949:
57:
968:. The family tree shows the relationship of the languages within a family, much as a family tree of an individual shows their relationship with their relatives. There are criticisms to the family tree model. Critics focus mainly on the claim that the internal structure of the trees is subject to variation based on the criteria of classification. Even among those who support the family tree model, there are debates over which languages should be included in a language family. For example, within the dubious
655:, are descendant from a single ancestral language. If that is true, it would mean all languages (other than pidgins, creoles, and sign languages) are genetically related, but in many cases, the relationships may be too remote to be detectable. Alternative explanations for some basic observed commonalities between languages include developmental theories, related to the biological development of the capacity for language as the child grows from newborn.
1014:
669:
1183:. Pidgins are an example of linguistic and cultural expansion caused by language contact. However, language contact can also lead to cultural divisions. In some cases, two different language speaking groups can feel territorial towards their language and do not want any changes to be made to it. This causes language boundaries and groups in contact are not willing to make any compromises to accommodate the other language.
530:: i.e., words in related languages that are derived from the same word in the shared ancestral language. Pairs of words that have similar pronunciations and meanings in the two languages are often good candidates for hypothetical cognates. The researcher must rule out the possibility that the two words are similar merely due to chance, or due to one having
751:, the common ancestor of the Indo-European family. Within a large family, subfamilies can be identified through "shared innovations": members of a subfamily will share features that represent retentions from their more recent common ancestor, but were not present in the overall proto-language of the larger family.
201:. These supposed relationships were later discovered to be derived through language contact and thus they are not truly related. Eventually though, high amounts of language contact and inconsistent changes will render it essentially impossible to derive any more relationships; even the oldest language family,
1127:
that are far more likely to be areal features than traceable to a common proto-language. But legitimate uncertainty about whether shared innovations are areal features, coincidence, or inheritance from a common ancestor, leads to disagreement over the proper subdivisions of any large language family.
1178:
Language contact can lead to the development of new languages from the mixture of two or more languages for the purposes of interactions between two groups who speak different languages. Languages that arise in order for two groups to communicate with each other to engage in commercial trade or that
1081:
is a geographic area having several languages that feature common linguistic structures. The similarities between those languages are caused by language contact, not by chance or common origin, and are not recognized as criteria that define a language family. An example of a sprachbund would be the
588:
in this way. However, such influence does not constitute (and is not a measure of) a genetic relationship between the languages concerned. Linguistic interference can occur between languages that are genetically closely related, between languages that are distantly related (like
English and French,
539:
have been eliminated as possible explanations for similarities in sound and meaning of words, the remaining explanation is common origin: it is inferred that the similarities occurred due to descent from a common ancestor, and the words are actually cognates, implying the languages must be related.
991:
to group language varieties; unlike in the tree model, these groups can overlap. While the tree model implies a lack of contact between languages after derivation from an ancestral form, the wave model emphasizes the relationship between languages that remain in contact, which is more realistic.
440:
There is a remarkably similar pattern shown by the linguistic tree and the genetic tree of human ancestry that was verified statistically. Languages interpreted in terms of the putative phylogenetic tree of human languages are transmitted to a great extent vertically (by ancestry) as opposed to
1174:
have developed in isolation and appear to have no relatives at all. Nonetheless, such cases are relatively rare and most well-attested languages can be unambiguously classified as belonging to one language family or another, even if this family's relation to other families is not known.
821:
in which there are no clear-cut borders that make it possible to unequivocally identify, define, or count individual languages within the family. However, when the differences between the speech of different regions at the extremes of the continuum are so great that there is no
904:, spoken in Roman times, may have been an ancestor of Basque, but it could also have been a sister language to the ancestor of Basque. In the latter case, Basque and Aquitanian would form a small family together. Ancestors are not considered to be distinct members of a family.
922:) being the root from which all languages in the family stem. The common ancestor of a language family is seldom known directly since most languages have a relatively short recorded history. However, it is possible to recover many features of a proto-language by applying the
534:
the words from the other (or from a language related to the other). Chance resemblance is ruled out by the existence of large collections of pairs of words between the two languages showing similar patterns of phonetic similarity. Once coincidental similarity and
626:
are languages that cannot be proven to be genealogically related to any other modern language. As a corollary, every language isolate also forms its own language family — a genetic family which happens to consist of just one language. One often cited example is
1114:
greatly postdate any possible notion of a proto-language innovation (and cannot readily be regarded as "areal", either, since
English and continental West Germanic were not a linguistic area). In a similar vein, there are many similar unique innovations in
899:
is an absolute isolate: it has not been shown to be related to any other modern language despite numerous attempts. A language may be said to be an isolate currently but not historically if related but now extinct relatives are attested. The
833:
A speech variety may also be considered either a language or a dialect depending on social or political considerations. Thus, different sources, especially over time, can give wildly different numbers of languages within a certain family.
166:— languages that are not related to any other language — are occasionally referred to as families that contain one language. Inversely, there is no upper bound to the number of languages a family can contain. Some families, such as the
1154:, which over time may diverge into distinct languages. However, linguistic ancestry is less clear-cut than familiar biological ancestry, in which species do not crossbreed. It is more like the evolution of microbes, with extensive
1089:
Shared innovations, acquired by borrowing or other means, are not considered genetic and have no bearing with the language family concept. It has been asserted, for example, that many of the more striking features shared by
879:
A language isolate is classified based on the fact that enough is known about the isolate to compare it genetically to other languages but no common ancestry or relationship is found with any other known language.
510:
In other cases, genetic relationships between languages are not directly attested. For instance, the
Romance languages and the North Germanic languages are also related to each other, being subfamilies of the
519:; however, no direct evidence of Proto-Indo-European or its divergence into its descendant languages survives. In cases such as these, genetic relationships are established through use of the
876:. In general, it is assumed that language isolates have relatives or had relatives at some point in their history but at a time depth too great for linguistic comparison to recover them.
620:
Mixed languages, pidgins and creole languages constitute special genetic types of languages. They do not descend linearly or directly from a single language and have no single ancestor.
429:, or one is descended from the other. The term and the process of language evolution are independent of, and not reliant on, the terminology, understanding, and theories related to
868:
Most of the world's languages are known to be related to others. Those that have no known relatives (or for which family relationships are only tentatively proposed) are called
2638:(rev. and enlarged ed. with additions and corrections). . Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press (Smithsonian Institution). (Updated version of the map in Goddard 1996).
1976:"How hopeless is genealogical linguistics, and how advanced is areal linguistics? — Review of Aikhenvald & Dixon (2001): Areal diffusion and genetic inheritance"
177:
are one of the strongest pieces of evidence that can be used to identify a genetic relationship because of their predictable and consistent nature, and through the
526:
In order to test the hypothesis that two languages are related, the comparative method begins with the collection of pairs of words that are hypothesized to be
507:. Latin and ancient Norse are both attested in written records, as are many intermediate stages between those ancestral languages and their modern descendants.
799:
is sometimes applied to proposed groupings of language families whose status as phylogenetic units is generally considered to be unsubstantiated by accepted
735:. Language families can be divided into smaller phylogenetic units, sometimes referred to as "branches" or "subfamilies" of the family; for instance, the
2587:(Vol. 2). Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40. Washington, D.C.: Government Print Office (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology).
2709:
4709:
1542:
323:
5.0 (2024) lists the following as the largest families, of 7,788 languages (other than sign languages, pidgins, and unclassifiable languages):
2444:
155:
family, which includes many other languages native to Europe and South Asia, all believed to have descended from a common ancestor known as
2422:
786:
to that fourth branch, then the two sister languages are more closely related to each other than to that common ancestral proto-language.
