50:
642:
7670:
2104:
843:
1889:
4039:
8320:
4106:, on the other hand, had a significantly different structure. There were no tones, a smaller imbalance between possible initial and final consonants, and many initial and final clusters. There was a well-developed system of derivational and possibly inflectional morphology, formed using consonants added onto the beginning or end of a syllable. The system is similar to the system reconstructed for
3844:
finals occur exclusively in the first, second or fourth rows of the rime tables, respectively, and have thus been labelled finals of divisions I, II and IV. The remaining finals are labelled division-III finals because they occur in the third row, but they may also occur in the second or fourth rows
2282:
in 1842 and refined by others since. This analysis revealed a slightly different set of initials from the traditional set. Moreover, most scholars believe that some distinctions among the 36 initials were no longer current at the time of the rime tables, but were retained under the influence of the
2034:
system is no longer viewed as describing a single form of speech, linguists argue that this enhances its value in reconstructing earlier forms of
Chinese, just as a cross-dialectal description of English pronunciations contains more information about earlier forms of English than any single modern
4099:
Middle
Chinese had a structure similar to many modern varieties, especially conservative ones like Cantonese, with largely monosyllabic words, little or no derivational morphology, three tones, and a syllable structure consisting of initial consonant, glide, main vowel and final consonant, with a
1856:
Although the evidence from
Chinese transcriptions of foreign words is much more limited, and is similarly obscured by the mapping of foreign pronunciations onto Chinese phonology, it serves as direct evidence of a sort that is lacking in all the other types of data, since the pronunciation of the
4018:
maintains these tones and has developed an additional distinction in checked syllables, resulting in a total of nine tonal categories. However, most varieties have fewer tonal distinctions. For example, in
Mandarin dialects the lower rising category merged with the departing category to form the
2987:. However, because of mergers between these two sounds between Early and Late Middle Chinese, the Chinese phonologists who created the rime tables could rely only on tradition to tell what the respective values of these two consonants were; evidently they were accidentally reversed at one stage.
4125:
The main changes leading to the modern varieties have been a reduction in the number of consonants and vowels and a corresponding increase in the number of tones (typically through a Pan-East-Asiatic tone split that doubled the number of tones and eliminated the distinction between voiced and
2082:
All reconstructions of Middle
Chinese since Karlgren have followed his approach of beginning with the categories extracted from the rime dictionaries and tables, and using dialect and Sino-Xenic data (and in some cases transcription data) in a subsidiary role to fill in sound values for these
3750:
dialects, but has disappeared from other varieties. In Min dialects the retroflex dentals are represented with the dentals, while elsewhere they have merged with the retroflex sibilants. In the south these have also merged with the dental sibilants, but the distinction is retained in most
4138:
has been reported to have only about 700 syllables). The result in
Mandarin, for example, has been the proliferation of the number of two-syllable compound words, which have steadily replaced former monosyllabic words; most words in Standard Mandarin now have two syllables.
3987:. Haudricourt further proposed that tone in the other languages, including Middle Chinese, had a similar origin. Other scholars have since uncovered transcriptional and other evidence for these consonants in early forms of Chinese, and many linguists now believe that
3947:
concluded that the level tone was long, level and low, the rising tone was short, level and high, the departing tone was somewhat long and probably high and rising, and the entering tone was short (as the syllable ended in a voiceless stop) and probably high.
1013:
distinguishes 36 initials, they are placed in 23 columns by combining palatals, retroflexes, and dentals under the same column. This does not lead to cases where two homophone classes are conflated, as the grades (rows) are arranged so that all would-be
2241:
Middle
Chinese reconstructions by different modern linguists vary. These differences are minor and fairly uncontroversial in terms of consonants; however, there is a more significant difference as to the vowels. The most widely used transcriptions are
712:
The rhyme dictionaries organize
Chinese characters by their pronunciation, according to a hierarchy of tone, rhyme and homophony. Characters with identical pronunciations are grouped into homophone classes, whose pronunciation is described using two
1991:
and the rime tables should be reconstructed as two separate (but related) systems, which he called Early and Late Middle
Chinese, respectively. He further argued that his Late Middle Chinese reflected the standard language of the late Tang dynasty.
1141:
and cannot very easily be used to determine the pronunciation of Early Middle
Chinese. During the Early Middle Chinese period, large amounts of Chinese vocabulary were systematically borrowed by Vietnamese, Korean and Japanese (collectively the
540:
varieties, which show independent developments from Old Chinese, modern Chinese varieties can be largely treated as divergent developments from Middle Chinese. The study of Middle Chinese also provides for a better understanding and analysis of
1093:
rather than separate finals in their own right. The significance of the 4 rows within each tone is difficult to interpret, and is strongly debated. These rows are usually denoted I, II, III and IV, and are thought to relate to differences in
3902:. Karlgren interpreted the names of the first three tones literally as level, rising and falling pitch contours, respectively, and this interpretation remains widely accepted. Accordingly, Pan and Zhang reconstruct the level tone as mid (
1896:
The rime dictionaries and rime tables yield phonological categories, but with little hint of what sounds they represent. At the end of the 19th century, European students of Chinese sought to solve this problem by applying the methods of
1917:, trained in transcription of Swedish dialects, carried out the first systematic survey of modern varieties of Chinese. He used the oldest known rime tables as descriptions of the sounds of the rime dictionaries, and also studied the
3917:
Some descriptions from contemporaries and other data seem to suggest a somewhat different picture. For example, the oldest known description of the tones, which is found in a Song dynasty quotation from the early 9th century
3778:, reduced vowel or some combination of these, a vowel, an optional final consonant and a tone. Their reconstruction is much more difficult than the initials due to the combination of multiple phonemes into a single class.
3983:. He thus argued that the Austroasiatic proto-language had been atonal, and that the development of tones in Vietnamese had been conditioned by these consonants, which had subsequently disappeared, a process now known as
3755:
dialects. The palatal series of modern Mandarin dialects, resulting from a merger of palatal allophones of dental sibilants and velars, is a much more recent development, unconnected with the earlier palatal consonants.
735:
system uses multiple equivalent characters to represent each particular initial, and likewise for finals. The categories of initials and finals actually represented were first identified by the Cantonese scholar
727:
and allowed the pronunciation of all characters to be described exactly; earlier dictionaries simply described the pronunciation of unfamiliar characters in terms of the most similar-sounding familiar character.
817:
classified homonyms under 193 rhyme classes, each of which is placed within one of the four tones. A single rhyme class may contain multiple finals, generally differing only in the medial (especially when it is
676:(601) was an attempt to merge the distinctions in six earlier dictionaries, which were eclipsed by its success and are no longer extant. It was accepted as the standard reading pronunciation during the
670:
period were concerned with the correct recitation of the classics. Various schools produced dictionaries to codify reading pronunciations and the associated rhyme conventions of regulated verse. The
941:
were attempting to interpret a phonological system that differed in significant ways from that of their own Late Middle Chinese (LMC) dialect. They were aware of this, and attempted to reconstruct
3774:
spellers. Each final is contained within a single rhyme class, but a rhyme class may contain between one and four finals. Finals are usually analysed as consisting of an optional medial, either a
1133:
The rime dictionaries and rime tables identify categories of phonetic distinctions but do not indicate the actual pronunciations of these categories. The varied pronunciations of words in modern
4019:
modern falling tone, leaving a system of four tones. Furthermore, final stop consonants disappeared in most Mandarin dialects, and such syllables were reassigned to one of the other four tones.
752:
spelling of the pronunciation of the other, and to follow chains of such equivalences to identify groups of spellers for each initial or final. For example, the pronunciation of the character
1952:
Karlgren's transcription involved a large number of consonants and vowels, many of them very unevenly distributed. Accepting Karlgren's reconstruction as a description of medieval speech,
719:
characters, the first of which has the initial sound of the characters in the homophone class and second of which has the same sound as the rest of the syllable (the final). The use of
3967:—none of which is genetically related to Chinese. Moreover, the earliest strata of loans display a regular correspondence between tonal categories in the different languages. In 1954,
3898:
The pitch contours of modern reflexes of the four Middle Chinese tones vary so widely that linguists have not been able to establish the probable Middle Chinese values by means of the
970:)—each described as either "inner" or "outer". The meaning of this is debated but it has been suggested that it refers to the height of the main vowel, with "outer" finals having an
2950:
had a simpler system with no palatal or retroflex consonants; the more complex system of EMC is thought to have arisen from a combination of Old Chinese obstruents with a following
3914:
or 51), and the entering tone as ˧3ʔ. Some scholars have voiced doubts about the degree to which the names were descriptive, because they are also examples of the tone categories.
2091:
have criticized this approach, arguing that viewing the dialect data through the rime dictionaries and rime tables distorts the evidence. They argue for a full application of the
1968:
used a simplified version of Martin's system as an approximate indication of the pronunciation of Tang poetry. Karlgren himself viewed phonemic analysis as a detrimental "craze".
2055:, adding new notations for the few categories not distinguished by Karlgren, without assigning them pronunciations. This notation is still widely used, but its symbols, based on
4014:
dialects), this distinction became phonemic, yielding up to eight tonal categories, with a six-way contrast in unchecked syllables and a two-way contrast in checked syllables.
2007:). Most linguists now believe that no single dialect contained all the distinctions recorded, but that each distinction did occur somewhere. Several scholars have compared the
6548:
4100:
large number of initial consonants and a fairly small number of final consonants. Without counting the glide, no clusters could occur at the beginning or end of a syllable.
7093:
1149:
For example, the following table shows the pronunciation of the numerals in three modern Chinese varieties, as well as borrowed forms in Vietnamese, Korean and Japanese:
4306:
The retroflex and palatal sibilants were treated as a single series in the rime tables. Chen Li was the first to realize (in 1842) that they were distinguished in the
4002:, each of the tones had split into two registers conditioned by the initials, known as the "upper" and "lower". When voicing was lost in most varieties (except in the
945:
phonology as well as possible through a close analysis of regularities in the system and co-occurrence relationships between the initials and finals indicated by the
3939:
the level tone was straight and low, ... the rising tone was straight and high, ... the departing tone was slightly drawn out, ... the entering tone stops abruptly
949:
characters. However, the analysis inevitably shows some influence from LMC, which needs to be taken into account when interpreting difficult aspects of the system.
7055:
3849:
medial and that division-I finals had no such medial, but further details vary between reconstructions. To account for the many rhyme classes distinguished by the
3840:, and that the vowels in "outer" finals were more open than those in "inner" finals. The interpretation of the "divisions" is more controversial. Three classes of
3895:
and its successors were organized around these categories, with two volumes for the even tone, which had the most words, and one volume each for the other tones.
7795:
6577:
4232:
By convention, Middle Chinese reconstructions are shown without an asterisk, while Old Chinese reconstructions are almost always shown preceded by an asterisk.
4153:
The extensive surviving body of Middle Chinese (MC) literature of various types provides much source material for the study of MC grammar. Due to the lack of
557:
The reconstruction of Middle Chinese phonology is largely dependent upon detailed descriptions in a few original sources. The most important of these is the
2019:, or the notation used in some dictionaries. For example, the words "trap", "bath", "palm", "lot", "cloth" and "thought" contain four different vowels in
7602:
7592:
5560:
488:
method used to indicate pronunciation in these dictionaries, though an improvement on earlier methods, proved awkward in practice. The mid-12th-century
1941:
of the precise sounds of this language, which he sought to reconstruct by treating the Sino-Xenic and modern dialect pronunciations as reflexes of the
1925:
required to identify the initials and finals of the dictionary. He believed that the resulting categories reflected the speech standard of the capital
3825:, named level, rising and departing. Finals with stop codas are distributed in the same way as corresponding nasal finals, and are described as their
7597:
7356:
6904:
687:
is thus the oldest surviving rhyme dictionary and the main source for the pronunciation of characters in Early Middle Chinese (EMC). At the time of
7511:
4170:
2965:
2243:
2052:
522:
6265:
4408:
initial. A distinction between and would be unusual, but the two initials might have been distinguished at an earlier phase as affricates and .
1971:
Older versions of the rime dictionaries and rime tables came to light over the first half of the 20th century, and were used by such linguists as
533:
used in the reading traditions of neighbouring countries. Several other scholars have produced their own reconstructions using similar methods.
521:
The dictionaries and tables describe pronunciations in relative terms, but do not give their actual sounds. Karlgren was the first to attempt
3931:
Level tone is sad and stable. Rising tone is strident and rising. Departing tone is clear and distant. Entering tone is straight and abrupt.
4208:
4175:
2247:
2072:
6176:
Chinese historical phonology: a compendium of Beijing and Cantonese pronunciations of characters and their derivations from Middle Chinese
3821:, based on the separate treatment of certain rhyme classes in the dictionaries. Finals with vocalic and nasal codas may have one of three
7678:
6916:
6305:
4457:
This initial was derived from the EMC palatal nasal. In northern dialects it has become (or ), while southern dialects have , , , or .
1114:). Other scholars do not view them not as phonetic categories, but instead as formal devices exploiting distributional patterns in the
4439:
This initial was not included in the lists of 30 initials in the Dunhuang fragments, and was probably not phonemically distinct from
3101:
A new series of labiodentals emerged from labials in certain environments, typically where both fronting and rounding occurred (e.g.
