525:, such as political unity, frequent travel and commerce, military service, etc.—led to Latin becoming the predominant language throughout the western Mediterranean. Latin itself was subject to the same assimilatory tendencies, such that its varieties had probably become more uniform by the time the Empire fell than they had been before it. That is not to say that the language had been static for all those years, but rather that ongoing changes tended to spread to all regions.
205:
4802:
1001:
3826:
4779:, a VSO word order gained more ground as SOV tended to be more restricted to subordinate clauses or higher registers in the language; this is seen in Old Sardinian. Eventually with the disappearance of the nominative case and the entire declension system, the order became V2 to solve ambiguity issues, eventually resulting in general SVO for most by the Middle Ages.
1496:– "for the Christian people"). Using the demonstratives as articles may have still been considered overly informal for a royal oath in the 9th century. Considerable variation exists in all of the Romance vernaculars as to their actual use: in Romanian, the articles are suffixed to the noun (or an adjective preceding it), as in other languages of the
4037:
while the conjugations merged in most other respects much as in the other languages. However, the third-conjugation third-person plural present ending survived in favour of the second conjugation version, and was even extended to the fourth conjugation. Romanian also maintained the distinction between the second and third conjugation endings.
4379:
Apart from the grammatical and phonetic developments there were many cases of verbs merging as complex subtleties in Latin were reduced to simplified verbs in
Romance. A classic example of this are the verbs expressing the concept "to go". Consider three particular verbs in Classical Latin expressing
3156:
Despite increasing case mergers, nominative and accusative forms seem to have remained distinct for much longer, since they are rarely confused in inscriptions. Even though
Gaulish texts from the 7th century rarely confuse both forms, it is believed that both cases began to merge in Africa by the end
3054:
There also seems to be a marked tendency to confuse different forms even when they had not become homophonous (like the generally more distinct plurals), which indicates that nominal declension was shaped not only by phonetic mergers, but also by structural factors. As a result of the untenability of
4036:
French and
Catalan did the same, but tended to generalise the third conjugation infinitive instead. Catalan in particular almost eliminated the second conjugation ending over time, reducing it to a small relic class. In Italian, the two infinitive endings remained separate (but spelled identically),
398:
Research in the twentieth century has in any case shifted the view to consider the differences between written and spoken Latin in more moderate terms. Just as in modern languages, speech patterns are different from written forms, and vary with education, the same can be said of Latin. For instance,
505:
An oft-posed question is why (or when, or how) Latin “fragmented” into several different languages. Current hypotheses contrast the centralizing and homogenizing socio-economic, cultural, and political forces that characterized the Roman Empire with the centrifugal forces that prevailed afterwards.
271:
as a term is both controversial and imprecise. Spoken Latin existed for a long time and in many places. Scholars have differed in opinion as to the extent of the differences, and whether Vulgar Latin was in some sense a different language. This was developed as a theory in the nineteenth century by
4032:
These two conjugations came to be conflated in many of the
Romance languages, often by merging them into a single class while taking endings from each of the original two conjugations. Which endings survived was different for each language, although most tended to favour second conjugation endings
532:
in the seventh century marked the definitive end of Roman dominance over the
Mediterranean. It is from approximately that century onward that regional differences proliferate in Latin documents, indicating the fragmentation of Latin into the incipient Romance languages. Until then Latin appears to
375:
characterised Vulgar Latin as to a great extent a separate language, that was more or less distinct from the written form. To Meyer-Lübke, the spoken Vulgar form was the genuine and continuous form, while
Classical Latin was a kind of artificial idealised language imposed upon it; thus Romance
284:
is itself often viewed as vague and unhelpful, and it is used in very different ways by different scholars, applying it to mean spoken Latin of differing types, or from different social classes and time periods. Nevertheless, interest in the shifts in the spoken forms remains very important to
376:
languages were derived from the "real" Vulgar form, which had to be reconstructed from remaining evidence. Others that followed this approach divided Vulgar from
Classical Latin by education or class. Other views of "Vulgar Latin" include defining it as uneducated speech, slang, or in effect,
533:
have been remarkably homogeneous, as far as can be judged from its written records, although careful statistical analysis reveals regional differences in the treatment of the vowel /ĭ/, and in the frequency of the merger of (original) intervocalic /b/ and /w/, by about the fifth century CE.