2811:
872:, essentially language families consisting of a single language. There are an estimated 129 language isolates known today. An example is
891:
within Indo-European, is often also called an isolate, but the meaning of the word "isolate" in such cases is usually clarified with a
2017:
725:
unit; all its members derive from a common ancestor, and all descendants of that ancestor are included in the family. Thus, the term
940:. Proto-Indo-European is not attested by written records and so is conjectured to have been spoken before the invention of writing.
835:
108:. The divergence of a proto-language into daughter languages typically occurs through geographical separation, with different
2032:
1678:
1644:
1582:
895:. For instance, Albanian and Armenian may be referred to as an "Indo-European isolate". By contrast, so far as is known, the
762:
to a certain level, but there is little consensus on how to do so. Those who affix such labels also subdivide branches into
631:, which forms a language family on its own; but there are many other examples outside Europe. On the global scale, the site
4224:
3805:
2623:. Handbook of North American Indians (W. C. Sturtevant, General Ed.) (Vol. 17). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.
1412:
4334:
553:
778:. The closer the branches are to each other, the more closely the languages will be related. This means if a branch of a
3306:
2407:
Georg, Stefan, Peter A. Michalove, Alexis
Manaster Ramer, and Paul J. Sidwell. Telling General Linguists about Altaic.
838:, for example, range from one language (a language isolate with dialects) to nearly twenty—until the classification of
4491:
2699:
2691:
2658:
2643:
2628:
2606:
2574:
2377:
1053:
708:
4467:
3706:
1031:
686:
2395:
Polygenesis, Convergence, and
Entropy: An Alternative Model of Linguistic Evolution Applied to Semitic Linguistics
4832:
3625:
3561:
2804:
1353:
275:
4238:
3480:
1035:
690:
358:
257:
3989:
425:, and belong to the same language family, if both are descended from a common ancestor through the process of
34:
4704:
4351:
3486:
3311:
3097:
3091:
3015:
1774:"Which way to the dawn of speech?: Reanalyzing half a century of debates and data in light of speech science"
512:
1743:"Review of Robbeets, Martine (2015): Diachrony of verb morphology. Japanese and the Transeurasian languages"
4714:
4699:
4398:
3699:
3686:
3457:
3418:
1402:
936:
327:
241:
27 (2024) lists the following families that contain at least 1% of the 7,164 known languages in the world:
4842:
4694:
4688:
4473:
3746:
3664:
3637:
3341:
3331:
455:
In some cases, the shared derivation of a group of related languages from a common ancestor is directly
4837:
4260:
3921:
3718:
3516:
3376:
3346:
3336:
3326:
3032:
2797:
743:
family. Subfamilies share a more recent common ancestor than the common ancestor of the larger family;
4672:
4479:
4455:
4430:
4403:
4386:
3396:
3351:
3321:
3294:
2865:
2820:
2706:
2123:
2049:
1537:
1517:
1250:
1220:
931:
214:
30:
4719:
4526:
4163:
4151:
3983:
3045:
3038:
2854:
1577:
1306:
1286:
484:
934:. For example, the reconstructible common ancestor of the Indo-European language family is called
515:, since both Latin and Old Norse are believed to be descended from an even more ancient language,
3724:
3649:
3052:
3002:
2738:(Vol. 1–20). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. (Vols. 1–3, 16, 18–20 not yet published).
2566:
1487:
1324:
1241:
1111:
1024:
843:
740:
679:
376:
339:
299:
269:
2432:. Senri Ethnological Studies. Vol. 98. Ōsaka: National Museum of Ethnology. pp. 59–89.
4738:
4586:
4381:
4157:
4110:
3740:
3657:
3316:
3300:
3108:
3009:
2872:
2848:
2531:
1522:
1335:
1297:
1210:
1150:
The concept of language families is based on the historical observation that languages develop
993:
969:
823:
800:
590:
370:
364:
351:
345:
333:
293:
287:
263:
251:
167:
85:
4376:
2677:
When
Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge
2430:
Let's Talk about Trees: Genetic
Relationships of Languages and Their Phylogenic Representation
1668:
1634:
817:
Some close-knit language families, and many branches within larger families, take the form of
401:
Language counts can vary significantly depending on what is considered a dialect; for example
4784:
4682:
4371:
4174:
3964:
3953:
3915:
3522:
3496:
3401:
3391:
3074:
2990:
2841:
1572:
1469:
1389:
1315:
1201:
1155:
997:
956:
A common visual representation of a language family is given by a genetic language tree. The
281:
245:
202:
4485:
4210:
2594:(Vol. 3). Native American legal materials collection, title 1227. GlĂĽckstadt: J.J. Augustin.
2423:"Freeing the Comparative Method from the tree model: A framework for Historical Glottometry"
2201:
2013:
4759:
4516:
4324:
4297:
4280:
4248:
4146:
3860:
3785:
3712:
3491:
3468:
3440:
3371:
3282:
3063:
2216:
2139:
2069:
1557:
1492:
1458:
1362:
892:
644:
504:
56:
4644:
2474:"Networks of lexical borrowing and lateral gene transfer in language and genome evolution"
8:
4536:
4440:
4340:
4329:
4291:
4270:
4168:
4127:
3902:
3884:
3878:
3853:
3846:
3839:
3752:
3735:
3474:
3140:
3127:
3021:
2971:
2828:
1497:
1268:
1083:
996:
is an application of the wave model, meant to identify and evaluate genetic relations in
948:
901:
748:
516:
472:
388:
382:
311:
156:
136:
2220:
2143:
2073:
1162:, which in extreme cases may lead to languages with no single ancestor, whether they be
219:
Estimates of the number of language families in the world may vary widely. According to
4450:
4445:
4435:
4418:
4413:
4408:
4392:
4361:
4356:
4309:
4303:
4254:
4199:
4122:
4006:
3970:
3931:
3873:
3680:
3675:
3386:
3145:
3114:
3080:
3068:
3027:
2902:
2508:
2473:
2247:
2234:
2157:
2100:
2087:
2057:
1910:
1813:
1798:
1773:
1547:
1116:
923:
755:
736:
520:
500:
496:
450:
394:
190:
186:
181:
can be used to reconstruct proto-languages. However, languages can also change through
178:
97:
4547:
4510:
2722:
Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples
2304:. Monogenesis or Polygenesis: A Single Ancestral Language for All Humanity? Ch. 58 of
1716:
4461:
4366:
4346:
4285:
4265:
3976:
3937:
3908:
3896:
3833:
3779:
3757:
3730:
3670:
3643:
3462:
3423:
3413:
3381:
3254:
3180:
3162:
3156:
3058:
2976:
2890:
2695:
2687:
2654:
2639:
2624:
2602:
2570:
2513:
2495:
2373:
2348:
2252:
2175:
2170:
2127:
2105:
2028:
1971:
1914:
1902:
1841:
1674:
1640:
1398:
1230:
927:
888:
884:
847:
839:
818:
812:
585:
476:
460:
456:
305:
140:
120:
93:
4552:
4541:
4521:
2859:
2472:
List, Johann-Mattis; Nelson-Sathi, Shijulal; Geisler, Hans; Martin, William (2014).
233:(2019) identifies a total of 406 independent language families, including isolates.