502:
phonology. The rime tables attest to a number of sound changes that had occurred over the centuries following the publication of the
6880:
6868:
1999:
recovered in 1947 indicates that it records a compromise between northern and southern reading and poetic traditions from the late
1065:
Each table also has 16 rows, with a group of 4 rows for each of the four tones of the traditional system in which finals ending in
471:, most scholars now believe that it records a compromise between northern and southern reading and poetic traditions from the late
5571:——— (2006b), "Appendix II: Comparative transcriptions of rime rable phonology", in Branner, David Prager (ed.),
6892:
6384:
3952:
1949:
categories were not distinguished in any of the surviving pronunciations, and Karlgren assigned them identical reconstructions.
7976:
3832:
There is much less agreement regarding the medials and vowels. It is generally agreed that "closed" finals had a rounded glide
3017:
reveal a slightly different system, which is believed to reflect southern pronunciation. In this system, the voiced fricatives
97:
7215:
6023:
6004:
5982:
5960:
5941:
5922:
5860:
5805:
5786:
5764:
5699:
5580:
5549:
5530:
5511:
4157:
development, grammatical analysis of MC tends to focus on the nature and meanings of the individual words themselves and the
3770:
The remainder of a syllable after the initial consonant is the final, represented in the Qieyun by several equivalent second
1872:
were used to transcribe Sanskrit nasals in the early Tang, but later they were used for Sanskrit unaspirated voiced initials
612:
3877:. The first three, the "even" or "level", "rising" and "departing" tones, occur in open syllables and syllables ending with
8026:
2286:
Early Middle Chinese (EMC) had three types of stops: voiced, voiceless, and voiceless aspirated. There were five series of
7868:
2321:. The following table shows the initials of Early Middle Chinese, with their traditional names and approximate values:
2266:, each named with an exemplary character. An earlier version comprising 30 initials is known from fragments among the
6183:
5995:(1996), "Tonal evolution and tonal reconstruction in Chinese", in Huang, Cheng-Teh James; Li, Yen-Hui Audrey (eds.),
4086:
3998:
of their tone categories. Syllables with voiced initials tended to be pronounced with a lower pitch, and by the late
6196:
Chinese phonology: an attempt to discover the sounds of the ancient language and to recover the lost rhymes of China
5713:
4068:
3995:
1125:, if any such character exists. From this arrangement, each homophone class can be placed in the above categories.
7948:
4060:
2064:
2000:
667:
472:
85:
6219:
1018:
distinguished only by the retroflex vs. palatal vs. alveolar character of the initial end up in different rows.
6655:
6298:
4064:
475:
period. This composite system contains important information for the reconstruction of the preceding system of
346:
250:
5540:
Branner, David Prager (2006a), "What are rime tables and what do they mean?", in Branner, David Prager (ed.),
4426:
This initial, which was not included in the lists of 30 initials in the Dunhuang fragments, later merged with
4198:
spelling "rime" in his English-language writing, and this practice has been followed by several other authors.
1146:), but many distinctions were inevitably lost in mapping Chinese phonology onto foreign phonological systems.
8264:
7718:
5557:
1921:, at that time the oldest known rime dictionary. Unaware of Chen Li's study, he repeated the analysis of the
399:
264:
213:
8323:
8234:
7758:
4028:
4445:
4427:
4377:
4357:
4347:
4288:
4268:
3994:
Around the end of the first millennium AD, Middle Chinese and the southeast Asian languages experienced a
3976:
3972:
3968:
3911:
3907:
3903:
3846:
3837:
3833:
3818:
3814:
3810:
3806:
3802:
3798:
3794:
3790:
3786:
3782:
3734:
3722:
3710:
3692:
3667:
3655:
3643:
3631:
3610:
3598:
3586:
3574:
3562:
3550:
3531:
3519:
3505:
3493:
3481:
3462:
3425:
3413:
3401:
3389:
3364:
3352:
3340:
3328:
3303:
3291:
3279:
3267:
3244:
3232:
3220:
3208:
3102:
3089:
3079:
3069:
3062:
3058:
3051:
3047:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3018:
2999:
2977:
2973:
2955:
2951:
2937:
2917:
2899:
2874:
2862:
2850:
2838:
2819:
2807:
2795:
2783:
2771:
2759:
2747:
2726:
2714:
2700:
2688:
2676:
2657:
2645:
2631:
2619:
2607:
2588:
2551:
2539:
2527:
2515:
2490:
2478:
2466:
2454:
2429:
2417:
2405:
2393:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2175:
1873:
1869:
1836:
1804:
1737:
1671:
1605:
1539:
1480:
1421:
1362:
1296:
1230:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1002:
983:
979:
975:
901:
819:
8239:
8111:
8036:
7693:
3862:
1170:
701:(1008), a much expanded edition from the Song dynasty. However, significant sections of a version of the
6101:
Tonal evolution from pre-Middle Chinese to modern Pekinese: three tiers of changes and their intricacies
8281:
8254:
8131:
8043:
7790:
7770:
5934:
Lexicon of reconstructed pronunciation in early Middle Chinese, late Middle Chinese, and early Mandarin
4258:
Karlgren reconstructed these as palatal stops, but most scholars now believe they were retroflex stops.
1160:
1095:
7833:
6531:
6291:
5774:
2735:
2084:
1143:
530:
8207:
8192:
8182:
7896:
4154:
4049:
2060:
1957:
1176:
542:
451:
first published in 601 and followed by several revised and expanded editions. The Swedish linguist
4389:
The point of articulation of the fricatives is not clear, and varies between the modern varieties.
8342:
8219:
6458:
6228:
6157:
6125:
4115:
4053:
3980:
1121:
Each square in a table contains a character corresponding to a particular homophone class in the
8212:
8061:
1102:
of the syllable's initial or medial, or differences in the quality of similar main vowels (e.g.
8153:
7996:
6594:
5815:
Norman, Jerry L.; Coblin, W. South (1995), "A New Approach to Chinese Historical Linguistics",
4334:
are reversed from their positions in the rime tables, which are believed to have confused them.
3853:, Karlgren proposed 16 vowels and 4 medials. Later scholars have proposed numerous variations.
3178:
2363:
2020:
1898:
1165:
536:
The Qieyun system is often used as a framework for Chinese dialectology. With the exception of
118:
6016:
A Brief History of the Chinese Language II: From Old Chinese to Middle Chinese Phonetic System
4126:
unvoiced consonants). That has led to a gradual decrease in the number of possible syllables.
8148:
8071:
7785:
7763:
6518:
6351:
5970:
3765:
1965:
1025:
709:, and a complete copy of Wang Renxu's 706 edition from the Palace Library was found in 1947.
476:
6266:
StarLing website reconstructing Middle Chinese and Old Chinese as well as intermediate forms
5753:
3971:
showed that Vietnamese counterparts of the rising and departing tones corresponded to final
2278:
relationships across the whole dictionary, a task first undertaken by the Cantonese scholar
7916:
7884:
7713:
6838:
6333:
6147:
5870:
4131:
3956:
3136:
The following table shows a representative account of the initials of Late Middle Chinese.
2267:
2056:
1938:
1134:
526:
6238:
Historical Chinese Phonology/Philology at Technical Notes on the Chinese Language Dialects
5796:——— (2006), "Common Dialectal Chinese", in Branner, David Prager (ed.),
4279:
4273:
3951:
The tone system of Middle Chinese is strikingly similar to those of its neighbours in the
1911:
with modern pronunciations in several varieties, but had little knowledge of linguistics.
1790:
1724:
1658:
1592:
1526:
1467:
1408:
1349:
1283:
1217:
8:
8160:
8126:
7961:
7928:
7775:
7703:
7620:
7461:
7456:
7210:
7020:
6526:
5619:
3964:
3469:
3377:
3161:
3151:
3106:
2991:
2595:
2503:
2346:
2336:
2302:
1902:
1041:
608:
158:
6243:
8276:
8143:
8106:
7991:
7889:
7823:
7818:
7708:
7698:
7324:
7302:
7195:
7003:
6998:
6921:
6909:
6897:
6885:
6873:
6397:
6104:
6087:
5832:
5736:
5675:
5643:
5607:
4242:
4107:
4015:
3899:
3822:
3196:
2968:. The main differences between Karlgren and newer reconstructions of the initials are:
2298:
2238:
are assumed to have the same nuclear vowel and coda, but often have different medials.
2092:
1980:
1972:
1877:
1045:
1033:
382:
374:
177:
5894:
5874:
5687:
3935:
In 880, the Japanese monk Annen, citing an account from the early 8th century, stated
229:
49:
8187:
8177:
8056:
8021:
7876:
7828:
7780:
7547:
7400:
7334:
7190:
7175:
6846:
6823:
6777:
6702:
6628:
6508:
6476:
6430:
6369:
6359:
6324:
6232:
6223:
6200:
6179:
6162:
6135:
6112:
6043:
6019:
6000:
5978:
5956:
5937:
5918:
5856:
5801:
5782:
5760:
5748:
5695:
5576:
5545:
5526:
5507:
5499:
4127:
4111:
3680:
3438:
3316:
3033:, respectively, and the retroflex stops are not distinguished from the dental stops.
2995:
2961:
2887:
2564:
2442:
2368:
2306:
2287:
2279:
2068:
2036:
1984:
1914:
1907:
1862:
925:, which provide a more detailed phonological analysis of the system contained in the
737:
688:
600:
596:
452:
330:
322:
123:
1905:. Volpicelli (1896) and Schaank (1897) compared the rime tables at the front of the
8293:
7813:
7688:
7552:
7542:
7527:
7473:
7395:
7346:
7307:
7256:
7170:
7122:
7106:
6986:
6946:
6941:
6828:
6782:
6728:
6723:
6713:
6707:
6536:
6481:
6466:
6342:
6314:
6260:
6143:
6079:
6055:
5824:
5798:
The Chinese Rime Tables: Linguistic Philosophy and Historical-Comparative Phonology
5728:
5671:
5667:
5635:
5599:
5573:
The Chinese Rime Tables: Linguistic Philosophy and Historical-Comparative Phonology
5542:
The Chinese Rime Tables: Linguistic Philosophy and Historical-Comparative Phonology
4246:
3752:
3173:
2381:
2358:
2294:
2024:
1186:
1059:
1029:
691:'s seminal work on Middle Chinese in the early 20th century, only fragments of the
620:
438:
287:
128:
680:, and went through several revisions and expansions over the following centuries.
8244:
8224:
8121:
8081:
8066:
7805:
7655:
7645:
7625:
7582:
7577:
7443:
7407:
7390:
7380:
7319:
7137:
7073:
7015:
6963:
6958:
6860:
6756:
6751:
6660:
6607:
6602:
6582:
6567:
6562:
6503:
6498:
6488:
6471:
6443:
6415:
6392:
6251:
6237:
5564:
4195:
4148:
3878:
3619:
2826:
2088:
1037:
636:
604:
561:
448:
110:
4114:; it is also largely similar to the system that occurs in the more conservative
2027:; these pronunciations and others can be specified in terms of these six cases.
8298:
8288:
8259:
8249:
7938:
7650:
7635:
7537:
7488:
7483:
7468:
7412:
7351:
7233:
7205:
7185:
7132:
7101:
7078:
7068:
7063:
7025:
7008:
6953:
6818:
6800:
6718:
6692:
6633:
6553:
6541:
6493:
6448:
6438:
6364:
6194:
5992:
4119:
3882:
3147:
3006:
2332:
2318:
2095:
to the modern varieties, supplemented by systematic use of transcription data.
1191:
624:
615:
of foreign names, transcription of Chinese names in alphabetic scripts such as
308:
170:
7669:
4486:
4417:
This initial becomes in Mandarin dialects and or in some southern dialects.
8336:
8099:
7911:
7906:
7478:
7422:
7417:
7385:
7372:
7248:
7200:
7127:
7083:
6973:
6810:
6733:
6572:
6420:
6407:
6278:
6116:
6067:
5603:
3845:
for some initials. Most linguists agree that division-III finals contained a
3826:
3183:
3125:
3114:
2012:
1953:
1015:
616:
206:
6204:
6178:, LINCOM studies in Asian linguistics, vol. 27, Munich: LINCOM Europa,
7971:
7921:
7297:
7180:
7153:
6697:
6687:
6166:
5655:
4135:
3999:
3889:" tone counterparts of syllables ending with the corresponding nasals. The
3886:
2981:
2044:
2040:
1934:
1099:
1078:
998:
677:
569:
464:
392:
294:
101:
93:
6103:, Berkeley, CA: Project on Linguistic Analysis, University of California,
4297:. It is omitted in many reconstructions, and has no standard Chinese name.
2011:
system to cross-dialectal descriptions of English pronunciations, such as
623:
and Uyghur, and evidence regarding rhyme and tone patterns from classical
599:, pronunciation of Chinese words borrowed by other languages—particularly
583:
197:
8116:
8090:
7986:
7956:
7933:
7901:
7640:
7630:
7434:
7329:
7314:
7277:
7225:
7046:
7037:
6933:
6772:
6647:
6374:
6279:
Hugh Stimson's Middle Chinese reconstruction and kTang data from Unicode.
5709:
4404:
at the LMC stage, but was retained to record its origin from a different
4103:
4011:
3988:
3984:
3944:
3943:
Based on Annen's description, other similar statements and related data,
3166:
3110:
2947:
2351:
2263:
2141:). Modern linguists subdivide the final into an optional "medial" glide (
2048:
2016:
1976:
1930:
1926:
991:
546:
537:
460:
456:
153:
89:
6108:
5679:
2103:
2079:
and rime table categories for use in his reconstruction of Old Chinese.