5589:
5239:
Carlton 1973: 237. According to Pei & Gaeng (1976: 76–81), the decisive moment came with the
Islamic conquest of North Africa and Iberia, which was followed by numerous raids on land and by sea. All this had the effect of disrupting connections between the western Romance-speaking
3176:
below). But since this meant that it was easy to confuse the singular nominative with the plural oblique, and the plural nominative with the singular oblique, this case system ultimately collapsed as well, and Middle French adopted one case (usually the oblique) for all purposes.
4767:
marking of the grammatical function of words. However, word order in most of the modern
Romance languages generally adopted a standard SVO word order. This had to develop as a result of stylistic changes in the language over time as well as the decline of the declension system.
1062:, absent in Latin but present in all Romance languages, arose, largely because the highly colloquial speech in which it arose was seldom written down until the daughter languages had strongly diverged; most surviving texts in early Romance show the articles fully developed.
1936:
For some neuter nouns of the third declension, the oblique stem was productive; for others, the nominative/accusative form, (the two were identical in
Classical Latin). Evidence suggests that the neuter gender was under pressure well back into the imperial period. French
3076:, and began to be replaced by "de" + noun (which originally meant "about/concerning", weakened to "of") as early as the 2nd century BC. Exceptions of remaining genitive forms are some pronouns, certain fossilized expressions and some proper names. For example, French
403:
it is completely clear from the texts during the time that Latin was a living language, there was never an unbridgeable gap between the written and spoken, nor between the language of the social elites and that of the middle, lower, or disadvantaged groups of the same
2499:
These formations were especially common when they could be used to avoid irregular forms. In Latin, the names of trees were usually feminine, but many were declined in the second declension paradigm, which was dominated by masculine or neuter nouns. Latin
279:
The current consensus is that the written and spoken languages formed a continuity much as they do in modern languages, with speech tending to evolve faster than the written language, and the written, formalised language exerting pressure back on speech.
399:
philologist József Herman agrees that the term is problematic, and therefore limits it in his work to mean the innovations and changes that turn up in spoken or written Latin that were relatively uninfluenced by educated forms of Latin. Herman states:
348:. Observing that the Romance languages have many features in common that are not found in Latin, at least not in "proper" or Classical Latin, he concluded that the former must have all had some common ancestor (which he believed most closely resembled
4117:, literally "to love I have" (cf. English "I have to love", which has shades of a future meaning). This was contracted into a new future suffix in Western Romance forms, which can be seen in the following modern examples of "I will love":
4971:, p. 5 "Comparative scholars, especially in the nineteenth century … tended to see Vulgar Latin and literary Latin as two very different kinds of language, or even two different languages altogether … but is now out of date"
2396:
in the plural. The same alternation in gender exists in certain Romanian nouns, but is considered regular as it is more common than in Italian. Thus, a relict neuter gender can arguably be said to persist in Italian and Romanian.
3861:
The four conjugational classes generally survived. The second and third conjugations already had identical imperfect tense forms in Latin, and also shared a common present participle. Because of the merging of short
1214:); some Catalan and Occitan dialects have articles from the same source. While most of the Romance languages put the article before the noun, Romanian has its own way, by putting the article after the noun, e.g.
390:
I wish it were possible to hope the term might fall out of use. Many scholars have stated that "Vulgar Latin" is a useless and dangerously misleading term ... To abandon it once and for all can only benefit
408:
Herman also makes it clear that Vulgar Latin, in this view, is a varied and unstable phenomenon, crossing many centuries of usage where any generalisations are bound to cover up variations and differences.
