937: 7913: 7841: 7817: 7805: 7499: 7368: 7301: 7181: 7083: 7023: 4474:

was based; it transcribes the glottal stop as a trailing

2647:

belongs to this group. Dungan speakers such as the poet

2383:

in Russia. The Dungan speak two dialects, descended from

1876:

The variant of Mandarin as spoken by educated classes in

937: 925: 866: 697: 9392:

A Dictionary from English to Colloquial Mandarin Chinese

8681:

The politics of language in Chinese education, 1895–1919

8341: 8219: 8217: 8215: 8213: 8211: 8209: 8207: 8205: 7433: 7431: 7358: 7356: 7354: 7352: 3608:

Mandarin dialects typically have relatively few vowels.

1559:, voiceless aspirated and voiced consonants. There were 1203:, meaning 'minister or counsellor') originally meant an 8447: 8411: 7489: 7487: 7485: 7325: 7071: 7047: 7035: 6777: 6775: 6773: 6269:'theater fan', 'sports fan', 'groupie (of a musician)' 2910:

dialects, an echo of the final stops is preserved as a

8435: 8399: 8283: 8244: 8229: 7973: 7949: 7925: 7829: 7193: 7132: 6191:

usually used in a disparaging way, similar to -aholic

5908:

List of several common Chinese prefixes and suffixes:

3563:

in pinyin), though their incidence varies. The medial

2379:

in 1881. About 500 speakers live in a compact area in

2166:

Standard Mandarin is one of the official languages of

1814:

loss of the Middle Chinese voiced initials except for

8575:

Zhōngguó yǔyán dìtú jí (dì 2 bǎn): Hànyǔ fāngyán juǎn

8423: 8387: 8202: 7901: 7670:

Aung Thein Kha; Gerin, Roseanne (17 September 2019).

7448: 7446: 7428: 7349: 7265: 7253: 7241: 7229: 7217: 7205: 7144: 7120: 6996: 6923: 6797:. Chinese Government. 31 October 2000. Archived from 6640: 5865:

Especially in conversational Chinese, sentence-final

5831:) respectively. The experiential aspect particle 5610: 5598: 5586: 5553: 5504: 5486: 5468: 5438: 5426: 5408: 5396: 5377: 2857:

consists maximally of an initial consonant, a medial

2553:(27 million), spoken in Beijing and environs such as 2510:

Distribution of the eight subgroups of Mandarin plus

1792:, unable to understand the accents of officials from 958: 940: 928: 842: 828: 814: 800: 786: 772: 673: 659: 645: 631: 617: 603: 476: Statutory or de facto national working language 65: 50: 9315: 9021: 8937: 8178: 7766: 7764: 7645: 7482: 7464: 7398: 7380: 7095: 6770: 6552: 3392:, the velar initials did not undergo palatalization. 2683:(or Jiang–Huai, 86 million), spoken in the parts of 931: 8142: 7877: 7669: 7337: 5905:, which means 'teach', to form the word 'teacher'. 5845:) is used more widely, except in Southern Min. 3432:; in Lower Yangtze Mandarin, they usually merge to 2695:, as well as some areas on the south bank, such as 922: 919: 8551: 8528: 8359: 7651: 7542: 7443: 7416: 7404: 6943: 4020:with each of the primary tones in Standard Chinese 3659:. This is especially prevalent in the rhyme pairs 2444:The widely accepted seven-group classification of 2212:Mandarin is one of the four official languages of 9299:Journal of the International Phonetic Association 9276:Journal of the International Phonetic Association 9273: 9251:Journal of the International Phonetic Association 9139:Yuen Ren Society Treasury of Chinese Dialect Data 7865: 7761: 6174:'reliability', 'usability', 'understand-ability' 6071:old, or show respect to a certain type of person 5643:, relying on word order and particles instead of 4482:and is thought to represent the pronunciation of 3539:Most Mandarin dialects have three medial glides, 1900:, successfully campaigned for the replacement of 1289:; 'common speech') in mainland China, 17020: 9340:, Shanghai: American Presbyterian Mission Press. 9087:, Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 143–161, 9002: 8124: 8112: 8100: 8076: 8064: 8052: 8015: 8003: 7967: 7017: 6945:"The Vitality of Minority Languages in Malaysia" 2045:are used in mainland China and Singapore, while 1174: 1880:was made the official language of China by the 1629:), can be traced back to the Tang dynasty. 1305:; 'national language') in Taiwan or 1079:lists of languages by number of native speakers 10123: 9570: 9329:, Shanghai: Offices of the North-China Herald. 9232:Mandarin basic dialects basic words collection 8870: 6917: 6617:List of languages by number of native speakers 1198: 1192: 15690: 15262: 14635: 12346: 10297: 9440: 9389:Stent, George Carter; Hemeling, Karl (1905), 9384:, Shanghai: Educational Association of China. 9373:, Shanghai: Educational Association of China. 9235: 9221: 9215: 9188: 7528:10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.1030-1032.1650 5616: 5604: 5592: 5561: 5535: 5516: 5498: 5480: 5361: 5343: 5333: 5327: 5317: 5311: 5301: 5291: 3903: 3849: 3807: 3753: 2906:(although in many Lower Yangtze Mandarin and 2177:. Notable differences include: the merger of 2108:dialects spoken there differ little from the 1325:language') in Malaysia and Singapore, 734: 720: 563: 547: 12096: 9984: 9359:A course of Mandarin lessons, based on idiom 8554:Modern Chinese: History and sociolinguistics 2657:(17 million), spoken in central and western 1687:and beyond, there developed a literature in 1237:; 'language of the officials'). 8573:Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (2012), 7601: 5901:has the same function, it is combined with 5862:fulfils the role of the Mandarin particle. 5651:to provide grammatical information such as 5503:), which is inclusive of the listener, and 1973: 1426:(1987) distinguishes three further groups: 1260:, and a high-prestige minority language in 1056: 1001:'officials' speech') is a group of 996: 15697: 15683: 15276: 15269: 15255: 14642: 14628: 12568: 12353: 12339: 12317: 12087: 10304: 10290: 9447: 9433: 9348:A Mandarin-Romanized dictionary of Chinese 9245:Li, Qian; Chen, Yiya; Xiong, Ziyu (2019). 8871:Razfar, Aria; Rumenapp, Joseph C. (2013), 4446:respectively. Older dictionaries such as 3571:"correct" where the standard language has 2721:(260 million), spoken in the provinces of 2605:, as well as in few counties of 2583:, as well as in few counties of 2375:valley after it was ceded to China in the 2228:. Historically, it was seldom used by the 2052: 1240:In everyday English, "Mandarin" refers to 1219:based on various northern varieties. When 1158:communities. It is also the most commonly 459: 447: 59: 15704: 9454: 9262: 9127: 9078: 7992:Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (2012) 7741: 7259: 6124:'officialize', 'systemize', 'strengthen' 2841:Learn how and when to remove this message 1567:comprising syllables ending in plosives ( 8889: 8729: 8697: 8604:Journal of the American Oriental Society 8558:, New York: Cambridge University Press, 8311: 8160: 8136: 7979: 7943: 7931: 7919: 7895: 7847: 7835: 7823: 7811: 7714: 7476: 7162: 7029: 5947:plural for human nouns, same as -s, -es 5819: 5809: 3395:Many southwestern Mandarin dialects mix 2505: 1950:National Language Unification Commission 1730: 1632: 1563:, with the fourth or "entering tone", a 1471: 883: 15719: 14666: 14649: 12012: 9351:, Shanghai: Presbyterian Mission Press. 9079:Zhang, Bennan; Yang, Robin R. (2004), " 8602:(2000), "A brief history of Mandarin", 8493:"Universal Declaration of Human Rights" 6941: 5282:. New words have been formed by adding 1940: 1497:(959–1126) and during the reign of the 514:question marks, boxes, or other symbols 17021: 14965: 14930: 12360: 9310:, with supplementary sound recordings. 9291:, with supplementary sound recordings. 9268:, with supplementary sound recordings. 9116:Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orientale 9114:(2006), "Mandarin dialect phylogeny", 8851: 8825: 8659: 8630: 8598: 8584:], Beijing: The Commercial Press, 8441: 8405: 8393: 8347: 8335: 8323: 8294: 8277: 8265: 8253: 8238: 8223: 8196: 8184: 8172: 7907: 7859: 7505: 7493: 7437: 7386: 7374: 7362: 7307: 7223: 7199: 7187: 7150: 7126: 7101: 7089: 7077: 7065: 7053: 7041: 7002: 6929: 6781: 5352:, which is hardly used in Beijing. In 1727:Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca) 1720: 1146:, as well as one of the four official 1084:Mandarin is by far the largest of the 844: 675: 25:Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca) 16524:Southern Peninsular Malaysian Hokkien 15678: 15250: 14623: 13508: 12567: 12334: 10285: 9428: 8778:from the original on 21 February 2015 8678: 7138: 6862:from the original on 20 February 2018 6732: 6730: 6590:Transcription into Chinese characters 6330:Universal Declaration of Human Rights 3582:in some words where the standard has 2737:, and the Mandarin-speaking areas of 2465:. He used this classification in the 1833:retention of the distinction between 1530:(1324). A radical departure from the 10311: 9193:) (2011), "The origin of Mandarin", 9043:Introduction to Chinese Dialectology 8983: 8966: 8790: 8752: 8549: 8526: 8473:from the original on 7 December 2023 8148: 7883: 7657: 7560: 7548: 7465:Szeto, Ansaldo & Matthews (2018) 7452: 7422: 7410: 7399:Szeto, Ansaldo & Matthews (2018) 7343: 7331: 7319: 7271: 7247: 7235: 7211: 6657:big man') is without foundation. 6611:Linguistic Atlas of Chinese Dialects 3417:"grey" may be merged in these areas. 2823:adding citations to reliable sources 2794: 2152:, have markedly different dialects. 1681:, on down to the Qing dynasty novel 1555:showed a three-way contrast between 1388:developed from regional variants of 13509: 9059: 9040: 8453: 8429: 8417: 8307: 8027: 7955: 7871: 7517: 4478:.) This development is shared with 4449:Mathews' Chinese-English Dictionary 3681:"capital" merge in those dialects. 3380:and palatalized alveolar sibilants 2921:(although these are absent in many 1865: 13: 9174:from the original on 9 August 2014 9103: 8988:. The University of Malaya Press. 8894:, University of California Press, 8717:from the original on 30 April 2023 8499:from the original on 16 March 2021 7646:Wurm, Mühlhäusler & Tryon 2011 7583:from the original on 7 August 2020 7285:The Slow Death of China's Dialects 6727: 6232:'gardener', 'painter', 'carpenter 6000:'trusty', 'laughable', 'reliable' 4021: 3965:replaces nearly the entire rhyme. 2490:dialects as a separate group. The 1170:The English word "mandarin" (from 1107:Most Mandarin varieties have four 482: More than 1,000,000 speakers 14: 17080: 9419:Tones in Mandarin Dialects : 9412: 9316:Historical Western language texts 8089:Rimsky-Korsakoff Dyer (1977–1978) 7800:Rimsky-Korsakoff Dyer (1977–1978) 7703:Rimsky-Korsakoff Dyer (1977–1978) 6895:Shorter Oxford English Dictionary 4426:William H. Baxter's transcription 3578:. Southwestern Mandarin also has 2394: 2381:Rovensky District, Saratov Oblast 2196: 2064: 1993:. However, in other parts of the 16:Major branch of Chinese languages 16784:Malay trade and creole languages 12316: 11794:Literary and colloquial readings 11666: 9647: 9323:Balfour, Frederic Henry (1883), 8485: 8459: 8353: 8300: 6984:from the original on 24 May 2022 6747: 6699: 6569: 6555: 6216:a technician in a certain field 6199:'smoker', 'alcoholic', 'coward' 6149:'writer', 'scientist', 'artist' 4583:marked with final glottal stop ( 4466:. (This includes the dialect of 4044:. For example, the dialects of 4004: 3995: 3986: 3977: 2799: 2669:autonomous region (with capital 2181:sounds (zh, ch, sh, r) with the 1859:first English–Chinese dictionary 1845:based on dialects spoken in the 915: 494: More than 100,000 speakers 488: More than 500,000 speakers 15739:comparison with British English 9400:Whymant, A. Neville J. (1922), 9234:] (in Simplified Chinese). 8021: 7735: 7708: 7684:from the original on 5 May 2020 7663: 7622: 7595: 7554: 7511: 7277: 7156: 7107: 6935: 6830:from the original on 2 May 2017 6686: 6660: 6629: 6323: 5366:) "handbag" where Beijing uses 2810:needs additional citations for 2619:province, the central parts of 2328: 2124:, a modern dialect, is spoken. 1461: 1380:History of the Chinese language 867: 698: 104:Northern and southwestern China 17054:Chinese languages in Singapore 9356:Mateer, Calvin Wilson (1906), 9236: 9222: 9216: 9195:Journal of Chinese Linguistics 9189: 9064:, Routledge, pp. 84–125, 8969:Language and Dialects of China 8923:10.1080/02549948.1977.11745054 8856:, Princeton University Press, 8791:——— (1991), 8381:10.1080/02549948.1976.11731121 7561:Chiu, Miao-chin (April 2012). 6886: 6874: 6842: 6816: 6787: 6755: 6650: 6646: 6312: 6308: 6304: 6300: 6297: 6293: 6284: 6278: 6274: 6256: 6252: 6243: 6210: 6185: 6160: 6135: 6110: 6094: 6090: 6086: 6082: 6078: 6074: 6065: 6036: 6011: 5978: 5962: 5958: 5954: 5950: 5941: 5935: 5931: 5890: 5881: 5871: 5850: 5842: 5838: 5833: 5828: 5824: 5800: 5796: 5791: 5777: 5743: 5617: 5593: 5536: 5517: 5499: 5481: 5474: 5373: 5368: 5334: 5328: 5318: 5312: 5266:all syllables are made clear. 4651: 4640: 4631: 4622: 4613: 4585: 4442: 4436: 4430: 4392: 4383: 4374: 4365: 4352: 4345: 4338: 4331: 4324: 4317: 4310: 4303: 4296: 4289: 4282: 4139: 4124: 4109: 3914: 3860: 3764: 3372:The alveolo-palatal sibilants 1991:Chinese community of Singapore 1969: 1961: 1930: 1921: 1913: 1806: 1713: 1701: 1696: 1692: 1659: 1621: 1355: 1351: 1346: 1340: 1331: 1318: 1314: 1309: 1302: 1298: 1293: 1286: 1282: 1277: 1234: 1230: 1225: 1051: 1042: 1034: 991: 980: 970: 843: 829: 815: 801: 787: 773: 735: 721: 674: 660: 646: 632: 618: 604: 564: 548: 470: Majority native language 45: 41: 1: 17059:Subject–verb–object languages 9403:Colloquial Chinese (northern) 9345:MacGillivray, Donald (1905), 6716: 6099:'old man', 'boss', 'teacher' 5570:varieties have borrowed from 5269: 3954:when adding the rhotic final 2587:, due to migration. Includes 2399: 2257:Standard Singaporean Mandarin 2230:Chinese Singaporean community 1384:The hundreds of modern local 12322:List of varieties of Chinese 9249:. Illustrations of the IPA. 8535:, Rowman & Littlefield, 8199:, pp. 139–141, 192–193. 6918:Razfar & Rumenapp (2013) 6721: 6605:List of varieties of Chinese 6317:'teacher', 'chef', 'lawyer' 4016: 2784: 2579:("Lu") provinces except the 2501: 2406:List of varieties of Chinese 2371:to Qing forces and from the 2201: 1744:Medii Regni Communis Loquela 1420:on the southeast coast. The 7: 9041:Yan, Margaret Mian (2006), 8986:Mandarin Spread in Malaysia 7520:Advanced Materials Research 7296:McGill International Review 6641: 6548: 6025:'redo', 'rebuild', 'renew' 5848:The subordinative particle 5611: 5599: 5587: 5554: 5505: 5487: 5469: 5439: 5427: 5409: 5397: 5378: 3465:Some dialects have initial 2940: 2898:the disappearance of final 2268: 1946:an artificial pronunciation 1904:as the written standard by 1641:, which was modeled on the 1547:In Middle Chinese, initial 1199: 1193: 1081:(with nearly one billion). 66: 51: 10: 17085: 12280:Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols 9062:The Sino-Tibetan languages 8890:Richards, John F. (2003), 8852:Ramsey, S. Robert (1987), 8835:Cambridge University Press 8660:Escure, Geneviève (1997), 8527:Blum, Susan Debra (2001), 8514: 7113:Fourmont, Etienne (1742). 5632: 5628: 5467:) 'he, 'she', 'it', with - 3685: 3446:. Common variants include 3420:In some dialects, initial 3341:from the apical sibilants 2791:Standard Chinese phonology 2788: 2529: 2482:and You Rujie include the 2403: 2377:Treaty of Saint Petersburg 2367:in 1877 after the fall of 2332: 2306: 2302: 2272: 2205: 2159: 1906:written vernacular Chinese 1869: 1724: 1689:written vernacular Chinese 1465: 1377: 1373: 1250:People's Republic of China 1138:. Standard Chinese is the 18: 17002: 16977: 16954: 16945: 16890:comparison with Malaysian 16840: 16814: 16759: 16739: 16701: 16636: 16569: 16445: 16436: 16052: 15857: 15841: 15827: 15753: 15712: 15664:Singaporean Sign Language 15656: 15596: 15531: 15464: 15409: 15402: 15361: 15342: 15307: 15291: 15284: 15164: 15148: 15130: 15077: 15054: 15029: 15006: 14997: 14974: 14956: 14921: 14889: 14863: 14798: 14721: 14705: 14675: 14657: 14591: 14564:Southern (Shanghai) Sign 14549: 14478: 14422: 14226: 14164: 14117: 14074: 14036: 13921: 13843: 13834: 13766: 13729: 13616: 13607: 13519: 13515: 13504: 13445: 13347: 13229: 13155: 13002: 12884: 12696: 12687: 12639: 12591: 12580: 12576: 12563: 12556: 12536: 12443: 12391: 12384: 12368: 12314: 12198: 12167: 12078: 12003: 11945: 11865: 11840: 11802: 11749: 11675: 11664: 11611: 11563: 11518: 11495: 11440: 11431: 11369: 11288: 11263: 11245: 11222: 11159: 11150: 11113: 11090: 11052: 11043: 11034: 10970: 10930: 10857: 10835: 10807: 10789: 10763: 10740: 10676: 10667: 10644: 10614: 10591: 10515: 10455: 10427: 10404: 10381: 10348: 10339: 10330: 10319: 10269: 10214: 10166: 10051: 9892: 9860: 9818: 9753: 9656: 9645: 9463: 9307:10.1017/S0025100322000081 9288:10.1017/S0025100320000183 9264:10.1017/S0025100317000287 8679:Kaske, Elisabeth (2008), 8645:10.1017/S1356186303003134 8032:. 北京语言大学出版社. p. 45. 7776:Minor Languages of Russia 7169:. P.P. Thoms. p. x. 7163:Morrison, Robert (1815). 6762: 6264: 6260: 6237: 6227: 6223: 6219: 6204: 6194: 6179: 6169: 6154: 6144: 6129: 6119: 6104: 6059: 6049: 6045: 6030: 6020: 6005: 5995: 5991: 5987: 5972: 5902: 5898: 5893:) in southern usage. 5886: 5876: 5855: 5814: 5782: 5605: 5562: 5544: 5529: 5510: 5492: 5462: 5456: 5450: 5444: 5432: 5420: 5414: 5402: 5383: 5362: 5344: 5302: 5292: 5171: 5007: 4993: 4948: 4928: 4827: 4762: 4607: 4582: 4574: 4566: 4558: 4529: 4526: 4523: 4501: 4498: 4389: 4380: 4371: 4362: 4329: 4228: 4221: 4214: 4207: 4200: 4193: 4186: 4179: 4172: 4165: 4158: 4151: 4134: 4130: 4119: 4115: 4104: 4100: 3904: 3875: 3870: 3865: 3850: 3808: 3769: 3762: 3754: 3737: 3732: 3727: 3722: 3717: 3712: 3707: 3704: 3701: 3534: 3113: 3024: 2691:on the north bank of the 2615:(186 million), spoken in 2309:Chinese people in Myanmar 2155: 1801: 1739: 1654: 1626: 1482:, covering the syllables 1366:and the Hebei dialect or 1009:. The group includes the 878: 860: 853: 836: 822: 808: 794: 780: 766: 759: 754: 750: 742: 728: 714: 709: 691: 684: 667: 653: 639: 625: 611: 597: 590: 585: 581: 573: 557: 541: 537: 532: 500: 458: 446: 432: 416: 400: 395: 379: 293: 242: 214: 165: 126: 117:: 940 million (2021) 108: 100: 90: 58: 39: 34: 17009:Nearly extinct languages 9227: 9158:Novotná, Zdenka (1967), 8952:10.1515/lingty-2018-0009 8730:Kurpaska, Maria (2010), 8577: 8338:, pp. 182, 195–196. 8029: 7898:, pp. 55–56, 74–75. 7715:Vdovkina, Maria (2023). 7522:. 1030–1032: 1650–1652. 7322:, pp. 37–41, 46–48. 7068:, pp. 34–36, 52–54. 6850: 6622: 6166:same as -ness, -ability 5674:The basic word order of 3968: 3639:The Middle Chinese coda 2779:Qinghai–Gansu sprachbund 2597:(35 million), spoken in 2571:(89 million), spoken in 2539:(98 million), spoken in 2253:other Chinese variants. 