4769:
4629:
4619:
4614:
4568:
4562:
4531:
4424:
4319:
4243:
4181:
4133:
4068:
4061:
4054:
4047:
4040:
4029:
4013:
3948:
3943:
3926:
3867:
3761:
3693:
3604:
3571:
3539:
3435:
3407:
3356:
3277:
3261:
3247:
3229:
3222:
3208:
3168:
3150:
3134:
3120:
2942:
2925:
2784:
2503:
2487:
2338:
2309:
2242:
2224:
2193:
2165:
2147:
2095:
2077:
1987:
1892:
1882:
1793:
1785:
1754:
1512:
1502:
1440:
1344:
1277:
1259:
1159:
1124:
1120:
1103:
1091:
918:
A proto-language can be thought of as a mother language (not to be confused with a
869:
863:
851:
623:
602:
581:
569:
561:
549:
492:
468:
464:
198:
194:
182:
173:
Language families can be identified from shared characteristics amongst languages.
163:
144:
132:
124:
109:
4609:
4557:
3549:
1110:". However, very similar-looking alterations in the systems of long vowels in the
60:
2005 map of the contemporary distribution of the world's primary language families
4764:
4639:
4624:
4593:
4314:
4275:
4140:
4086:
3958:
3820:
3586:
3581:
3446:
3361:
3242:
3235:
3215:
3197:
3102:
3085:
2884:
2713:
2394:
2367:
2301:
1609:
1423:
1380:
1163:
1141:
896:
873:
783:
648:
643:
One controversial theory concerning the genetic relationships among languages is
628:
614:
565:
557:
488:
480:
426:
226:
128:
113:
433:
in the biological sense, so, to avoid confusion, some linguists prefer the term
4774:
4634:
4603:
4574:
4205:
4091:
4074:
4024:
4019:
3890:
3827:
3597:
3591:
3511:
3506:
3452:
3429:
3174:
2996:
2953:
2936:
2930:
2908:
2896:
2197:
2132:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2053:
1552:
1507:
1431:
1167:
1137:
1099:
913:
779:
744:
606:
577:
73:
2772:
1928:
635:
counts a total of 423 language families in the world, including 184 isolates.
601:
Some exceptions to the simple genetic relationship model of languages include
162:
A language family is usually said to contain at least two languages, although
4826:
4658:
4598:
4580:
4096:
4080:
4034:
3791:
3611:
3576:
3566:
3544:
3501:
3366:
2947:
2879:
2717:
2499:
2352:
1906:
1532:
1449:
1171:
1107:
919:
652:
402:
230:
152:
2789:
2229:
2152:
2082:
1192:
Background colors used on
Knowledge for various language families and groups
930:. This can demonstrate the validity of many of the proposed families in the
747:, the common ancestor of the Germanic subfamily, was itself a descendant of
3555:
2517:
2491:
2343:
2326:
2256:
2109:
1789:
1758:
987:
has been proposed as an alternative to the tree model. The wave model uses
174:
148:
2756:
2179:
1991:
2285:
1946:
791:
197:
share a great deal of similarities that lead several scholars to believe
89:
2238:
2091:
3202:
2599:
American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native
America
2161:
1897:
1887:
1870:
1846:
1818:
1602:
1567:
1562:
1078:
1072:
1038: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
984:
961:
957:
693: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
237:
221:
81:
2614:
The languages of native America: Historical and comparative assessment
2565:. Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40. Vol. 1. Washington:
2478:
2289:
1670:
Historical Linguistics and the Comparative Study of African Languages
1527:
965:
722:
632:
319:
2778:
1742:
1013:
668:
1975:
988:
977:
573:
536:
531:
430:
69:
2707:
Pronouns as a preliminary diagnostic for grouping Papuan languages
1158:. Quite distantly related languages may affect each other through
830:, the continuum cannot meaningfully be seen as a single language.
185:
which can falsely suggest genetic relationships. For example, the
2312:
and Kathleen Rita Gibson. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2012. 558–72. Print.
1180:
1151:
973:
926:, a reconstructive procedure worked out by 19th century linguist
527:
51:
Group of languages related through descent from a common ancestor
2327:"Language Isolates and Their History, or, What's Weird, Anyway?"
459:
in the historical record. For example, this is the case for the
4798:
Families with question marks (?) are disputed or controversial.
4779:
4677:
2018:"Trees, Waves and Linkages: Models of Language Diversification"
1427:
1145:
883:
A language isolated in its own branch within a family, such as
827:
610:
2762:
1706:, Seventeenth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International, 2013.
1700:
Lewis, M. Paul, Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.).
2471:
1605:
1095:
952:
An example of a language tree, containing the Mayan languages
731:
2779:
Comparative Swadesh list tables of various language families
2662:
1701:
647:, the idea that all known languages, with the exceptions of
2122:
1875:
Anuario del Seminario de FilologĂa Vasca "Julio de Urquijo"
770:. A top-level (i.e., the largest) family is often called a
593:) and between languages that have no genetic relationship.
72:
related through descent from a common ancestor, called the
413:
also disagree as to which languages belong in the family.
2047:
2767:
2720:, Robert Attenborough, Robin Hide and Jack Golson, eds,
543:
2636:
Native languages and language families of North America
2612:
Campbell, Lyle; & Mithun, Marianne (Eds.). (1979).
2532:"Languages in Contact | Linguistic Society of America"
1003:
2465:
1871:"How Many Language Families are there in the World?"
405:counts only 27 Otomanguean languages, although he,
147:, and many others, all of which are descended from
119:One well-known example of a language family is the
2331:Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society
151:. The Romance family itself is part of the larger
2743:Classification and index of the world's languages
1772:Boë, Louis-Jean; et al. (11 December 2019).
552:, either of them may influence the other through
483:are all descended from Latin, as well as for the
116:and thus becoming distinct languages over time.
4824:
2025:The Routledge Handbook of Historical Linguistics
229:distributed in 142 different language families.
2679:. New York and London: Oxford University Press.
2209:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2192:
2062:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1179:appeared as a result of colonialism are called
854:and therefore the only language in its family.
2741:Voegelin, C. F. & Voegelin, F. M. (1977).
2734:Sturtevant, William C. (Ed.). (1978–present).
2420:
2128:"Coevolution of genes and languages revisited"
1543:List of languages by number of native speakers
80:is a metaphor borrowed from biology, with the
2819:
2805:
2428:. In Kikusawa, Ritsuko; Reid, Laurie (eds.).
2126:; Minch, E.; Mountain, J. L. (15 June 1992).
1862:
4808:Families with more than 30 languages are in
2023:. In Bowern, Claire; Evans, Bethwyn (eds.).
1814:"How many languages are there in the world?"
1740:
2672:(2nd ed.). Bloomington: Indiana University.
2653:(15th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International.
2008:
2006:
2004:
2002:
112:of the proto-language undergoing different
15:
2812:
2798:
2421:Kalyan, Siva; François, Alexandre (2018).
2365:
1970:
1921:
1666:
1632:
782:is four branches down and there is also a
208:
16:
2686:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2507:
2342:
2306:The Oxford Handbook of Language Evolution
2246:
2228:
2169:
2151:
2099:
2081:
1896:
1886:
1842:"What are the largest language families?"
1797:
1741:De la Fuente, José Andrés Alonso (2016).
1694:
1633:Rowe, Bruce M.; Levine, Diane P. (2015).
1054:Learn how and when to remove this message
709:Learn how and when to remove this message
2324:
2269:
2202:"The origin and evolution of word order"
2012:
1999:
1868:
947:
943:
658:
55:
24:This is an accepted version of this page
2649:Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (Ed.). (2005).
2398:. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1998. Print.