1009:
Each table has 23 columns, one for each initial consonant. Although the
641:
7532:
7506:
7272:
7238:
6743:
6670:
6091:
6059:
5740:
5714:"Tones and prosody in Middle Chinese and the origin of the rising tone"
5647:
5611:
4161:
by which their arrangement together in sentences communicates meaning.
4003:
3743:
3129:
2984:
2341:
1137:
can help, but most modern varieties descend from a Late Middle Chinese
1055:
971:
922:
837:
572:
495:
455:
believed that the dictionary recorded a speech standard of the capital
5836:
5590:
Chan, Abraham (2004), "Early Middle Chinese: towards a new paradigm",
7981:
7732:
7723:
7451:
7341:
6993:
6981:
6792:
6623:
5844:
4007:
3960:
3775:
3747:
3121:
2314:
2310:
2290:
2004:
1196:
1051:
987:
595:. The documentary sources are supplemented by comparison with modern
339:
222:
190:
6273:
6083:
5732:
5639:
4038:
1888:
8271:
7857:
7498:
6679:
6283:
5828:
4293:
4249:
articulation. They are mostly alveolar in modern Chinese varieties.
3868:
3156:
2112:
1961:
1858:
824:
706:
697:
647:
360:
8303:
4648:
1138:
8170:
7850:
7737:
7566:
7162:
6247:
4218:
4212:
1841:
1777:
1711:
1645:
1579:
1513:
1454:
1395:
1336:
1270:
910:
848:
577:
490:
39:
6261:
Middle Chinese readings for 9000 characters in Baxter's notation
2998:
stops based on their tendency to co-occur with front vowels and
1128:
498:
incorporate a more sophisticated and convenient analysis of the
8229:
8031:
5626:
system and the current state of Chinese historical phonology",
4158:
3891:
1206:
715:
672:
484:
443:
60:
5317:
5281:
5245:
5124:
5122:
3113:
dialects retain bilabial initials in such words, while modern
1001:
is present. "Closed" finals either have a rounded vowel (e.g.
7742:
6044:"Survey of Chinese historical syntax part II: Middle Chinese"
4711:
4600:
2226:
are widely accepted, sometimes with additional codas such as
2174:). Most reconstructions of Middle Chinese include the glides
1201:
404:
73:
5211:
5209:
5083:
6274:
EastLing form yielding Middle Chinese from character search
5119:
5035:
5023:
3105:
plus a back vowel in William Baxter's reconstruction, or a
5392:
5158:
4912:
4900:
4876:
4786:
4762:
4740:
4738:
4677:
4675:
4624:
4612:
842:
5269:
5257:
5206:
5194:
5146:
5011:
4825:
4578:
4576:
1809:
1742:
1676:
1610:
1544:
1485:
1426:
1367:
1301:
1235:
379:
365:
351:
6250:, using the simplification of Karlgren's system used by
5847:; Zhang, Hongming (2015), "Middle Chinese Phonology and
4987:
4813:
4774:
4130:
has only about 1,300 possible syllables, and many other
2244:
Li Fang-Kuei's modification of Karlgren's reconstruction
5464:
5452:
5440:
5380:
5370:
5368:
5305:
5293:
5182:
5107:
5095:
5047:
4999:
4963:
4939:
4929:
4927:
4888:
4854:
4852:
4837:
4803:
4801:
4735:
4699:
4672:
4660:
3781:
The generally accepted final consonants are semivowels
5404:
4951:
4588:
4573:
4525:
3867:
The four tones of Middle Chinese were first listed by
3005:
Karlgren assumed that voiced consonants were actually
1830:
1770:
1763:
1704:
1697:
1638:
1631:
1572:
1565:
1506:
1499:
1447:
1440:
1388:
1329:
1322:
1263:
1256:
5416:
5353:
5329:
5233:
4864:
4750:
4490:
4022:
3061:
also became retroflex, but turned into a new phoneme
2164:
2153:
2142:
2131:
2120:
2119:
method, is into an initial consonant, or "initial", (
1796:
1730:
1664:
1598:
1532:
1473:
1414:
1355:
1289:
1223:
965:
895:
884:
873:
862:
657:
327:
313:
299:
5476:
5365:
5341:
5221:
5170:
5134:
5071:
5059:
4975:
4924:
4849:
4798:
4723:
4687:
4636:
4549:
4537:
1823:
1756:
1690:
1624:
1558:
1381:
1315:
1249:
705:
itself were subsequently discovered in the caves of
5936:, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press,
5917:, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press,
4561:
4495:) could mean level or rising with a constant slope.
4223:
denote the rising and departing tones respectively.
2317:, and a two-way dental/retroflex distinction among
997:"Open mouth" or "closed mouth", indicating whether
956:is organized into 43 tables, each covering several
5752:
5428:
3044:Palatal sibilants merged with retroflex sibilants.
748:initials (or finals) whenever one was used in the
4513:
4398:This initial was probably indistinguishable from
3036:Several changes occurred between the time of the
3025:are not distinguished from the voiced affricates
2186:, but many also include vocalic "glides" such as
506:. Linguists sometimes refer to the system of the
8334:
6161:, Stockholm: Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities,
6142:, Leyde and Stockholm: Brill and P.A. Nobstedt,
1816:
1749:
1683:
1617:
1551:
1492:
1433:
1374:
1308:
1242:
523:a reconstruction of the sounds of Middle Chinese
6070:(1941), "Distinctions Within Ancient Chinese",
5915:Middle Chinese: a study in historical phonology
5851:", in Wang, William S-Y.; Sun, Chaofen (eds.),
5800:, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 233–254,
5575:, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 265–302,
3013:Other sources from around the same time as the
2270:. In contrast, identifying the initials of the
1021:Each initial is further classified as follows:
568:is often used together with interpretations in
514:and the variant revealed by the rime tables as
3742:The voicing distinction is retained in modern
3065:rather than merging with any existing phoneme.
3054:(hence reflecting four separate EMC phonemes).
6299:
5955:, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press,
4466:
4440:
4399:
4367:
4361:
4351:
4346:In the rime tables, the palatal allophone of
4329:
4323:
3922:
3727:
3715:
3703:
3685:
3660:
3648:
3636:
3624:
3603:
3591:
3579:
3567:
3555:
3543:
3524:
3512:
3498:
3486:
3474:
3455:
3418:
3406:
3394:
3382:
3357:
3345:
3333:
3321:
3296:
3284:
3272:
3260:
3237:
3225:
3213:
3201:
3093:
3083:
3073:
2966:first modern reconstruction of Middle Chinese
2930:
2922:
2910:
2892:
2867:
2855:
2843:
2831:
2812:
2800:
2788:
2776:
2764:
2752:
2740:
2719:
2707:
2693:
2681:
2669:
2650:
2638:
2624:
2612:
2600:
2581:
2544:
2532:
2520:
2508:
2483:
2471:
2459:
2447:
2422:
2410:
2398:
2386:
2169:
2163:) and an optional final consonant or "coda" (
2158:
2147:
2136:
2125:
1129:Modern dialects and Sino-Xenic pronunciations
890:
879:
868:
857:
805:
799:
793:
787:
781:
775:
769:
763:
753:
652:
269:
255:
34:
8098:
6220:Introduction to Chinese Historical Phonology
5814:
5544:, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 1–34,
5521:Baxter, William H.; Sagart, Laurent (2014),
5520:
5398:
4993:
4618:
4171:Karlgren–Li reconstruction of Middle Chinese
3910:or 35), the departing tone as high falling (
3117:dialects preserve them in some common words.
3009:. This is now assumed only for LMC, not EMC.
2035:form. The emphasis has shifted from precise
1937:. He interpreted the many distinctions as a
792:, from which we can conclude that the words
5931:
5912:
5892:
5869:
5658:(1974–1975), "Studies on Archaic Chinese",
5263:
5251:
5215:
5200:
5164:
4918:
4906:
4894:
4882:
4792:
4768:
4654:
4630:
4606:
4067:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
3109:in Chan's reconstruction). However, modern
2980:. Karlgren based his reconstruction on the
1857:foreign languages borrowed from—especially
8319:
8089:
6306:
6292:
5853:The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Linguistics
4342:
4340:
1054:: voiceless, voiceless aspirated, voiced,
645:The start of the first rhyme class of the
48:
5781:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
5686:
4780:
4176:Baxter's transcription for Middle Chinese
4087:Learn how and when to remove this message
1851:
5843:
5817:Journal of the American Oriental Society
5692:Bernhard Karlgren: Portrait of a Scholar
5628:Journal of the American Oriental Society
5570:
5539:
5410:
5029:
4717:
4555:
2111:The traditional analysis of the Chinese
2102:
2047:, as a prelude to his reconstruction of
1887:
841:
744:(1842). Chen's method was to equate two
640:
8014:
5969:
5666:, Gilbert L. Mattos (trans.): 219–287,
5654:
5482:
4957:
4807:
4337:
3953:Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area
3906:or 33), the rising tone as mid rising (
2293:, with a three-way distinction between
1880:in some northwestern Chinese dialects.
740:in a careful analysis published in his
695:were known, and scholars relied on the
525:, comparing its categories with modern
467:. However, based on the preface of the
8335:
5950:
5795:
5773:
5747:
5618:
5498:
5470:
5458:
5446:
5386:
5374:
5359:
5347:
5335:
5323:
5311:
5299:
5287:
5275:
5239:
5227:
5188:
5176:
5152:
5140:
5128:
5113:
5101:
5089:
5077:
5065:
5053:
5041:
5017:
5005:
4981:
4969:
4933:
4870:
4858:
4843:
4831:
4819:
4756:
4744:
4729:
4705:
4693:
4681:
4666:
4642:
4594:
4582:
4567:
4543:
4531:
4318:
4316:
2107:Traditional Chinese syllable structure
381:
329:
98:Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period
6287:
6013:
4519:
4241:It is not clear whether these had an
3881:. The remaining syllables, ending in
3165:
2350:
2340:
1901:that had been used in reconstructing
1180:
1175:
1164:
1159:
1154:
613:transcription into Chinese characters
16:Chinese pronunciation system (601 AD)
6313:
6130:(PhD thesis), Ohio State University.
5991:
5589:
4945:
4472:
4065:adding citations to reliable sources
4032:
1960:analysed its contrasts to extract a
630:
5997:New Horizons in Chinese Linguistics
5708:
5504:A Handbook of Old Chinese Phonology
5434:
5422:
4313:
4110:and still visible, for example, in
2990:Karlgren also assumed that the EMC
2274:required a painstaking analysis of
1118:to achieve a compact presentation.
723:was an important innovation of the
437:(QYS) is the historical variety of
13:
6072:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies
6034:
6018:, London and New York: Routledge,
5721:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies
4207:Middle Chinese forms are given in
4023:Changes from Old to Modern Chinese
3979:, respectively, in other (atonal)
3813:. Some authors also propose codas
3002:, but this view is no longer held.
2248:William Baxter's typeable notation
1876:, suggesting that they had become
960:rhyme classes, and classified as:
14:
8354:
6213:
6174:Newman, J.; Raman, A. V. (1999),
6140:Études sur la phonologie chinoise
5523:Old Chinese: A New Reconstruction
4271:initial occurs in only two words
921:) is the oldest of the so-called
8318:
7796:Literary and colloquial readings
7668:
6048:Language and Linguistics Compass
4484:The word translated "straight" (
4366:) as a single laryngeal initial
4134:even fewer (for example, modern
4037:
3088:) as a single laryngeal initial
2262:identifies a traditional set of
1868:For example, the nasal initials
933:was created centuries after the
810:all had the same initial sound.
58:, an 8th-century edition of the
5759:, University of Chicago Press,
4478:
4460:
4451:
4433:
4420:
4411:
4392:
4383:
4300:
4261:
4252:
4235:
4226:
4201:
2065:International Phonetic Alphabet
2053:revision of Karlgren's notation
2001:Northern and Southern dynasties
1987:argued that the systems of the
964:One of 16 broad rhyme classes (
668:Northern and Southern dynasties
473:Northern and Southern dynasties
405:
380:
366:
352:
86:Northern and Southern dynasties
6155:——— (1957),
6124:Hashimoto, Mantaro J. (1966),
5932:——— (1991),
5913:——— (1984),
5895:"Late Middle Chinese, Part II"
5893:——— (1971),
5672:10.1080/02549948.1974.11731100
5491:
4467:
4441:
4400:
4368:
4362:
4352:
4330:
4324:
4278:
4272:
4188:
3923:
3728:
3716:
3704:
3686:
3661:
3649:
3637:
3625:
3604:
3592:
3580:
3569:
3568:
3556:
3544:
3525:
3513:
3499:
3487:
3475:
3456:
3419:
3407:
3395:
3383:
3358:
3346:
3334:
3322:
3297:
3285:
3273:
3261:
3238:
3226:
3214:
3202:
3094:
3084:
3074:
2931:
2923:
2911:
2893:
2868:
2856:
2844:
2832:
2813:
2801:
2789:
2777:
2765:
2753:
2741:
2720:
2708:
2694:
2682:
2671:
2670:
2651:
2639:
2625:
2613:
2601:
2582:
2545:
2533:
2521:
2509:
2484:
2472:
2460:
2448:
2423:
2411:
2399:
2387:
2325:Early Middle Chinese initials
2170:
2159:
2152:), a main vowel or "nucleus" (
2148:
2137:
2126:
1983:in their own reconstructions.