1684:Dream of the Red Chamber 1595:, which has merged with 730:Traditional Chinese 559:Traditional Chinese 331:Two-Cell Chinese Braille 321:Mainland Chinese Braille 16962:Malaysian Sign Language 14561:Northern (Beijing) Sign 9334:Grainger, Adam (1900), 9005:Language Atlas of China 7742:Breazeale, Sam (2023). 7260:Zhang & Yang (2004) 6942:Coluzzi, Paolo (2017). 6824:"ROC Vital Information" 6765:(Taiwan shouyu jianjie) 6694:Language Atlas of China 6639:deriving the name from 6290:suffix for occupations 4502:Middle Chinese initial 4077:denotes a non-aspirate 3961:, in the southwest the 2888:when they occur before 2861:, a vowel, a coda, and 2673:), as well as northern 2661:province (with capital 2613:Central Plains Mandarin 2526:Language Atlas of China 2517:Language Atlas of China 2496:Language Atlas of China 2468:Language Atlas of China 2385:Central Plains Mandarin 2250:Speak Mandarin Campaign 2053:Geographic distribution 1989:, as well as among the 1888:, intellectuals of the 1430:(split from Mandarin), 1423:Language Atlas of China 1344:. The alternative term 1165: 904:Central Plains Mandarin 716:Simplified Chinese 543:Simplified Chinese 122:: 200 million (no date) 17064:Vertical vowel systems 17044:Languages of Singapore 16990:Selangor Sign Language 16109:Bruneian/Kedayan Malay 15914:Kelantan-Pattani Malay 15278:Languages of Singapore 12570:Sino-Tibetan languages 9129:10.3406/clao.2006.1748 8984:Wang, Xiaomei (2012). 8854:The Languages of China 8806:: 1–31, archived from 6332:in Chinese (Mandarin): 6328:From Article 1 of the 6141:same as -er or expert 6042:same as -th, -st, -nd 5967:'students', 'friends' 5785:) to indicate the 5580:Austronesian languages 5437:) 'you (formal)', and 4428:), are now pronounced 4029: 3690:Lower Yangtze dialects 3647:, but has merged with 3601:"street" for standard 2681:Lower Yangtze Mandarin 2631:, as well as southern 2521: 2127:The frontier areas of 2047:traditional characters 1995:Chinese-speaking world 1774: 1771:, I:28 (1542–1564) 1755: 1493:After the fall of the 1490: 1184: 1175: 1160:taught Chinese variety 1148:languages of Singapore 1086:Chinese dialect groups 1063:those of the Southwest 907: 502:This article contains 17049:Languages of Malaysia 16229:Kota Marudu Talantang 15959:Negeri Sembilan Malay 15706:Languages of Malaysia 15236:Yilan Creole Japanese 10174:Central Tibeto-Burman 9026:. Walter de Gruyter. 8758:"Who were the Gyámi?" 6851:《人民日报》评论员文章：说普通话用规范字 5633:Further information: 5609:) from "bikini", and 4360:Modern Mandarin tone 4028: 3655:has also merged with 3643:was still present in 3506:"water" for standard 2927:Northeastern Mandarin 2719:Southwestern Mandarin 2537:Northeastern Mandarin 2509: 2404:Further information: 2319:Southwestern Mandarin 2106:Northeastern Mandarin 2043:simplified characters 1757: 1734: 1647:Warring States period 1633:Vernacular literature 1475: 1408:in central China and 1378:Further information: 1111:. The final stops of 1096:in the northwest and 1075:mutually intelligible 897: 390:Chinese Sign Language 17069:Varieties of Chinese 16985:Penang Sign Language 16967:Manually Coded Malay 15343:Indigenous languages 15140:Taiwan Sign Language 9378:Meigs, F.E. (1905), 9367:Meigs, F.E. (1904), 8800:Sino-Platonic Papers 8765:Sino-Platonic Papers 7862:, pp. 181, 191. 6962:10.1353/ol.2017.0008 6017:same as re- (again) 5621:) from "hamburger". 4098:Middle Chinese tone 4085:denotes an aspirate 3593:"shoe" for standard 3520:"soft" for standard 2919:retroflex consonants 2819:improve this article 2248:. The launch of the 2208:Singaporean Mandarin 1890:New Culture Movement 1765:Alessandro Valignano 1386:varieties of Chinese 1368:Northeastern dialect 1092:in the southwest to 17039:Languages of Taiwan 16468:Malaysian Cantonese 16224:Klias River Kadazan 15403:Immigrant languages 14651:Languages of Taiwan 14604:NM = Inner Mongolia 10232:Proto-Tibeto-Burman 8940:Linguistic Typology 8550:Chen, Ping (1999), 8456:, pp. 113–115. 8420:, pp. 105–106. 8326:, pp. 195–196. 8280:, pp. 194–195. 8268:, pp. 194–196. 8175:, pp. 138–139. 7958:, pp. 222–223. 7570:Monumenta Taiwanica 7508:, pp. 215–216. 7479:, pp. 138–139. 7467:, pp. 241–242. 7377:, pp. 183–190. 7334:, pp. 162–163. 7310:, pp. 136–137. 7190:, pp. 540–541. 7092:, pp. 111–132. 6950:Oceanic Linguistics 5759:wǒ gěi nǐ yìběn shū 5676:subject–verb–object 4604: 4495: 4472:Postal Romanization 4424:in Middle Chinese ( 4094: 3610:Syllabic fricatives 3492:"pig" for standard 3488:. Examples include 3020: 2603:Liaodong Peninsulas 2355:are descendants of 2059:overseas emigration 1966:traditional Chinese 1910:traditional Chinese 1721:Late imperial koiné 1039:traditional Chinese 1013:, the basis of the 977:traditional Chinese 183:Eastern Han Chinese 17034:Languages of China 16815:Mixed & Others 16557:Malaysian Mandarin 14984:Taiwanese Mandarin 14141:Formosan languages 12362:Languages of China 12275:Cantonese Bopomofo 12142:Chinese characters 12070:Written Sichuanese 10654:Zhangjiakou–Hohhot 10225:Proto-Sino-Tibetan 10167:Proposed groupings 9247:"Tianjin Mandarin" 9112:Baxter, William H. 8664:, John Benjamins, 8578:中国语言地图集(第2版):汉语方言卷 8495:. United Nations. 8125:Wurm et al. (1987) 8113:Wurm et al. (1987) 8101:Wurm et al. (1987) 8079:, Maps B3, B4, B5. 8077:Wurm et al. (1987) 8065:Wurm et al. (1987) 8053:Wurm et al. (1987) 8016:Wurm et al. (1987) 8004:Wurm et al. (1987) 7968:Wurm et al. (1987) 7290:2021-08-12 at the 7018:Wurm et al. (1987) 6600:Languages of China 6585:Chinese dictionary 6116:same as -ize, -en 6054:'second', 'first' 5805:progressive aspect 5641:analytic languages 4602: 4493: 4092: 4030: 3484:where Beijing has 3240:⟨sh⟩ 3183:⟨ch⟩ 3141:⟨zh⟩ 2886:alveolar sibilants 2581:Shandong Peninsula 2545:Liaodong Peninsula 2522: 2275:Malaysian Mandarin 2162:Taiwanese Mandarin 1958:simplified Chinese 1918:simplified Chinese 1756: 1491: 1031:simplified Chinese 967:simplified Chinese 908: 307:Chinese characters 173:Proto-Sino-Tibetan 74:Chinese characters 17016: 17015: 17006:Extinct languages 16998: 16997: 16755: 16754: 16432: 16431: 16264:Mainstream Kenyah 15749: 15748: 15672: 15671: 15652: 15651: 15338: 15337: 15244: 15243: 15156:Taiwanese Braille 15126: 15125: 15122: 15121: 15073: 15072: 15016:Taiwanese Hokkien 14952: 14951: 14948: 14947: 14923:Malayo-Polynesian 14917: 14916: 14617: 14616: 14160: 14159: 14156: 14155: 14152: 14151: 14145: 14137: 14129: 14032: 14031: 13762: 13761: 13500: 13499: 13496: 13495: 13225: 13224: 13221: 13220: 12552: 12551: 12328: 12327: 12310: 12309: 12137: 12136: 12055:Written Cantonese 12050: 12049: 11832:Classical grammar 11827:Cantonese grammar 11662: 11661: 11559: 11558: 11365: 11364: 11284: 11283: 11146: 11145: 10853: 10852: 10640: 10639: 10530:Chengdu–Chongqing 10323:Sinitic languages 10279: 10278: 10162: 10161: 10047: 10046: 9888: 9887: 9643: 9642: 9164:Archiv Orientální 9094:978-1-4020-8038-8 9071:978-0-7007-1129-1 9052:978-3-89586-629-6 9045:, LINCOM Europa, 9033:978-3-11-081972-4 9014:978-962-359-085-3 8995:978-983-100-958-1 8901:978-0-520-23075-0 8882:978-1-136-21205-5 8863:978-0-691-01468-5 8844:978-0-521-29653-3 8745:978-3-11-021914-2 8736:Walter de Gruyter 8707:Studia Orientalia 8690:978-90-04-16367-6 8671:978-90-272-5240-1 8591:978-7-100-07054-6 8565:978-0-521-64572-0 8542:978-0-7425-0092-1 8432:, pp. 90–93. 8350:, pp. 36–38. 8310:, p. 61 and 8163:, pp. 86–89. 8139:, pp. 67–68. 7946:, pp. 75–76. 7922:, pp. 41–46. 7850:, pp. 53–54. 7826:, pp. 41–42. 7814:, pp. 36–41. 7602:Leong Koon Chan. 7274:, pp. 41–46. 7250:, pp. 62–63. 7238:, pp. 63–64. 7214:, pp. 27–28. 7141:, pp. 48–52. 7080:, pp. 49–50. 7056:, pp. 49–51. 7044:, pp. 48–49. 7032:, pp. 55–56. 6904:978-0-19-920687-2 6745:(27th ed., 2024) 6321: 6320: 5787:perfective aspect 5762:I give you a book 5256: 5255: 4593: 4592: 4516:voiced obstruent 4400: 4399: 4278:Standard Chinese 4026: 3941: 3940: 3612:, as in standard 3334: 3333: 3327:⟨y⟩ 3315:⟨r⟩ 3295:⟨l⟩ 3283:⟨w⟩ 3264:⟨h⟩ 3252:⟨x⟩ 3228:⟨s⟩ 3216:⟨f⟩ 3195:⟨q⟩ 3171:⟨c⟩ 3153:⟨j⟩ 3129:⟨z⟩ 3108:⟨k⟩ 3092:⟨t⟩ 3080:⟨p⟩ 3066:⟨g⟩ 3050:⟨d⟩ 3038:⟨b⟩ 3005:⟨n⟩ 2993:⟨m⟩ 2851: 2850: 2843: 2595:Jiaoliao Mandarin 2285:Malaysian Chinese 2175:Taiwanese Hokkien 2071:North China Plain 1976: 1886:Republic of China 1790:Yongzheng Emperor 1268:languages of the 1140:official language 1136:national language 1102:North China Plain 1059: 999: 895: 882: 881: 874: 873: 862:Yale Romanization 761:Standard Mandarin 705: 704: 693:Yale Romanization 592:Standard Mandarin 577:Officials' speech 528: 527: 510:rendering support 506:phonetic symbols. 326:Taiwanese Braille 224:Standard Mandarin 17076: 17029:Mandarin Chinese 16952: 16951: 16552:Mandarin Chinese 16443: 16442: 16039:Terengganu Malay 15839: 15838: 15717: 15716: 15699: 15692: 15685: 15676: 15675: 15407: 15406: 15362:Creole languages 15349:Johor-Riau Malay 15289: 15288: 15271: 15264: 15257: 15248: 15247: 15004: 15003: 14972: 14971: 14963: 14962: 14928: 14927: 14673: 14672: 14664: 14663: 14644: 14637: 14630: 14621: 14620: 14573: 14143: 14135: 14127: 13841: 13840: 13614: 13613: 13517: 13516: 13506: 13505: 12694: 12693: 12589: 12588: 12578: 12577: 12565: 12564: 12561: 12560: 12389: 12388: 12376:Standard Chinese 12355: 12348: 12341: 12332: 12331: 12320: 12319: 12292:Taiwanese Hangul 12181:Mainland Chinese 12094: 12093: 12085: 12084: 12010: 12009: 11687:Standard Chinese 11670: 11438: 11437: 11157: 11156: 11050: 11049: 11041: 11040: 10923: 10911: 10899: 10887: 10875: 10674: 10673: 10346: 10345: 10337: 10336: 10313:Chinese language 10306: 10299: 10292: 10283: 10282: 10121: 10120: 9982: 9981: 9816: 9815: 9651: 9568: 9567: 9449: 9442: 9435: 9426: 9425: 9407: 9396: 9385: 9374: 9363: 9352: 9341: 9330: 9309: 9290: 9267: 9266: 9241: 9239: 9238: 9225: 9224: 9220:); Li Xingjian ( 9219: 9218: 9210: 9192: 9191: 9183: 9181: 9179: 9154: 9133: 9131: 9098: 9075: 9056: 9037: 9018: 8999: 8980: 8963: 8934: 8911:Monumenta Serica 8905: 8886: 8867: 8848: 8822: 8820: 8818: 8812: 8797: 8787: 8785: 8783: 8777: 8762: 8749: 8726: 8724: 8722: 8694: 8675: 8656: 8627: 8600:Coblin, W. South 8595: 8569: 8557: 8546: 8534: 8509: 8508: 8506: 8504: 8489: 8483: 8482: 8480: 8478: 8463: 8457: 8451: 8445: 8439: 8433: 8427: 8421: 8415: 8409: 8403: 8397: 8391: 8385: 8384: 8369:Monumenta Serica 8357: 8351: 8345: 8339: 8333: 8327: 8321: 8315: 8304: 8298: 8292: 8281: 8275: 8269: 8263: 8257: 8251: 8242: 8236: 8227: 8221: 8200: 8194: 8188: 8182: 8176: 8170: 8164: 8158: 8152: 8146: 8140: 8134: 8128: 8122: 8116: 8110: 8104: 8098: 8092: 8086: 8080: 8074: 8068: 8062: 8056: 8050: 8044: 8043: 8025: 8019: 8013: 8007: 8001: 7995: 7989: 7983: 7977: 7971: 7965: 7959: 7953: 7947: 7941: 7935: 7929: 7923: 7917: 7911: 7905: 7899: 7893: 7887: 7881: 7875: 7869: 7863: 7857: 7851: 7845: 7839: 7833: 7827: 7821: 7815: 7809: 7803: 7797: 7791: 7790: 7788: 7786: 7768: 7759: 7758: 7756: 7754: 7739: 7733: 7732: 7730: 7728: 7712: 7706: 7700: 7694: 7693: 7691: 7689: 7667: 7661: 7655: 7649: 7643: 7637: 7626: 7620: 7619: 7617: 7615: 7606:. Archived from 7599: 7593: 7592: 7590: 7588: 7582: 7567: 7558: 7552: 7546: 7540: 7539: 7515: 7509: 7503: 7497: 7491: 7480: 7474: 7468: 7462: 7456: 7450: 7441: 7435: 7426: 7420: 7414: 7408: 7402: 7396: 7390: 7384: 7378: 7372: 7366: 7360: 7347: 7341: 7335: 7329: 7323: 7317: 7311: 7305: 7299: 7281: 7275: 7269: 7263: 7257: 7251: 7245: 7239: 7233: 7227: 7221: 7215: 7209: 7203: 7202:, pp. 3–15. 7197: 7191: 7185: 7179: 7178: 7160: 7154: 7148: 7142: 7136: 7130: 7124: 7118: 7111: 7105: 7099: 7093: 7087: 7081: 7075: 7069: 7063: 7057: 7051: 7045: 7039: 7033: 7027: 7021: 7015: 7006: 7000: 6994: 6993: 6991: 6989: 6947: 6939: 6933: 6927: 6921: 6915: 6909: 6908: 6890: 6884: 6878: 6872: 6871: 6869: 6867: 6846: 6840: 6839: 6837: 6835: 6820: 6814: 6813: 6808: 6806: 6791: 6785: 6779: 6768: 6764: 6759: 6753: 6752: 6751: 6734: 6710: 6708: 6703: 6697: 6690: 6684: 6664: 6658: 6652: 6648: 6644: 6633: 6579: 6574: 6573: 6565: 6560: 6559: 6558: 6314: 6310: 6306: 6302: 6299: 6295: 6286: 6280: 6276: 6266: 6262: 6258: 6254: 6245: 6239: 6229: 6225: 6221: 6212: 6206: 6196: 6187: 6181: 6171: 6162: 6156: 6146: 6137: 6131: 6121: 6112: 6106: 6096: 6092: 6088: 6084: 6080: 6076: 6067: 6061: 6051: 6047: 6038: 6032: 6022: 6013: 6007: 5997: 5993: 5989: 5980: 5974: 5964: 5960: 5956: 5952: 5943: 5937: 5933: 5911: 5910: 5904: 5900: 5892: 5888: 5883: 5878: 5873: 5857: 5852: 5844: 5840: 5835: 5830: 5826: 5821: 5816: 5811: 5802: 5798: 5793: 5784: 5779: 5745: 5620: 5619: 5614: 5608: 5607: 5602: 5596: 5595: 5590: 5568:Southern Chinese 5565: 5564: 5559: 5548: 5539: 5538: 5533: 5520: 5519: 5514: 5508: 5502: 5501: 5496: 5490: 5484: 5483: 5478: 5472: 5466: 5460: 5454: 5448: 5442: 5436: 5430: 5424: 5418: 5412: 5406: 5400: 5395:in Mandarin are 5387: 5381: 5375: 5370: 5365: 5364: 5347: 5346: 5337: 5336: 5331: 5330: 5321: 5320: 5315: 5314: 5305: 5304: 5295: 5294: 5251: 5247: 5241: 5237: 5231: 5225: 5219: 5206: 5200: 5194: 5188: 5182: 5166: 5160: 5154: 5148: 5135: 5129: 5123: 5117: 5104: 5098: 5092: 5086: 5073: 5067: 5061: 5055: 5049: 5036: 5030: 5024: 5018: 5002: 4996: 4990: 4977: 4971: 4965: 4959: 4943: 4937: 4931: 4918: 4912: 4906: 4900: 4887: 4881: 4875: 4869: 4856: 4850: 4844: 4838: 4822: 4816: 4810: 4804: 4791: 4785: 4779: 4773: 4757: 4751: 4745: 4738: 4722: 4716: 4710: 4704: 4688: 4682: 4676: 4670: 4653: 4642: 4633: 4624: 4615: 4605: 4601: 4587: 4496: 4492: 4465: 4444: 4438: 4432: 4394: 4385: 4376: 4367: 4354: 4347: 4340: 4333: 4326: 4319: 4312: 4305: 4298: 4291: 4284: 4232: 4225: 4218: 4211: 4204: 4197: 4190: 4183: 4176: 4169: 4162: 4155: 4141: 4136: 4131:"departing tone" 4126: 4121: 4111: 4106: 4095: 4091: 4088: 4080: 4027: 4019: 4008: 3999: 3990: 3981: 3960: 3953: 3949: 3937: 3932: 3927: 3922: 3916: 3907: 3906: 3898: 3893: 3888: 3883: 3878: 3873: 3868: 3862: 3853: 3852: 3844: 3839: 3834: 3829: 3824: 3819: 3811: 3810: 3802: 3797: 3792: 3787: 3782: 3777: 3772: 3766: 3757: 3756: 3725:(Central Plains) 3699: 3698: 3672: 3665: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3642: 3627: 3623: 3588: 3581: 3577: 3570: 3566: 3550: 3546: 3542: 3529: 3519: 3515: 3505: 3501: 3491: 3487: 3483: 3476: 3472: 3468: 3461: 3457: 3453: 3449: 3445: 3435: 3431: 3427: 3423: 3416: 3409: 3402: 3398: 3383: 3379: 3375: 3344: 3340: 3328: 3325: 3316: 3313: 3305: 3296: 3293: 3284: 3281: 3265: 3262: 3253: 3250: 3241: 3238: 3229: 3226: 3217: 3214: 3196: 3193: 3184: 3181: 3172: 3169: 3154: 3151: 3142: 3139: 3130: 3127: 3109: 3106: 3093: 3090: 3081: 3078: 3067: 3064: 3051: 3048: 3039: 3036: 3019: 3006: 3003: 2994: 2991: 2948: 2947: 2917:the presence of 2905: 2882:velar consonants 2846: 2839: 2835: 2832: 2826: 2803: 2795: 2627:valley, eastern 2551:Beijing Mandarin 2359:who fled to the 1977: 1974: 1971: 1963: 1942: 1932: 1923: 1915: 1902:Literary Chinese 1872:Standard Chinese 1866:Standard Chinese 1808: 1807:Zhèngyīn Shūyuàn 1803: 1772: 1748:Étienne Fourmont 1741: 1736:Zhongguo Guanhua 1715: 1714:Báihuà Wénxuéshǐ 1703: 1698: 1694: 1669:Standard Chinese 1661: 1656: 1639:Literary Chinese 1628: 1623: 1588:Zhongyuan Yinyun 1536:'Phags-pa script 1527:Zhongyuan Yinyun 1501:(1115–1234) and 1357: 1353: 1348: 1342: 1333: 1320: 1316: 1311: 1304: 1300: 1295: 1288: 1284: 1279: 1242:Standard Chinese 1236: 1232: 1227: 1202: 1196: 1187: 1178: 1156:Chinese diaspora 1060: 1057: 1053: 1044: 1036: 1027:Northern Chinese 1019:Standard Chinese 1003:Chinese language 1000: 997: 993: 984: 974: 961: 956: 955: 954: 953: 946: 943: 942: 939: 936: 933: 930: 927: 924: 921: 896: 870: 869: 849: 848: 847: 832: 831: 818: 817: 804: 803: 790: 789: 776: 775: 752: 751: 738: 737: 724: 723: 710:Northern Chinese 701: 700: 680: 679: 678: 663: 662: 649: 648: 635: 634: 621: 620: 607: 606: 583: 582: 569: 568: 553: 552: 533:Mandarin Chinese 530: 529: 493: 487: 481: 475: 469: 463: 451: 442: 428: 412: 405: 385: 336:Transcriptions: 299: 132: 69: 63: 54: 48: 47: 43: 32: 31: 21:Standard Chinese 17084: 17083: 17079: 17078: 17077: 17075: 17074: 17073: 17019: 17018: 17017: 17012: 16994: 16973: 16941: 16836: 16810: 16751: 16735: 16697: 16638: 16632: 16592:Malaysian Tamil 16565: 16438: 16428: 16149:Eastern Kadazan 16129:Coastal Kadazan 16055: 16048: 15860: 15853: 15832: 15823: 15745: 15708: 15703: 15673: 15668: 15648: 15592: 15527: 15460: 15398: 15357: 15334: 15303: 15280: 15275: 15245: 15240: 15165:Other languages 15160: 15144: 15118: 15087:Taiwanese Hakka 15069: 15066:(Wuqiu dialect) 15050: 15025: 15021:Teochew dialect 14993: 14944: 14913: 14885: 14859: 14794: 14717: 14701: 14653: 14648: 14618: 14613: 14587: 14567: 14545: 14474: 14418: 14229: 14222: 14148: 14128:(Indo-European) 14113: 14070: 14028: 13917: 13830: 13758: 13725: 13603: 13511: 13510:Other languages 13492: 13441: 13372:Central Tibetan 13343: 13217: 13151: 12998: 12880: 12683: 12635: 12583: 12572: 12548: 12532: 12439: 12380: 12364: 12359: 12329: 12324: 12306: 12243:Tongyong Pinyin 12223:Gwoyeu Romatzyh 12211:Dungan Cyrillic 12194: 12163: 12133: 12074: 12065:Written Hokkien 12046: 12005: 11999: 11975:Middle Mandarin 11941: 11861: 11836: 11798: 11745: 11678: 11671: 11658: 11607: 11555: 11514: 11491: 11427: 11361: 11280: 11259: 11241: 11218: 11142: 11109: 11086: 11030: 10966: 10926: 10917: 10905: 10893: 10881: 10869: 10849: 10831: 10803: 10785: 10759: 10736: 10663: 10636: 10610: 10587: 10511: 10451: 10423: 10400: 10377: 10326: 10315: 10310: 10280: 10275: 10265: 10216:Proto-languages 10210: 10158: 10125:Greater Siangic 10119: 10056: 10043: 9980: 9884: 9856: 9814: 9758: 9749: 9661: 9652: 9639: 9572:Greater Magaric 9566: 9493:West Himalayish 9473: 9459: 9453: 9415: 9410: 9399: 9388: 9377: 9366: 9355: 9344: 9333: 9322: 9318: 9313: 9240:. pp. 1–5. 