3870:
in most of Vulgar Latin, these two conjugations grew even closer together. Several of the most frequently-used forms became indistinguishable, while others became distinguished only by stress placement:
3500:(Luke 11.40: "ye fools, did not he, that made which is without, make that which is within also?"). In some cases, compounds were created by combining a large number of particles, such as the Romanian
3361:
and other paraphrases. These particles increased in number, and many new ones were formed by compounding old ones. The descendant Romance languages are full of grammatical particles such as Spanish
4735:
would once have been semantically strange at best (?'I stay escaping'), once grammaticalization was achieved, collocation with a verb of inherent mobility was no longer contradictory, and
4353:("I come"). In French, however, all the endings are typically homophonous except the first and second person (and occasionally also third person) plural, so the pronouns are always used (
5451:
4345:
In Spanish, Italian, Romanian and Portuguese, personal pronouns can still be omitted from verb phrases as in Latin, as the endings are still distinct enough to convey that information:
3172:
This Old French system was based largely on whether or not the Latin case ending contained an "s" or not, with the "s" being retained but all vowels in the ending being lost (as with
5708:"Vulgar Latin as an emergent concept in the Italian Renaissance (1435–1601): its ancient and medieval prehistory and its emergence and development in Renaissance linguistic thought"
321:, meaning "common speech". This could simply refer to unadorned speech without the use of rhetoric, or even plain speaking. The modern usage of the term Vulgar Latin dates to the
472:
texts from the sixth century onwards, which show changes, or the absence thereof, in local Latin under the influence of new educational practices and social structures.
4820:
833:
5031:, p. 3 He discerned in the Romance languages common features that could not all be ascribed to Latin heritage, and therefore postulated a common ancestor,
2829:
The Vulgar Latin vowel shifts caused the merger of several case endings in the nominal and adjectival declensions. Some of the causes include: the loss of final
1688:
The neuter gender of classical Latin was in most cases identical with the masculine both syntactically and morphologically. The confusion had already started in
387:
the continued use of "Vulgar Latin" is not only no aid to thought, but is, on the contrary, a positive barrier to a clear understanding of Latin and Romance....
6959:
542:
5035:, that he believed replaced Latin before AD 1000, and which most nearly resembled the language of the troubadors (now called Old Occitan, or Old Provençal).
4294:). The fact that the future and conditional endings were originally independent words is still evident in literary Portuguese, which in these tenses allows
2621:
Except for the Italian and Romanian heteroclitic nouns, other major Romance languages have no trace of neuter nouns, but still have neuter pronouns. French
2400:
In Portuguese, traces of the neuter plural can be found in collective formations and words meant to inform a bigger size or sturdiness. Thus, one can use
383:
The result is that the term "Vulgar Latin" is regarded by some modern philologists as an essentially meaningless, but unfortunately very persistent term:
4600:), Romanian "a sta" ("to stand"), using the original form for the noun ("stare"="state"/"starea"="the state"), while Italian retained the original form.
5445:
3593:
Unlike in the nominal and adjectival inflections, pronouns kept a great part of the case distinctions. However, many changes happened. For example, the
1268:
Another indication of the weakening of the demonstratives can be inferred from the fact that at this time, legal and similar texts begin to swarm with
395:
Lloyd called to replace the use of "Vulgar Latin" with a series of more precise definitions, such as the spoken Latin of a particular time and place.
1237:
This demonstrative is used in a number of contexts in some early texts in ways that suggest that the Latin demonstrative was losing its force. The
276:. At its extreme, the theory suggested that the written register formed an elite language distinct from common speech, but this is now rejected.
4364:
Contrary to the millennia-long continuity of much of the active verb system, which has now survived 6000 years of known evolution, the synthetic
4048:
ending most frequently found in the first conjugation. This led to an unusual development; phonetically, the ending was treated as the diphthong
496:
Modern Romance languages, the comparative analysis of which can be used to validate or disprove hypotheses about earlier changes in spoken Latin.
3140:, in the 2nd century BC, already shows some instances of substitution by the construction "ad" + accusative. For example, "ad carnuficem dabo".
1291:
In the less formal speech, reconstructed forms suggest that the inherited Latin demonstratives were made more forceful by being compounded with
1492:, dictated in Old French in AD 842, no demonstrative appears even in places where one would clearly be called for in all the later languages (
1288:("Blessed Anianus was bishop in that city.") The original Latin demonstrative adjectives were no longer felt to be strong or specific enough.
6846:
975:
between vowels; the paradigm thus changed from /ī ĭ ē ĕ ā ă ŏ ō ŭ ū/ to /i ɪ e ɛ a ɔ o ʊ u/. Concurrently, stressed vowels in open syllables
2313:. Some Romance languages still have a special form derived from the ancient neuter plural which is treated grammatically as feminine: e.g.,
7388:
4709:
with the semantics of 'stand' (not unlike the auxiliary in compound tenses that once meant 'have, possess', but is now semantically empty:
4033:
over the third conjugation. Spanish, for example, mostly eliminated the third conjugation forms in favour of the second conjugation forms.