1945:categories. A small number of
1883:
1789:
1723:
1657:
1591:
1525:
1466:
1407:
1348:
1282:
1216:
986:) and "inner" finals having a
891:
880:
869:
858:
831:
806:
800:
794:
788:
782:
776:
770:
764:
754:
653:
328:
314:
300:
270:
256:
35:
1:
6229:Traditional Chinese Phonology
6148:10111/UIUCBB:karlbe0001etusur
5875:"Late Middle Chinese, Part I"
5506:, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter,
4502:
3871:
3557:
3420:
3408:
3140:Late Middle Chinese initials
2802:
2754:
2742:
2709:
2695:
2546:
2534:
1081:variants of finals ending in
915:
564:(601) and its revisions. The
8324:List of varieties of Chinese
6127:Phonology of ancient Chinese
5999:, Kluwer, pp. 141–159,
5694:, Rowman & Littlefield,
4507:
4219:
4213:
4029:Historical Chinese phonology
3726:
3705:
3687:
3626:
3605:
3593:
3545:
3500:
3488:
3476:
3454:
3347:
3323:
3286:
3239:
3227:
3215:
3203:
2912:
2894:
2833:
2811:
2766:
2626:
2614:
2602:
2580:
2473:
2449:
2424:
2412:
2400:
2388:
2098:
1842:
1810:
1778:
1743:
1712:
1677:
1646:
1611:
1580:
1545:
1514:
1486:
1455:
1427:
1396:
1368:
1337:
1302:
1271:
1236:
40:
7:
6244:Note on Tang pronunciations
6199:, Shanghai: China Gazette,
6193:Volpicelli, Zenone (1896),
5855:, Oxford University Press,
5525:, Oxford University Press,
4491:
4380:patterns with the palatals.
4164:
3863:Four tones (Middle Chinese)
3717:
3650:
3526:
3514:
3457:
3396:
3384:
3335:
3298:
3262:
2932:
2924:
2857:
2790:
2683:
2652:
2640:
2583:
2522:
2510:
2461:
2253:
2234:. Rhyming syllables in the
2182:, as well as a combination
2165:
2154:
2143:
2132:
2121:
2063:, differ from the familiar
1865:—is known in great detail.
1831:
1824:
1797:
1771:
1764:
1757:
1731:
1705:
1698:
1691:
1665:
1639:
1632:
1625:
1599:
1573:
1566:
1559:
1533:
1507:
1500:
1474:
1448:
1441:
1415:
1389:
1382:
1356:
1330:
1323:
1316:
1290:
1264:
1257:
1250:
1224:
966:
896:
885:
874:
863:
780:, and the pronunciation of
658:
479:(early 1st millennium BC).
10:
8359:
8282:Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols
5951:Ramsey, S. Robert (1987),
5399:Baxter & Sagart (2014)
4994:Norman & Coblin (1995)
4619:Baxter & Sagart (2014)
4146:
4142:
4026:
3860:
3763:
3729:
3662:
3638:
3581:
3359:
3274:
2869:
2845:
2814:
2778:
2721:
2485:
835:
634:
552:
8316:
8200:
8169:
8080:
8005:
7947:
7867:
7842:
7804:
7751:
7677:
7666:
7613:
7565:
7520:
7497:
7442:
7433:
7371:
7290:
7265:
7247:
7224:
7161:
7152:
7115:
7092:
7054:
7045:
7036:
6972:
6932:
6859:
6837:
6809:
6791:
6765:
6742:
6678:
6669:
6646:
6616:
6593:
6517:
6457:
6429:
6406:
6383:
6350:
6341:
6332:
6321:
5871:Pulleyblank, Edwin George
4485:
4468:「平聲哀而安，上聲厲而舉，去聲清而遠，入聲直而促」
3969:André-Georges Haudricourt
3885:, were described as the "
3759:
3160:
3155:
3146:
3144:
3068:The palatal allophone of
2886:
2825:
2734:
2665:
2594:
2563:
2502:
2441:
2380:
2375:
2372:
2367:
2362:
2357:
2345:
2331:
2329:
1829:
1785:
1719:
1653:
1587:
1521:
1505:
1462:
1446:
1403:
1387:
1344:
1278:
1212:
1205:
1200:
1195:
1190:
1185:
1157:Modern Chinese varieties
1156:
1144:Sino-Xenic pronunciations
937:, and the authors of the
531:Sino-Xenic pronunciations
420:
416:
398:
391:
383:[tsóŋkǔːhɔ̄ːny̬ː]
373:
359:
345:
338:
321:
307:
293:
286:
281:
277:
263:
249:
244:
240:
236:
220:
204:
188:
183:
167:
146:
107:
79:
69:
47:
33:
28:
23:
6042:Aldridge, Edith (2013),
5604:10.1163/1568532042523149
5326:, pp. 31–32, 37–39.
5290:, pp. 45–46, 49–55.
4181:
3856:
3128:(still reflected in the
2061:Swedish Dialect Alphabet
2039:to the structure of the
666:Chinese scholars of the
543:Classical Chinese poetry
251:Traditional Chinese
6158:Grammata Serica Recensa
6099:Chen, Chung-yu (2001),
5563:1 December 2017 at the
4657:, pp. 78, 142–143.
4116:Austroasiatic languages
3981:Austroasiatic languages
846:The first table of the
768:, the pronunciation of
545:, such as the study of
265:Simplified Chinese
6256:Fifty-Five T'ang Poems
5975:Fifty-five T'ang Poems
5953:The Languages of China
5411:Pan & Zhang (2015)
5092:, pp. 56–57, 206.
4209:Baxter's transcription
3941:
3933:
2283:earlier dictionaries.
2108:
2021:Received Pronunciation
1899:historical linguistics
1893:
1852:Transcription evidence
1817:
1750:
1684:
1618:
1552:
1493:
1434:
1375:
1309:
1243:
905:
663:
5755:The Japanese Language
5131:, pp. 55–56, 59.
5044:, pp. 43, 45–59.
4720:, pp. 15, 32–34.
4287:, and is merged with
4147:Further information:
3937:
3929:
3766:Middle Chinese finals
3040:and the rime tables:
2106:
1891:
1077:are considered to be
1026:Place of articulation
845:
644:
477:Old Chinese phonology
4132:varieties of Chinese
4061:improve this section
3927:(no longer extant):
3540:Retroflex sibilants
2994:stops were actually
2666:Retroflex sibilants
2268:Dunhuang manuscripts
2057:Johan August Lundell
1939:narrow transcription
1135:varieties of Chinese
758:was given using the
527:varieties of Chinese
512:Early Middle Chinese
5977:, Yale University,
5278:, pp. 236–237.
5254:, pp. 222–223.
5155:, pp. 177–179.
5032:, pp. 266–269.
5020:, pp. 34, 814.
4948:, pp. 144–146.
4834:, pp. 126–131.
4609:, pp. 142–143.
4356:) is combined with
3141:
3107:front rounded vowel
2326:
2258:The preface of the
2194:. Final consonants
2115:, derived from the
1995:The preface of the
1903:Proto-Indo-European
1005:) or rounded glide.
516:Late Middle Chinese
429:(formerly known as
159:Eastern Han Chinese
8277:Cantonese Bopomofo
8144:Chinese characters
8072:Written Sichuanese
6656:Zhangjiakou–Hohhot
6136:Karlgren, Bernhard
6060:10.1111/lnc3.12007
6014:Xiang, Xi (2023),
5749:Miller, Roy Andrew
5558:List of Corrigenda
5500:Baxter, William H.
5425:, pp. 91, 93.
5264:Pulleyblank (1984)
5252:Pulleyblank (1970)
5216:Pulleyblank (1984)
5201:Pulleyblank (1991)
5165:Pulleyblank (1984)
4919:Pulleyblank (1984)
4907:Pulleyblank (1984)
4895:Pulleyblank (1971)
4883:Pulleyblank (1970)
4822:, pp. 32, 34.
4793:Pulleyblank (1984)
4769:Pulleyblank (1984)
4655:Pulleyblank (1984)
4631:Pulleyblank (1984)
4607:Pulleyblank (1984)
4194:Karlgren used the
4108:Proto-Sino-Tibetan
3900:comparative method
3257:Labial fricatives
3139:
3057:The palatal nasal
2324:
2109:
2093:comparative method
2067:. To remedy this,
1894:
1878:prenasalized stops
906:
904:in Middle Chinese)
822:) or in so-called
664:
178:Chinese characters
83:4th–12th centuries
8330:
8329:
8312:
8311:
8139:
8138:
8057:Written Cantonese
8052:
8051:
7834:Classical grammar
7829:Cantonese grammar
7664:
7663:
7561:
7560:
7367:
7366:
7286:
7285:
7148:
7147:
6855:
6854:
6642:
6641:
6532:Chengdu–Chongqing
6325:Sinitic languages
6240:, Dylan W.H. Sung
6233:Guillaume Jacques
6224:Guillaume Jacques
6025:978-1-032-38108-4
6006:978-0-7923-3867-3
5984:978-0-88710-026-0
5962:978-0-691-01468-5
5943:978-0-7748-0366-3
5924:978-0-7748-0192-8
5862:978-0-1998-5633-6
5807:978-90-272-4785-8
5788:978-0-521-29653-3
5766:978-0-226-52717-8
5701:978-1-61146-001-8
5582:978-90-272-4785-8
5551:978-90-272-4785-8
5532:978-0-19-994537-5
5513:978-3-11-012324-1
5473:, pp. 52–54.
5461:, pp. 54–57.
5449:, pp. 54–55.
5389:, pp. 52–53.
5314:, pp. 61–63.
5302:, pp. 36–38.
5191:, pp. 46–48.
5116:, pp. 52–54.
5104:, pp. 54–55.
5056:, pp. 45–59.
5008:, pp. 27–28.
4972:, pp. 27–32.
4846:, pp. 34–39.
4708:, pp. 30–31.
4684:, pp. 31–32.
4669:, pp. 29–30.
4597:, pp. 33–35.
4585:, pp. 24–25.
4534:, pp. 24–41.
4372:. However in the
4128:Standard Mandarin
4118:, such as modern
4112:Classical Tibetan
4097:
4096:
4089:
3740:
3739:
2962:Bernhard Karlgren
2945:
2944:
2069:William H. Baxter
1985:Edwin Pulleyblank
1915:Bernhard Karlgren
1908:Kangxi Dictionary
1892:Bernhard Karlgren
1849:
1848:
689:Bernhard Karlgren
631:Rime dictionaries
597:Chinese varieties
589:Qieyun zhizhangtu
453:Bernhard Karlgren
424:
423:
412:
411:
367:Zung1gu2 Hon3jyu5
347:Yale Romanization
288:Standard Mandarin
8350:
8322:
8321:
8294:Taiwanese Hangul
8183:Mainland Chinese
8096:
8095:
8087:
8086:
8012:
8011:
7689:Standard Chinese
7672:
7440:
7439:
7159:
7158:
7052:
7051:
7043:
7042:
6925:
6913:
6901:
6889:
6877:
6676:
6675:
6348:
6347:
6339:
6338:
6315:Chinese language
6308:
6301:
6294:
6285:
6284:
6272:
6208:
6189:
6170:
6151:
6131:
6120:
6095:
6078:(3/4): 203–233,
6063:
6029:
6010:
5988:
5971:Stimson, Hugh M.
5966:
5947:
5928:
5909:
5899:
5889:
5879:
5866:
5840:
5811:
5792:
5770:
5758:
5744:
5718:
5705:
5688:Malmqvist, Göran
5683:
5660:Monumenta Serica
5651:
5620:Coblin, W. South
5615:
5598:(1/3): 122–162,
5586:
5555:
5536:
5517:
5486:
5480:
5474:
5468:
5462:
5456:
5450:
5444:
5438:
5432:
5426:
5420:
5414:
5408:
5402:
5396:
5390:
5384:
5378:
5372:
5363:
5357:
5351:
5345:
5339:
5333:
5327:
5321:
5315:
5309:
5303:
5297:
5291:
5285:
5279:
5273:
5267:
5261:
5255:
5249:
5243:
5237:
5231:
5225:
5219:
5213:
5204:
5198:
5192:
5186:
5180:
5174:
5168:
5162:
5156:
5150:
5144:
5138:
5132:
5126:
5117:
5111:
5105:
5099:
5093:
5087:
5081:
5075:
5069:
5063:
5057:
5051:
5045:
5039:
5033:
5027:
5021:
5015:
5009:
5003:
4997:
4991:
4985:
4979:
4973:
4967:
4961:
4955:
4949:
4943:
4937:
4931:
4922:
4916:
4910:
4904:
4898:
4892:
4886:
4880:
4874:
4868:
4862:
4856:
4847:
4841:
4835:
4829:
4823:
4817:
4811:
4805:
4796:
4790:
4784:
4781:Malmqvist (2010)
4778:
4772:
4766:
4760:
4754:
4748:
4747:, p. 34–37.