9229: 9214:Chen Zhangtai ( 9213: 9187:Shen Zhongwei ( 9186: 9177: 9175: 9157: 9136: 9110: 9106: 9104:Further reading 9101: 9095: 9072: 9053: 9034: 9015: 8996: 8902: 8883: 8864: 8845: 8816: 8814: 8810: 8795: 8781: 8779: 8775: 8760: 8754:Mair, Victor H. 8746: 8720: 8718: 8691: 8672: 8592: 8579: 8566: 8543: 8517: 8512: 8502: 8500: 8491: 8490: 8486: 8476: 8474: 8465: 8464: 8460: 8452: 8448: 8440: 8436: 8428: 8424: 8416: 8412: 8404: 8400: 8392: 8388: 8358: 8354: 8346: 8342: 8334: 8330: 8322: 8318: 8312:Kurpaska (2010) 8305: 8301: 8293: 8284: 8276: 8272: 8264: 8260: 8252: 8245: 8237: 8230: 8222: 8203: 8195: 8191: 8183: 8179: 8171: 8167: 8161:Janhunen (2007) 8159: 8155: 8151:, pp. 5–6. 8147: 8143: 8137:Kurpaska (2010) 8135: 8131: 8123: 8119: 8111: 8107: 8099: 8095: 8087: 8083: 8075: 8071: 8063: 8059: 8051: 8047: 8040: 8031: 8026: 8022: 8014: 8010: 8002: 7998: 7990: 7986: 7980:Kurpaska (2010) 7978: 7974: 7966: 7962: 7954: 7950: 7944:Kurpaska (2010) 7942: 7938: 7932:Kurpaska (2010) 7930: 7926: 7920:Kurpaska (2010) 7918: 7914: 7906: 7902: 7896:Kurpaska (2010) 7894: 7890: 7882: 7878: 7870: 7866: 7858: 7854: 7848:Kurpaska (2010) 7846: 7842: 7836:Kurpaska (2010) 7834: 7830: 7824:Kurpaska (2010) 7822: 7818: 7812:Kurpaska (2010) 7810: 7806: 7798: 7794: 7784: 7782: 7770: 7769: 7762: 7752: 7750: 7740: 7736: 7726: 7724: 7713: 7709: 7701: 7697: 7687: 7685: 7677:Radio Free Asia 7668: 7664: 7656: 7652: 7644: 7640: 7627: 7623: 7613: 7611: 7600: 7596: 7586: 7584: 7580: 7565: 7559: 7555: 7547: 7543: 7516: 7512: 7504: 7500: 7492: 7483: 7477:Richards (2003) 7475: 7471: 7463: 7459: 7451: 7444: 7436: 7429: 7421: 7417: 7409: 7405: 7397: 7393: 7385: 7381: 7373: 7369: 7361: 7350: 7342: 7338: 7330: 7326: 7318: 7314: 7306: 7302: 7292:Wayback Machine 7282: 7278: 7270: 7266: 7258: 7254: 7246: 7242: 7234: 7230: 7222: 7218: 7210: 7206: 7198: 7194: 7186: 7182: 7161: 7157: 7149: 7145: 7137: 7133: 7125: 7121: 7112: 7108: 7100: 7096: 7088: 7084: 7076: 7072: 7064: 7060: 7052: 7048: 7040: 7036: 7030:Kurpaska (2010) 7028: 7024: 7016: 7009: 7001: 6997: 6987: 6985: 6940: 6936: 6928: 6924: 6916: 6912: 6905: 6893: 6891: 6887: 6879: 6875: 6865: 6863: 6852: 6848: 6847: 6843: 6833: 6831: 6822: 6821: 6817: 6804: 6802: 6801:on 24 July 2013 6793: 6792: 6788: 6780: 6771: 6760: 6756: 6746: 6735: 6728: 6724: 6719: 6714: 6713: 6704: 6700: 6691: 6687: 6665: 6661: 6634: 6630: 6625: 6595:Written Chinese 6577:Language portal 6575: 6568: 6561: 6556: 6554: 6551: 6546: 6534: 6526: 6518: 6510: 6502: 6494: 6486: 6478: 6470: 6462: 6454: 6446: 6438: 6430: 6422: 6414: 6406: 6398: 6390: 6382: 6374: 6366: 6358: 6350: 6342: 6326: 5766: 5754: 5739: 5728: 5717: 5706: 5695: 5637: 5635:Chinese grammar 5631: 5597:) from "golf"; 5388:) 'butterfly'. 5272: 4828:Central Plains 4648: 4599:varies widely: 4556:Central Plains 4237:Middle Chinese 4132: 4117: 4102: 4058:Beijing dialect 4034: 4033: 4032: 4031: 4022: 4011: 4010: 4009: 4001: 4000: 3992: 3991: 3983: 3982: 3971: 3739: 3735:(Lower Yangtze) 3734: 3729: 3724: 3719: 3714: 3713:Beijing, Harbin 3709: 3673:. As a result, 3537: 3326: 3314: 3294: 3282: 3263: 3251: 3239: 3227: 3215: 3194: 3182: 3170: 3152: 3140: 3128: 3107: 3091: 3079: 3065: 3049: 3037: 3004: 2992: 2943: 2932:the historical 2900:stop consonants 2847: 2836: 2830: 2827: 2816: 2804: 2793: 2787: 2655:Lanyin Mandarin 2637:Dungan language 2601:(Jiaodong) and 2589:Tianjin dialect 2541:northeast China 2504: 2453:. The linguist 2408: 2402: 2397: 2389:Cyrillic script 2337: 2335:Dungan language 2331: 2311: 2305: 2277: 2271: 2210: 2204: 2199: 2164: 2158: 2129:northwest China 2110:Beijing dialect 2098:northeast China 2067: 2055: 2036:Beijing dialect 1874: 1868: 1855:Robert Morrison 1773: 1762: 1761: 1729: 1723: 1635: 1522:rime dictionary 1470: 1464: 1382: 1376: 1364:Sichuan dialect 1246:Beijing dialect 1168: 1128:Chinese capital 1011:Beijing dialect 959: 949: 948: 918: 914: 898:A speaker from 884: 824:Tongyong Pinyin 796:Gwoyeu Romatzyh 746:Northern speech 743:Literal meaning 655:Tongyong Pinyin 627:Gwoyeu Romatzyh 574:Literal meaning 508:Without proper 496: 495: 491: 489: 485: 483: 479: 477: 473: 471: 467: 454: 438: 424: 408: 401: 386: 381: 375: 300: 295: 238: 226: 217: 210: 198:Middle Mandarin 168: 161: 133: 130:Language family 128: 118: 111: 110:Native speakers 86: 76: 71: 49: 40: 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 17082: 17072: 17071: 17066: 17061: 17056: 17051: 17046: 17041: 17036: 17031: 17014: 17013: 17011: 17010: 17007: 17003: 17000: 16999: 16996: 16995: 16993: 16992: 16987: 16981: 16979: 16975: 16974: 16972: 16971: 16970: 16969: 16958: 16956: 16949: 16943: 16942: 16940: 16939: 16934: 16929: 16924: 16919: 16914: 16909: 16904: 16899: 16894: 16893: 16892: 16882: 16877: 16872: 16867: 16862: 16857: 16852: 16846: 16844: 16838: 16837: 16835: 16834: 16829: 16824: 16818: 16816: 16812: 16811: 16809: 16808: 16807: 16806: 16801: 16796: 16791: 16781: 16776: 16771: 16765: 16763: 16757: 16756: 16753: 16752: 16750: 16749: 16743: 16741: 16737: 16736: 16734: 16733: 16732: 16731: 16726: 16721: 16716: 16705: 16703: 16699: 16698: 16696: 16695: 16690: 16685: 16680: 16675: 16670: 16665: 16664: 16663: 16653: 16648: 16642: 16640: 16634: 16633: 16631: 16630: 16629: 16628: 16623: 16618: 16613: 16603: 16602: 16601: 16596: 16595: 16594: 16584: 16573: 16571: 16567: 16566: 16564: 16563: 16562: 16561: 16560: 16559: 16549: 16548: 16547: 16546: 16545: 16544: 16543: 16533: 16532: 16531: 16529:Penang Hokkien 16526: 16511: 16506: 16501: 16500: 16499: 16494: 16479: 16474: 16473: 16472: 16471: 16470: 16449: 16447: 16440: 16434: 16433: 16430: 16429: 16427: 16426: 16421: 16416: 16411: 16406: 16401: 16396: 16391: 16386: 16381: 16376: 16371: 16366: 16361: 16359:Selungai Murut 16356: 16351: 16346: 16341: 16336: 16331: 16326: 16321: 16316: 16311: 16309:Punan Bah-Biau 16306: 16301: 16296: 16291: 16289:Nonukan Tidong 16286: 16281: 16276: 16271: 16266: 16261: 16256: 16251: 16246: 16241: 16236: 16231: 16226: 16221: 16216: 16211: 16209:Keningau Murut 16206: 16201: 16196: 16191: 16186: 16181: 16176: 16171: 16166: 16161: 16156: 16151: 16146: 16141: 16136: 16131: 16126: 16121: 16116: 16111: 16106: 16101: 16096: 16091: 16086: 16081: 16076: 16071: 16066: 16060: 16058: 16050: 16049: 16047: 16046: 16041: 16036: 16031: 16026: 16021: 16016: 16011: 16006: 16001: 15996: 15991: 15986: 15981: 15976: 15971: 15966: 15961: 15956: 15951: 15946: 15941: 15936: 15931: 15926: 15921: 15916: 15911: 15906: 15901: 15896: 15891: 15886: 15881: 15876: 15871: 15865: 15863: 15855: 15854: 15852: 15851: 15845: 15843: 15836: 15825: 15824: 15822: 15821: 15820: 15819: 15809: 15808: 15807: 15802: 15797: 15792: 15787: 15782: 15772: 15771: 15770: 15759: 15757: 15751: 15750: 15747: 15746: 15744: 15743: 15742: 15741: 15731: 15725: 15723: 15714: 15710: 15709: 15702: 15701: 15694: 15687: 15679: 15670: 15669: 15667: 15666: 15660: 15658: 15657:Sign languages 15654: 15653: 15650: 15649: 15647: 15646: 15641: 15636: 15631: 15626: 15621: 15616: 15611: 15606: 15600: 15598: 15594: 15593: 15591: 15590: 15585: 15580: 15575: 15570: 15569: 15568: 15563: 15558: 15548: 15543: 15537: 15535: 15529: 15528: 15526: 15525: 15524: 15523: 15518: 15513: 15508: 15503: 15498: 15488: 15487: 15486: 15481: 15470: 15468: 15462: 15461: 15459: 15458: 15457: 15456: 15451: 15446: 15441: 15436: 15431: 15426: 15415: 15413: 15404: 15400: 15399: 15397: 15396: 15391: 15386: 15381: 15376: 15371: 15365: 15363: 15359: 15358: 15356: 15355: 15350: 15346: 15344: 15340: 15339: 15336: 15335: 15333: 15332: 15327: 15322: 15317: 15311: 15309: 15305: 15304: 15302: 15301: 15295: 15293: 15286: 15285:Main languages 15282: 15281: 15274: 15273: 15266: 15259: 15251: 15242: 15241: 15239: 15238: 15233: 15228: 15223: 15222: 15221: 15216: 15206: 15201: 15196: 15191: 15190: 15189: 15179: 15174: 15168: 15166: 15162: 15161: 15159: 15158: 15152: 15150: 15146: 15145: 15143: 15142: 15136: 15134: 15128: 15127: 15124: 15123: 15120: 15119: 15117: 15116: 15115: 15114: 15109: 15104: 15099: 15094: 15083: 15081: 15075: 15074: 15071: 15070: 15068: 15067: 15064:Putian dialect 15060: 15058: 15052: 15051: 15049: 15048: 15047: 15046: 15035: 15033: 15027: 15026: 15024: 15023: 15018: 15012: 15010: 15001: 14995: 14994: 14992: 14991: 14986: 14980: 14978: 14969: 14960: 14954: 14953: 14950: 14949: 14946: 14945: 14943: 14942: 14936: 14934: 14925: 14919: 14918: 14915: 14914: 14912: 14911: 14906: 14901: 14895: 14893: 14887: 14886: 14884: 14883: 14878: 14873: 14867: 14865: 14861: 14860: 14858: 14857: 14852: 14847: 14842: 14837: 14832: 14831: 14830: 14825: 14815: 14810: 14804: 14802: 14796: 14795: 14793: 14792: 14787: 14782: 14777: 14776: 14775: 14767: 14766: 14765: 14760: 14750: 14745: 14744: 14743: 14738: 14727: 14725: 14719: 14718: 14716: 14715: 14709: 14707: 14703: 14702: 14700: 14699: 14698: 14697: 14687: 14681: 14679: 14670: 14661: 14655: 14654: 14647: 14646: 14639: 14632: 14624: 14615: 14614: 14612: 14611: 14608: 14605: 14602: 14599: 14598:HK = Hong Kong 14596: 14592: 14589: 14588: 14586: 14585: 14578: 14577: 14576: 14575: 14574: 14569:Hong Kong Sign 14562: 14553: 14551: 14547: 14546: 14544: 14543: 14538: 14533: 14528: 14523: 14518: 14513: 14508: 14503: 14498: 14493: 14488: 14482: 14480: 14476: 14475: 14473: 14472: 14467: 14462: 14457: 14452: 14447: 14442: 14437: 14432: 14426: 14424: 14420: 14419: 14417: 14416: 14415: 14414: 14409: 14399: 14398: 14397: 14392: 14382: 14381: 14380: 14375: 14365: 14364: 14363: 14358: 14353: 14348: 14343: 14338: 14337: 14336: 14331: 14326: 14311: 14306: 14301: 14296: 14295: 14294: 14289: 14288: 14287: 14277: 14272: 14271: 14270: 14260: 14255: 14250: 14245: 14234: 14232: 14224: 14223: 14221: 14220: 14215: 14209: 14204: 14199: 14194: 14189: 14184: 14179: 14174: 14168: 14166: 14162: 14161: 14158: 14157: 14154: 14153: 14150: 14149: 14147: 14146: 14144:(Austronesian) 14138: 14136:(Austronesian) 14130: 14121: 14119: 14115: 14114: 14112: 14111: 14106: 14101: 14096: 14091: 14086: 14080: 14078: 14072: 14071: 14069: 14068: 14063: 14058: 14053: 14048: 14042: 14040: 14034: 14033: 14030: 14029: 14027: 14026: 14021: 14016: 14011: 14006: 14001: 13996: 13991: 13986: 13981: 13976: 13971: 13966: 13961: 13956: 13951: 13946: 13941: 13936: 13931: 13925: 13923: 13919: 13918: 13916: 13915: 13910: 13905: 13900: 13895: 13890: 13885: 13880: 13875: 13870: 13865: 13860: 13855: 13849: 13847: 13838: 13832: 13831: 13829: 13828: 13823: 13818: 13813: 13808: 13803: 13798: 13793: 13788: 13783: 13778: 13772: 13770: 13764: 13763: 13760: 13759: 13757: 13756: 13751: 13746: 13741: 13735: 13733: 13727: 13726: 13724: 13723: 13718: 13713: 13708: 13703: 13698: 13693: 13688: 13683: 13678: 13673: 13668: 13663: 13658: 13653: 13648: 13643: 13638: 13633: 13628: 13622: 13620: 13611: 13605: 13604: 13602: 13601: 13596: 13591: 13586: 13581: 13576: 13571: 13566: 13561: 13556: 13551: 13546: 13541: 13536: 13531: 13525: 13523: 13513: 13512: 13502: 13501: 13498: 13497: 13494: 13493: 13491: 13490: 13485: 13480: 13475: 13470: 13465: 13460: 13455: 13449: 13447: 13443: 13442: 13440: 13439: 13434: 13429: 13424: 13419: 13414: 13409: 13404: 13399: 13394: 13389: 13384: 13379: 13374: 13369: 13364: 13359: 13353: 13351: 13345: 13344: 13342: 13341: 13336: 13331: 13326: 13321: 13316: 13314:Southern Qiang 13311: 13309:Northern Qiang 13306: 13301: 13296: 13291: 13286: 13281: 13276: 13271: 13266: 13261: 13256: 13251: 13246: 13241: 13235: 13233: 13227: 13226: 13223: 13222: 13219: 13218: 13216: 13215: 13210: 13205: 13200: 13195: 13190: 13185: 13180: 13175: 13170: 13165: 13159: 13157: 13153: 13152: 13150: 13149: 13144: 13139: 13134: 13129: 13124: 13119: 13114: 13109: 13104: 13099: 13094: 13089: 13084: 13079: 13074: 13069: 13064: 13059: 13054: 13049: 13044: 13039: 13034: 13029: 13024: 13019: 13014: 13008: 13006: 13000: 12999: 12997: 12996: 12991: 12986: 12981: 12976: 12971: 12966: 12961: 12956: 12951: 12946: 12941: 12936: 12931: 12926: 12921: 12916: 12911: 12906: 12901: 12896: 12890: 12888: 12882: 12881: 12879: 12878: 12873: 12868: 12863: 12858: 12853: 12848: 12843: 12838: 12833: 12828: 12823: 12818: 12813: 12808: 12803: 12798: 12793: 12788: 12783: 12778: 12773: 12768: 12763: 12758: 12753: 12748: 12743: 12738: 12733: 12728: 12723: 12718: 12713: 12708: 12702: 12700: 12691: 12685: 12684: 12682: 12681: 12676: 12671: 12666: 12661: 12656: 12651: 12645: 12643: 12637: 12636: 12634: 12633: 12628: 12623: 12618: 12613: 12608: 12603: 12597: 12595: 12586: 12574: 12573: 12558: 12554: 12553: 12550: 12549: 12546: 12544: 12534: 12533: 12531: 12530: 12525: 12520: 12515: 12510: 12505: 12500: 12495: 12490: 12485: 12480: 12475: 12470: 12465: 12460: 12455: 12449: 12447: 12441: 12440: 12438: 12437: 12432: 12427: 12422: 12417: 12412: 12407: 12401: 12399: 12386: 12382: 12381: 12379: 12378: 12372: 12370: 12366: 12365: 12358: 12357: 12350: 12343: 12335: 12326: 12325: 12315: 12312: 12311: 12308: 12307: 12305: 12304: 12299: 12294: 12289: 12287:Taiwanese kana 12284: 12283: 12282: 12277: 12267: 12266: 12265: 12260: 12258:Lessing-Othmer 12255: 12250: 12245: 12240: 12235: 12230: 12225: 12215: 12214: 12213: 12202: 12200: 12196: 12195: 12193: 12188: 12183: 12178: 12173: 12171: 12165: 12164: 12162: 12161: 12156: 12155: 12154: 12149: 12138: 12135: 12134: 12132: 12127: 12122: 12117: 12112: 12107: 12102: 12100: 12091: 12082: 12076: 12075: 12073: 12072: 12067: 12062: 12060:Written Dungan 12057: 12051: 12048: 12047: 12045: 12044: 12039: 12038: 12037: 12032: 12027: 12016: 12014: 12007: 12001: 12000: 11998: 11997: 11992: 11987: 11982: 11977: 11972: 11967: 11965:Middle Chinese 11962: 11957: 11951: 11949: 11943: 11942: 11940: 11939: 11934: 11932:Wubi (Wang Ma) 11929: 11924: 11923: 11922: 11917: 11912: 11902: 11897: 11892: 11891: 11890: 11880: 11877: 11871: 11869: 11863: 11862: 11860: 11859: 11852: 11844: 11842: 11838: 11837: 11835: 11834: 11829: 11824: 11819: 11814: 11808: 11806: 11800: 11799: 11797: 11796: 11791: 11786: 11781: 11776: 11771: 11766: 11765: 11764: 11753: 11751: 11747: 11746: 11744: 11743: 11738: 11733: 11728: 11727: 11726: 11725: 11724: 11719: 11709: 11704: 11699: 11694: 11683: 11681: 11673: 11672: 11665: 11663: 11660: 11659: 11657: 11656: 11651: 11649:Xiangnan Tuhua 11646: 11641: 11636: 11634:Shaozhou Tuhua 11631: 11626: 11621: 11615: 11613: 11609: 11608: 11606: 11605: 11604: 11603: 11598: 11593: 11585: 11584: 11583: 11578: 11569: 11567: 11561: 11560: 11557: 11556: 11554: 11553: 11548: 11543: 11538: 11533: 11528: 11522: 11520: 11516: 11515: 11513: 11512: 11507: 11501: 11499: 11493: 11492: 11490: 11489: 11484: 11479: 11474: 11469: 11464: 11463: 11462: 11457: 11446: 11444: 11435: 11429: 11428: 11426: 11425: 11424: 11423: 11418: 11413: 11403: 11402: 11401: 11391: 11386: 11381: 11375: 11373: 11367: 11366: 11363: 11362: 11360: 11359: 11358: 11357: 11352: 11347: 11337: 11336: 11335: 11325: 11320: 11315: 11310: 11309: 11308: 11303: 11292: 11290: 11286: 11285: 11282: 11281: 11279: 11278: 11273: 11267: 11265: 11261: 11260: 11258: 11257: 11251: 11249: 11243: 11242: 11240: 11239: 11234: 11228: 11226: 11220: 11219: 11217: 11216: 11211: 11206: 11201: 11196: 11191: 11186: 11181: 11176: 11171: 11165: 11163: 11154: 11148: 11147: 11144: 11143: 11141: 11140: 11139: 11138: 11133: 11123: 11117: 11115: 11111: 11110: 11108: 11107: 11102: 11096: 11094: 11088: 11087: 11085: 11084: 11079: 11074: 11069: 11064: 11058: 11056: 11047: 11038: 11032: 11031: 11029: 11028: 11027: 11026: 11016: 11011: 11010: 11009: 11004: 10999: 10989: 10988: 