7430:
7418:
4689:(Similar in concept to the Early Modern English construction of "I am a-thinking"). The process of reanalysis that took place over time
7477:
1245:("The devil is a companion of sin"), in a context that suggests that the word meant little more than an article. The need to translate
443:
The insertion, whether intentional or not, of colloquial terms or constructions into contemporary texts. Special interest is given to:
3769:, and so meaning "with a ... mind") gave rise to a widespread rule for forming adverbs in many Romance languages: adding the suffix -
2019:. In Spanish the word became feminine, while in French, Portuguese and Italian it became masculine (in Romanian it remained neuter,
987:
Towards the end of the Roman Empire /ɪ/ merged with /e/ in most regions, although not in Africa or a few peripheral areas in Italy.
289:
and Romance languages. To make matters more complicated, evidence for spoken forms can be found only through examination of written
7393:
5877:
Leppänen, V., & Alho, T. 2018. On the mergers of Latin close-mid vowels. Transactions of the Philological Society 116. 460–483.
4763:
word order in ordinary prose, although other word orders were employed, such as in poetry, euphony, focus, or emphasis, enabled by
8791:
8765:
7403:
6634:
4815:
3555:
Just as in the disappearing dative case, colloquial Latin sometimes replaced the disappearing genitive case with the preposition
854:
446:
Private letters and documents from an ordinary context such as business records, lists and school exercises; these are rare but
8710:
7398:
7132:
6409:
Burghini, Julia, and Javier Uría. 2015. "Some neglected evidence on Vulgar Latin 'glide suppression': Consentius, 27.17.20 N."
466:
Christian texts, as many originated from marginalised communities; including early Bible translations and funeral inscriptions.
4739:
could and did become the normal way to express 'I am escaping'. (Although it might be objected that in sentences like Spanish
4673:+ ablative gerund progressive tense in those Romance languages that have it seems to have been a passage from a usage such as
8680:
7505:
7032:
5575:
5511:
2368:("the fresh eggs") are usually analysed as masculine in the singular and feminine in the plural, with an irregular plural in
8770:
8645:
7798:
4603:
The semantic shift that underlies this evolution is more or less as follows: A speaker of Classical Latin might have said:
3180:
Today, Romanian is generally considered the only Romance language with a surviving case system. However, some dialects of
7351:
5821:
227:
4697:
so that when used in combination with the gerund the form became solely a grammatical marker of subject and tense (e.g.
7022:
6429:
457:
Technical works on medicine, agriculture and similar, where the demand for grammatical accuracy was lower, such as the
4662:'s/he is puny') and, as in Spanish, for the eminently transient quality implied in a verb's progressive form, such as
3858:
In general, the verbal system in the Romance languages changed less from Classical Latin than did the nominal system.
8690:
7450:
7017:
7012:
6988:
6839:
6593:
6493:
6470:
6066:
6047:
6028:
6002:
5927:
5829:
5806:
5660:
1040:
8705:
7378:
7027:
6954:
4927:
1523:
in all cases (again, this is a common semantic development across Europe). This is anticipated in Classical Latin;
3192:("the wine is good"). This "predicative case" (as it is sometimes called) is a remnant of the Latin nominative in
3153:. Towards the end of the imperial period, the accusative came to be used more and more as a general oblique case.
1791:("treasure"). Most of these forms occur in the speech of one man: Trimalchion, an uneducated Greek (i.e. foreign)
341:
273:
6971:
6904:
6522:
4922:
217:
179:
7725:
7650:
7408:
6802:
6558:
1022:
422:
119:
1280:, and so forth (all meaning, essentially, "aforesaid"), which seem to mean little more than "this" or "that".
8221:
2472:("blanket(s)"). Other times, it resulted in words whose gender may be changed more or less arbitrarily, like
1018:
8801:
8061:
7665:
7117:
6832:
6455:
4634:
in this case was still semantically transparent assuming that it meant "to stand", but soon the shift from
264:
109:
5743:
Gouvert, Xavier. 2016. Du protoitalique au protoroman: Deux problèmes de reconstruction phonologique. In:
4743:, "the cathedral is in the city" this is also unlikely to change, but all locations are expressed through
4093:
4065:
4061:
4057:
4053:
4049:
3594:
8760:
8685:
8444:
7500:
7383:
6929:
6627:
6226:
5798:
4760:
4565:, which originally meant (and is cognate with) "to stand", to denote a more temporary meaning. That is, *
256:
209:
Latin-speaking or otherwise heavily Latin-influenced areas in the Later Roman Empire, highlighted in red.