4742:
4733:
4727:
4721:
4715:
4709:
4703:
4697:
4691:
4685:
4679:
4670:
4664:
4658:
4652:
4646:
4640:
4634:
4628:
4622:
4616:
4610:
4604:
4598:
4592:
4586:
4580:
4571:
4565:
4559:
4553:
4547:
4541:
4535:
4529:
4523:
4517:
4496:
4494:
4489:
4482:
4476:
4471:, translated in
4470:
4469:
4464:
4458:
4455:
4449:
4447:
4444:
4443:
4437:
4431:
4429:
4424:
4418:
4415:
4409:
4403:
4402:
4396:
4390:
4387:
4381:
4379:
4371:
4370:
4365:
4364:
4359:
4355:
4354:
4349:
4344:
4335:
4333:
4332:
4327:
4326:
4320:
4311:
4304:
4298:
4290:
4282:
4276:
4270:
4265:
4259:
4256:
4250:
4239:
4233:
4230:
4224:
4222:
4216:
4205:
4199:
4192:
4092:
4085:
4081:
4078:
4072:
4041:
4033:
4010:groups and some
3978:
3974:
3957:proto-Hmong–Mien
3926:
3925:
3913:
3909:
3905:
3879:nasal consonants
3876:
3873:
3848:
3839:
3835:
3820:
3816:
3812:
3808:
3804:
3800:
3796:
3792:
3788:
3784:
3736:
3733:
3732:
3731:
3724:
3721:
3720:
3719:
3712:
3709:
3708:
3707:
3694:
3691:
3690:
3689:
3669:
3666:
3665:
3664:
3657:
3654:
3653:
3652:
3645:
3642:
3641:
3640:
3633:
3630:
3629:
3628:
3612:
3609:
3608:
3607:
3600:
3597:
3596:
3595:
3588:
3585:
3584:
3583:
3576:
3573:
3572:
3571:
3564:
3561:
3560:
3559:
3552:
3549:
3548:
3547:
3533:
3530:
3529:
3528:
3521:
3518:
3517:
3516:
3507:
3504:
3503:
3502:
3495:
3492:
3491:
3490:
3483:
3480:
3479:
3478:
3470:Dental sibilants
3464:
3461:
3460:
3459:
3427:
3424:
3423:
3422:
3415:
3412:
3411:
3410:
3403:
3400:
3399:
3398:
3391:
3388:
3387:
3386:
3366:
3363:
3362:
3361:
3354:
3351:
3350:
3349:
3342:
3339:
3338:
3337:
3330:
3327:
3326:
3325:
3305:
3302:
3301:
3300:
3293:
3290:
3289:
3288:
3281:
3278:
3277:
3276:
3269:
3266:
3265:
3264:
3246:
3243:
3242:
3241:
3234:
3231:
3230:
3229:
3222:
3219:
3218:
3217:
3210:
3207:
3206:
3205:
3142:
3138:
3124:gained phonetic
3104:
3097:
3096:
3091:
3087:
3086:
3081:
3077:
3076:
3071:
3064:
3060:
3053:
3049:
3032:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3001:
2979:
2975:
2972:The reversal of
2957:
2953:
2939:
2936:
2935:
2934:
2928:
2927:
2926:
2919:
2916:
2915:
2914:
2901:
2898:
2897:
2896:
2876:
2873:
2872:
2871:
2864:
2861:
2860:
2859:
2852:
2849:
2848:
2847:
2840:
2837:
2836:
2835:
2821:
2818:
2817:
2816:
2809:
2806:
2805:
2804:
2797:
2794:
2793:
2792:
2785:
2782:
2781:
2780:
2773:
2770:
2769:
2768:
2761:
2758:
2757:
2756:
2749:
2746:
2745:
2744:
2728:
2725:
2724:
2723:
2716:
2713:
2712:
2711:
2702:
2699:
2698:
2697:
2690:
2687:
2686:
2685:
2678:
2675:
2674:
2673:
2659:
2656:
2655:
2654:
2647:
2644:
2643:
2642:
2633:
2630:
2629:
2628:
2621:
2618:
2617:
2616:
2609:
2606:
2605:
2604:
2596:Dental sibilants
2590:
2587:
2586:
2585:
2553:
2550:
2549:
2548:
2541:
2538:
2537:
2536:
2529:
2526:
2525:
2524:
2517:
2514:
2513:
2512:
2492:
2489:
2488:
2487:
2480:
2477:
2476:
2475:
2468:
2465:
2464:
2463:
2456:
2453:
2452:
2451:
2431:
2428:
2427:
2426:
2419:
2416:
2415:
2414:
2407:
2404:
2403:
2402:
2395:
2392:
2391:
2390:
2327:
2323:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2172:
2168:
2162:
2161:
2157:
2151:
2150:
2146:
2140:
2139:
2135:
2129:
2128:
2124:
2073:his own notation
2025:General American
1958:Samuel E. Martin
1875:
1871:
1845:
1838:
1834:
1827:
1820:
1813:
1806:
1800:
1793:
1781:
1774:
1767:
1760:
1753:
1746:
1739:
1734:
1727:
1715:
1708:
1701:
1694:
1687:
1680:
1673:
1668:
1661:
1649:
1642:
1635:
1628:
1621:
1614:
1607:
1602:
1595:
1583:
1576:
1569:
1562:
1555:
1548:
1541:
1536:
1529:
1517:
1510:
1503:
1496:
1489:
1482:
1477:
1470:
1458:
1451:
1444:
1437:
1430:
1423:
1418:
1411:
1399:
1392:
1385:
1378:
1371:
1364:
1359:
1352:
1340:
1333:
1326:
1319:
1312:
1305:
1298:
1293:
1286:
1274:
1267:
1260:
1253:
1246:
1239:
1232:
1227:
1220:
1168:
1152:
1151:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1048:, and laryngeals
1004:
985:
981:
977:
969:
920:
917:
903:
899:
894:
893:
888:
883:
882:
877:
872:
871:
866:
861:
860:
821:
809:
808:
803:
802:
797:
796:
791:
790:
785:
784:
779:
778:
773:
772:
767:
766:
757:
756:
661:
656:
655:
587:, and the later
441:recorded in the
408:
407:
406:tiong-kóo Hàn-gú
387:
386:
385:
369:
368:
355:
354:
334:
333:
332:
317:
316:
303:
302:
279:
278:
273:
272:
259:
258:
232:
216:
200:
193:
173:
113:
52:
43:
38:
37:
21:
20:
8358:
8357:
8353:
8352:
8351:
8349:
8348:
8347:
8333:
8332:
8331:
8326:
8308:
8245:Tongyong Pinyin
8225:Gwoyeu Romatzyh
8213:Dungan Cyrillic
8196:
8165:
8135:
8076:
8067:Written Hokkien
8048:
8007:
8001:
7977:Middle Mandarin
7943:
7863:
7838:
7800:
7747:
7680:
7673:
7660:
7609:
7557:
7516:
7493:
7429:
7363:
7282:
7261:
7243:
7220:
7144:
7111:
7088:
7032:
6968:
6928:
6919:
6907:
6895:
6883:
6871:
6851:
6833:
6805:
6787:
6761:
6738:
6665:
6638:
6612:
6589:
6513:
6453:
6425:
6402:
6379:
6328:
6317:
6312:
6270:
6252:Hugh M. Stimson
6216:
6211:
6192:
6186:
6173:
6154:
6134:
6123:
6098:
6084:10.2307/2717913
6066:
6041:
6037:
6035:Further reading
6032:
6026:
6007:
5993:Ting, Pang-Hsin
5985:
5963:
5944:
5925:
5897:
5877:
5863:
5808:
5789:
5767:
5733:10.2307/2718766
5716:
5702:
5640:10.2307/3217690
5583:
5565:Wayback Machine
5552:
5533:
5514:
5494:
5489:
5481:
5477:
5469:
5465:
5457:
5453:
5445:
5441:
5433:
5429:
5421:
5417:
5409:
5405:
5397:
5393:
5385:
5381:
5373:
5366:
5358:
5354:
5346:
5342:
5334:
5330:
5322:
5318:
5310:
5306:
5298:
5294:
5286:
5282:
5274:
5270:
5262:
5258:
5250:
5246:
5238:
5234:
5226:
5222:
5214:
5207:
5199:
5195:
5187:
5183:
5175:
5171:
5163:
5159:
5151:
5147:
5139:
5135:
5127:
5120:
5112:
5108:
5100:
5096:
5088:
5084:
5076:
5072:
5064:
5060:
5052:
5048:
5040:
5036:
5030:Branner (2006b)
5028:
5024:
5016:
5012:
5004:
5000:
4992:
4988:
4980:
4976:
4968:
4964:
4956:
4952:
4944:
4940:
4932:
4925:
4917:
4913:
4905:
4901:
4893:
4889:
4881:
4877:
4869:
4865:
4857:
4850:
4842:
4838:
4830:
4826:
4818:
4814:
4806:
4799:
4791:
4787:
4779:
4775:
4767:
4763:
4755:
4751:
4743:
4736:
4728:
4724:
4718:Branner (2006a)
4716:
4712:
4704:
4700:
4692:
4688:
4680:
4673:
4665:
4661:
4653:
4649:
4641:
4637:
4629:
4625:
4617:
4613:
4605:
4601:
4593:
4589:
4581:
4574:
4566:
4562:
4556:Branner (2006a)
4554:
4550:
4542:
4538:
4530:
4526:
4518:
4514:
4510:
4505:
4500:
4499:
4483:
4479:
4465:
4461:
4456:
4452:
4438:
4434:
4425:
4421:
4416:
4412:
4397:
4393:
4388:
4384:
4345:
4338:
4321:
4314:
4305:
4301:
4266:
4262:
4257:
4253:
4240:
4236:
4231:
4227:
4206:
4202:
4193:
4189:
4184:
4167:
4159:syntactic rules
4151:
4149:Chinese grammar
4145:
4093:
4082:
4076:
4073:
4058:
4042:
4031:
4025:
3883:stop consonants
3874:
3865:
3859:
3768:
3762:
3378:Retroflex stops
2504:Retroflex stops
2319:stop consonants
2256:
2190:in a diphthong
2130:) and a final (
2101:
2089:W. South Coblin
1966:Hugh M. Stimson
1886:
1854:
1181:Middle Chinese
1161:Sino-Vietnamese
1131:
918:
852:, covering the
840:
834:
639:
637:Rime dictionary
633:
562:rime dictionary
555:
449:rime dictionary
431:Ancient Chinese
315:chung-ku Han-yü
228:
212:
209:
196:
189:
174:
169:
163:
149:
142:
114:
111:Language family
109:
84:
65:
29:Ancient Chinese
17:
12:
11:
5:
8356:
8346:
8345:
8343:Middle Chinese
8328:
8327:
8317:
8314:
8313:
8310:
8309:
8307:
8306:
8301:
8296:
8291:
8289:Taiwanese kana
8286:
8285:
8284:
8279:
8269:
8268:
8267:
8262:
8260:Lessing-Othmer
8257:
8252:
8247:
8242:
8237:
8232:
8227:
8217:
8216:
8215:
8204:
8202:
8198:
8197:
8195:
8190:
8185:
8180:
8175:
8173:
8167:
8166:
8164:
8163:
8158:
8157:
8156:
8151:
8140:
8137:
8136:
8134:
8129:
8124:
8119:
8114:
8109:
8104:
8102:
8093:
8084:
8078:
8077:
8075:
8074:
8069:
8064:
8062:Written Dungan
8059:
8053:
8050:
8049:
8047:
8046:
8041:
8040:
8039:
8034:
8029:
8018:
8016:
8009:
8003:
8002:
8000:
7999:
7994:
7989:
7984:
7979:
7974:
7969:
7967:Middle Chinese
7964:
7959:
7953:
7951:
7945:
7944:
7942:
7941:
7936:
7934:Wubi (Wang Ma)
7931:
7926:
7925:
7924:
7919:
7914:
7904:
7899:
7894:
7893:
7892:
7882:
7879:
7873:
7871:
7865:
7864:
7862:
7861:
7854:
7846:
7844:
7840:
7839:
7837:
7836:
7831:
7826:
7821:
7816:
7810:
7808:
7802:
7801:
7799:
7798:
7793:
7788:
7783:
7778:
7773:
7768:
7767:
7766:
7755:
7753:
7749:
7748:
7746:
7745:
7740:
7735:
7730:
7729:
7728:
7727:
7726:
7721:
7711:
7706:
7701:
7696:
7685:
7683:
7675:
7674:
7667:
7665:
7662:
7661:
7659:
7658:
7653:
7651:Xiangnan Tuhua
7648:
7643:
7638:
7636:Shaozhou Tuhua
7633:
7628:
7623:
7617:
7615:
7611:
7610:
7608:
7607:
7606:
7605:
7600:
7595:
7587:
7586:
7585:
7580:
7571:
7569:
7563:
7562:
7559:
7558:
7556:
7555:
7550:
7545:
7540:
7535:
7530:
7524:
7522:
7518:
7517:
7515:
7514:
7509:
7503:
7501:
7495:
7494:
7492:
7491:
7486:
7481:
7476:
7471:
7466:
7465:
7464:
7459:
7448:
7446:
7437:
7431:
7430:
7428:
7427:
7426:
7425:
7420:
7415:
7405:
7404:
7403:
7393:
7388:
7383:
7377:
7375:
7369:
7368:
7365:
7364:
7362:
7361:
7360:
7359:
7354:
7349:
7339:
7338:
7337:
7327:
7322:
7317:
7312:
7311:
7310:
7305:
7294:
7292:
7288:
7287:
7284:
7283:
7281:
7280:
7275:
7269:
7267:
7263:
7262:
7260:
7259:
7253:
7251:
7245:
7244:
7242:
7241:
7236:
7230:
7228:
7222:
7221:
7219:
7218:
7213:
7208:
7203:
7198:
7193:
7188:
7183:
7178:
7173:
7167:
7165:
7156:
7150:
7149:
7146:
7145:
7143:
7142:
7141:
7140:
7135:
7125:
7119:
7117:
7113:
7112:
7110:
7109:
7104:
7098:
7096:
7090:
7089:
7087:
7086:
7081:
7076:
7071:
7066:
7060:
7058:
7049:
7040:
7034:
7033:
7031:
7030:
7029:
7028:
7018:
7013:
7012:
7011:
7006:
7001:
6991:
6990:
6989:
6978:
6976:
6970:
6969:
6967:
6966:
6961:
6956:
6951:
6950:
6949:
6938:
6936:
6930:
6929:
6927:
6926:
6914:
6902:
6890:
6878:
6865:
6863:
6857:
6856:
6853:
6852:
6850:
6849:
6843:
6841:
6835:
6834:
6832:
6831:
6826:
6821:
6815:
6813:
6807:
6806:
6804:
6803:
6797:
6795:
6789:
6788:
6786:
6785:
6780:
6775:
6769:
6767:
6763:
6762:
6760:
6759:
6754:
6748:
6746:
6740:
6739:
6737:
6736:
6731:
6726:
6721:
6716:
6711:
6705:
6700:
6695:
6690:
6684:
6682:
6673:
6667:
6666:
6664:
6663:
6658:
6652:
6650:
6644:
6643:
6640:
6639:
6637:
6636:
6631:
6626:
6620:
6618:
6614:
6613:
6611:
6610:
6605:
6599:
6597:
6591:
6590:
6588:
6587:
6586:
6585:
6575:
6570:
6565:
6560:
6559:
6558:
6557:
6556:
6549:Renshou–Fushun
6546:
6545:
6544:
6534:
6523:
6521:
6515:
6514:
6512:
6511:
6506:
6501:
6496:
6491:
6486:
6485:
6484:
6474:
6469:
6463:
6461:
6459:Central Plains
6455:
6454:
6452:
6451:
6446:
6441:
6435:
6433:
6427:
6426:
6424:
6423:
6418:
6412:
6410:
6404:
6403:
6401:
6400:
6395:
6389:
6387:
6381:
6380:
6378:
6377:
6372:
6367:
6362:
6356:
6354:
6345:
6336:
6330:
6329:
6322:
6319:
6318:
6311:
6310:
6303:
6296:
6288:
6282:
6281:
6276:
6268:
6263:
6258:
6241:
6235:
6226:
6215:
6214:External links
6212:
6210:
6209:
6190:
6184:
6171:
6152:
6132:
6121:
6096:
6068:Chao, Yuen Ren
6064:
6038:
6036:
6033:
6031:
6030:
6024:
6011:
6005:
5989:
5983:
5967:
5961:
5948:
5942:
5929:
5923:
5910:
5890:
5867:
5861:
5841:
5829:10.2307/604728
5823:(4): 576–584,
5812:
5806:
5793:
5787:
5771:
5765:
5745:
5706:
5700:
5684:
5652:
5634:(2): 377–383,
5616:
5587:
5581:
5568:
5550:
5537:
5531:
5518:
5512:
5495:
5493:
5490:
5488:
5487:
5483:Stimson (1976)
5475:
5463:
5451:
5439:
5437:, p. 104.