10987: 10976: 10974: 10968: 10967: 10965: 10964: 10959: 10954: 10949: 10948: 10947: 10936: 10934: 10928: 10927: 10925: 10924: 10912: 10900: 10888: 10876: 10863: 10861: 10855: 10854: 10851: 10850: 10848: 10847: 10841: 10839: 10833: 10832: 10830: 10829: 10824: 10819: 10813: 10811: 10805: 10804: 10802: 10801: 10795: 10793: 10787: 10786: 10784: 10783: 10778: 10773: 10767: 10765: 10761: 10760: 10758: 10757: 10752: 10746: 10744: 10738: 10737: 10735: 10734: 10729: 10724: 10719: 10714: 10709: 10703: 10698: 10693: 10688: 10682: 10680: 10671: 10665: 10664: 10662: 10661: 10656: 10650: 10648: 10642: 10641: 10638: 10637: 10635: 10634: 10629: 10624: 10618: 10616: 10612: 10611: 10609: 10608: 10603: 10597: 10595: 10589: 10588: 10586: 10585: 10584: 10583: 10573: 10568: 10563: 10558: 10557: 10556: 10555: 10554: 10547:Renshou–Fushun 10544: 10543: 10542: 10532: 10521: 10519: 10513: 10512: 10510: 10509: 10504: 10499: 10494: 10489: 10484: 10483: 10482: 10472: 10467: 10461: 10459: 10457:Central Plains 10453: 10452: 10450: 10449: 10444: 10439: 10433: 10431: 10425: 10424: 10422: 10421: 10416: 10410: 10408: 10402: 10401: 10399: 10398: 10393: 10387: 10385: 10379: 10378: 10376: 10375: 10370: 10365: 10360: 10354: 10352: 10343: 10334: 10328: 10327: 10320: 10317: 10316: 10309: 10308: 10301: 10294: 10286: 10277: 10276: 10270: 10267: 10266: 10264: 10263: 10256: 10249: 10242: 10235: 10228: 10220: 10218: 10212: 10211: 10209: 10208: 10206:Tibeto-Kanauri 10203: 10196: 10191: 10186: 10181: 10179:Kuki-Chin–Naga 10176: 10170: 10168: 10164: 10163: 10160: 10159: 10157: 10156: 10151: 10150: 10149: 10142: 10129: 10127: 10118: 10117: 10110: 10105: 10104: 10103: 10089: 10088: 10087: 10080: 10067: 10065: 10049: 10048: 10045: 10044: 10042: 10041: 10040: 10039: 10032: 10027: 10015: 10010: 10005: 10004: 10003: 9990: 9988: 9979: 9978: 9977: 9976: 9969: 9962: 9950: 9943: 9936: 9929: 9924: 9917: 9910: 9902: 9900: 9898:Southeast Asia 9890: 9889: 9886: 9885: 9883: 9882: 9877: 9872: 9866: 9864: 9858: 9857: 9855: 9854: 9849: 9844: 9837: 9835:Angami–Pochuri 9832: 9826: 9824: 9813: 9812: 9805: 9798: 9797: 9796: 9789: 9777: 9770: 9762: 9760: 9759:Burmese border 9751: 9750: 9748: 9747: 9742: 9735: 9728: 9721: 9720: 9719: 9711: 9704: 9697: 9692: 9677: 9675: 9654: 9653: 9646: 9644: 9641: 9640: 9638: 9637: 9624: 9619: 9618: 9617: 9610: 9598: 9597: 9596: 9589: 9576: 9574: 9565: 9564: 9557: 9556: 9555: 9548: 9541: 9529: 9522: 9521: 9520: 9515: 9503: 9496: 9488: 9486: 9461: 9460: 9452: 9451: 9444: 9437: 9429: 9423: 9422: 9414: 9413:External links 9411: 9409: 9408: 9397: 9386: 9375: 9364: 9353: 9342: 9331: 9319: 9317: 9314: 9312: 9311: 9293: 9292: 9282:(2): 309–327. 9270: 9269: 9257:(1): 109–128. 9242: 9211: 9184: 9155: 9134: 9107: 9105: 9102: 9100: 9099: 9093: 9076: 9070: 9057: 9051: 9038: 9032: 9019: 9013: 9000: 8994: 8981: 8964: 8946:(2): 233–275, 8935: 8906: 8900: 8887: 8881: 8868: 8862: 8849: 8843: 8823: 8813:on 10 May 2018 8788: 8750: 8744: 8727: 8699:Janhunen, Juha 8695: 8689: 8676: 8670: 8657: 8639:(3): 339–355, 8628: 8616:10.2307/606615 8610:(4): 537–552, 8596: 8590: 8570: 8564: 8547: 8541: 8523: 8522: 8521: 8516: 8513: 8511: 8510: 8484: 8458: 8446: 8444:, p. 196. 8434: 8422: 8410: 8408:, p. 162. 8398: 8386: 8352: 8340: 8328: 8316: 8299: 8297:, p. 195. 8282: 8270: 8258: 8256:, p. 194. 8243: 8241:, p. 192. 8228: 8226:, p. 193. 8201: 8189: 8177: 8165: 8153: 8141: 8129: 8127:, Maps B4, B6. 8117: 8105: 8103:, Maps B4, B5. 8093: 8091:, p. 351. 8081: 8069: 8067:, Maps B1, B3. 8057: 8045: 8038: 8020: 8018:, Maps B2, B5. 8008: 7996: 7984: 7972: 7960: 7948: 7936: 7924: 7912: 7910:, p. 190. 7900: 7888: 7886:, p. 190. 7876: 7864: 7852: 7840: 7828: 7816: 7804: 7802:, p. 355. 7792: 7778:(in Russian). 7760: 7734: 7707: 7705:, p. 349. 7695: 7662: 7650: 7648:, p. 698. 7638: 7621: 7610:on 21 May 2020 7594: 7553: 7541: 7510: 7498: 7481: 7469: 7457: 7442: 7440:, p. 144. 7427: 7415: 7403: 7391: 7379: 7367: 7365:, p. 191. 7348: 7346:, p. 163. 7336: 7324: 7312: 7300: 7298:, 21 Feb 2019. 7276: 7264: 7252: 7240: 7228: 7226:, p. 247. 7216: 7204: 7192: 7180: 7155: 7153:, p. 353. 7143: 7131: 7129:, p. 539. 7119: 7106: 7094: 7082: 7070: 7058: 7046: 7034: 7022: 7007: 7005:, p. 181. 6995: 6934: 6932:, p. 537. 6922: 6920:, p. 293. 6910: 6903: 6885: 6873: 6858:(in Chinese). 6841: 6815: 6786: 6784:, p. 136. 6769: 6754: 6725: 6723: 6720: 6718: 6715: 6712: 6711: 6698: 6685: 6683: 6682: 6679: 6676: 6673: 6670: 6659: 6637:folk etymology 6627: 6626: 6624: 6621: 6620: 6619: 6614: 6607: 6602: 6597: 6592: 6587: 6581: 6580: 6566: 6550: 6547: 6527: 6519: 6511: 6503: 6495: 6487: 6479: 6471: 6463: 6455: 6447: 6439: 6431: 6423: 6415: 6407: 6399: 6391: 6383: 6375: 6367: 6359: 6351: 6343: 6335: 6334: 6325: 6322: 6319: 6318: 6315: 6291: 6288: 6281: 6271: 6270: 6267: 6250: 6249:an enthusiast 6247: 6240: 6234: 6233: 6230: 6217: 6214: 6207: 6201: 6200: 6197: 6192: 6189: 6182: 6176: 6175: 6172: 6167: 6164: 6157: 6151: 6150: 6147: 6142: 6139: 6132: 6126: 6125: 6122: 6117: 6114: 6107: 6101: 6100: 6097: 6072: 6069: 6062: 6056: 6055: 6052: 6043: 6040: 6033: 6027: 6026: 6023: 6018: 6015: 6008: 6002: 6001: 5998: 5985: 5984:same as -able 5982: 5975: 5969: 5968: 5965: 5948: 5945: 5938: 5928: 5927: 5926:Example gloss 5924: 5921: 5918: 5917:Pronunciation 5915: 5803:) for the 5740: 5729: 5718: 5707: 5696: 5685: 5684: 5630: 5627: 5549:'he', 'she'). 5271: 5268: 5254: 5253: 5243: 5233: 5227: 5221: 5215: 5209: 5208: 5202: 5196: 5190: 5184: 5178: 5173: 5172:Lower Yangtze 5169: 5168: 5162: 5156: 5150: 5144: 5138: 5137: 5131: 5125: 5119: 5113: 5107: 5106: 5100: 5094: 5088: 5082: 5076: 5075: 5069: 5063: 5057: 5051: 5045: 5039: 5038: 5032: 5026: 5020: 5014: 5009: 5005: 5004: 4998: 4992: 4986: 4980: 4979: 4973: 4967: 4961: 4955: 4950: 4946: 4945: 4939: 4933: 4927: 4921: 4920: 4914: 4908: 4902: 4896: 4890: 4889: 4883: 4877: 4871: 4865: 4859: 4858: 4852: 4846: 4840: 4834: 4829: 4825: 4824: 4818: 4812: 4806: 4800: 4794: 4793: 4787: 4781: 4775: 4769: 4764: 4760: 4759: 4753: 4747: 4740: 4734: 4729: 4725: 4724: 4718: 4712: 4706: 4700: 4695: 4691: 4690: 4684: 4678: 4672: 4666: 4661: 4657: 4656: 4649:glottal stop ( 4645: 4636: 4627: 4618: 4609: 4591: 4590: 4581: 4580:Lower Yangtze 4577: 4576: 4573: 4569: 4568: 4565: 4561: 4560: 4557: 4553: 4552: 4549: 4545: 4544: 4541: 4537: 4536: 4532: 4531: 4528: 4525: 4522: 4518: 4517: 4514: 4508: 4504: 4503: 4500: 4398: 4397: 4388: 4379: 4370: 4361: 4357: 4356: 4349: 4342: 4335: 4328: 4321: 4314: 4307: 4300: 4293: 4286: 4279: 4275: 4274: 4271: 4268: 4265: 4262: 4259: 4256: 4253: 4250: 4247: 4244: 4241: 4238: 4234: 4233: 4226: 4219: 4212: 4205: 4198: 4191: 4184: 4177: 4170: 4163: 4156: 4149: 4145: 4144: 4129: 4114: 4099: 4065:Middle Chinese 4013: 4012: 4003: 4002: 3994: 3993: 3985: 3984: 3976: 3975: 3974: 3973: 3972: 3970: 3967: 3939: 3938: 3933: 3928: 3923: 3918: 3911: 3908: 3900: 3899: 3894: 3889: 3884: 3879: 3874: 3869: 3864: 3857: 3854: 3846: 3845: 3840: 3835: 3830: 3825: 3820: 3815: 3812: 3804: 3803: 3798: 3793: 3788: 3783: 3778: 3773: 3768: 3761: 3758: 3750: 3749: 3746: 3742: 3741: 3740:Reconstructed 3738:Middle Chinese 3736: 3731: 3730:(Southwestern) 3726: 3721: 3716: 3711: 3706: 3703: 3587:/tɕjɛtɕʰjɛɕjɛ/ 3536: 3533: 3532: 3531: 3478: 3463: 3437: 3418: 3393: 3370: 3332: 3331: 3329: 3317: 3297: 3285: 3273: 3267: 3266: 3254: 3242: 3230: 3218: 3206: 3200: 3199: 3197: 3185: 3173: 3161: 3158: 3157: 3155: 3143: 3131: 3119: 3117: 3111: 3110: 3098: 3096: 3094: 3082: 3069: 3068: 3056: 3054: 3052: 3040: 3028: 3022: 3021: 3011: 3009: 3007: 2995: 2983: 2977: 2976: 2971: 2966: 2961: 2956: 2951: 2942: 2939: 2938: 2937: 2930: 2915: 2896: 2893: 2890:palatal glides 2878:palatalization 2849: 2848: 2807: 2805: 2798: 2786: 2783: 2751: 2750: 2716: 2678: 2652: 2610: 2592: 2566: 2548: 2503: 2500: 2419:Middle Chinese 2401: 2398: 2396: 2395:Classification 2393: 2361:Russian Empire 2333:Main article: 2330: 2327: 2304: 2301: 2287:community, as 2273:Main article: 2270: 2267: 2206:Main article: 2203: 2200: 2198: 2197:Southeast Asia 2195: 2191:Code-switching 2160:Main article: 2157: 2154: 2066: 2065:Mainland China 2063: 2054: 2051: 1983:mainland China 1870:Main article: 1867: 1864: 1839: 1838: 1831: 1828: 1818: 1758: 1725:Main article: 1722: 1719: 1634: 1631: 1476:A page of the 1466:Main article: 1463: 1460: 1436:Huizhou region 1394:Middle Chinese 1375: 1372: 1327: 1326: 1306: 1290: 1270:United Nations 1217:koiné language 1167: 1164: 1152:United Nations 1113:Middle Chinese 880: 879: 876: 875: 872: 871: 864: 858: 857: 855:Yue: Cantonese 851: 850: 840: 834: 833: 826: 820: 819: 812: 806: 805: 798: 792: 791: 784: 778: 777: 770: 764: 763: 757: 756: 755:Transcriptions 748: 747: 744: 740: 739: 732: 726: 725: 718: 712: 711: 707: 706: 703: 702: 695: 689: 688: 686:Yue: Cantonese 682: 681: 671: 665: 664: 657: 651: 650: 643: 637: 636: 629: 623: 622: 615: 609: 608: 601: 595: 594: 588: 587: 586:Transcriptions 579: 578: 575: 571: 570: 561: 555: 554: 545: 539: 538: 535: 534: 526: 525: 512:, you may see 498: 497: 490: 484: 478: 472: 466: 464: 456: 455: 452: 444: 443: 436: 430: 429: 422: 414: 413: 406: 398: 397: 396:Language codes 393: 392: 387: 380: 377: 376: 374: 373: 363: 353: 348: 334: 333: 328: 323: 318: 303: 301: 297:Writing system 294: 291: 290: 289: 288: 283: 278: 276:Central Plains 273: 268: 263: 258: 253: 246: 240: 239: 237: 236: 220: 218: 216:Standard forms 215: 212: 211: 209: 208: 207: 206: 205: 204: 203: 202: 201: 200: 188:Middle Chinese 171: 169: 166: 163: 162: 160: 159: 158: 157: 156: 155: 136: 134: 127: 124: 123: 112: 109: 106: 105: 102: 98: 97: 92: 91:Native to 88: 87: 64: 56: 55: 37: 36: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 17081: 17070: 17067: 17065: 17062: 17060: 17057: 17055: 17052: 17050: 17047: 17045: 17042: 17040: 17037: 17035: 17032: 17030: 17027: 17026: 17024: 17008: 17005: 17004: 17001: 16991: 16988: 16986: 16983: 16982: 16980: 16976: 16968: 16965: 16964: 16963: 16960: 16959: 16957: 16953: 16950: 16948: 16944: 16938: 16935: 16933: 16930: 16928: 16925: 16923: 16920: 16918: 16915: 16913: 16910: 16908: 16905: 16903: 16900: 16898: 16895: 16891: 16888: 16887: 16886: 16883: 16881: 16878: 16876: 16875:East Timorese 16873: 16871: 16868: 16866: 16863: 16861: 16858: 16856: 16853: 16851: 16848: 16847: 16845: 16843: 16839: 16833: 16830: 16828: 16825: 16823: 16820: 16819: 16817: 16813: 16805: 16802: 16800: 16797: 16795: 16792: 16790: 16787: 16786: 16785: 16782: 16780: 16777: 16775: 16772: 16770: 16767: 16766: 16764: 16762: 16758: 16748: 16745: 16744: 16742: 16738: 16730: 16727: 16725: 16722: 16720: 16717: 16715: 16712: 16711: 16710: 16707: 16706: 16704: 16700: 16694: 16691: 16689: 16686: 16684: 16681: 16679: 16676: 16674: 16671: 16669: 16666: 16662: 16659: 16658: 16657: 16654: 16652: 16649: 16647: 16644: 16643: 16641: 16635: 16627: 16624: 16622: 16619: 16617: 16614: 16612: 16609: 16608: 16607: 16606:Indo-European 16604: 16600: 16597: 16593: 16590: 16589: 16588: 16585: 16583: 16580: 16579: 16578: 16575: 16574: 16572: 16568: 16558: 16555: 16554: 16553: 16550: 16542: 16539: 16538: 16537: 16534: 16530: 16527: 16525: 16522: 16521: 16520: 16517: 16516: 16515: 16512: 16510: 16507: 16505: 16502: 16498: 16495: 16493: 16490: 16489: 16488: 16485: 16484: 16483: 16480: 16478: 16475: 16469: 16466: 16465: 16464: 16461: 16460: 16459: 16456: 16455: 16454: 16451: 16450: 16448: 16444: 16441: 16435: 16425: 16422: 16420: 16417: 16415: 16412: 16410: 16407: 16405: 16402: 16400: 16397: 16395: 16392: 16390: 16387: 16385: 16382: 16380: 16377: 16375: 16372: 16370: 16367: 16365: 16362: 16360: 16357: 16355: 16352: 16350: 16347: 16345: 16344:Sarawak Malay 16342: 16340: 16337: 16335: 16332: 16330: 16327: 16325: 16322: 16320: 16317: 16315: 16312: 16310: 16307: 16305: 16302: 16300: 16297: 16295: 16292: 16290: 16287: 16285: 16282: 16280: 16277: 16275: 16272: 16270: 16267: 16265: 16262: 16260: 16257: 16255: 16252: 16250: 16247: 16245: 16242: 16240: 16237: 16235: 16232: 16230: 16227: 16225: 16222: 16220: 16217: 16215: 16212: 16210: 16207: 16205: 16202: 16200: 16197: 16195: 16192: 16190: 16187: 16185: 16182: 16180: 16177: 16175: 16172: 16170: 16167: 16165: 16162: 16160: 16157: 16155: 16152: 16150: 16147: 16145: 16142: 16140: 16137: 16135: 16132: 16130: 16127: 16125: 16122: 16120: 16117: 16115: 16114:Brunei Bisaya 16112: 16110: 16107: 16105: 16102: 16100: 16097: 16095: 16092: 16090: 16087: 16085: 16082: 16080: 16077: 16075: 16072: 16070: 16067: 16065: 16062: 16061: 16059: 16057: 16051: 16045: 16042: 16040: 16037: 16035: 16032: 16030: 16027: 16025: 16022: 16020: 16019:Southern Thai 16017: 16015: 16012: 16010: 16007: 16005: 16002: 16000: 15997: 15995: 15992: 15990: 15987: 15985: 15982: 15980: 15977: 15975: 15974:Orang Seletar 15972: 15970: 15967: 15965: 15962: 15960: 15957: 15955: 15952: 15950: 15947: 15945: 15942: 15940: 15937: 15935: 15932: 15930: 15927: 15925: 15922: 15920: 15917: 15915: 15912: 15910: 15907: 15905: 15902: 15900: 15897: 15895: 15892: 15890: 15887: 15885: 15882: 15880: 15877: 15875: 15872: 15870: 15867: 15866: 15864: 15862: 15856: 15850: 15847: 15846: 15844: 15840: 15837: 15835: 15830: 15826: 15818: 15815: 15814: 15813: 15810: 15806: 15803: 15801: 15798: 15796: 15793: 15791: 15788: 15786: 15783: 15781: 15780:North Bornean 15778: 15777: 15776: 15773: 15769: 15766: 15765: 15764: 15763:Austroasiatic 15761: 15760: 15758: 15756: 15752: 15740: 15737: 15736: 15735: 15732: 15730: 15727: 15726: 15724: 15722: 15718: 15715: 15711: 15707: 15700: 15695: 15693: 15688: 15686: 15681: 15680: 15677: 15665: 15662: 15661: 15659: 15655: 15645: 15642: 15640: 15637: 15635: 15632: 15630: 15627: 15625: 15622: 15620: 15617: 15615: 15612: 15610: 15607: 15605: 15602: 15601: 15599: 15595: 15589: 15586: 15584: 15581: 15579: 15576: 15574: 15571: 15567: 15564: 15562: 15559: 15557: 15554: 15553: 15552: 15549: 15547: 15544: 15542: 15539: 15538: 15536: 15534: 15530: 15522: 15519: 15517: 15514: 15512: 15509: 15507: 15504: 15502: 15499: 15497: 15494: 15493: 15492: 15489: 15485: 15482: 15480: 15477: 15476: 15475: 15472: 15471: 15469: 15467: 15463: 15455: 15452: 15450: 15447: 15445: 15442: 15440: 15437: 15435: 15432: 15430: 15427: 15425: 15422: 15421: 15420: 15417: 15416: 15414: 15412: 15408: 15405: 15401: 15395: 15392: 15390: 15387: 15385: 15382: 15380: 15377: 15375: 15372: 15370: 15367: 15366: 15364: 15360: 15354: 15353:Orang Seletar 15351: 15348: 15347: 15345: 15341: 15331: 15328: 15326: 15323: 15321: 15318: 15316: 15313: 15312: 15310: 15306: 15300: 15297: 15296: 15294: 15290: 15287: 15283: 15279: 15272: 15267: 15265: 15260: 15258: 15253: 15252: 15249: 15237: 15234: 15232: 15229: 15227: 15224: 15220: 15217: 15215: 15212: 15211: 15210: 15207: 15205: 15202: 15200: 15197: 15195: 15192: 15188: 15185: 15184: 15183: 15180: 15178: 15175: 15173: 15170: 15169: 15167: 15163: 15157: 15154: 15153: 15151: 15147: 15141: 15138: 15137: 15135: 15133: 15129: 15113: 15110: 15108: 15105: 15103: 15100: 15098: 15095: 15093: 15090: 15089: 15088: 15085: 15084: 15082: 15080: 15076: 15065: 15062: 15061: 15059: 15057: 15053: 15045: 15044:Matsu dialect 15042: 15041: 15040: 15037: 15036: 15034: 15032: 15028: 15022: 15019: 15017: 15014: 15013: 15011: 15009: 15005: 15002: 15000: 14996: 14990: 14987: 14985: 14982: 14981: 14979: 14977: 14973: 14970: 14968: 14964: 14961: 14959: 14955: 14941: 14938: 14937: 14935: 14933: 14929: 14926: 14924: 14920: 14910: 14907: 14905: 14902: 14900: 14897: 14896: 14894: 14892: 14888: 14882: 14879: 14877: 14874: 14872: 14869: 14868: 14866: 14862: 14856: 14853: 14851: 14848: 14846: 14843: 14841: 14838: 14836: 14833: 14829: 14826: 14824: 14821: 14820: 14819: 14816: 14814: 14811: 14809: 14806: 14805: 14803: 14801: 14797: 14791: 14788: 14786: 14783: 14781: 14778: 14773: 14772: 14771: 14768: 14764: 14761: 14759: 14756: 14755: 14754: 14751: 14749: 14746: 14742: 14739: 14737: 14734: 14733: 14732: 14729: 14728: 14726: 14724: 14720: 14714: 14711: 14710: 14708: 14704: 14696: 14693: 14692: 14691: 14688: 14686: 14683: 14682: 14680: 14678: 14674: 14671: 14669: 14665: 14662: 14660: 14656: 14652: 14645: 14640: 14638: 14633: 14631: 14626: 14625: 14622: 14609: 14607:XJ = Xinjiang 14606: 14603: 14600: 14597: 14594: 14593: 14590: 14584: 14582: 14579: 14572: 14570: 14566: 14565: 14563: 14560: 14559: 14558: 14555: 14554: 14552: 14548: 14542: 14539: 14537: 14534: 14532: 14529: 14527: 14524: 14522: 14519: 14517: 14514: 14512: 14509: 14507: 14504: 14502: 14499: 14497: 14494: 14492: 14489: 14487: 14484: 14483: 14481: 14477: 14471: 14468: 14466: 14463: 14461: 14458: 14456: 14453: 14451: 14448: 14446: 14443: 