2027:. London: Routledge. pp. 161–189.
416:
205:, is far younger than language itself.
14:
4825:
2731:. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
2442:
846:rather than dialects of Japanese, the
2793:
2684:The languages of Native North America
2601:. New York: Oxford University Press.
2592:Handbook of American Indian languages
2585:Handbook of American Indian languages
2563:Handbook of American Indian languages
2320:
2318:
1636:A Concise Introduction to Linguistics
1583:Farming/language dispersal hypothesis
980:languages should be included or not.
972:, there are debates over whether the
836:Classifications of the Japonic family
544:Linguistic interference and borrowing
441:horizontally (by spatial diffusion).
2616:. Austin: University of Texas Press.
2560:
1131:
1036:adding citations to reliable sources
1007:
729:is analogous to the biological term
691:adding citations to reliable sources
662:
1771:
806:
48:
2736:Handbook of North American Indians
2663:Ethnologue: Languages of the World
2651:Ethnologue: Languages of the world
2553:
2315:
1703:Ethnologue: Languages of the World
1004:Other classifications of languages
907:
104:within a language family as being
49:
4854:
2750:
2325:Campbell, Lyle (24 August 2010).
1869:Campbell, Lyle (8 January 2019).
503:, which have shared descent from
2729:A guide to the world's languages
2569:, Bureau of American Ethnology.
1012:
667:
596:
556:such as borrowing. For example,
444:
2524:
2436:
2414:
2401:
2386:
2359:
2295:
2278:
2263:
2186:
2116:
2041:
1964:
1939:
1673:. John Benjamins. p. 336.
1639:. Routledge. pp. 340–341.
1023:needs additional citations for
842:as separate languages within a
678:needs additional citations for
1834:
1806:
1765:
1734:
1709:
1667:Dimmendaal, Gerrit J. (2011).
1660:
1626:
1596:
638:
100:. Linguists thus describe the
13:
1:
2668:Greenberg, Joseph H. (1966).
2619:Goddard, Ives (Ed.). (1996).
1929:"Welcome to the 24th edition"
1619:
1066:
513:Indo-European language family
96:of taxa used in evolutionary
2372:. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.
2366:Bloomfield, Leonard (1994).
1612:used as a literary language.
589:which are distantly related
7:
2675:Harrison, K. David. (2007)
2058:"The great human expansion"
1881:(1/2). UPV/EHU Press: 133.
1273:mediumspringgreen (#00fa9a)
1186:
1170:. In addition, a number of
857:
826:between them, as occurs in
487:language family, including
10:
4859:
2682:Mithun, Marianne. (1999).
2411:35.1 (1999): 65–98. Print.
1135:
1070:
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861:
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2985:
2967:
2918:
2836:
2827:
2821:Primary language families
2727:Ruhlen, Merritt. (1987).
2536:www.linguisticsociety.org
1538:List of language families
1518:List of revived languages
1468:
1457:
1448:
1439:
1422:
1411:
1397:
1388:
1379:
1372:
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1229:
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1209:
1200:
1196:
932:list of language families
435:genealogical relationship
215:List of language families
76:of that family. The term
3638:Arnhem/Macro-Gunwinyguan
2705:Ross, Malcolm. (2005). "
2597:Campbell, Lyle. (1997).
1589:
1578:Father Tongue hypothesis
850:itself was considered a
550:contact with one another
523:of linguistic analysis.
31:latest accepted revision
4805:have no living members.
2670:The Languages of Africa
2634:Goddard, Ives. (1999).
2567:Smithsonian Institution
2445:"The Balkan Sprachbund"
2270:Campbell, Lyle (2013).
2230:10.1073/pnas.1113716108
2153:10.1073/pnas.89.12.5620
2083:10.1073/pnas.1212380109
1488:Comparative linguistics
1112:West Germanic languages
1106:, etc.) might well be "
844:Japonic language family
739:are a subfamily of the
721:A language family is a
591:Indo-European languages
554:linguistic interference
461:Romance language family
209:Major language families
4833:Historical linguistics
4785:Unclassified languages
4739:list of sign languages
3707:Northeastern Tasmanian
2785:Most similar languages
2492:10.1002/bies.201300096
2443:Joseph, Brian (2017).
2409:Journal of Linguistics
2344:10.3765/bls.v36i1.3900
2272:Historical Linguistics
1790:10.1126/sciadv.aaw3916
1759:10.1075/dia.33.4.04alo
1717:"Family: Austronesian"
1523:Global language system
1385:lightskyblue (#87cefa)
1291:darkseagreen (#8fbc8f)
1287:Paleo-Siberian (areal)
994:Historical glottometry
970:Altaic language family
960:is sometimes termed a
953:
824:mutual intelligibility
548:When languages are in
227:living human languages
168:Austronesian languages
86:historical linguistics
61:
4760:Constructed languages
2768:The Multitree Project
2745:. New York: Elsevier.
2590:Boas, Franz. (1933).
2583:Boas, Franz. (1922).
2452:linguisticsociety.org
2124:Cavalli-Sforza, L. L.
2050:Cavalli-Sforza, L. L.
1992:10.1075/sl.28.1.10has
1573:Unclassified language
1282:yellowgreen (#9acd32)
1156:lateral gene transfer
951:
944:Visual representation
801:historical linguistic
659:Structure of a family
421:Two languages have a
170:, contain over 1000.
59:
3307:Binanderean–Goilalan
2561:Boas, Franz (1911).
1608:, as opposed to the
1558:Proto-Human language
1493:Constructed language
1460:Constructed language
1329:lightcoral (#f08080)
1255:lightgreen (#90ee90)
1032:improve this article
687:improve this article
423:genetic relationship
417:Genetic relationship
4589:(Maku-Auari/Jukude)
4492:Tequiraca–Canichana
4335:Harákmbut–Katukinan
3098:Northwest Caucasian
3092:Northeast Caucasian
3016:Chukotko-Kamchatkan
2712:8 June 2004 at the
2661:. (Online version:
2221:2011PNAS..10817290G
2215:(42): 17290–17295.
2200:(10 October 2011).
2144:1992PNAS...89.5620C
2074:2012PNAS..10917758H
2068:(44): 17758–17764.
2056:(17 October 2012).
2014:François, Alexandre
1980:Studies in Language
1498:Endangered language
1376:lightcyan (#e0ffff)
1235:goldenrod (#daa520)
1193:
1084:Indian subcontinent
998:linguistic linkages
937:Proto-Indo-European
902:Aquitanian language
749:Proto-Indo-European
517:Proto-Indo-European
157:Proto-Indo-European
106:genetically related
21:Page version status
4843:Types of groupings
4211:Tarascan/Purépecha
3700:Northern Tasmanian
3458:South Bougainville
3419:North Bougainville
1972:Haspelmath, Martin
1888:10.1387/asju.20195
1548:Origin of language
1363:Andamanese (areal)
1354:Australian (areal)
1320:lavender (#e6e6fA)
1191:
954:
924:comparative method
766:, and groups into
758:restrict the term
737:Germanic languages
521:comparative method
451:Comparative method
179:comparative method
102:daughter languages
94:phylogenetic trees
62:
27:
4838:Language families
4820:
4819:
4770:Language isolates
4748:
4747:
4653:
4652:
4219:
4218:
4105:
4104:
3800:
3799:
3747:Western Tasmanian
3665:Eastern Tasmanian
3620:
3619:
3342:East Geelvink Bay
3272:
3271:
2963:
2962:
2781:(from Wiktionary)
2775:(World Languages)
2773:Lenguas del mundo
2759:(from Muturzikin)
2286:Language families
2138:(12): 5620–5624.