6546:
6435:
Lakoff, Robin Tolmach. 2006. Vulgar Latin: Comparative Castration (and Comparative Theories of Syntax).
4477:
inherited both Romance meanings of "being essentially" and "being temporarily of the quality of", while
2775:
has been either preserved or reinstated in the modern languages, for example FILIUS ("son") > French
333:
originated in a sort of "corrupted" Latin that they assumed formed an entity distinct from the literary
8720:
8384:
8276:
8046:
7818:
7640:
7548:
7413:
7356:
5652:
3853:
3809:, meaning 'mind') into a suffix (although remaining in free lexical use in other contexts e.g. Italian
6579:
5680:
A linguistic analysis of a collection of Late Latin documents composed in Ravenna between A.D. 445–700
8740:
7833:
7788:
7715:
7635:
7583:
7573:
7525:
6872:
6585:
2564:
As usual, irregularities persisted longest in frequently used forms. From the fourth declension noun
1708:("this place"). The morphological confusion shows primarily in the adoption of the nominative ending
976:
77:
6536:
4441:. At the extreme French merged three Latin verbs with, for example, the present tense deriving from
1253:, which had a definite article, may have given Christian Latin an incentive to choose a substitute.
8341:
8251:
7760:
7740:
7735:
7720:
7673:
7613:
7568:
7370:
2849:(see tables). Thus, by the 5th century, the number of case contrasts had been drastically reduced.
1501:
873:
364:
4237:
The first historical attestation of this new future can be found in a 7th-century Latin lext, the
8796:
8750:
8730:
8670:
8660:
8650:
8056:
7745:
7645:
7625:
7540:
7530:
7235:
7175:
7155:
6867:
5994:
4860:
4607:, meaning "the man is in/at the marketplace". The same sentence in Vulgar Latin could have been *
1086:
1011:
964:
561:
67:
6223:
From Latin to Modern French with Especial Consideration of Anglo-Norman Phonology and Morphology
5902:
Meyer, Paul (1906). "Beginnings and Progress of Romance Philology". In Rogers, Howard J. (ed.).
5594:(Pseudo-Frédégaire, VIIe siècle) : de la bonne interprétation d’un jalon de la romanistique
850:
8755:
8745:
8695:
8675:
8489:
8464:
8429:
8311:
8036:
7683:
7445:
6976:
6620:
6259:
Vincent, Nigel (2006). "Languages in contact in Medieval Italy". In Lepschy, Anna Laura (ed.).
4865:
4298:
object pronouns to be incorporated between the root of the verb and its ending: "I will love" (
4092:. This suggests that in the spoken language, these changes in conjugation preceded the loss of
972:
911:
626:
fared poorly, with all of the following vanishing in the course of its development to Romance:
4060:
sound was simply dropped. We know this because it did not participate in the sound shift from
3073:
902:(after a consonant and before another vowel) became , which palatalized preceding consonants.
372:
8725:
8655:
8479:
8231:
8031:
8026:
7823:
7730:
7655:
7618:
7603:
7578:
7558:
7460:
6078:
Französisches etymologisches Wörterbuch: eine Darstellung des galloromanischen Sprachschatzes
5849:
4917:
4239:
522:
518:
459:
114:
1767:
943:
865:
Word-final /m/ was lost in polysyllabic words. In monosyllables it tended to survive as /n/.
790:
8735:
8700:
8389:
8256:
8156:
8081:
7946:
7909:
7285:
6949:
6796:
6781:
4498:
2007:("milk"), all derive from the non-standard but attested Latin nominative/accusative neuter
899:
623:
8379:
5465:
3795:
8:
8665:
8514:
8316:
8186:
8136:
7455:
7052:
6452:
From Vulgar Latin to Old French: An Introduction to the Study of the Old French Language.