14441: 14438: 14436: 14433: 14431: 14428: 14427: 14425: 14421: 14413: 14410: 14408: 14405: 14404: 14403: 14400: 14396: 14393: 14391: 14388: 14387: 14386: 14383: 14379: 14376: 14374: 14371: 14370: 14369: 14366: 14362: 14359: 14357: 14354: 14352: 14349: 14347: 14344: 14342: 14339: 14335: 14332: 14330: 14327: 14325: 14322: 14321: 14320: 14317: 14316: 14315: 14312: 14310: 14307: 14305: 14302: 14300: 14297: 14293: 14290: 14286: 14283: 14282: 14281: 14278: 14276: 14273: 14269: 14266: 14265: 14264: 14261: 14259: 14256: 14254: 14251: 14249: 14246: 14244: 14241: 14240: 14239: 14236: 14235: 14233: 14231: 14225: 14219: 14216: 14213: 14210: 14208: 14205: 14203: 14200: 14198: 14195: 14193: 14190: 14188: 14185: 14183: 14180: 14178: 14175: 14173: 14170: 14169: 14167: 14163: 14142: 14139: 14134: 14131: 14126: 14123: 14122: 14120: 14116: 14110: 14109:Western Yugur 14107: 14105: 14102: 14100: 14097: 14095: 14092: 14090: 14087: 14085: 14082: 14081: 14079: 14077: 14073: 14067: 14064: 14062: 14059: 14057: 14054: 14052: 14049: 14047: 14044: 14043: 14041: 14039: 14035: 14025: 14022: 14020: 14017: 14015: 14012: 14010: 14007: 14005: 14002: 14000: 13997: 13995: 13992: 13990: 13987: 13985: 13982: 13980: 13977: 13975: 13972: 13970: 13967: 13965: 13962: 13960: 13957: 13955: 13952: 13950: 13947: 13945: 13942: 13940: 13937: 13935: 13932: 13930: 13927: 13926: 13924: 13920: 13914: 13911: 13909: 13906: 13904: 13901: 13899: 13896: 13894: 13891: 13889: 13886: 13884: 13881: 13879: 13876: 13874: 13871: 13869: 13866: 13864: 13861: 13859: 13856: 13854: 13851: 13850: 13848: 13846: 13842: 13839: 13837: 13833: 13827: 13824: 13822: 13819: 13817: 13814: 13812: 13809: 13807: 13804: 13802: 13799: 13797: 13794: 13792: 13791:Eastern Yugur 13789: 13787: 13784: 13782: 13779: 13777: 13774: 13773: 13771: 13769: 13765: 13755: 13752: 13750: 13747: 13745: 13742: 13740: 13737: 13736: 13734: 13732: 13728: 13722: 13719: 13717: 13714: 13712: 13711:Small Flowery 13709: 13707: 13704: 13702: 13699: 13697: 13694: 13692: 13689: 13687: 13684: 13682: 13679: 13677: 13674: 13672: 13669: 13667: 13664: 13662: 13659: 13657: 13654: 13652: 13649: 13647: 13644: 13642: 13639: 13637: 13634: 13632: 13629: 13627: 13624: 13623: 13621: 13619: 13615: 13612: 13610: 13606: 13600: 13597: 13595: 13592: 13590: 13587: 13585: 13582: 13580: 13577: 13575: 13572: 13570: 13567: 13565: 13562: 13560: 13557: 13555: 13552: 13550: 13547: 13545: 13542: 13540: 13537: 13535: 13532: 13530: 13527: 13526: 13524: 13522: 13521:Austroasiatic 13518: 13514: 13507: 13503: 13489: 13486: 13484: 13481: 13479: 13476: 13474: 13471: 13469: 13466: 13464: 13461: 13459: 13456: 13454: 13451: 13450: 13448: 13444: 13438: 13435: 13433: 13430: 13428: 13425: 13423: 13420: 13418: 13415: 13413: 13410: 13408: 13405: 13403: 13400: 13398: 13395: 13393: 13390: 13388: 13385: 13383: 13380: 13378: 13375: 13373: 13370: 13368: 13365: 13363: 13360: 13358: 13355: 13354: 13352: 13350: 13346: 13340: 13337: 13335: 13332: 13330: 13327: 13325: 13322: 13320: 13317: 13315: 13312: 13310: 13307: 13305: 13302: 13300: 13297: 13295: 13292: 13290: 13287: 13285: 13282: 13280: 13277: 13275: 13272: 13270: 13267: 13265: 13262: 13260: 13257: 13255: 13252: 13250: 13247: 13245: 13242: 13240: 13237: 13236: 13234: 13232: 13228: 13214: 13211: 13209: 13206: 13204: 13201: 13199: 13196: 13194: 13191: 13189: 13186: 13184: 13181: 13179: 13176: 13174: 13171: 13169: 13166: 13164: 13161: 13160: 13158: 13154: 13148: 13145: 13143: 13140: 13138: 13135: 13133: 13130: 13128: 13125: 13123: 13120: 13118: 13115: 13113: 13110: 13108: 13105: 13103: 13100: 13098: 13095: 13093: 13090: 13088: 13085: 13083: 13080: 13078: 13075: 13073: 13070: 13068: 13065: 13063: 13060: 13058: 13055: 13053: 13050: 13048: 13045: 13043: 13040: 13038: 13035: 13033: 13030: 13028: 13025: 13023: 13020: 13018: 13015: 13013: 13010: 13009: 13007: 13005: 13001: 12995: 12992: 12990: 12987: 12985: 12982: 12980: 12977: 12975: 12972: 12970: 12967: 12965: 12962: 12960: 12957: 12955: 12952: 12950: 12947: 12945: 12942: 12940: 12937: 12935: 12932: 12930: 12927: 12925: 12922: 12920: 12917: 12915: 12912: 12910: 12907: 12905: 12902: 12900: 12897: 12895: 12892: 12891: 12889: 12887: 12883: 12877: 12874: 12872: 12869: 12867: 12864: 12862: 12859: 12857: 12854: 12852: 12849: 12847: 12844: 12842: 12839: 12837: 12834: 12832: 12829: 12827: 12824: 12822: 12819: 12817: 12814: 12812: 12809: 12807: 12804: 12802: 12799: 12797: 12794: 12792: 12789: 12787: 12784: 12782: 12779: 12777: 12774: 12772: 12769: 12767: 12764: 12762: 12759: 12757: 12754: 12752: 12749: 12747: 12744: 12742: 12739: 12737: 12734: 12732: 12729: 12727: 12724: 12722: 12719: 12717: 12714: 12712: 12709: 12707: 12704: 12703: 12701: 12699: 12695: 12692: 12690: 12686: 12680: 12677: 12675: 12672: 12670: 12667: 12665: 12662: 12660: 12657: 12655: 12652: 12650: 12647: 12646: 12644: 12642: 12638: 12632: 12629: 12627: 12624: 12622: 12619: 12617: 12614: 12612: 12609: 12607: 12604: 12602: 12599: 12598: 12596: 12594: 12590: 12587: 12585: 12579: 12575: 12571: 12566: 12562: 12559: 12555: 12545: 12543: 12539: 12535: 12529: 12526: 12524: 12521: 12519: 12516: 12514: 12511: 12509: 12506: 12504: 12501: 12499: 12496: 12494: 12491: 12489: 12486: 12484: 12481: 12479: 12476: 12474: 12471: 12469: 12466: 12464: 12461: 12459: 12456: 12454: 12451: 12450: 12448: 12446: 12442: 12436: 12433: 12431: 12428: 12426: 12423: 12421: 12418: 12416: 12413: 12411: 12408: 12406: 12403: 12402: 12400: 12398: 12394: 12390: 12387: 12383: 12377: 12374: 12373: 12371: 12367: 12363: 12356: 12351: 12349: 12344: 12342: 12337: 12336: 12333: 12323: 12313: 12303: 12300: 12298: 12295: 12293: 12290: 12288: 12285: 12281: 12278: 12276: 12273: 12272: 12271: 12268: 12264: 12261: 12259: 12256: 12254: 12251: 12249: 12246: 12244: 12241: 12239: 12236: 12234: 12231: 12229: 12226: 12224: 12221: 12220: 12219: 12216: 12212: 12209: 12208: 12207: 12206:Cyrillization 12204: 12203: 12201: 12197: 12192: 12189: 12187: 12184: 12182: 12179: 12177: 12174: 12172: 12170: 12166: 12160: 12157: 12153: 12150: 12148: 12145: 12144: 12143: 12140: 12139: 12131: 12128: 12126: 12123: 12121: 12118: 12116: 12113: 12111: 12108: 12106: 12103: 12101: 12099: 12098:Script styles 12095: 12092: 12090: 12086: 12083: 12081: 12077: 12071: 12068: 12066: 12063: 12061: 12058: 12056: 12053: 12052: 12043: 12040: 12036: 12033: 12031: 12028: 12026: 12023: 12022: 12021: 12018: 12017: 12015: 12011: 12008: 12002: 11996: 11993: 11991: 11988: 11986: 11983: 11981: 11978: 11976: 11973: 11971: 11968: 11966: 11963: 11961: 11958: 11956: 11953: 11952: 11950: 11948: 11944: 11938: 11935: 11933: 11930: 11928: 11925: 11921: 11918: 11916: 11913: 11911: 11908: 11907: 11906: 11903: 11901: 11898: 11896: 11893: 11889: 11886: 11885: 11884: 11881: 11878: 11876: 11873: 11872: 11870: 11868: 11864: 11858: 11857: 11853: 11851: 11850: 11846: 11845: 11843: 11839: 11833: 11830: 11828: 11825: 11823: 11820: 11818: 11815: 11813: 11810: 11809: 11807: 11805: 11801: 11795: 11792: 11790: 11787: 11785: 11782: 11780: 11777: 11775: 11772: 11770: 11767: 11763: 11760: 11759: 11758: 11755: 11754: 11752: 11748: 11742: 11739: 11737: 11734: 11732: 11729: 11723: 11720: 11718: 11715: 11714: 11713: 11710: 11708: 11705: 11703: 11700: 11698: 11695: 11693: 11690: 11689: 11688: 11685: 11684: 11682: 11680: 11674: 11669: 11655: 11652: 11650: 11647: 11645: 11642: 11640: 11637: 11635: 11632: 11630: 11627: 11625: 11622: 11620: 11617: 11616: 11614: 11610: 11602: 11599: 11597: 11594: 11592: 11589: 11588: 11586: 11582: 11579: 11577: 11574: 11573: 11571: 11570: 11568: 11566: 11562: 11552: 11549: 11547: 11544: 11542: 11539: 11537: 11534: 11532: 11529: 11527: 11524: 11523: 11521: 11517: 11511: 11508: 11506: 11503: 11502: 11500: 11498: 11494: 11488: 11485: 11483: 11480: 11478: 11475: 11473: 11470: 11468: 11465: 11461: 11458: 11456: 11453: 11452: 11451: 11448: 11447: 11445: 11443: 11439: 11436: 11434: 11430: 11422: 11419: 11417: 11414: 11412: 11409: 11408: 11407: 11404: 11400: 11397: 11396: 11395: 11392: 11390: 11387: 11385: 11382: 11380: 11377: 11376: 11374: 11372: 11368: 11356: 11353: 11351: 11348: 11346: 11343: 11342: 11341: 11338: 11334: 11331: 11330: 11329: 11326: 11324: 11321: 11319: 11316: 11314: 11311: 11307: 11304: 11302: 11299: 11298: 11297: 11294: 11293: 11291: 11287: 11277: 11274: 11272: 11269: 11268: 11266: 11262: 11256: 11253: 11252: 11250: 11248: 11244: 11238: 11235: 11233: 11230: 11229: 11227: 11225: 11221: 11215: 11212: 11210: 11207: 11205: 11202: 11200: 11197: 11195: 11192: 11190: 11187: 11185: 11182: 11180: 11177: 11175: 11172: 11170: 11167: 11166: 11164: 11162: 11158: 11155: 11153: 11149: 11137: 11134: 11132: 11129: 11128: 11127: 11124: 11122: 11119: 11118: 11116: 11112: 11106: 11103: 11101: 11098: 11097: 11095: 11093: 11089: 11083: 11080: 11078: 11075: 11073: 11070: 11068: 11065: 11063: 11060: 11059: 11057: 11055: 11051: 11048: 11046: 11042: 11039: 11037: 11033: 11025: 11022: 11021: 11020: 11017: 11015: 11012: 11008: 11005: 11003: 11000: 10998: 10995: 10994: 10993: 10990: 10986: 10983: 10982: 10981: 10978: 10977: 10975: 10973: 10969: 10963: 10960: 10958: 10955: 10953: 10950: 10946: 10943: 10942: 10941: 10938: 10937: 10935: 10933: 10929: 10921: 10916: 10913: 10909: 10904: 10901: 10897: 10892: 10889: 10885: 10880: 10877: 10873: 10868: 10865: 10864: 10862: 10860: 10856: 10846: 10843: 10842: 10840: 10838: 10834: 10828: 10825: 10823: 10820: 10818: 10815: 10814: 10812: 10810: 10806: 10800: 10797: 10796: 10794: 10792: 10788: 10782: 10779: 10777: 10774: 10772: 10769: 10768: 10766: 10762: 10756: 10753: 10751: 10748: 10747: 10745: 10743: 10739: 10733: 10730: 10728: 10725: 10723: 10720: 10718: 10715: 10713: 10710: 10707: 10704: 10702: 10699: 10697: 10694: 10692: 10689: 10687: 10684: 10683: 10681: 10679: 10675: 10672: 10670: 10666: 10660: 10657: 10655: 10652: 10651: 10649: 10647: 10643: 10633: 10630: 10628: 10625: 10623: 10620: 10619: 10617: 10613: 10607: 10604: 10602: 10599: 10598: 10596: 10594: 10590: 10582: 10579: 10578: 10577: 10574: 10572: 10569: 10567: 10564: 10562: 10559: 10553: 10550: 10549: 10548: 10545: 10541: 10538: 10537: 10536: 10533: 10531: 10528: 10527: 10526: 10523: 10522: 10520: 10518: 10514: 10508: 10505: 10503: 10500: 10498: 10495: 10493: 10490: 10488: 10485: 10481: 10478: 10477: 10476: 10473: 10471: 10468: 10466: 10463: 10462: 10460: 10458: 10454: 10448: 10445: 10443: 10440: 10438: 10435: 10434: 10432: 10430: 10426: 10420: 10417: 10415: 10412: 10411: 10409: 10407: 10403: 10397: 10394: 10392: 10389: 10388: 10386: 10384: 10380: 10374: 10371: 10369: 10366: 10364: 10361: 10359: 10356: 10355: 10353: 10351: 10347: 10344: 10342: 10338: 10335: 10333: 10329: 10325: 10324: 10318: 10314: 10307: 10302: 10300: 10295: 10293: 10288: 10287: 10284: 10273: 10268: 10262: 10261: 10257: 10255: 10254: 10250: 10248: 10247: 10246:Proto-Karenic 10243: 10241: 10240: 10239:Proto-Loloish 10236: 10234: 10233: 10229: 10227: 10226: 10222: 10221: 10219: 10217: 10213: 10207: 10204: 10202: 10201: 10200:Tibeto-Burman 10197: 10195: 10192: 10190: 10187: 10185: 10182: 10180: 10177: 10175: 10172: 10171: 10169: 10165: 10155: 10152: 10148: 10147: 10143: 10141: 10140: 10136: 10135: 10134: 10131: 10130: 10128: 10126: 10122: 10116: 10115: 10111: 10109: 10106: 10102: 10101: 10097: 10096: 10095: 10094: 10090: 10086: 10085: 10081: 10079: 10078: 10074: 10073: 10072: 10069: 10068: 10066: 10063: 10059: 10054: 10050: 10038: 10037: 10033: 10031: 10028: 10026: 10023: 10022: 10021: 10020: 10016: 10014: 10011: 10009: 10006: 10002: 9999: 9998: 9997: 9996: 9992: 9991: 9989: 9987: 9986:Burmo-Qiangic 9983: 9975: 9974: 9970: 9968: 9967: 9963: 9961: 9960: 9956: 9955: 9954: 9951: 9949: 9948: 9944: 9942: 9941: 9937: 9935: 9934: 9930: 9928: 9925: 9923: 9922: 9918: 9916: 9915: 9911: 9909: 9908: 9904: 9903: 9901: 9899: 9895: 9891: 9881: 9880:Jingpho–Luish 9878: 9876: 9873: 9871: 9868: 9867: 9865: 9863: 9859: 9853: 9850: 9848: 9845: 9843: 9842: 9838: 9836: 9833: 9831: 9828: 9827: 9825: 9822: 9817: 9811: 9810: 9806: 9804: 9803: 9799: 9795: 9794: 9790: 9788: 9787: 9783: 9782: 9781: 9778: 9776: 9775: 9771: 9769: 9768: 9764: 9763: 9761: 9756: 9752: 9746: 9743: 9741: 9740: 9736: 9734: 9733: 9729: 9727: 9726: 9722: 9717: 9716: 9712: 9710: 9709: 9705: 9703: 9702: 9698: 9696: 9693: 9691: 9690: 9686: 9685: 9684: 9683: 9679: 9678: 9676: 9673: 9669: 9665: 9660: 9655: 9650: 9636: 9635: 9630: 9629: 9625: 9623: 9620: 9616: 9615: 9611: 9609: 9608: 9604: 9603: 9602: 9599: 9595: 9594: 9590: 9588: 9587: 9583: 9582: 9581: 9578: 9577: 9575: 9573: 9569: 9563: 9562: 9558: 9554: 9553: 9549: 9547: 9546: 9542: 9540: 9539: 9535: 9534: 9533: 9530: 9528: 9527: 9523: 9519: 9518:Baram–Thangmi 9516: 9514: 9513: 9509: 9508: 9507: 9504: 9502: 9501: 9497: 9495: 9494: 9490: 9489: 9487: 9484: 9480: 9476: 9471: 9467: 9462: 9457: 9450: 9445: 9443: 9438: 9436: 9431: 9430: 9427: 9420: 9417: 9416: 9405: 9404: 9398: 9394: 9393: 9387: 9383: 9382: 9376: 9372: 9371: 9365: 9361: 9360: 9354: 9350: 9349: 9343: 9339: 9338: 9332: 9328: 9327: 9321: 9320: 9308: 9304: 9300: 9295: 9294: 9289: 9285: 9281: 9277: 9272: 9271: 9265: 9260: 9256: 9252: 9248: 9243: 9233: 9212: 9208: 9204: 9200: 9196: 9185: 9173: 9169: 9165: 9161: 9156: 9152: 9148: 9144: 9140: 9135: 9130: 9125: 9122:(1): 71–114, 9121: 9117: 9113: 9109: 9108: 9096: 9090: 9086: 9082: 9077: 9073: 9067: 9063: 9058: 9054: 9048: 9044: 9039: 9035: 9029: 9025: 9020: 9016: 9010: 9006: 9001: 8997: 8991: 8987: 8982: 8978: 8974: 8970: 8965: 8961: 8957: 8953: 8949: 8945: 8941: 8936: 8932: 8928: 8924: 8920: 8916: 8912: 8907: 8903: 8897: 8893: 8888: 8884: 8878: 8875:, Routledge, 8874: 8869: 8865: 8859: 8855: 8850: 8846: 8840: 8836: 8832: 8828: 8827:Norman, Jerry 8824: 8809: 8805: 8801: 8794: 8789: 8774: 8770: 8766: 8759: 8755: 8751: 8747: 8741: 8737: 8733: 8728: 8716: 8712: 8708: 8704: 8700: 8696: 8692: 8686: 8682: 8677: 8673: 8667: 8663: 8658: 8654: 8650: 8646: 8642: 8638: 8634: 8629: 8625: 8621: 8617: 8613: 8609: 8605: 8601: 8597: 8593: 8587: 8583: 8576: 8571: 8567: 8561: 8556: 8555: 8548: 8544: 8538: 8533: 8532: 8525: 8524: 8519: 8518: 8498: 8494: 8488: 8472: 8468: 8462: 8455: 8450: 8443: 8442:Norman (1988) 8438: 8431: 8426: 8419: 8414: 8407: 8406:Norman (1988) 8402: 8396:, p. 10. 8395: 8394:Norman (1988) 8390: 8382: 8378: 8374: 8370: 8366: 8362: 8361:Norman, Jerry 8356: 8349: 8348:Ramsey (1987) 8344: 8337: 8336:Norman (1988) 8332: 8325: 8324:Norman (1988) 8320: 8314:, p. 89. 8313: 8309: 8303: 8296: 8295:Norman (1988) 8291: 8289: 8287: 8279: 8278:Norman (1988) 8274: 8267: 8266:Norman (1988) 8262: 8255: 8254:Norman (1988) 8250: 8248: 8240: 8239:Norman (1988) 8235: 8233: 8225: 8224:Norman (1988) 8220: 8218: 8216: 8214: 8212: 8210: 8208: 8206: 8198: 8197:Norman (1988) 8193: 8187:, p. 41. 8186: 8185:Ramsey (1987) 8181: 8174: 8173:Norman (1988) 8169: 8162: 8157: 8150: 8145: 8138: 8133: 8126: 8121: 8114: 8109: 8102: 8097: 8090: 8085: 8078: 8073: 8066: 8061: 8054: 8049: 8041: 8039:9787561927755 8035: 8028:张世方 (2010). 8024: 8017: 8012: 8005: 8000: 7993: 7988: 7982:, p. 75. 7981: 7976: 7969: 7964: 7957: 7952: 7945: 7940: 7934:, p. 55. 7933: 7928: 7921: 7916: 7909: 7908:Norman (1988) 7904: 7897: 7892: 7885: 7880: 7874:, p. 61. 7873: 7868: 7861: 7860:Norman (1988) 7856: 7849: 7844: 7838:, p. 49. 7837: 7832: 7825: 7820: 7813: 7808: 7801: 7796: 7781: 7777: 7773: 7767: 7765: 7749: 7745: 7738: 7722: 7718: 7711: 7704: 7699: 7683: 7679: 7678: 7673: 7666: 7660:, p. 80. 7659: 7654: 7647: 7642: 7635: 7634:0-06-019776-5 7631: 7625: 7609: 7605: 7598: 7579: 7575: 7571: 7564: 7557: 7551:, p. 47. 7550: 7545: 7537: 7533: 7529: 7525: 7521: 7514: 7507: 7506:Ramsey (1987) 7502: 7496:, p. 21. 7495: 7494:Ramsey (1987) 7490: 7488: 7486: 7478: 7473: 7466: 7461: 7455:, p. 27. 7454: 7449: 7447: 7439: 7438:Escure (1997) 7434: 7432: 7425:, p. 18. 7424: 7419: 7413:, p. 27. 7412: 7407: 7400: 7395: 7389:, p. 22. 7388: 7387:Ramsey (1987) 7383: 7376: 7375:Norman (1988) 7371: 7364: 7363:Norman (1988) 7359: 7357: 7355: 7353: 7345: 7340: 7333: 7328: 7321: 7316: 7309: 7308:Norman (1988) 7304: 7297: 7293: 7289: 7286: 7280: 7273: 7268: 7261: 7256: 7249: 7244: 7237: 7232: 7225: 7224:Norman (1988) 7220: 7213: 7208: 7201: 7200:Ramsey (1987) 7196: 7189: 7188:Coblin (2000) 7184: 7176: 7172: 7168: 7167: 7159: 7152: 7151:Coblin (2003) 7147: 7140: 7135: 7128: 7127:Coblin (2000) 7123: 7116: 7110: 7104:, p. 10. 