2034:978-0-41552-789-7
1947:"Glottolog 5.0 -"
1680:978-9-027-28722-9
1646:978-1-317-34928-0
1483:
1482:
1479:
1478:
1251:Caucasian (areal)
1132:Contact languages
1064:
1063:
1056:
928:August Schleicher
870:language isolates
848:Japanese language
813:Dialect continuum
719:
718:
711:
603:language isolates
336:(1,274 languages)
330:(1,410 languages)
254:(1,256 languages)
248:(1,552 languages)
199:they were related
164:language isolates
121:Romance languages
110:regional dialects
18:
4850:
4666:
4665:
4620:Huaorani/Waorani
4504:(extant in 2000)
4468:Esmeralda–Yaruro
4239:Andoque–Urequena
4232:
4231:
4116:
4115:
3922:Plateau Penutian
3813:
3812:
3788:(Northern Daly?)
3631:
3630:
3517:Northwest Papuan
3481:Trans–New Guinea
3347:East New Britain
3322:Central Solomons
3288:
3287:
3033:Great Andamanese
2983:
2982:
2834:
2833:
2814:
2807:
2800:
2791:
2790:
2580:
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2544:
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2383:
2363:
2357:
2356:
2346:
2322:
2313:
2310:Maggie Tallerman
2302:Nichols, Johanna
2299:
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1997:
1995:
1968:
1962:
1961:
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1936:
1935:. 13 April 2024.
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1687:
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1657:
1655:
1653:
1630:
1613:
1600:
1513:Language isolate
1503:Extinct language
1475:
1466:
1461:
1455:
1454:silver (#c0c0c0)
1446:
1441:Language isolate
1437:
1418:
1413:American (areal)
1409:
1395:
1386:
1377:
1368:
1359:
1350:
1341:
1330:
1321:
1312:
1303:
1302:salmon (#fa8072)
1292:
1283:
1274:
1265:
1256:
1247:
1236:
1227:
1217:
1207:
1198:
1197:
1194:
1190:
1160:language contact
1092:Italic languages
1059:
1052:
1048:
1045:
1039:
1016:
1008:
864:Language isolate
852:language isolate
819:dialect continua
807:Dialect continua
714:
707:
703:
700:
694:
671:
663:
615:creole languages
359:Trans–New Guinea
258:Trans–New Guinea
225:there are 7,151
195:Turkic languages
183:language contact
114:language changes
39:5 September 2024
4858:
4857:
4853:
4852:
4851:
4849:
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4789:
4775:Mixed languages
4744:
4725:
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4352:Katembri–Taruma
4226:
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4187:
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3994:
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3487:Turama–Kikorian
3397:Lower Mamberamo
3352:East Strickland
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2757:Linguistic maps
2753:
2748:
2714:Wayback Machine
2577:
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2554:Further reading
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1231:Khoisan (areal)
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1168:mixed languages
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1142:Creole language
1136:Main articles:
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908:Proto-languages
897:Basque language
866:
860:
815:
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784:sister language
715:
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672:
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641:
599:
584:has influenced
576:has influenced
568:has influenced
560:has influenced
546:
453:
447:
427:language change
419:
379:(158 languages)
373:(181 languages)
367:(250 languages)
361:(316 languages)
354:(381 languages)
348:(514 languages)
342:(586 languages)
302:(167 languages)
296:(179 languages)
290:(210 languages)
284:(382 languages)
278:(384 languages)
272:(454 languages)
266:(458 languages)
260:(481 languages)
217:
211:
88:analogous to a
66:language family
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3687:Marrku–Wurrugu
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3046:Hurro-Urartian
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2817:
2816:
2809:
2802:
2794:
2788:
2787:
2782:
2776:
2770:
2765:
2760:
2752:
2751:External links
2749:
2747:
2746:
2739:
2732:
2725:
2703:
2680:
2673:
2666:
2647:
2632:
2617:
2610:
2595:
2588:
2581:
2575:
2557:
2555:
2552:
2549:
2548:
2523:
2486:(2): 141–150.
2464:
2435:
2413:
2400:
2392:Edzard, Lutz.
2385:
2378:
2358:
2314:
2294:
2277:
2262:
2185:
2115:
2054:Feldman, M. W.
2040:
2033:
1998:
1986:(1): 209–223.
1974:(5 May 2004).
1963:
1938:
1920:
1861:
1833:
1805:
1764:
1753:(4): 530–537.
1733:
1708:
1693:
1679:
1659:
1645:
1624:
1623:
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1618:
1615:
1614:
1594:
1593:
1591:
1588:
1586:
1585:
1580:
1575:
1570:
1565:
1560:
1555:
1553:Proto-language
1550:
1545:
1540:
1535:
1530:
1525:
1520:
1515:
1510:
1508:Language death
1505:
1500:
1495:
1490:
1484:
1481:
1480:
1477:
1476:
1474:white (#fffff)
1467:
1456:
1447:
1438:
1420:
1419:
1410:
1403:Dene–Yeniseian
1396:
1387:
1378:
1370:
1369:
1360:
1351:
1345:Papuan (areal)
1342:
1340:pink (#ffc0cb)
1332:
1331:
1322:
1313:
1304:
1294:
1293:
1284:
1278:Altaic (areal)
1275:
1266:
1264:lime (#00ff00)
1257:
1248:
1238:
1237:
1228:
1218:
1216:gold (#ffd700)
1208:
1188:
1185:
1172:sign languages
1138:Mixed language
1133:
1130:
1108:areal features
1071:Main article:
1068:
1065:
1062:
1061:
1020:
1018:
1011:
1005:
1002:
945:
942:
914:Proto-language
912:Main article:
909:
906:
862:Main article:
859:
856:
811:Main article:
808:
805:
780:proto-language
745:Proto-Germanic
717:
716:
675:
673:
666:
660:
657:
653:sign languages
651:, pidgins and
640:
637:
598:
595:
545:
542:
485:North Germanic
449:Main article:
446:
443:
418:
415:
399:
398:
397:(77 languages)
392:
391:(82 languages)
386:
385:(95 languages)
380:
374:
368:
362:
355:
349:
343:
337:
331:
328:Atlantic–Congo
316:
315:
314:(85 languages)
309:
308:(91 languages)
303:
297:
291:
285:
279:
273:
267:
261:
255:
249:
213:Main article:
210:
207:
74:proto-language
68:is a group of
50:
28:
22:
19:
17:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4855:
4844:
4841:
4839:
4836:
4834:
4831:
4830:
4828:
4811:
4807:
4804:
4800:
4797:
4796:
4792:
4786:
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4781:
4778:
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4773:
4771:
4768:
4766:
4763:
4761:
4758:
4757:
4755:
4751:
4741:
4740:
4735:
4734:
4732:
4728:
4721:
4718:
4716:
4713:
4711:
4710:Original Thai
4708:
4706:
4703:
4701:
4698:
4696:
4693:
4691:
4690:
4686:
4684:
4681:
4679:
4676:
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4664:
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4656:
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4509:
4508:
4506:
4500:
4493:
4490:
4487:
4484:
4481:
4478:
4475:
4474:Hibito–Cholón
4472:
4469:
4466:
4463:
4460:
4457:
4454:
4452:
4449:
4447:
4444:
4442:
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4308:
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4299:
4296:
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4289:
4287:
4284:
4282:
4279:
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4269:
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4264:
4262:
4259:
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4252:
4250:
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4230:
4228:
4222:
4212:
4209:
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4028:
4026:
4023:
4021:
4018:
4016:
4015:
4011:
4009:
4008:
4004:
4003:
4001:
3997:
3991:
3990:Yuman–CochimĂ
3988:
3986:
3985:
3981:
3979:
3978:
3974:
3972:
3969:
3967:
3966:
3962:
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3950:
3947:
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3832:
3830:
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3811:
3809:
3803:
3793:
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3770:
3763:
3759:
3756:
3754:
3751:
3749:
3748:
3744:
3742:
3739:
3737:
3734:
3732:
3729:
3726:
3725:Southern Daly
3723:
3721:
3720:
3716:
3714:
3711:
3709:
3708:
3704:
3702:
3701:
3697:
3695:
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3679:
3677:
3674:
3672:
3669:
3667:
3666:
3662:
3660:
3659:
3655:
3652:
3651:
3650:Darwin Region
3647:
3645:
3642:
3639:
3636:
3635:
3632:
3629:
3627:
3623:
3613:
3610:
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3505:
3503:
3500:
3498:
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3483:
3482:
3478:
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3456:
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3437:
3434:
3432:
3431:
3427:
3425:
3422:
3420:
3417:
3415:
3412:
3410:
3409:
3405:
3403:
3400:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3390:
3388:
3385:
3383:
3380:
3378:
3375:
3373:
3370:
3368:
3365:
3363:
3360:
3358:
3355:
3353:
3350:
3348:
3345:
3343:
3340:
3338:
3335:
3333:
3332:Demta–Sentani
3330:
3328:
3325:
3323:
3320:
3318:
3315:
3313:
3310:
3308:
3305:
3303:
3302:
3298:
3296:
3293:
3292:
3289:
3286:
3284:
3279:
3275:
3265:
3263:
3259:
3257:
3256:
3252:
3249:
3246:
3244:
3241:
3239:
3237:
3233:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3224:
3220:
3218:
3217:
3213:
3211:
3210:
3206:
3204:
3201:
3199:
3196:
3195:
3193:
3189:
3182:
3179:
3176:
3173:
3170:
3167:
3164:
3161:
3158:
3155:
3152:
3149:
3147:
3144:
3142:
3139:
3137:
3136:
3132:
3130:
3129:
3125:
3123:
3122:
3118:
3116:
3113:
3111:
3110:
3106:
3104:
3101:
3099:
3096:
3094:
3093:
3089:
3087:
3084:
3082:
3079:
3077:
3076:
3072:
3070:
3067:
3065:
3062:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3054:
3053:Indo-European
3050:
3048:
3047:
3043:
3041:
3040:
3036:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3023:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3011:
3007:
3005:
3004:
3003:Austroasiatic
3000:
2998:
2995:
2993:
2992:
2988:
2987:
2984:
2981:
2978:
2973:
2966:
2955:
2952:
2949:
2946:
2944:
2941:
2939:
2938:
2934:
2932:
2929:
2927:
2924:
2923:
2921:
2917:
2910:
2907:
2904:
2901:
2898:
2895:
2892:
2889:
2886:
2883:
2881:
2878:
2875:
2874:
2870:
2868:
2867:
2863:
2861:
2858:
2856:
2853:
2851:
2850:
2846:
2844:
2843:
2839:
2838:
2835:
2832:
2830:
2826:
2822:
2815:
2810:
2808:
2803:
2801:
2796:
2795:
2792:
2786:
2783:
2780:
2777:
2774:
2771:
2769:
2766:
2764:
2761:
2758:
2755:
2754:
2744:
2740:
2737:
2733:
2730:
2726:
2723:
2719:
2718:Andrew Pawley
2715:
2711:
2708:
2704:
2701:
2700:0-521-29875-X
2697:
2693:
2692:0-521-23228-7
2689:
2685:
2681:
2678:
2674:
2671:
2667:
2664:
2660:
2659:1-55671-159-X
2656:
2652:
2648:
2645:
2644:0-8032-9271-6
2641:
2637:
2633:
2630:
2629:0-16-048774-9
2626:
2622:
2618:
2615:
2611:
2608:
2607:0-19-509427-1
2604:
2600:
2596:
2593:
2589:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2576:0-8032-5017-7
2572:
2568:
2564:
2559:
2558:
2537:
2533:
2527:
2519:
2515:
2510:
2505:
2501:
2497:
2493:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2480:
2475:
2468:
2453:
2446:
2439:
2431:
2424:
2417:
2410:
2404:
2397:
2396:
2389:
2381:
2379:81-208-1196-8
2375:
2371:
2370:
2362:
2354:
2350:
2345:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2321:
2319:
2311:
2307:
2303:
2298:
2291:
2287:
2281:
2273:
2266:
2258:
2254:
2249:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2231:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2194:Gell-Mann, M.
2189:
2181:
2177:
2172:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2154:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2119:
2111:
2107:
2102:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2084:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2048:Henn, B. M.;
2044:
2036:
2030:
2026:
2019:
2015:
2009:
2007:
2005:
2003:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1967:
1952:
1951:glottolog.org
1948:
1942:
1934:
1930:
1924:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1899:
1894:
1889:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1865:
1850:. 25 May 2019
1849:
1848:
1843:
1837:
1821:
1820:
1815:
1809:
1800:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1768:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1737:
1722:
1721:Glottolog 5.0
1718:
1712:
1705:
1704:
1697:
1682:
1676:
1672:
1671:
1663:
1648:
1642:
1638:
1637:
1629:
1625:
1611:
1607:
1604:
1599:
1595:
1584:
1581:
1579:
1576:
1574:
1571:
1569:
1566:
1564:
1561:
1559:
1556:
1554:
1551:
1549:
1546:
1544:
1541:
1539:
1536:
1534:
1533:Linguist List
1531:
1529:
1526:
1524:
1521:
1519:
1516:
1514:
1511:
1509:
1506:
1504:
1501:
1499:
1496:
1494:
1491:
1489:
1486:
1485:
1471:
1462:
1451:
1450:Sign language
1442:
1436:tan (#d2b48c)