5427:
5415:
5403:
5391:
5379:
5364:
5362:, p. 118.
5352:
5340:
5338:, p. 303.
5328:
5316:
5304:
5292:
5280:
5268:
5256:
5244:
5242:, p. 234.
5232:
5220:
5205:
5193:
5181:
5169:
5167:, p. 144.
5157:
5145:
5133:
5118:
5106:
5094:
5082:
5070:
5058:
5046:
5034:
5022:
5010:
4998:
4986:
4974:
4962:
4960:, p. 224.
4958:Li (1974–1975)
4950:
4938:
4923:
4921:, p. 134.
4911:
4909:, p. xiv.
4899:
4887:
4885:, p. 204.
4875:
4873:, p. 132.
4863:
4848:
4836:
4824:
4812:
4808:Stimson (1976)
4797:
4795:, p. 163.
4785:
4783:, p. 300.
4773:
4771:, p. 147.
4761:
4759:, p. 336.
4749:
4734:
4722:
4710:
4698:
4686:
4671:
4659:
4647:
4635:
4633:, p. 136.
4623:
4611:
4599:
4587:
4572:
4560:
4548:
4546:, p. 379.
4536:
4524:
4511:
4509:
4506:
4504:
4501:
4498:
4497:
4477:
4459:
4450:
4432:
4419:
4410:
4391:
4382:
4336:
4312:
4299:
4260:
4251:
4234:
4225:
4200:
4186:
4185:
4183:
4180:
4179:
4178:
4173:
4166:
4163:
4144:
4141:
4095:
4094:
4045:
4043:
4036:
4027:Main article:
4024:
4021:
3996:phonemic split
3858:
3855:
3829:counterparts.
3764:Main article:
3761:
3758:
3738:
3737:
3725:
3713:
3701:
3699:
3697:
3695:
3683:
3677:
3676:
3674:
3672:
3670:
3658:
3646:
3634:
3622:
3616:
3615:
3613:
3601:
3589:
3577:
3565:
3553:
3541:
3537:
3536:
3534:
3522:
3510:
3508:
3496:
3484:
3472:
3466:
3465:
3453:
3451:
3449:
3447:
3445:
3443:
3441:
3435:
3434:
3432:
3430:
3428:
3416:
3404:
3392:
3380:
3374:
3373:
3371:
3369:
3367:
3355:
3343:
3331:
3319:
3313:
3312:
3310:
3308:
3306:
3294:
3282:
3270:
3258:
3254:
3253:
3251:
3249:
3247:
3235:
3223:
3211:
3199:
3193:
3192:
3189:
3186:
3184:Breathy voiced
3181:
3176:
3170:
3169:
3164:
3159:
3154:
3145:
3134:
3133:
3118:
3099:
3078:) merged with
3066:
3055:
3045:
3011:
3010:
3007:breathy voiced
3003:
2988:
2964:developed the
2943:
2942:
2940:
2920:
2908:
2906:
2904:
2902:
2890:
2884:
2883:
2881:
2879:
2877:
2865:
2853:
2841:
2829:
2823:
2822:
2810:
2798:
2786:
2774:
2762:
2750:
2738:
2732:
2731:
2729:
2717:
2705:
2703:
2691:
2679:
2667:
2663:
2662:
2660:
2648:
2636:
2634:
2622:
2610:
2598:
2592:
2591:
2579:
2577:
2575:
2573:
2571:
2569:
2567:
2561:
2560:
2558:
2556:
2554:
2542:
2530:
2518:
2506:
2500:
2499:
2497:
2495:
2493:
2481:
2469:
2457:
2445:
2439:
2438:
2436:
2434:
2432:
2420:
2408:
2396:
2384:
2378:
2377:
2374:
2371:
2366:
2361:
2355:
2354:
2349:
2344:
2339:
2330:
2255:
2252:
2100:
2097:
1935:Tang dynasties
1885:
1882:
1853:
1850:
1847:
1846:
1839:
1828:
1821:
1814:
1807:
1802:
1794:
1787:
1783:
1782:
1775:
1768:
1761:
1754:
1747:
1740:
1735:
1728:
1721:
1717:
1716:
1709:
1702:
1695:
1688:
1681:
1674:
1669:
1662:
1655:
1651:
1650:
1643:
1636:
1629:
1622:
1615:
1608:
1603:
1596:
1589:
1585:
1584:
1577:
1570:
1563:
1556:
1549:
1542:
1537:
1530:
1523:
1519:
1518:
1511:
1504:
1497:
1490:
1483:
1478:
1471:
1464:
1460:
1459:
1452:
1445:
1438:
1431:
1424:
1419:
1412:
1405:
1401:
1400:
1393:
1386:
1379:
1372:
1365:
1360:
1353:
1346:
1342:
1341:
1334:
1327:
1320:
1313:
1306:
1299:
1294:
1287:
1280:
1276:
1275:
1268:
1261:
1254:
1247:
1240:
1233:
1228:
1221:
1214:
1210:
1209:
1204:
1199:
1194:
1189:
1183:
1182:
1179:
1174:
1163:
1158:
1155:
1130:
1127:
1096:palatalization
1063:
1062:
1049:
1007:
1006:
995:
919: 1150 AD
856:rhyme classes
836:Main article:
833:
830:
635:Main article:
632:
629:
625:Chinese poetry
593:Sisheng dengzi
554:
551:
465:Tang dynasties
427:Middle Chinese
422:
421:
418:
417:
414:
413:
410:
409:
402:
396:
395:
389:
388:
377:
371:
370:
363:
357:
356:
349:
343:
342:
340:Yue: Cantonese
336:
335:
325:
319:
318:
311:
305:
304:
297:
291:
290:
284:
283:
282:Transcriptions
275:
274:
267:
261:
260:
253:
247:
246:
242:
241:
238:
237:
234:
233:
226:
218:
217:
210:
205:
202:
201:
194:
186:
185:
184:Language codes
181:
180:
175:
171:Writing system
168:
165:
164:
162:
161:
152:
150:
147:
144:
143:
141:
140:
139:
138:
137:
136:
134:Middle Chinese
117:
115:
108:
105:
104:
81:
77:
76:
71:
70:Native to
67:
66:
53:
45:
44:
31:
30:
26:
25:
24:Middle Chinese
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8355:
8344:
8341:
8340:
8338:
8325:
8315:
8305:
8302:
8300:
8297:
8295:
8292:
8290:
8287:
8283:
8280:
8278:
8275:
8274:
8273:
8270:
8266:
8263:
8261:
8258:
8256:
8253:
8251:
8248:
8246:
8243:
8241:
8238:
8236:
8233:
8231:
8228:
8226:
8223:
8222:
8221:
8218:
8214:
8211:
8210:
8209:
8208:Cyrillization
8206:
8205:
8203:
8199:
8194:
8191:
8189:
8186:
8184:
8181:
8179:
8176:
8174:
8172:
8168:
8162:
8159:
8155:
8152:
8150:
8147:
8146:
8145:
8142:
8141:
8133:
8130:
8128:
8125:
8123:
8120:
8118:
8115:
8113:
8110:
8108:
8105:
8103:
8101:
8100:Script styles
8097:
8094:
8092:
8088:
8085:
8083:
8079:
8073:
8070:
8068:
8065:
8063:
8060:
8058:
8055:
8054:
8045:
8042:
8038:
8035:
8033:
8030:
8028:
8025:
8024:
8023:
8020:
8019:
8017:
8013:
8010:
8004:
7998:
7995:
7993:
7990:
7988:
7985:
7983:
7980:
7978:
7975:
7973:
7970:
7968:
7965:
7963:
7960:
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7909:
7908:
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7903:
7900:
7898:
7895:
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7883:
7880:
7878:
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7872:
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7866:
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7841:
7835:
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7827:
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7812:
7811:
7809:
7807:
7803:
7797:
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7707:
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6615:
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6598:
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6510:
6507:
6505:
6502:
6500:
6497:
6495:
6492:
6490:
6487:
6483:
6480:
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6478:
6475:
6473:
6470:
6468:
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6456:
6450:
6447:
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6442:
6440:
6437:
6436:
6434:
6432:
6428:
6422:
6419:
6417:
6414:
6413:
6411:
6409:
6405:
6399:
6396:
6394:
6391:
6390:
6388:
6386:
6382:
6376:
6373:
6371:
6368:
6366:
6363:
6361:
6358:
6357:
6355:
6353:
6349:
6346:
6344:
6340:
6337:
6335:
6331:
6327:
6326:
6320:
6316:
6309:
6304:
6302:
6297:
6295:
6290:
6289:
6286:
6280:
6277:
6275:
6269:
6267:
6264:
6262:
6259:
6257:
6253:
6249:
6245:
6242:
6239:
6236:
6234:
6230:
6227:
6225:
6221:
6218:
6217:
6206:
6202:
6198:
6197:
6191:
6187:
6185:3-89586-543-5
6181:
6177:
6172:
6168:
6164:
6160:
6159:
6153:
6149:
6145:
6141:
6137:
6133:
6129:
6128:
6122:
6118:
6114:
6110:
6106:
6102:
6097:
6093:
6089:
6085:
6081:
6077:
6073:
6069:
6065:
6061:
6057:
6053:
6049:
6045:
6040:
6039:
6027:
6021:
6017:
6012:
6008:
6002:
5998:
5994:
5990:
5986:
5980:
5976:
5972:
5968:
5964:
5958:
5954:
5949:
5945:
5939:
5935:
5930:
5926:
5920:
5916:
5911:
5907:
5903:
5896:
5891:
5887:
5883:
5876:
5872:
5868:
5864:
5858:
5854:
5850:
5846:
5842:
5838:
5834:
5830:
5826:
5822:
5818:
5813:
5809:
5803:
5799:
5794:
5790:
5784:
5780:
5776:
5775:Norman, Jerry
5772:
5768:
5762:
5757:
5756:
5750:
5746:
5742:
5738:
5734:
5730:
5726:
5722:
5715:
5711:
5707:
5703:
5697:
5693:
5689:
5685:
5681:
5677:
5673:
5669:
5665:
5661:
5657:
5656:Li, Fang-Kuei
5653:
5649:
5645:
5641:
5637:
5633:
5629:
5625:
5622:(2003), "The
5621:
5617:
5613:
5609:
5605:
5601:
5597:
5593:
5588:
5584:
5578:
5574:
5569:
5566:
5562:
5559:
5553:
5547:
5543:
5538:
5534:
5528:
5524:
5519:
5515:
5509:
5505:
5501:
5497:
5496:
5484:
5479:
5472:
5471:Norman (1988)
5467:
5460:
5459:Norman (1988)
5455:
5448:
5447:Norman (1988)
5443:
5436:
5431:
5424:
5419:
5413:, p. 52.