7103: 7102:Ramsey (1987) 7098: 7091: 7090:Norman (1988) 7086: 7079: 7078:Norman (1988) 7074: 7067: 7066:Norman (1988) 7062: 7055: 7054:Norman (1988) 7050: 7043: 7042:Norman (1988) 7038: 7031: 7026: 7019: 7014: 7012: 7004: 7003:Norman (1988) 6999: 6983: 6979: 6975: 6971: 6967: 6963: 6959: 6955: 6951: 6946: 6938: 6931: 6930:Coblin (2000) 6926: 6919: 6914: 6906: 6900: 6896: 6889: 6882: 6877: 6861: 6857: 6853: 6845: 6829: 6825: 6819: 6812: 6800: 6796: 6790: 6783: 6782:Norman (1988) 6778: 6776: 6774: 6766: 6758: 6750: 6744: 6743: 6738: 6733: 6731: 6726: 6702: 6695: 6689: 6680: 6677: 6674: 6671: 6668: 6667: 6666:For example: 6663: 6656: 6643: 6638: 6632: 6628: 6618: 6615: 6613: 6612: 6608: 6606: 6603: 6601: 6598: 6596: 6593: 6591: 6588: 6586: 6583: 6582: 6578: 6572: 6567: 6564: 6553: 6545: 6544: 6540: 6537: 6533: 6530: 6525: 6522: 6517: 6514: 6509: 6506: 6501: 6498: 6493: 6490: 6485: 6482: 6477: 6474: 6469: 6466: 6461: 6458: 6453: 6450: 6445: 6442: 6437: 6434: 6429: 6426: 6421: 6418: 6413: 6410: 6405: 6402: 6397: 6394: 6389: 6386: 6381: 6378: 6373: 6370: 6365: 6362: 6357: 6354: 6349: 6346: 6341: 6338: 6333: 6331: 6316: 6292: 6289: 6287: 6282: 6273: 6272: 6268: 6251: 6248: 6246: 6241: 6236: 6235: 6231: 6218: 6215: 6213: 6208: 6203: 6202: 6198: 6193: 6190: 6188: 6183: 6178: 6177: 6173: 6170:可靠性、實用性、可理解性 6168: 6165: 6163: 6158: 6153: 6152: 6148: 6143: 6140: 6138: 6133: 6128: 6127: 6123: 6118: 6115: 6113: 6108: 6103: 6102: 6098: 6073: 6070: 6068: 6063: 6058: 6057: 6053: 6044: 6041: 6039: 6034: 6029: 6028: 6024: 6019: 6016: 6014: 6009: 6004: 6003: 5999: 5986: 5983: 5981: 5976: 5971: 5970: 5966: 5949: 5946: 5944: 5939: 5930: 5929: 5925: 5922: 5919: 5916: 5913: 5912: 5909: 5906: 5894: 5884: 5874: 5868: 5863: 5861: 5853: 5846: 5836: 5822: 5812: 5806: 5794: 5788: 5780: 5774: 5769: 5765: 5763: 5760: 5757: 5753: 5750: 5747: 5738: 5735: 5732: 5727: 5724: 5721: 5716: 5713: 5710: 5705: 5702: 5699: 5694: 5691: 5688: 5683: 5681: 5677: 5672: 5670: 5666: 5662: 5658: 5654: 5650: 5646: 5642: 5636: 5626: 5622: 5613: 5601: 5589: 5583: 5581: 5577: 5576:Austroasiatic 5573: 5569: 5558: 5557: 5550: 5547: 5543: 5532: 5528: 5524: 5513: 5507: 5495: 5489: 5477: 5471: 5465: 5459: 5453: 5447: 5441: 5435: 5429: 5423: 5417: 5411: 5405: 5399: 5394: 5391:The singular 5389: 5386: 5380: 5371: 5359: 5355: 5351: 5350:reduplication 5341: 5325: 5309: 5299: 5289: 5285: 5281: 5277: 5267: 5263: 5261: 5244: 5234: 5228: 5222: 5216: 5214: 5211: 5210: 5203: 5197: 5191: 5185: 5179: 5177: 5174: 5170: 5163: 5157: 5151: 5145: 5143: 5140: 5139: 5132: 5126: 5120: 5114: 5112: 5109: 5108: 5101: 5095: 5089: 5083: 5081: 5078: 5077: 5070: 5064: 5058: 5052: 5046: 5044: 5041: 5040: 5033: 5027: 5021: 5015: 5013: 5010: 5008:Southwestern 5006: 4999: 4987: 4985: 4982: 4981: 4974: 4968: 4962: 4956: 4954: 4951: 4947: 4940: 4934: 4926: 4923: 4922: 4915: 4909: 4903: 4897: 4895: 4892: 4891: 4884: 4878: 4872: 4866: 4864: 4861: 4860: 4853: 4847: 4841: 4835: 4833: 4830: 4826: 4819: 4813: 4807: 4801: 4799: 4796: 4795: 4788: 4782: 4776: 4770: 4768: 4765: 4761: 4754: 4748: 4741: 4735: 4733: 4730: 4727: 4726: 4719: 4713: 4707: 4701: 4699: 4696: 4694:Northeastern 4693: 4692: 4685: 4679: 4673: 4667: 4665: 4662: 4659: 4658: 4654: 4646: 4643: 4637: 4634: 4628: 4625: 4619: 4616: 4610: 4606: 4600: 4598: 4597:tone contours 4588: 4579: 4578: 4572:Southwestern 4571: 4570: 4563: 4562: 4555: 4554: 4550: 4547: 4546: 4542: 4539: 4538: 4535:Northeastern 4534: 4533: 4520: 4519: 4515: 4513: 4509: 4506: 4505: 4497: 4491: 4490:tone at all. 4489: 4485: 4481: 4477: 4473: 4470:on which the 4469: 4462: 4458: 4453: 4451: 4450: 4445: 4439: 4433: 4427: 4423: 4419: 4416: 4413: 4407: 4405: 4404:entering tone 4395: 4386: 4377: 4368: 4359: 4358: 4355: 4350: 4348: 4343: 4341: 4336: 4334: 4327: 4322: 4320: 4315: 4313: 4308: 4306: 4301: 4299: 4294: 4292: 4287: 4285: 4280: 4277: 4276: 4272: 4269: 4266: 4263: 4260: 4257: 4254: 4251: 4248: 4245: 4242: 4239: 4236: 4235: 4231: 4227: 4224: 4220: 4217: 4213: 4210: 4206: 4203: 4199: 4196: 4192: 4189: 4185: 4182: 4178: 4175: 4171: 4168: 4164: 4161: 4157: 4154: 4150: 4147: 4146: 4142: 4127: 4116:"rising tone" 4112: 4097: 4096: 4090: 4084: 4076: 4071: 4066: 4062: 4059: 4055: 4051: 4047: 4043: 4039: 4018: 4014:The syllable 4007: 3998: 3989: 3980: 3966: 3964: 3957: 3945: 3934: 3929: 3924: 3919: 3917: 3912: 3909: 3902: 3901: 3895: 3890: 3885: 3880: 3863: 3858: 3855: 3848: 3847: 3841: 3836: 3831: 3826: 3821: 3816: 3813: 3806: 3805: 3799: 3794: 3789: 3784: 3779: 3774: 3767: 3759: 3752: 3751: 3747: 3744: 3743: 3700: 3697: 3695: 3691: 3687: 3682: 3680: 3676: 3669: 3662: 3646: 3637: 3635: 3631: 3619: 3615: 3611: 3606: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3592: 3585: 3574: 3562: 3558: 3554: 3526: 3523: 3512: 3509: 3498: 3495: 3486:/tʂwtʂʰwʂwɻw/ 3479: 3464: 3442: 3438: 3419: 3413: 3410:"to fly" and 3406: 3394: 3391: 3387: 3371: 3368: 3364: 3360: 3356: 3352: 3348: 3336: 3335: 3330: 3323: 3318: 3311: 3303: 3298: 3291: 3286: 3279: 3274: 3272: 3269: 3268: 3260: 3255: 3248: 3243: 3236: 3231: 3224: 3219: 3212: 3207: 3205: 3202: 3201: 3198: 3191: 3186: 3179: 3174: 3167: 3162: 3160: 3159: 3156: 3149: 3144: 3137: 3132: 3125: 3120: 3118: 3116: 3112: 3104: 3099: 3097: 3095: 3088: 3083: 3076: 3071: 3070: 3062: 3057: 3055: 3053: 3046: 3041: 3034: 3029: 3027: 3023: 3017: 3012: 3010: 3008: 3001: 2996: 2989: 2984: 2982: 2979: 2978: 2975: 2972: 2970: 2967: 2965: 2962: 2960: 2957: 2955: 2952: 2950: 2949: 2946: 2935: 2931: 2928: 2924: 2920: 2916: 2913: 2909: 2901: 2897: 2894: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2874: 2873: 2870: 2868: 2864: 2860: 2856: 2845: 2842: 2834: 2824: 2820: 2814: 2813: 2808:This section 2806: 2802: 2797: 2796: 2792: 2782: 2780: 2776: 2772: 2768: 2764: 2760: 2756: 2748: 2745:and southern 2744: 2740: 2736: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2720: 2717: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2679: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2664: 2660: 2656: 2653: 2650: 2649:Iasyr Shivaza 2646: 2642: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2626: 2622: 2618: 2614: 2611: 2608: 2604: 2600: 2596: 2593: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2569:Jilu Mandarin 2567: 2564: 2560: 2557:and northern 2556: 2552: 2549: 2546: 2542: 2538: 2535: 2534: 2533: 2531: 2527: 2519: 2518: 2513: 2508: 2499: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2472: 2470: 2469: 2464: 2460: 2459:entering tone 2456: 2452: 2447: 2442: 2440: 2436: 2432: 2428: 2425:and northern 2424: 2420: 2416: 2411: 2407: 2392: 2390: 2386: 2382: 2378: 2374: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2341:Dungan people 2336: 2326: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2310: 2300: 2298: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2282: 2276: 2266: 2263: 2258: 2254: 2251: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2227: 2223: 2219: 2215: 2209: 2194: 2192: 2188: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2171: 2169: 2163: 2153: 2151: 2147: 2143: 2139: 2135: 2130: 2125: 2123: 2119: 2115: 2114:Manchu people 2111: 2107: 2103: 2100:, except for 2099: 2094: 2092: 2088: 2084: 2083:pronunciation 2079: 2077: 2072: 2062: 2060: 2050: 2048: 2044: 2039: 2037: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2016: 2013: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1979: 1967: 1959: 1955: 1951: 1947: 1943: 1937: 1933: 1927: 1919: 1911: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1873: 1863: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1844: 1836: 1832: 1829: 1827: 1823: 1819: 1817: 1813: 1812: 1811: 1809: 1799: 1795: 1791: 1786: 1784: 1779: 1770: 1766: 1753: 1752:Arcadio Huang 1749: 1745: 1737: 1733: 1728: 1718: 1716: 1710: 1706: 1704: 1690: 1686: 1685: 1680: 1679: 1672: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1630: 1624: 1617: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1598: 1594: 1589: 1584: 1582: 1578: 1574: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1545: 1543: 1542: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1528: 1523: 1518: 1516: 1515: 1510: 1509: 1504: 1500: 1496: 1495:Northern Song 1489: 1485: 1481: 1480: 1474: 1469: 1459: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1424: 1419: 1415: 1411: 1407: 1403: 1399: 1395: 1391: 1387: 1381: 1371: 1369: 1365: 1359: 1349: 1343: 1336: 1334: 1324: 1312: 1307: 1296: 1291: 1280: 1275: 1274: 1273: 1271: 1267: 1263: 1259: 1255: 1251: 1247: 1243: 1238: 1228: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1201: 1195: 1191: 1186: 1182: 1177: 1173: 1163: 1161: 1157: 1153: 1149: 1145: 1142:of China and 1141: 1137: 1133: 1132:lingua franca 1129: 1124: 1122: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1105: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1082: 1080: 1076: 1072: 1071:Lower Yangtze 1068: 1064: 1054: 1048: 1040: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1020: 1016: 1012: 1008: 1004: 994: 988: 983: 978: 973: 968: 964: 963: 952: 945: 912: 905: 901: 877: 865: 863: 859: 856: 852: 846: 841: 839: 835: 827: 825: 821: 813: 811: 807: 799: 797: 793: 785: 783: 779: 771: 769: 765: 762: 758: 753: 749: 745: 741: 733: 731: 727: 719: 717: 713: 708: 696: 694: 690: 687: 683: 677: 672: 670: 666: 658: 656: 652: 644: 642: 638: 630: 628: 624: 616: 614: 610: 602: 600: 596: 593: 589: 584: 580: 576: 572: 567: 562: 560: 556: 551: 546: 544: 540: 536: 531: 523: 519: 515: 511: 507: 505: 499: 462: 457: 450: 445: 441: 437: 435: 431: 427: 423: 421: 420: 415: 411: 407: 404: 399: 394: 391: 388: 384: 378: 371: 367: 364: 361: 357: 354: 352: 349: 346: 342: 339: 338: 337: 332: 329: 327: 324: 322: 319: 316: 312: 308: 305: 304: 302: 298: 292: 287: 284: 282: 279: 277: 274: 272: 271:Lower Yangtze 269: 267: 264: 262: 259: 257: 254: 252: 249: 248: 247: 245: 241: 234: 230: 225: 222: 221: 219: 213: 199: 196: 195: 194: 191: 190: 189: 186: 185: 184: 181: 180: 179: 176: 175: 174: 170: 164: 154: 151: 150: 149: 146: 145: 144: 141: 140: 139: 135: 131: 125: 121: 116: 113: 107: 103: 99: 96: 93: 89: 84: 80: 75: 70:('Mandarin') 68: 62: 57: 53: 38: 33: 30: 26: 22: 16794:Chetty Malay 16551: 16536:Chaoshan Min 16514:Southern Min 16453:Sino-Tibetan 16334:Sabah Bisaya 16214:Kinabatangan 16119:Bukar–Sadong 15979:Pahang Malay 15775:Austronesian 15379:Chitty Malay 15374:Bazaar Malay 15187:Shanghainese 15132:Japonic Sign 14975: 14958:Sino-Tibetan 14659:Austronesian 14595:GX = Guangxi 14583: 14581:Tibetan Sign 14571: 14557:Chinese Sign 14423:Creole/Mixed 14292:Southeastern 14280:Southwestern 14243:Northeastern 14237: 14228:Varieties of 12228:Hanyu Pinyin 12218:Romanization 12125:Semi-cursive 11970:Old Mandarin 11927:Stroke count 11854: 11847: 11769:Old National 11612:Unclassified 10517:Southwestern 10350:Northeastern 10340: 10332:Major groups 10321: 10271: 10258: 10251: 10244: 10237: 10230: 10223: 10198: 10144: 10137: 10112: 10098: 10091: 10082: 10075: 10034: 10019:Lolo-Burmese 10017: 9993: 9971: 9964: 9957: 9945: 9938: 9931: 9919: 9912: 9905: 9839: 9807: 9800: 9791: 9784: 9772: 9765: 9737: 9730: 9723: 9713: 9706: 9699: 9687: 9680: 9632: 9626: 9612: 9605: 9591: 9584: 9559: 9550: 9543: 9536: 9524: 9510: 9498: 9491: 9456:Sino-Tibetan 9402: 9391: 9380: 9369: 9358: 9347: 9336: 9325: 9298: 9279: 9275: 9254: 9250: 9231: 9228:普通话基础方言基本词汇集 9198: 9194: 9176:, retrieved 9167: 9163: 9142: 9138: 9119: 9115: 9084: 9080: 9061: 9042: 9023: 9004: 8985: 8968: 8943: 8939: 8914: 8910: 8891: 8872: 8853: 8830: 8815:, retrieved 8808:the original 8803: 8799: 8780:, retrieved 8768: 8764: 8731: 8719:, retrieved 8710: 8706: 8680: 8661: 8636: 8632: 8607: 8603: 8581: 8574: 8553: 8530: 8501:. Retrieved 8487: 8475:. Retrieved 8461: 8449: 8437: 8425: 8413: 8401: 8389: 8372: 8368: 8365:Mei, Tsu-lin 8355: 8343: 8331: 8319: 8302: 8273: 8261: 8192: 8180: 8168: 8156: 8144: 8132: 8120: 8108: 8096: 8084: 8072: 8060: 8048: 8023: 8011: 7999: 7994:, p. 3. 7987: 7975: 7963: 7951: 7939: 7927: 7915: 7903: 7891: 7879: 7867: 7855: 7843: 7831: 7819: 7807: 7795: 7783:. Retrieved 7775: 7751:. Retrieved 7747: 7737: 7725:. Retrieved 7723:(in Russian) 7721:Вокруг Света 7720: 7710: 7698: 7686:. Retrieved 7675: 7665: 7653: 7641: 7624: 7612:. Retrieved 7608:the original 7597: 7585:. Retrieved 7573: 7569: 7556: 7544: 7519: 7513: 7501: 7472: 7460: 7418: 7406: 7394: 7382: 7370: 7339: 7327: 7315: 7303: 7295: 7283:Wong, Wing. 7279: 7267: 7255: 7243: 7231: 7219: 7207: 7195: 7183: 7165: 7158: 7146: 7139:Kaske (2008) 7134: 7122: 7114: 7109: 7097: 7085: 7073: 7061: 7049: 7037: 7025: 6998: 6986:. Retrieved 6953: 6949: 6937: 6925: 6913: 6894: 6892:"mandarin", 6888: 6880: 6876: 6864:. Retrieved 6855: 6844: 6832:. Retrieved 6818: 6810: 6803:. Retrieved 6799:the original 6789: 6757: 6740: 6701: 6693: 6688: 6662: 6631: 6609: 6563:China portal 6543: 6541: 6538: 6535: 6531: 6528: 6523: 6520: 6515: 6512: 6507: 6504: 6499: 6496: 6491: 6488: 6483: 6480: 6475: 6472: 6467: 6464: 6459: 6456: 6451: 6448: 6443: 6440: 6435: 6432: 6427: 6424: 6419: 6416: 6411: 6408: 6403: 6400: 6395: 6392: 6387: 6384: 6379: 6376: 6371: 6368: 6363: 6360: 6355: 6352: 6347: 6344: 6339: 6336: 6327: 6324:Example text 6283: 6242: 6209: 6184: 6159: 6145:作家、科學家、藝術家 6134: 6109: 6064: 6035: 6010: 5977: 5940: 5907: 5895: 5880: 5870: 5864: 5849: 5847: 5832: 5818: 5808: 5790: 5776: 5770: 5767: 5764: 5761: 5758: 5755: 5751: 5748: 5741: 5736: 5733: 5730: 5725: 5722: 5719: 5714: 5711: 5708: 5703: 5700: 5697: 5692: 5689: 5686: 5680:ditransitive 5673: 5638: 5623: 5584: 5551: 5541: 5526: 5523:Shanghainese 5390: 5367: 5357: 5356:, one hears 5339: 5323: 5307: 5297: 5287: 5276:Shanghainese 5273: 5264: 5257: 4798:Shijiazhuang 4650: 4639: 4630: 4621: 4612: 4594: 4584: 4484:Old Mandarin 4475: 4461:glottal stop 4454: 4447: 4441: 4435: 4429: 4421: 4408: 4401: 4391: 4382: 4373: 4364: 4351: 4344: 4337: 4330: 4323: 4316: 4309: 4302: 4295: 4288: 4281: 4138: 4123: 4108: 4101:"level tone" 4082: 4074: 4063: 4042:distribution 4041: 4035: 3962: 3955: 3942: 3913: 3859: 3763: 3694:glottal stop 3683: 3678: 3674: 3667: 3660: 3645:Old Mandarin 3638: 3617: 3613: 3607: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3590: 3583: 3580:/kaikʰaixai/ 3572: 3560: 3556: 3552: 3538: 3521: 3507: 3493: 3440: 3411: 3404: 3386:Peking opera 3366: 3362: 3358: 3354: 3350: 3346: 2944: 2923:Southwestern 2912:glottal stop 2871: 2866: 2852: 2837: 2828: 2817:Please help 2812:verification 2809: 2754: 2752: 2625:Yellow River 2607:Heilongjiang 2585:Heilongjiang 2525: 2523: 2515: 2495: 2473: 2466: 2443: 2431:Li Fang-Kuei 2412: 2409: 2338: 2329:Central Asia 2313:In northern 2312: 2278: 2255: 2211: 2172: 2165: 2126: 2095: 2080: 2068: 2056: 2040: 2023: 2019: 2017: 1980: 1953: 1939: 1929: 1882:Qing dynasty 1875: 1840: 1825: 1824:finals with 1821: 1815: 1805: 1787: 1782: 1775: 1768: 1743: 1735: 1712: 1707: 1700: 1682: 1678:Water Margin 1676: 1673: 1658: 1636: 1620: 1618: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1596: 1592: 1587: 1585: 1581:Tang dynasty 1576: 1572: 1568: 1565:checked tone 1546: 1541:Menggu Ziyun 1539: 1525: 1519: 1512: 1506: 1492: 1487: 1483: 1479:Menggu Ziyun 1477: 1468:Old Mandarin 1462:Old Mandarin 1421: 1383: 1360: 1345: 1339: 1337: 1330: 1328: 1308: 1292: 1276: 1266:six official 1239: 1224: 1169: 1125: 1117:glottal stop 1106: 1098:Heilongjiang 1083: 1050: 1026: 990: 910: 909: 830:Běi-fang-huà 816:Pei-fang-hua 802:Beeifanghuah 768:Hanyu Pinyin 599:Hanyu Pinyin 501: 434:Linguasphere 417: 383:Signed forms 335: 286:Southwestern 251:Northeastern 232: 228: 193:Old Mandarin 152: 138:Sino-Tibetan 29: 16804:Sabah Malay 16799:Cocos Malay 16688:Minangkabau 16639:archipelago 16509:Pu-Xian Min 16487:Eastern Min 16437:Significant 16279:Murik Kayan 15989:Reman Malay 15984:Perak Malay 15969:Orang Kanaq 15909:Kedah Malay 15904:Judeo-Malay 15785:Kayan–Murik 15588:Minangkabau 14089:Fuyu Kyrgyz 13888:Tai Hongjin 13574:Muak Sa-aak 12297:Xiao'erjing 12159:Punctuation 12152:Traditional 12105:Oracle bone 12089:Logographic 11985:Proto-Hakka 11960:Eastern Han 11955:Old Chinese 11817:Classifiers 11784:Northern Wu 11712:Singaporean 10918: [ 10906: [ 10894: [ 10882: [ 10870: [ 10260:Proto-Hakka 10189:Mahakiranti 9695:East Bodish 9475:Uttarakhand 9226:) (1996). 9201:(2): 1–31, 9170:: 613–649, 9145:: 143–182, 9007:, Longman, 8917:: 349–362, 8817:16 November 8520:Works cited 8375:: 274–301. 8149:Mair (1990) 7884:Ting (1991) 7785:8 September 7753:9 September 7727:8 September 7614:14 February 7549:Chen (1999) 7453:Blum (2001) 7423:Mair (1991) 7411:Chen (1999) 7344:Chen (1999) 7332:Chen (1999) 7320:Chen (1999) 7272:Chen (1999) 7248:Chen (1999) 7236:Chen (1999) 7212:Chen (1999) 5566:) "alley". 