1433:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1414:
1404:
1400:
1391:
1382:
1371:
1364:
1355:
1346:
1337:
1333:
1326:
1325:Austroasiatic
1317:
1308:
1299:
1295:
1288:
1279:
1270:
1261:
1252:
1243:
1242:Indo-European
1239:
1232:
1222:
1212:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1184:
1182:
1176:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1129:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1087:
1085:
1080:
1074:
1058:
1055:
1047:
1037:
1033:
1027:
1026:
1021:This section
1019:
1015:
1010:
1009:
1001:
999:
995:
990:
986:
981:
979:
975:
971:
967:
963:
959:
950:
941:
939:
938:
933:
929:
925:
921:
920:mother tongue
915:
905:
903:
898:
894:
890:
886:
881:
877:
875:
871:
865:
855:
853:
849:
845:
841:
837:
831:
829:
825:
820:
814:
804:
802:
798:
794:
793:
787:
785:
781:
777:
773:
769:
765:
761:
757:
752:
750:
746:
742:
741:Indo-European
738:
734:
733:
728:
724:
713:
710:
702:
692:
688:
682:
681:
676:This section
674:
670:
665:
664:
656:
654:
650:
646:
636:
634:
630:
625:
621:
618:
616:
612:
608:
604:
597:Complications
594:
592:
587:
583:
579:
575:
571:
567:
563:
559:
555:
551:
541:
538:
533:
529:
524:
522:
518:
514:
508:
506:
505:Ancient Norse
502:
498:
494:
490:
486:
482:
478:
474:
470:
466:
462:
458:
452:
445:Establishment
442:
438:
436:
432:
428:
424:
414:
412:
408:
404:
403:Lyle Campbell
396:
393:
390:
387:
384:
381:
378:
377:Austroasiatic
375:
372:
369:
366:
363:
360:
356:
353:
350:
347:
344:
341:
340:Indo-European
338:
335:
332:
329:
326:
325:
324:
322:
321:
313:
310:
307:
304:
301:
300:Austroasiatic
298:
295:
292:
289:
286:
283:
280:
277:
274:
271:
270:Indo-European
268:
265:
262:
259:
256:
253:
250:
247:
244:
243:
242:
240:
239:
234:
232:
231:Lyle Campbell
228:
224:
223:
216:
206:
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
180:
176:
175:Sound changes
171:
169:
165:
160:
158:
154:
153:Indo-European
150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
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91:
87:
83:
79:
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71:
67:
58:
54:
40:
36:
32:
25:
20:
4809:
4802:
4801:Families in
4736:
4687:
4585:
4573:
4423:
4391:
4382:Pano-Tacanan
4339:
4302:
4290:
4261:Arutani–Sape
4253:
4198:
4180:
4173:
4158:Oto-Manguean
4156:
4139:
4132:
4079:
4067:
4060:
4053:
4046:
4039:
4012:
4005:
3982:
3975:
3963:
3936:
3914:
3907:
3895:
3883:
3866:
3859:
3852:
3845:
3838:
3826:
3819:
3778:
3745:
3741:Western Daly
3719:Pama–Nyungan
3717:
3705:
3698:
3685:
3663:
3658:Eastern Daly
3656:
3648:
3603:
3479:
3467:
3445:
3428:
3406:
3377:Kaure–Kosare
3337:Doso–Turumsa
3327:Chimbu–Wahgi
3317:Bulaka River
3301:Austronesian
3299:
3260:
3253:
3234:
3221:
3214:
3207:
3133:
3126:
3119:
3109:Sino-Tibetan
3107:
3090:
3073:
3051:
3044:
3037:
3020:
3010:Austronesian
3008:
3001:
2989:
2935:
2873:Nilo-Saharan
2871:
2864:
2849:Austronesian
2847:
2840:
2742:
2735:
2728:
2721:
2683:
2676:
2669:
2650:
2635:
2620:
2613:
2598:
2591:
2584:
2562:
2539:. Retrieved
2535:
2526:
2483:
2477:
2467:
2455:. Retrieved
2451:
2438:
2429:
2416:
2408:
2403:
2393:
2388:
2368:
2361:
2337:(1): 16–31.
2334:
2330:
2305:
2297:
2280:
2274:. MIT Press.
2271:
2265:
2212:
2208:
2188:
2135:
2131:
2118:
2065:
2061:
2043:
2024:
1983:
1979:
1966:
1954:. Retrieved
1950:
1941:
1932:
1923:
1878:
1874:
1864:
1852:. Retrieved
1845:
1836:
1824:. Retrieved
1822:. 3 May 2016
1817:
1808:
1781:
1777:
1767:
1750:
1746:
1736:
1724:. Retrieved
1720:
1711:
1702:
1696:
1684:. Retrieved
1669:
1662:
1650:. Retrieved
1635:
1628:
1598:
1470:Unclassified
1336:Austronesian
1298:Sino-Tibetan
1211:Nilo-Saharan
1202:Afro-Asiatic
1177:
1149:
1088:
1076:
1050:
1041:
1030:Please help
1025:verification
1022:
982:
955:
935:
917:
882:
878:
867:
832:
816:
796:
790:
788:
775:
771:
767:
763:
759:
753:
730:
726:
723:monophyletic
720:
705:
696:
685:Please help
680:verification
677:
642:
622:
619:
600:
547:
525:
509:
454:
439:
434:
422:
420:
410:
406:
400:
365:Pama–Nyungan
346:Sino-Tibetan
334:Austronesian
318:
317:
288:Nilo-Saharan
264:Sino-Tibetan
252:Austronesian
236:
235:
220:
218:
172:
161:
149:Vulgar Latin
123:, including
118:
105:
101:
77:
65:
63:
53:
38:
29:This is the
23:
4695:Germanosign
4599:Mura-PirahĂŁ
4480:Lule–Vilela
4456:Bora-Witoto
4431:Uru–Chipaya
4404:Ticuna–Yuri
4387:Peba–Yaguan
4372:Nambikwaran
4175:Uto-Aztecan
4111:Mesoamerica
3965:Uto-Aztecan
3954:Tsimshianic
3916:Palaihnihan
3786:Malak-Malak
3523:Papuan Gulf
3497:West Papuan
3402:Lower Sepik
3392:Lakes Plain
3295:Arai–Samaia
3283:the Pacific
2991:Afroasiatic
2866:Niger–Congo
2842:Afroasiatic
1898:10810/49565
1747:Diachronica
1390:Uto-Aztecan
1221:Niger–Congo
797:superfamily
792:macrofamily
756:taxonomists
645:monogenesis
639:Monogenesis
371:Otomanguean
352:Afroasiatic
294:Otomanguean
282:Afroasiatic
246:Niger–Congo
203:Afroasiatic
90:family tree
4827:Categories
4689:Francosign
4537:Chiquitano
4517:Alacalufan
4325:Guaicuruan
4298:Chapacuran
4281:Cahuapanan
4249:Araucanian
4152:Mixe–Zoque
4147:Misumalpan
3861:Comecrudan
3713:Nyulnyulan
3492:Upper Yuat
3469:Torricelli
3441:Senu River
3372:Foja Range
3278:New Guinea
3203:Burushaski
3064:Kartvelian
3039:Hmong–Mien
2855:Khoe–Kwadi
2763:Ethnologue
2198:Ruhlen, M.
1933:Ethnologue
1847:Ethnologue
1819:Ethnologue
1686:26 January
1652:26 January
1620:References
1603:Vernacular
1568:Tree model
1563:Sprachbund
1307:Hmong–Mien
1079:sprachbund
1073:Sprachbund
1067:Sprachbund
989:isoglosses
985:wave model
962:dendrogram
958:tree model
473:Portuguese
463:, wherein
407:Ethnologue
276:Australian
238:Ethnologue
222:Ethnologue
137:Portuguese
82:tree model
4720:Tanzanian
4661:languages
4558:HodĂŻ/Joti
4502:Isolates
4441:Yanomaman
4377:Otomákoan
4341:Jirajaran
4330:Guajiboan
4292:Catacaoan
4271:Barbacoan
4200:Cuitlatec
4169:Totonacan
4128:Jicaquean
4007:Chimariko
3903:Muskogean
3885:Kalapuyan
3879:Iroquoian
3854:Chumashan
3847:Chinookan
3840:Chimakuan
3758:Yangmanic
3753:Worrorran
3736:Wagaydyic
3626:Australia
3475:Trans-Fly
3141:Yeniseian
3128:Tyrsenian
3022:Dravidian
2621:Languages
2541:2 October
2500:0265-9247
2479:BioEssays
2457:2 October
2353:2377-1666
2308:, ed. by
2290:Glottolog
1915:166394477
1907:2444-2992
1528:ISO 639-5
1269:Dravidian
966:phylogeny
803:methods.