5412:
5407:
5401:, p. 14.
5400:
5395:
5388:
5387:Norman (1988)
5383:
5377:, p. 53.
5376:
5375:Norman (1988)
5371:
5369:
5361:
5360:Ramsey (1987)
5356:
5350:, p. 52.
5349:
5348:Norman (1988)
5344:
5337:
5336:Baxter (1992)
5332:
5325:
5324:Norman (1988)
5320:
5313:
5312:Baxter (1992)
5308:
5301:
5300:Norman (1988)
5296:
5289:
5288:Baxter (1992)
5284:
5277:
5276:Norman (2006)
5272:
5266:, p. 66.
5265:
5260:
5253:
5248:
5241:
5240:Norman (2006)
5236:
5230:, p. 48.
5229:
5228:Baxter (1992)
5224:
5218:, p. 69.
5217:
5212:
5210:
5203:, p. 10.
5202:
5197:
5190:
5189:Baxter (1992)
5185:
5179:, p. 53.
5178:
5177:Baxter (1992)
5173:
5166:
5161:
5154:
5153:Baxter (1992)
5149:
5143:, p. 58.
5142:
5141:Baxter (1992)
5137:
5130:
5129:Baxter (1992)
5125:
5123:
5115:
5114:Baxter (1992)
5110:
5103:
5102:Baxter (1992)
5098:
5091:
5090:Baxter (1992)
5086:
5080:, p. 50.
5079:
5078:Baxter (1992)
5074:
5068:, p. 49.
5067:
5066:Baxter (1992)
5062:
5055:
5054:Baxter (1992)
5050:
5043:
5042:Baxter (1992)
5038:
5031:
5026:
5019:
5018:Baxter (1992)
5014:
5007:
5006:Norman (1988)
5002:
4995:
4990:
4984:, p. 16.
4983:
4982:Baxter (1992)
4978:
4971:
4970:Baxter (1992)
4966:
4959:
4954:
4947:
4942:
4936:, p. 37.
4935:
4934:Baxter (1992)
4930:
4928:
4920:
4915:
4908:
4903:
4896:
4891:
4884:
4879:
4872:
4871:Ramsey (1987)
4867:
4861:, p. 39.
4860:
4859:Norman (1988)
4855:
4853:
4845:
4844:Norman (1988)
4840:
4833:
4832:Ramsey (1987)
4828:
4821:
4820:Norman (1988)
4816:
4809:
4804:
4802:
4794:
4789:
4782:
4777:
4770:
4765:
4758:
4757:Miller (1967)
4753:
4746:
4745:Norman (1988)
4741:
4739:
4732:, p. 28.
4731:
4730:Norman (1988)
4726:
4719:
4714:
4707:
4706:Norman (1988)
4702:
4696:, p. 43.
4695:
4694:Baxter (1992)
4690:
4683:
4682:Norman (1988)
4678:
4676:
4668:
4667:Norman (1988)
4663:
4656:
4651:
4645:, p. 27.
4644:
4643:Norman (1988)
4639:
4632:
4627:
4621:, p. 10.
4620:
4615:
4608:
4603:
4596:
4595:Baxter (1992)
4591:
4584:
4583:Norman (1988)
4579:
4577:
4570:, p. 25.
4569:
4568:Norman (1988)
4564:
4557:
4552:
4545:
4544:Coblin (2003)
4540:
4533:
4532:Norman (1988)
4528:
4521:
4516:
4512:
4493:
4488:
4481:
4475:, p. 152
4474:
4463:
4454:
4448:by that time.
4436:
4423:
4414:
4407:
4395:
4386:
4375:
4343:
4341:
4322:The initials
4319:
4317:
4309:
4303:
4296:
4295:
4286:
4281:
4275:
4264:
4255:
4248:
4244:
4238:
4229:
4221:
4215:
4210:
4204:
4197:
4191:
4187:
4177:
4174:
4172:
4169:
4168:
4162:
4160:
4156:
4155:morphological
4150:
4140:
4137:
4133:
4129:
4123:
4121:
4117:
4113:
4109:
4105:
4101:
4091:
4088:
4080:
4070:
4066:
4062:
4056:
4055:
4051:
4046:This section
4044:
4040:
4035:
4034:
4030:
4020:
4017:
4013:
4009:
4005:
4001:
3997:
3992:
3990:
3986:
3982:
3970:
3966:
3962:
3958:
3954:
3949:
3946:
3940:
3936:
3932:
3928:
3921:
3915:
3901:
3896:
3894:
3893:
3888:
3884:
3880:
3875: 500 AD
3870:
3864:
3854:
3852:
3843:
3830:
3828:
3827:entering tone
3824:
3779:
3777:
3773:
3767:
3757:
3754:
3749:
3745:
3714:
3702:
3700:
3698:
3696:
3684:
3682:
3679:
3678:
3675:
3673:
3671:
3659:
3647:
3635:
3623:
3621:
3618:
3617:
3614:
3602:
3590:
3578:
3566:
3554:
3542:
3539:
3538:
3535:
3523:
3511:
3509:
3497:
3485:
3473:
3471:
3468:
3467:
3452:
3450:
3448:
3446:
3444:
3442:
3440:
3437:
3436:
3433:
3431:
3429:
3417:
3405:
3393:
3381:
3379:
3376:
3375:
3372:
3370:
3368:
3356:
3344:
3332:
3320:
3318:
3315:
3314:
3311:
3309:
3307:
3295:
3283:
3271:
3259:
3256:
3255:
3252:
3250:
3248:
3236:
3224:
3212:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3194:
3190:
3187:
3185:
3182:
3180:
3177:
3175:
3172:
3171:
3168:
3163:
3158:
3153:
3149:
3143:
3137:
3131:
3127:
3126:breathy voice
3123:
3119:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3100:
3067:
3056:
3046:
3043:
3042:
3041:
3039:
3034:
3016:
3008:
3004:
2997:
2993:
2989:
2986:
2983:
2971:
2970:
2969:
2967:
2963:
2959:
2949:
2941:
2921:
2909:
2907:
2905:
2903:
2891:
2889:
2885:
2882:
2880:
2878:
2866:
2854:
2842:
2830:
2828:
2824:
2799:
2787:
2775:
2763:
2751:
2739:
2737:
2733:
2730:
2718:
2706:
2704:
2692:
2680:
2668:
2664:
2661:
2649:
2637:
2635:
2623:
2611:
2599:
2597:
2593:
2578:
2576:
2574:
2572:
2570:
2568:
2566:
2562:
2559:
2557:
2555:
2543:
2531:
2519:
2507:
2505:
2501:
2498:
2496:
2494:
2482:
2470:
2458:
2446:
2444:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2433:
2421:
2409:
2397:
2385:
2383:
2379:
2370:
2365:
2360:
2356:
2353:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2334:
2328:
2322:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2289:
2284:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2251:
2249:
2245:
2239:
2237:
2167:
2156:
2145:
2134:
2123:
2118:
2114:
2105:
2096:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2080:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2051:, produced a
2050:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2033:
2030:Although the
2028:
2026:
2023:and three in
2022:
2018:
2014:
2013:John C. Wells
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1993:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1969:
1967:
1964:description.
1963:
1959:
1955:
1954:Chao Yuen Ren
1950:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1910:
1909:
1904:
1900:
1890:
1881:
1879:
1866:
1864:
1860:
1844:
1840:
1833:
1826:
1822:
1819:
1815:
1812:
1808:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1773:
1769:
1766:
1762:
1759:
1755:
1752:
1748:
1745:
1741:
1736:
1733:
1729:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1707:
1703:
1700:
1696:
1693:
1689:
1686:
1682:
1679:
1675:
1670:
1667:
1663:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1641:
1637:
1634:
1630:
1627:
1623:
1620:
1616:
1613:
1609:
1604:
1601:
1597:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1575:
1571:
1568:
1564:
1561:
1557:
1554:
1550:
1547:
1543:
1538:
1535:
1531:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1509:
1502:
1498:
1495:
1491:
1488:
1484:
1479:
1476:
1472:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1450:
1443:
1439:
1436:
1432:
1429:
1425:
1420:
1417:
1413:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1391:
1384:
1380:
1377:
1373:
1370:
1366:
1361:
1358:
1354:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1332:
1328:
1325:
1321:
1318:
1314:
1311:
1307:
1304:
1300:
1295:
1292:
1288:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1266:
1262:
1259:
1255:
1252:
1248:
1245:
1241:
1238:
1234:
1229:
1226:
1222:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1208:
1203:
1198:
1193:
1188:
1184:
1178:
1177:Sino-Japanese
1172:
1167:
1162:
1153:
1150:
1147:
1145:
1140:
1136:
1126:
1124:
1119:
1117:
1101:
1097:
1080:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1050:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1024:
1023:
1022:
1019:
1017:
1016:minimal pairs
1012:
1000:
996:
993:
989:
973:
968:
963:
962:
961:
959:
955:
950:
948:
944:
940:
936:
932:
928:
924:
913:
912:
898:
887:
876:
865:
855:
851:
850:
844:
839:
829:
827:
826:
816:
811:
786:was given as
774:was given as
761:
751:
747:
743:
739:
734:
729:
726:
722:
718:
717:
710:
708:
704:
700:
699:
694:
690:
686:
681:
679:
675:
674:
669:
660:
650:
649:
643:
638:
628:
626:
622:
618:
614:
610:
606:
602:
598:
594:
590:
586:
585:
580:
579:
574:
571:
567:
563:
560:
550:
548:
544:
539:
534:
532:
528:
524:
519:
517:
513:
509:
505:
501:
497:
493:
492:
487:
486:
480:
478:
474:
470:
466:
462:
458:
454:
450:
446:
445:
440:
436:
435:Qieyun system
432:
428:
419:
415:
403:
401:
397:
394:
390:
384:
378:
376:
372:
364:
362:
358:
353:Jūnggú Honyúh
350:
348:
344:
341:
337:
331:
326:
324:
320:
312:
310:
306:
301:Zhōnggǔ Hànyǔ
298:
296:
292:
289:
285:
280:
276:
268:
266:
262:
254:
252:
248:
243:
239:
235:
231:
227:
225:
224:
219:
215:
211:
208:
207:Linguist List
203:
199:
195:
192:
187:
182:
179:
176:
172:
166:
160:
157:
156:
155:
151:
145:
135:
132:
131:
130:
127:
126:
125:
122:
121:
120:
116:
112:
106:
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
82:
78:
75:
72:
68:
63:
62:
57:
51:
46:
42:
32:
27:
22:
19:
8230:Hanyu Pinyin
8220:Romanization
8127:Semi-cursive
7972:Old Mandarin
7966:
7929:Stroke count
7856:
7849:
7771:Old National
7614:Unclassified
6519:Southwestern
6352:Northeastern
6334:Major groups
6323:
6271:(in Chinese)
6255:
6195:
6175:
6156:
6139:
6126:
6100:
6075:
6071:
6054:(1): 58–77,
6051:
6047:
6015:
5996:
5974:
5952:
5933:
5914:
5905:
5901:
5885:
5881:
5852:
5848:
5820:
5816:
5797:
5778:
5754:
5724:
5720:
5710:Mei, Tsu-lin
5691:
5663:
5659:
5631:
5627:
5623:
5595:
5591:
5572:
5541:
5522:
5503:
5485:, p. 9.
5478:
5466:
5454:
5442:
5430:
5418:
5406:
5394:
5382:
5355:
5343:
5331:
5319:
5307:
5295:
5283:
5271:
5259:
5247:
5235:
5223:
5196:
5184:
5172:
5160:
5148:
5136:
5109:
5097:
5085:
5073:
5061:
5049:
5037:
5025:
5013:
5001:
4989:
4977:
4965:
4953:
4941:
4914:
4902:
4890:
4878:
4866:
4839:
4827:
4815:
4810:, p. 1.
4788:
4776:
4764:
4752:
4725:
4713:
4701:
4689:
4662:
4650:
4638:
4626:
4614:
4602:
4590:
4563:
4558:, p. 2.
4551:
4539:
4527:
4522:, p. i.
4520:Xiang (2023)
4515:
4480:
4462:
4453:
4435:
4422:
4413:
4405:
4394:
4385:
4373:
4307:
4302:
4292:
4284:
4263:
4254:
4237:
4228:
4203:
4190:
4152:
4136:Shanghainese
4124:
4102:
4098:
4083:
4074:
4059:Please help
4047:
4000:Tang dynasty
3993:
3991:was atonal.
3950:
3942:
3938:
3934:
3930:
3920:Yuanhe Yunpu
3919:
3916:
3897:
3890:
3866:
3850:
3841:
3831:
3801:, and stops
3780:
3771:
3769:
3741:
3317:Dental stops
3197:Labial stops
3167:Approximants
3135:
3050:merged with
3037:
3035:
3014:
3012:
2982:Song dynasty
2960:
2946:
2352:Approximants
2285:
2275:
2271:
2259:
2257:
2240:
2235:
2116:
2110:
2085:Jerry Norman
2083:categories.