5260:Wu dialects 4647:marked with 3688:below). In 3677:"gold" and 3634:triphthongs 3584:jie qie xie 3382:/tsjtsʰjsj/ 2908:Jin Chinese 2575:("Ji") and 2543:except the 2512:Jin Chinese 2480:Zhou Zhenhe 2446:Yuan Jiahua 2323:rebel group 2216:along with 2026:base their 1835:palatalized 1778:South China 1651:Han dynasty 1524:called the 1390:Old Chinese 1329:but not as 1065:(including 1023:North China 516:instead of 356:Xiao'erjing 315:Traditional 178:Old Chinese 167:Early forms 83:traditional 72:written in 17023:Categories 16937:Vietnamese 16927:Sri Lankan 16885:Indonesian 16842:Immigrants 16789:Baba Malay 16709:Philippine 16702:Philippine 16683:Mandailing 16637:Indonesian 16424:Umaʼ Lasan 16314:Punan Batu 16259:Lun Bawang 16004:Semaq Beri 15859:Peninsular 15842:Nationwide 15834:Indigenous 15805:Sama–Bajaw 15800:Philippine 15790:Land Dayak 15644:Vietnamese 15561:Mandailing 15533:Indonesian 15491:Indo-Aryan 15369:Baba Malay 15231:Vietnamese 15219:Indonesian 15039:Fuzhounese 14899:Kanakanavu 14610:XZ = Tibet 14601:MC = Macau 14541:Zhangzhung 14285:Sichuanese 14212:Vietnamese 13609:Hmong-Mien 13488:Waxianghua 13269:Khroskyabs 12557:Indigenous 12445:Prefecture 12420:Portuguese 12248:Wade–Giles 12147:Simplified 12042:Vernacular 12035:in Vietnam 11888:Simplified 11875:Biaoxingma 11822:Honorifics 11757:Historical 11702:Philippine 11692:Sichuanese 11619:Badong Yao 11323:Shao–Jiang 11194:Philippine 11002:Xiangxiang 10997:Shuangfeng 10742:Taizhou Wu 10525:Sichuanese 10154:Idu–Taraon 10108:Miju–Meyor 10001:Gyalrongic 9847:Tangkhulic 9622:Raji–Raute 8771:(b): 1–8, 8713:: 85–102, 8477:6 December 8454:Yue (2003) 8430:Yue (2003) 8418:Yue (2003) 8308:Yan (2006) 7956:Yan (2006) 7872:Yan (2006) 6956:(1): 211. 6856:www.gov.cn 6742:Ethnologue 6717:References 6642:Mǎn dà rén 6195:煙鬼、酒鬼、膽小鬼 6120:公式化、制度化、強化 6021:重做, 重建, 重新 5860:classifier 5817:) and 5756:我给你一本书 5645:inflection 5612:hànbǎo bāo 5540:'you' and 5280:homophones 5270:Vocabulary 4728:Jiao–Liao 4608:Tone name 4540:Jiao–Liao 4507:voiceless 4480:Wu Chinese 4070:four tones 3944:R-coloring 3715:Colloquial 3630:diphthongs 3204:Fricatives 3115:Affricates 2929:dialects); 2789:See also: 2713:Wu Chinese 2645:Kyrgyzstan 2641:Kazakhstan 2639:spoken in 2400:Boundaries 2357:Hui people 2353:Uzbekistan 2349:Kazakhstan 2345:Kyrgyzstan 2307:See also: 2136:, such as 2087:vocabulary 2032:pragmatics 1936:Wade–Giles 1898:Chen Duxiu 1892:, such as 1857:based the 1820:merger of 1665:homophones 1561:four tones 1553:affricates 1532:rime table 1347:Běifānghuà 1252:(PRC) and 1172:Portuguese 1073:, are not 1069:) and the 1067:Sichuanese 1052:Běifānghuà 810:Wade–Giles 788:ㄅㄟˇㄈㄤㄏㄨㄚˋ 774:Běifānghuà 641:Wade–Giles 311:Simplified 79:simplified 16978:By states 16832:Esperanto 16769:Chavacano 16582:Malayalam 16577:Dravidian 16504:Hainanese 16463:Cantonese 16399:Tombonuwo 16364:Sembakung 16184:Kalabakan 16134:Daro-Matu 15874:Cheq Wong 15812:Tai-Kadai 15729:Malaysian 15573:Baweanese 15546:Banjarese 15479:Malayalam 15474:Dravidian 15429:Hainanese 15424:Cantonese 15394:Singdarin 15214:Malaysian 15177:Cantonese 15149:Auxiliary 14818:Ketagalan 14736:Favorlang 14521:Tocharian 14455:Qoqmončaq 14407:Cantonese 14361:Shaojiang 14334:Hainanese 14263:Zhongyuan 14258:Jiao-Liao 14192:Esperanto 14094:Ili Turki 13801:Khamnigan 13666:Kiong Nai 13437:Zitsadegu 12415:Mongolian 12405:Cantonese 12186:Taiwanese 12176:Cantonese 12020:Classical 11980:Proto-Min 11915:Microsoft 11774:Cantonese 11750:Phonology 11731:Cantonese 11722:Singdarin 11707:Malaysian 11697:Taiwanese 11601:Rongjiang 11591:Yongjiang 11587:Southern 11572:Northern 11546:Luo–Guang 11455:Hong Kong 11450:Guangzhou 11406:Taiwanese 11399:Changting 11333:Zhanjiang 11247:Zhongshan 11214:Malaysian 11209:Singapore 11174:Zhangzhou 11126:Zhongshan 11019:Yong–Quan 10915:Jing-Zhan 10845:Xuancheng 10822:Jiangshan 10701:Changzhou 10622:Junjiahua 10475:Guanzhong 10358:Changchun 10253:Proto-Min 10184:Macro-Bai 10062:Arunachal 10055:(possible 9870:Boro–Garo 9774:Kuki-Chin 9757:and Indo- 9672:Arunachal 9659:Himalayas 9634:Tandrange 9601:Chepangic 9532:Dhimalish 9466:Himalayas 9151:1808/7090 9081:Putonghua 8960:126344099 8683:, BRILL, 8653:162258379 8503:7 January 8115:, Map B3. 8055:, Map B2. 8006:, Map B1. 7970:, Map A2. 7748:meduza.io 7658:Wang 2012 7536:136508776 7175:680482801 6978:148793910 6970:1527-9421 6722:Citations 6460:liángxīn, 6420:píngděng. 5867:particles 5425:) 'you', 4832:Zhengzhou 4499:subgroup 3910:'country' 3710:(Beijing) 3702:Character 3551:(spelled 3482:/pfpfʰfv/ 3378:/kjkʰjxj/ 3271:Sonorants 2964:Retroflex 2934:devoicing 2831:July 2011 2785:Phonology 2502:Subgroups 2488:Old Xiang 2484:New Xiang 2413:In 1936, 2369:Kashgaria 2365:Dzungaria 2293:Cantonese 2262:Singdarin 2242:Cantonese 2214:Singapore 2202:Singapore 2179:retroflex 2028:phonology 2020:Pǔtōnghuà 2012:diglossic 2007:Cantonese 1999:Hong Kong 1997:, namely 1954:pǔtōnghuà 1794:Guangdong 1754:) in 1742 1278:Pǔtōnghuà 1258:Singapore 1121:retroflex 1015:phonology 868:Bākfōngwá 419:Glottolog 403:ISO 639-3 266:Jiao–Liao 244:Varieties 229:Putonghua 16917:Nepalese 16902:Japanese 16880:Filipino 16827:Tanglish 16779:Manglish 16774:Kristang 16673:Javanese 16668:Buginese 16656:Madurese 16646:Acehnese 16611:Gujarati 16439:minority 16409:Tringgus 16374:Serudung 16204:Kendayan 16174:Jangkang 16056:Malaysia 15944:Mah Meri 15934:Kristang 15861:Malaysia 15755:Families 15721:Official 15624:Japanese 15619:Filipino 15609:Armenian 15583:Javanese 15578:Buginese 15541:Acehnese 15501:Gujarati 15389:Singlish 15384:Kristang 15325:Mandarin 15308:Official 15292:National 15199:Japanese 15194:Filipino 15008:Southern 14976:Mandarin 14864:Southern 14845:Sakizaya 14785:Saisiyat 14723:Northern 14677:Atayalic 14668:Formosan 14465:Tangwang 14445:Macanese 14440:Lingling 14373:Northern 14356:Northern 14319:Southern 14238:Mandarin 14165:Minority 14125:Sarikoli 14038:Tungusic 13999:Naxi Yao 13944:Cao Miao 13868:Ningming 13768:Mongolic 13744:Dzao Min 13739:Biao Min 13696:Qo Xiong 13691:Pingtang 13387:Dongwang 13329:Tshobdun 13254:Guiqiong 12856:Sangkong 12631:Muangphe 12593:Mondzish 12547:numerous 12538:Counties 12385:Regional 12369:Official 12270:Bopomofo 12199:Phonetic 12191:Two-cell 12120:Clerical 12030:in Japan 12025:Adoption 12013:Official 12004:Literary 11879:Boshiamy 11856:Xiehouyu 11812:Numerals 11789:Mandarin 11717:Standard 11677:Standard 11551:Qin–Lian 11541:Yong–Xun 11526:Gao–Yang 11472:Jiujiang 11460:Malaysia 11394:Tingzhou 11345:Wenchang 11306:Jianyang 11296:Northern 11255:Sanxiang 11169:Quanzhou 11152:Southern 11121:Manjiang 10985:Changsha 10945:Nanchang 10940:Chang–Du 10837:Xuanzhou 10827:Qingtian 10781:Wencheng 10727:Jiangyin 10722:Jinxiang 10712:Shaoxing 10706:Hangzhou 10686:Shanghai 10627:Qinjiang 10535:Minjiang 10507:Xinjiang 10465:Dongping 10429:Jiaoliao 10368:Shenyang 10341:Mandarin 10058:isolates 10025:Mondzish 9953:Cai–Long 9701:Tshangla 9657:Eastern 9500:Tamangic 9470:Himachal 9464:Western 9458:branches 9301:: 1–22. 9207:23754434 9172:archived 8977:23827039 8931:40726247 8829:(1988), 8773:archived 8756:(1990), 8715:archived 8701:(2007), 8497:Archived 8471:Archived 8030:北京官话语音研究 7772:"Dungan" 7682:Archived 7578:Archived 7288:Archived 6982:Archived 6860:Archived 6834:28 March 6828:Archived 6805:28 March 6737:Mandarin 6549:See also 6516:jīngshén 5923:Example 5588:gāo'ěrfū 5393:pronouns 5340:cōngmáng 5286:such as 5176:Yangzhou 4984:Yinchuan 4949:Lan–Yin 4925:Tianshui 4660:Beijing 4623:yángpíng 4564:Lan–Yin 4521:Beijing 4512:sonorant 4488:phonemic 4457:Minjiang 4375:yángpíng 4148:Example 4081:, while 3760:'lesson' 3733:Yangzhou 3708:Standard 3668:-in/-ing 3661:-en/-eng 3390:Shandong 3374:/tɕtɕʰɕ/ 3365:becomes 3357:becomes 3349:becomes 3343:/tstsʰs/ 3339:/ʈʂʈʂʰʂ/ 2941:Initials 2855:syllable 2767:Dongfang 2705:Jiujiang 2675:Xinjiang 2671:Yinchuan 2633:Xinjiang 2599:Shandong 2577:Shandong 2563:Xinjiang 2532:below): 2281:Malaysia 2269:Malaysia 2183:alveolar 2146:Shenyang 2120:, where 2118:Xinjiang 2102:Liaoning 2096:Most of 1941:Kuo²-yü³ 1763:— 1649:and the 1643:classics 1517:poetry. 1444:Zhejiang 1262:Malaysia 1205:official 1190:Sanskrit 1176:mandarim 1094:Xinjiang 911:Mandarin 782:Bopomofo 661:Guan-huà 647:Kuan-hua 633:Guanhuah 619:ㄍㄨㄢㄏㄨㄚˋ 613:Bopomofo 522:Help:IPA 440:79-AAA-b 426:mand1415 370:Cyrillic 153:Mandarin 35:Mandarin 16897:Persian 16865:Burmese 16860:Bengali 16850:African 16761:Creoles 16719:Maranao 16678:Kerinci 16621:Punjabi 16541:Teochew 16519:Hokkien 16446:Chinese 16394:Timugon 16354:Sekapan 16274:Momogun 16269:Melanau 16249:Lengilu 16239:Lahanan 16199:Kelabit 16189:Kanowit 16179:Kajaman 16124:Bukitan 16094:Bintulu 16084:Berawan 16009:Semelai 15919:Kenaboi 15884:Jah Hut 15829:Natives 15795:Malayic 15734:English 15614:Burmese 15556:Angkola 15521:Sinhala 15511:Punjabi 15496:Bengali 15454:Teochew 15449:Hokkien 15444:Hokchew 15439:Henghwa 15419:Sinitic 15411:Chinese 15315:English 15172:English 15112:Zhao'an 15107:Raoping 15056:Pu-Xian 15031:Eastern 14967:Sinitic 14932:Batanic 14855:Taivoan 14840:Qauqaut 14835:Makatao 14828:Luilang 14813:Kavalan 14536:Xianbei 14531:Tuyuhun 14501:Old Yue 14479:Extinct 14460:Sanqiao 14351:Central 14341:Eastern 14324:Hokkien 14268:Lan-Yin 14248:Beijing 14230:Chinese 14187:Russian 13949:Chadong 13929:Ai-Cham 13898:Tai Nüa 13883:Tai Dón 13878:Tai Dam 13836:Kra-Dai 13806:Monguor 13796:Kangjia 13754:Kim Mun 13749:Iu Mien 13671:Luobohe 13661:Huishui 13641:Guiyang 13618:Hmongic 13579:Palaung 13569:Man Met 13473:Longjia 13422:Ladakhi 13417:Kyirong 13407:Khalong 13392:Drugchu 13349:Tibetic 13319:Shixing 13231:Qiangic 13012:Alingpo 13004:Nisoish 12989:Yangliu 12984:Xuzhang 12914:Laizisi 12909:Kuamasi 12904:Kua-nsi 12886:Lisoish 12866:Tsukong 12806:Laomian 12731:Baihong 12698:Hanoish 12689:Loloish 12674:Lhao Vo 12669:Chashan 12654:Xiandao 12641:Burmish 12584:Burmese 12542:Banners 12498:Tai Nüa 12425:Tibetan 12410:English 12169:Braille 12130:Cursive 12080:Scripts 11947:History 11937:ZhengMa 11883:Cangjie 11849:Chengyu 11804:Grammar 11779:Hokkien 11736:Hokkien 11644:Waxiang 11624:Danzhou 11596:Guandao 11581:Younian 11576:Tongdao 11565:Pinghua 11505:Taishan 11421:Raoping 11389:Huizhou 11379:Meixian 11355:Banqiao 11328:Leizhou 11318:Pu–Xian 11313:Central 11301:Jian'ou 11276:Longyan 11224:Teochew 11161:Hokkien 11136:Nanlang 11092:Fu–Ning 11072:Changle 11054:Houguan 11045:Eastern 10992:Loushao 10980:Changyi 10962:Da–Tong 10957:Ying–Yi 10903:Yanzhou 10771:Wenzhou 10764:Oujiang 10755:Tiantai 10750:Taizhou 10659:Zhi–Yan 10606:Nantong 10601:Nanjing 10576:Gui–Liu 10566:Nanping 10561:Kunming 10487:Luoyang 10442:Qingdao 10414:Tianjin 10391:Beijing 10383:Beijing 10272:Italics 10133:Siangic 10114:Songlin 10093:Kho-Bwa 10071:Hrusish 10053:Dubious 10036:Loloish 10030:Burmish 9995:Qiangic 9966:Longjia 9933:Karenic 9927:Nungish 9907:Sinitic 9793:Hkongso 9755:Myanmar 9725:Gongduk 9689:Tibetic 9607:Chepang 9580:Magaric 9526:Kiranti 9506:Newaric 8831:Chinese 8515:Sources 6988:21 June 6866:26 July 6653:; ' 6532:duìdài. 6524:hùxiāng 6492:xiōngdì 5649:affixes 5629:Grammar 5407:) 'I', 5354:Sichuan 5322:), and 5284:affixes 5242:(213)* 5213:Nantong 5142:Liuzhou 5080:Kunming 5043:Xichang 5012:Chengdu 4953:Lanzhou 4863:Luoyang 4767:Tianjin 4664:Beijing 4614:yīnpíng 4510:voiced 4468:Nanjing 4366:yīnpíng 4050:Chengdu 3856:'fruit' 3814:'guest' 3728:Chengdu 3720:(Ji–Lu) 3705:Meaning 2969:Palatal 2759:Nanping 2747:Shaanxi 2743:Guangxi 2731:Guizhou 2727:Sichuan 2709:Jiangxi 2701:Jiangsu 2697:Nanjing 2693:Yangtze 2685:Jiangsu 2667:Ningxia 2663:Lanzhou 2623:in the 2621:Shaanxi 2555:Chengde 2492:Huizhou 2455:Li Rong 2427:Jiangxi 2415:Wang Li 2315:Myanmar 2303:Myanmar 2289:Hokkien 2238:Teochew 2234:Hokkien 2218:English 2142:Baoding 2138:Tianjin 2134:Beijing 2091:grammar 2010:either 1894:Hu Shih 1878:Beijing 1851:Beijing 1847:Nanjing 1783:Guānhuà 1717:). 1709:Hu Shih 1645:of the 1452:Guangxi 1448:Pinghua 1434:in the 1432:Huizhou 1374:History 1341:Guānhuà 1332:Guānhuà 1321:; ' 1226:Guānhuà 1207:of the 1200:mantrin 1188:, from 1185:menteri 1179:, from 992:Guānhuà 962:-dər-in 605:Guānhuà 518:Unicode 281:Lan–Yin 256:Beijing 148:Chinese 143:Sinitic 67:Guānhuà 52:Guānhuà 16907:Korean 16855:Arabic 16740:Others 16724:Molbog 16714:Iranun 16661:Bawean 16651:Banjar 16599:Telugu 16570:Indian 16497:Fuzhou 16492:Fuqing 16384:Sungai 16329:Sa'ban 16299:Paluan 16294:Okolod 16234:Kuijau 16164:Ida'an 16139:Dumpas 16104:Bookan 16099:Bonggi 16089:Biatah 16079:Belait 16034:Temuan 16024:Temiar 16014:Semnam 15954:Mintil 15949:Minriq 15929:Kintaq 15924:Kensiu 15879:Duanoʼ 15768:Aslian 15634:Nepali 15629:Korean 15604:Arabic 15516:Sindhi 15484:Telugu 15466:Indian 15204:Korean 15092:Sixian 14989:Junhua 14904:Saaroa 14891:Tsouic 14881:Puyuma 14876:Paiwan 14850:Siraya 14774:Kaxabu 14758:Arikun 14753:Hoanya 14748:Papora 14741:Taokas 14731:Babuza 14706:Rukaic 14690:Seediq 14685:Atayal 14516:Tangut 14506:Rouran 14496:Khitan 14486:Ba–Shu 14450:Maojia 14435:Hezhou 14346:Puxian 14329:Teoswa 14214:(Kinh) 14182:Kyrgyz 14177:Korean 14172:Kazakh 14076:Turkic 14061:Oroqen 14051:Manchu 14046:Evenki 14014:Qabiao 14004:Ong Be 13989:Maonan 13979:Lakkja 13969:Jiamao 13939:Buyang 13903:Tai Ya 13893:Tai Lü 13853:Bouyei 13845:Zhuang 13826:Torgut 13781:Buryat 13731:Mienic 13721:Younuo 13701:Raojia 13681:Pa-Hng 13676:Mashan 13646:Hm Nai 13631:Bu-Nao 13626:A-Hmao 13549:Bumang 13468:Jingpo 13463:Derung 13458:Caijia 13432:Zhongu 13402:Gserpa 13294:Namuyi 13264:Japhug 13213:Zauzou 13188:Namuyi 13173:Kucong 13147:Zokhuo 13142:Thopho 13122:Phupha 13107:Phukha 13052:Khlula 12994:Zibusi 12979:Toloza 12974:Sonaga 12959:Mangdi 12954:Lolopo 12899:Hlersu 12836:Phana’ 12831:Nuomei 12811:Laopin 12746:Bukong 12721:Angluo 12649:Achang 12626:Mondzi 12528:Zhuang 12503:Tai Lü 12493:Kazakh 12488:Kyrgyz 12473:Korean 12463:Bouyei 12435:Zhuang 12430:Uyghur 12238:Postal 12233:MPS II 12110:Bronze 11990:Ba–Shu 11910:Google 11905:Pinyin 11841:Idioms 11654:Yeheni 11536:Wu–Hua 11531:Goulou 11510:Xinhui 11487:Dapeng 11482:Weitou 11467:Xiguan 11442:Yuehai 11411:Sixian 11350:Haikou 11340:Hainan 11271:Zhenan 11237:Haklau 11232:Swatow 11204:Penang 11189:Taiwan 11184:Chawan 11131:Longdu 11100:Ningde 11077:Gutian 11067:Fuqing 11062:Fuzhou 11024:Qiyang 11007:Wugang 10952:Yi–Liu 10879:Xiu-Yi 10867:Ji-She 10817:Quzhou 10809:Chu–Qu 10799:Jinhua 10791:Wuzhou 10776:Rui'an 10717:Ningbo 10691:Suzhou 10581:Wuming 10552:Zigong 10540:Leshan 10502:Lanyin 10497:Dungan 10492:Xuzhou 10470:Gangou 10447:Weihai 10437:Dalian 10396:Taiwan 10363:Harbin 10146:Milang 10100:Puroik 10084:Mijiic 10008:Ersuic 9959:Caijia 9875:Konyak 9841:Meitei 9745:Chamdo 9682:Bodish 9668:Bhutan 9614:Bhujel 9561:Lepcha 9552:Lhokpu 9538:Dhimal 9483:Sikkim 9205: 9178:9 June 9091: 9068: 9049: 9030: 9011: 8992: 8975: 8958: 8929: 8898: 8879: 8860: 8841: 8782:27 May 8742: 8721:13 May 8687: 8668: 8651: 8624:606615 8622: 8588: 8562: 8539: 8036: 7688:31 May 7632: 7587:24 May 7534: 7173: 6976: 6968: 6901: 6767:(2009) 6763:台灣手語簡介 6655:Manchu 6500:guānxì 6444:lǐxìng 6396:quánlì 6380:zūnyán 6364:zìyóu, 6340:Rénrén 5920:Gloss 5914:Affix 5773:aspect 5752: 5749: 5744:我給你一本書 5657:number 5653:person 5600:bǐjīní 5578:, and 5556:hútòng 5488:zánmen 5358:bāobāo 5238:(42), 5124:(213) 5105:(212) 5068:(213) 5037:(213) 4857:(312) 4786:(113) 4763:Ji–Lu 4752:(214) 4746:(55)) 4732:Yantai 4717:(213) 4698:Harbin 4683:(214) 4548:Ji–Lu 4524:1,3,4 4420:, all 3745:Pinyin 3671:/iniŋ/ 3664:/ənəŋ/ 3576:/twei/ 3535:Finals 3528:/ɻwan/ 3514:/ʂwei/ 3415:/xwei/ 3361:, and 2981:Nasals 2959:Apical 2954:Labial 2771:Hainan 2763:Fujian 2735:Yunnan 2665:) and 2520:(1987) 2451:Shanxi 2224:, and 2168:Taiwan 2156:Taiwan 2150:Dalian 2148:, and 2112:. The 2089:, and 2076:Fujian 1987:Taiwan 1968:: 1960:: 1948:, the 1938:: 1928:: 1926:pinyin 1920:: 1912:: 1798:Fujian 1767:, 1750:(with 1742:), or 1702:báihuà 1614:pinyin 1557:tenuis 1456:Yunnan 1446:, and 1416:, and 1404:, and 1323:Huaxia 1254:Taiwan 1221:Jesuit 1194:mantrī 1144:Taiwan 1090:Yunnan 1049:: 1047:pinyin 1041:: 1033:: 989:: 987:pinyin 979:: 969:: 900:Tanghe 492: 486: 480: 474: 468: 366:Dungan 360:Arabic 351:Zhuyin 341:Pinyin 101:Region 85:right) 81:left, 16947:Signs 16870:Khmer 16822:Rojak 16729:Suluk 16616:Hindi 16587:Tamil 16477:Hakka 16414:Tutoh 16404:Tring 16389:Tagol 16349:Sebop 16324:Remun 16319:Penan 16304:Papar 16284:Narom 16254:Lotud 16244:Lelak 16219:Kiput 16194:Kayan 16169:Jagoi 16154:Ganaʼ 16144:Dusun 16074:Bajau 16069:Bahau 16044:Wila' 16029:Temoq 15999:Semai 15994:Sabüm 15939:Lanoh 15899:Jedek 15894:Jakun 15889:Jahai 15869:Batek 15849:Malay 15831:& 15597:Other 15551:Batak 15506:Hindi 15434:Hakka 15330:Tamil 15320:Malay 15299:Malay 15209:Malay 15097:Hailu 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