789:The term
768:complexes
633:Glottolog
537:borrowing
501:Icelandic
497:Norwegian
411:Glottolog
389:Dravidian
383:Tai–Kadai
320:Glottolog
312:Dravidian
70:languages
4753:See also
4730:Isolates
4705:Japanese
4645:Yuracaré
4527:Candoshi
4486:Macro-JĂŞ
4451:Zaparoan
4446:Zamucoan
4436:Witotoan
4419:Tucanoan
4414:Tiniguan
4409:Timotean
4393:Quechuan
4362:Matacoan
4357:Mascoian
4347:Jivaroan
4310:Chibchan
4304:Charruan
4255:Arawakan
4192:Isolates
4123:Chibchan
3999:Isolates
3971:Wakashan
3932:Salishan
3874:Eskaleut
3780:Giimbiyu
3772:Isolates
3681:Jarrakan
3676:Iwaidjan
3533:Isolates
3387:Kutubuan
3255:Sumerian
3191:Isolates
3146:Yukaghir
3115:Tungusic
3081:Mongolic
3069:Koreanic
3028:Eskaleut
2919:Isolates
2903:Ubangian
2710:Archived
2518:24375688
2369:Language
2257:21987807
2239:41352497
2110:23077256
2092:41829755
2016:(2014).
1826:26 March
1726:3 August
1373:Eskaleut
1187:See also
1152:dialects
1117:Germanic
1044:May 2022
978:Koreanic
893:modifier
889:Armenian
885:Albanian
858:Isolates
840:Ryukyuan
699:May 2022
624:Isolates
586:Japanese
574:Sanskrit
532:borrowed
528:cognates
477:Romanian
457:attested
431:genetics
395:Arawakan
357:Nuclear
191:Tungusic
187:Mongolic
141:Romanian
98:taxonomy
92:, or to
84:used in
35:reviewed
4803:italics
4780:Pidgins
4765:Creoles
4715:Swedish
4683:Chinese
4630:Urarina
4615:Puinave
4569:Itonama
4563:Irantxe
4532:Chimane
4462:Chimuan
4367:Nadahup
4286:Cariban
4266:Aymaran
4227:America
4069:Waikuri
4062:Tonkawa
4055:Timucua
4048:Takelma
4041:Siuslaw
4030:Kutenai
4014:Esselen
3977:Wintuan
3938:Shastan
3909:Na-Dene
3897:Maiduan
3834:Caddoan
3808:America
3762:Wagiman
3760:(incl.
3731:Tangkic
3671:Garawan
3644:Bunuban
3605:Tambora
3572:Maybrat
3540:Abinomn
3463:Teberan
3424:Pauwasi
3414:Mairasi
3382:Kiwaian
3262:Tambora
3248:Shompen
3230:Kusunda
3223:Kenaboi
3209:Elamite
3181:Siangic
3163:Kho-Bwa
3157:Hrusish
3075:Kra–Dai
3059:Japonic
2968:Eurasia
2943:Sandawe
2926:Bangime
2891:Songhay
2716:". In:
2694:(hbk);
2509:3910147
2248:3198322
2217:Bibcode
2180:1608971
2162:2359705
2140:Bibcode
2101:3497766
2070:Bibcode
1996:p. 222.
1956:25 June
1854:3 March
1799:7000245
1778:Science
1465:#114057
1445:#dddddd
1417:#c0dde6
1408:#99ddff
1399:Na-Dene
1394:#80bfff
1367:#c99fee
1358:#eba9ee
1349:#fd79da
1316:Kra–Dai
1311:#f2ceee
1246:#c9ffd9
1226:#ffddaa
1206:#faecc8
1164:creoles
1104:Umbrian
974:Japonic
649:creoles
582:Chinese
570:Persian
562:English
493:Swedish
469:Italian
465:Spanish
306:Kra-Dai
145:Catalan
133:Italian
125:Spanish
4678:BANZSL
4640:Yamana
4625:Trumai
4594:Movima
4548:FulniĂ´
4511:AikanĂŁ
4425:Tupian
4320:Chonan
4244:Arauan
4182:Xincan
4134:Lencan
4087:Yokuts
3984:Yukian
3949:Tanoan
3944:Siouan
3927:Pomoan
3868:Coosan
3694:Mirndi
3587:Porome
3582:Pawaia
3436:Senagi
3408:Madang
3357:Eleman
3312:Border
3243:Nihali
3236:Minoan
3216:Hattic
3198:Basque
3169:Mijiic
3151:Digaro
3135:Uralic
3121:Turkic
2972:Europe
2829:Africa
2698:
2690:
2657:
2642:
2627:
2605:
2573:
2516:
2506:
2498:
2376:
2351:
2255:
2245:
2237:
2178:
2168:
2160:
2108:
2098:
2090:
2031:
1913:
1905:
1796:
1784:(12).
1677:
1643:
1428:Pidgin
1424:Creole
1260:Uralic
1181:pidgin
1146:Pidgin
1144:, and
1125:Slavic
1121:Baltic
874:Basque
828:Arabic
772:phylum
764:groups
760:family
727:family
629:Basque
611:pidgin
580:, and
566:Arabic
558:French
489:Danish
481:French
479:, and
193:, and
129:French
78:family
4635:Warao
4604:Nukak
4575:Kunza
4553:GuatĂł
4542:Cofán
4522:Camsá
4315:Choco
4276:Boran
4225:South
4206:Huave
4141:Mayan
4092:Yuchi
4075:Washo
4025:Karuk
4020:Haida
3959:Utian
3891:Keres
3828:Alsea
3821:Algic
3806:North
3598:Taiap
3592:Sulka
3447:Sepik
3362:Engan
3103:Ongan
3086:Nivkh
2954:Shabo
2937:Jalaa
2931:Hadza
2885:Mande
2724:(PDF)
2448:(PDF)
2426:(PDF)
2235:JSTOR
2205:(PDF)
2171:49344
2158:JSTOR
2088:JSTOR
2021:(PDF)
1911:S2CID
1606:Latin
1590:Notes
1432:Mixed
1401:(and
1381:Algic
1100:Oscan
1096:Latin
776:stock
754:Some
732:clade
607:mixed
578:Tamil
4810:bold
4737:See
4673:Arab
4659:Sign
4610:Páez
4587:Maku
4581:Leco
4097:Zuni
4081:Yana
4035:Seri
3792:Tiwi
3612:Wiru
3577:Mpur
3567:Kuot
3550:AnĂŞm
3545:Abun
3512:Yuat
3507:Yawa
3453:Skou
3430:Ramu
3281:and
3175:Miju
2997:Ainu
2977:Asia
2975:and
2948:Laal
2909:Kadu
2897:Ijaw
2860:Kx'a
2696:ISBN
2688:ISBN
2655:ISBN
2640:ISBN
2625:ISBN
2603:ISBN
2571:ISBN
2543:2020
2514:PMID
2496:ISSN
2459:2020
2374:ISBN
2349:ISSN
2284:Cf.
2253:PMID
2176:PMID
2106:PMID
2029:ISBN
1958:2023
1903:ISSN
1856:2020
1828:2021
1728:2024
1688:2017
1675:ISBN
1654:2017
1641:ISBN
1123:and
983:The
976:and
887:and
613:and
605:and
499:and
409:and
3562:Kol
3556:Ata
3502:Yam
3367:Fas
2880:Tuu
2504:PMC
2488:doi
2339:doi
2243:PMC
2225:doi
2213:108
2166:PMC
2148:doi
2096:PMC
2078:doi
2066:109
1988:doi
1893:hdl
1883:doi
1794:PMC
1786:doi
1755:doi
1166:or
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