2081:
2076:
2045:Li Fang-Kuei
2041:phonological
2031:
2029:
2017:lexical sets
2008:
1996:
1994:
1988:
1970:
1951:
1946:
1942:
1922:
1918:
1913:
1906:
1895:
1867:
1855:
1148:
1132:
1122:
1120:
1115:
1100:retroflexion
1079:checked tone
1064:
1020:
1010:
1008:
999:lip rounding
957:
953:
951:
946:
942:
938:
934:
930:
926:
909:
907:
853:
847:
823:
814:
812:
759:
749:
745:
741:
732:
730:
724:
720:
714:
711:
702:
696:
692:
684:
682:
678:Tang dynasty
671:
665:
646:
592:
588:
582:
576:
575:such as the
570:Song dynasty
565:
558:
556:
535:
520:
515:
511:
507:
503:
499:
489:
483:
481:
468:
442:
434:
430:
426:
425:
393:Southern Min
295:Hanyu Pinyin
245:Chinese name
221:
133:
119:Sino-Tibetan
59:
55:
54:Part of the
18:
8299:Xiao'erjing
8161:Punctuation
8154:Traditional
8107:Oracle bone
8091:Logographic
7987:Proto-Hakka
7962:Eastern Han
7957:Old Chinese
7819:Classifiers
7786:Northern Wu
7714:Singaporean
6920: [
6908: [
6896: [
6884: [
6872: [
5492:Works cited
4946:Chan (2004)
4473:Ting (1996)
4211:, in which
4104:Old Chinese
3989:Old Chinese
3985:tonogenesis
3945:Mei Tsu-lin
3132:varieties).
2985:rime tables
2948:Old Chinese
2264:36 initials
2049:Old Chinese
1977:Dong Tonghe
1884:Methodology
1166:Sino-Korean
992:close vowel
923:rime tables
832:Rime tables
573:rime tables
547:Tang poetry
496:rime tables
154:Old Chinese
148:Early forms
8250:Wade–Giles
8149:Simplified
8044:Vernacular
8037:in Vietnam
7890:Simplified
7877:Biaoxingma
7824:Honorifics
7759:Historical
7704:Philippine
7694:Sichuanese
7621:Badong Yao
7325:Shao–Jiang
7196:Philippine
7004:Xiangxiang
6999:Shuangfeng
6744:Taizhou Wu
6527:Sichuanese
5908:: 121–166.
5902:Asia Major
5888:: 197–239.
5882:Asia Major
5845:Pan, Wuyun
5727:: 86–110,
5592:T'oung Pao
5435:Mei (1970)
5423:Mei (1970)
4503:References
3965:Vietnamese
3963:and early
3861:See also:
3681:Laryngeals
3162:Fricatives
3152:affricates
3130:Wu Chinese
3122:obstruents
2888:Laryngeals
2347:Fricatives
2337:affricates
2315:affricates
2311:fricatives
2291:obstruents
2003:period (a
1042:affricates
972:open vowel
838:Rime table
828:doublets.
742:Qieyun kao
609:Vietnamese
494:and other
309:Wade–Giles
64:dictionary
8188:Taiwanese
8178:Cantonese
8022:Classical
7982:Proto-Min
7917:Microsoft
7776:Cantonese
7752:Phonology
7733:Cantonese
7724:Singdarin
7709:Malaysian
7699:Taiwanese
7603:Rongjiang
7593:Yongjiang
7589:Southern
7574:Northern
7548:Luo–Guang
7457:Hong Kong
7452:Guangzhou
7408:Taiwanese
7401:Changting
7335:Zhanjiang
7249:Zhongshan
7216:Malaysian
7211:Singapore
7176:Zhangzhou
7128:Zhongshan
7021:Yong–Quan
6917:Jing-Zhan
6847:Xuancheng
6824:Jiangshan
6703:Changzhou
6624:Junjiahua
6477:Guanzhong
6360:Changchun
6117:248994047
5624:Chiehyunn
5556:See also
4508:Citations
4048:does not
4016:Cantonese
4008:Old Xiang
3961:proto-Tai
3836:or vowel
3789:, nasals
3776:semivowel
3748:Old Xiang
3157:Sonorants
2992:retroflex
2303:retroflex
2099:Phonology
2071:produced
2005:diasystem
1197:Guangzhou
1052:Phonation
1046:sibilants
1034:alveolars
762:spelling
584:Qiyin lüe
433:) or the
223:Glottolog
191:ISO 639-3
8337:Category
8272:Bopomofo
8201:Phonetic
8193:Two-cell
8122:Clerical
8032:in Japan
8027:Adoption
8015:Official
8006:Literary
7881:Boshiamy
7858:Xiehouyu
7814:Numerals
7791:Mandarin
7719:Standard
7679:Standard
7553:Qin–Lian
7543:Yong–Xun
7528:Gao–Yang
7474:Jiujiang
7462:Malaysia
7396:Tingzhou
7347:Wenchang
7308:Jianyang
7298:Northern
7257:Sanxiang
7171:Quanzhou
7154:Southern
7123:Manjiang
6987:Changsha
6947:Nanchang
6942:Chang–Du
6839:Xuanzhou
6829:Qingtian
6783:Wencheng
6729:Jiangyin
6724:Jinxiang
6714:Shaoxing
6708:Hangzhou
6688:Shanghai
6629:Qinjiang
6537:Minjiang
6509:Xinjiang
6467:Dongping
6431:Jiaoliao
6370:Shenyang
6343:Mandarin
6205:24264173
6138:(1915),
6109:23888251
5973:(1976),
5873:(1970),
5777:(1988),
5751:(1967),
5712:(1970),
5690:(2010),
5680:40726172
5561:Archived
5502:(1992),
4294:Guangyun
4243:alveolar
4165:See also
4077:May 2011
3887:entering
3869:Shen Yue
3753:Mandarin
3191:Breathy
3179:Aspirate
2736:Palatals
2364:Aspirate
2299:alveolar
2254:Initials
2113:syllable
2075:for the
2043:system.
1962:phonemic
1927:Chang'an
1919:Guangyun
1863:Gandhari
1859:Sanskrit
854:Guangyun
825:chongniu
707:Dunhuang
698:Guangyun
648:Guangyun
601:Japanese
529:and the
457:Chang'an
361:Jyutping
230:midd1344
8171:Braille
8132:Cursive
8082:Scripts
7949:History
7939:ZhengMa
7885:Cangjie
7851:Chengyu
7806:Grammar
7781:Hokkien
7738:Hokkien
7646:Waxiang
7626:Danzhou
7598:Guandao
7583:Younian
7578:Tongdao
7567:Pinghua
7507:Taishan
7423:Raoping
7391:Huizhou
7381:Meixian
7357:Banqiao
7330:Leizhou
7320:Pu–Xian
7315:Central
7303:Jian'ou
7278:Longyan
7226:Teochew
7163:Hokkien
7138:Nanlang
7094:Fu–Ning
7074:Changle
7056:Houguan
7047:Eastern
6994:Loushao
6982:Changyi
6964:Da–Tong
6959:Ying–Yi
6905:Yanzhou
6773:Wenzhou
6766:Oujiang
6757:Tiantai
6752:Taizhou
6661:Zhi–Yan
6608:Nantong
6603:Nanjing
6578:Gui–Liu
6568:Nanping
6563:Kunming
6489:Luoyang
6444:Qingdao
6416:Tianjin
6393:Beijing
6385:Beijing
6254:in his
6248:Unicode
6167:1999753
6092:2717913
5779:Chinese
5741:2718766
5648:3217690
5612:4528958
4376:system
4291:in the
4283:in the
4143:Grammar
4069:removed
4054:sources
3439:Lateral
3120:Voiced
2996:palatal
2954:and/or
2565:Lateral
2443:Dentals
2382:Labials
2376:Voiced
2373:Tenuis
2307:palatal
2288:coronal
2280:Chen Li
2260:Yunjing
2122:shēngmǔ
1981:Li Rong
1973:Wang Li
1929:of the
1187:Beijing
1030:labials
1011:Yunjing
954:Yunjing
939:Yunjing
931:Yunjing
911:Yunjing
849:Yunjing
738:Chen Li
662:'east')
621:Tibetan
578:Yunjing
553:Sources
491:Yunjing
459:of the
439:Chinese
129:Chinese
124:Sinitic
56:Tangyun
41:hɑn ŋɨʌ
8240:Postal
8235:MPS II
8112:Bronze
7992:Ba–Shu
7912:Google
7907:Pinyin
7843:Idioms
7656:Yeheni
7538:Wu–Hua
7533:Goulou
7512:Xinhui
7489:Dapeng
7484:Weitou
7469:Xiguan
7444:Yuehai
7413:Sixian
7352:Haikou
7342:Hainan
7273:Zhenan
7239:Haklau
7234:Swatow
7206:Penang
7191:Taiwan
7186:Chawan
7133:Longdu
7102:Ningde
7079:Gutian
7069:Fuqing
7064:Fuzhou
7026:Qiyang
7009:Wugang
6954:Yi–Liu
6881:Xiu-Yi
6869:Ji-She
6819:Quzhou
6811:Chu–Qu
6801:Jinhua
6793:Wuzhou
6778:Rui'an
6719:Ningbo
6693:Suzhou
6583:Wuming
6554:Zigong
6542:Leshan
6504:Lanyin
6499:Dungan
6494:Xuzhou
6472:Gangou
6449:Weihai
6439:Dalian
6398:Taiwan
6365:Harbin
6203:
6182:
6165:
6115:
6107:
6090:
6022:
6003:
5981:
5959:
5940:
5921:
5859:
5849:Qieyun
5837:604728
5835:
5804:
5785:
5763:
5739:
5698:
5678:
5646:
5610:
5579:
5548:
5529:
5510:
4406:Qieyun
4374:Qieyun
4308:Qieyun
4285:Qieyun
4247:dental
4196:French
3892:Qieyun
3851:Qieyun
3842:Qieyun
3772:fanqie
3760:Finals
3620:Velars
3188:Tenuis
3174:Tenuis
3038:Qieyun
3015:Qieyun
2827:Velars
2369:Voiced
2359:Tenuis
2342:Nasals
2309:among
2295:dental
2276:fanqie
2272:Qieyun
2236:Qieyun
2166:yùnwěi
2144:yùntóu
2117:fanqie
2077:Qieyun
2037:phones
2032:Qieyun
2009:Qieyun
1997:Qieyun
1989:Qieyun
1947:Qieyun
1943:Qieyun
1923:fanqie
1640:shitsu
1633:shichi
1606:tsʰiɤʔ
1207:Kan-on
1192:Suzhou
1123:Qieyun
1116:Qieyun
1060:liquid
1038:velars
958:Qieyun
947:fanqie
943:Qieyun
935:Qieyun
929:. The
927:Qieyun
815:Qieyun
760:fanqie
750:fanqie
746:fanqie
733:fanqie
725:Qieyun
721:fanqie
716:fanqie
703:Qieyun
693:Qieyun
685:Qieyun
673:Qieyun
617:Brahmi
605:Korean
566:Qieyun
559:Qieyun
508:Qieyun
504:Qieyun
500:Qieyun
485:fanqie
469:Qieyun
444:Qieyun
400:Tâi-lô
61:Qieyun
8304:Nüshu
8008:forms
7922:Sogou
7869:Input
7743:Hakka
7681:forms
7521:Other
7479:Shiqi
7418:Hailu
7386:Wuhua
7373:Hakka
7291:Other
7266:Other
7201:Pedan
7116:Other
7107:Fu'an
7084:Matsu
7016:Ji–Xu
6974:Xiang
6924:]
6912:]
6900:]
6893:Qi-De
6888:]
6876:]
6734:Shadi
6680:Taihu
6634:Gyami
6617:Other
6573:Wuhan
6482:Xi'an
6421:Jinan
6105:JSTOR
6088:JSTOR
5898:(PDF)
5878:(PDF)
5833:JSTOR
5737:JSTOR
5717:(PDF)
5676:JSTOR
5644:JSTOR
5608:JSTOR
4182:Notes
4120:Khmer
3857:Tones
3823:tones
3575:(ʈ)ʂɦ
3148:Stops
3115:Hakka
2333:Stops
2192:/i̯e/
2155:yùnfù
2133:yùnmǔ
1874:/bdɡ/
1870:/mnŋ/
1843:dzyip
1779:kjuwX
1738:tɕiøy
1706:hatsu
1699:hachi
1678:baat3
1647:tshit
1581:ljuwk
1369:saam1
1338:nyijH
1202:Go-on
1139:koiné
1056:nasal
74:China
8265:Yale
8255:EFEO
8117:Seal
7902:Dayi
7499:Siyi
7181:Amoy
6698:Wuxi
6595:Huai
6408:Jilu
6201:OCLC
6180:ISBN
6163:OCLC
6113:OCLC
6020:ISBN
6001:ISBN
5979:ISBN
5957:ISBN
5938:ISBN
5919:ISBN
5857:ISBN
5802:ISBN
5783:ISBN
5761:ISBN
5696:ISBN
5577:ISBN
5546:ISBN
5527:ISBN
5508:ISBN
4328:and
4277:and
4267:The
4217:and
4052:any
4050:cite
4006:and
3975:and
3924:元和韻譜
3819:/wk/
3817:and
3815:/wŋ/
3809:and
3797:and
3785:and
3746:and
3150:and
3052:/ɖʐ/
3031:/ɖʐ/
3029:and
3027:/dz/
3021:and
2978:/dʑ/
2976:and
2335:and
2313:and
2305:and
2297:(or
2246:and
2232:/wŋ/
2228:/wk/
2222:and
2188:/i̯/
2184:/jw/
2178:and
2087:and
1979:and
1956:and
1933:and
1861:and
1837:jiɸu
1818:thập
1811:sap6
1744:gau2
1692:phal
1626:chil
1619:thất
1612:cat1
1574:riku
1567:roku
1546:luk6
1515:nguX
1456:sijH
1428:sei3
1272:ʔjit
1265:itsu
1258:ichi
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