4855:
4845:
4151:
1682:
1489:
510:
310:
6342:
From Latin to Portuguese: Historical Phonology and Morphology of the Portuguese Language
5687:
3801:
3115:
3055:
the noun case system after these phonetic changes, Vulgar Latin shifted from a markedly
2027:
1276:
667:
615:
8715:
8439:
8246:
8101:
8041:
7961:
7904:
7768:
7004:
6983:
6749:
6444:
6440:
6414:
5968:
5890:
5866:
5772:
4912:
4690:
4686:
4682:
4254:
3814:
3502:
3417:
3056:
2586:
1520:
1195:
1082:
529:
360:
8354:
6144:
The Oxford Guide to the Romance Languages. Part 1: The Making of the Romance Languages
5906:. Vol. III. Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin and Company. pp. 237–255.
3109:
3088:
1457:
1447:
1270:
954:/ae̯/ and /oe̯/ monophthongized to and respectively by around the second century AD.
804:
712:
603:
195:
8349:
8201:
7956:
7916:
7894:
7102:
6791:
6786:
6717:
6503:
Zovic, V (2015). "Vulgar Latin in Inscriptions from the Roman Province of Dalmatia".
6489:
6466:
6062:
6043:
6024:
5998:
5923:
5825:
5802:
5656:
4907:
4902:
4897:
4840:
4835:
4155:
4041:
3831:
3184:
retain a special predicative form of the masculine singular identical to the plural:
3158:
3060:
2548:
2510:
tree"), a feminine noun with a masculine-looking ending, became masculine in Italian
1497:
1265:("through the middle of the valley"), suggesting that it too was weakening in force.
1231:
1107:
573:
486:
451:
345:
298:
49:
3781:
3480:
3444:
Some of these new compounds appear in literary texts during the late empire; French
3103:
3097:
2683:
2592:
2316:
2102:
1787:
878:
776:
683:
671:
655:
597:
517:
in the conquered provinces. Over time this—along with other factors that encouraged
313:, Roman authors referred to the informal, everyday variety of their own language as
223:
8414:
8374:
8306:
8241:
8166:
8161:
7933:
7856:
7803:
7598:
7593:
7482:
7341:
7290:
7250:
7220:
7215:
7210:
7200:
7122:
7069:
7062:
7047:
7042:
6966:
6894:
6771:
6766:
6541:
5960:
5858:
5764:
5719:
4772:
4287:
4283:
4210:
4184:
4180:
3423:
3181:
2629:
2623:
1992:
1685:
of Classical Latin were replaced by a two-gender system in most Romance languages.
1405:
1281:
1254:
1078:
1059:
601:, meaning 'to speak', was replaced by a variety of alternatives such as the native
557:
330:
72:
5881:
Lloyd, Paul M. (1979). "On the Definition of 'Vulgar Latin': The Eternal Return".
2614:
2337:
2327:
1854:
1369:
820:
810:
756:
750:
736:
695:
679:
647:
639:
635:
609:
590:
417:
Evidence for the features of non-literary Latin comes from the following sources:
359:
The first truly modern treatise on Romance linguistics and the first to apply the
337:
variety, though opinions differed greatly on the nature of this "vulgar" dialect.
8509:
8321:
8301:
8261:
8196:
8146:
8141:
8016:
7966:
7874:
7708:
7688:
7608:
7057:
6882:
6678:
5835:
4875:
4850:
4807:
4627:), because "standing" was what was perceived as what the man was actually doing.
4592:
4586:
4533:
4358:
4121:
4104:
3399:
3145:
2695:
2689:
2647:
2641:
2530:
2492:
2486:
2480:
2474:
2465:
2456:
2429:
2420:
2300:
2291:
1978:
1431:
482:
334:
290:
59:
20:
6597:
6596:. Paris: Laboratoire d'Histoire des théories linguistiques. 2008. Archived from
4523:
4517:
4473:
4467:
4437:
4372:
verb forms—composed of the verb "to be" plus a passive participle—or impersonal
3730:
2557:
2521:
2282:
2232:
2059:
1737:
1421:
1359:
1349:
722:
691:
675:
651:
643:
584:
8564:
8206:
7941:
7889:
7861:
7808:
7793:
7773:
7588:
7563:
7520:
7510:
7336:
7310:
7240:
7225:
7190:
7150:
6911:
6704:
5734:
4830:
4492:
4373:
3464:
3446:
2793:
2725:
2719:
2713:
2447:
2438:
2372:. However, it is also consistent with their historical development to say that
2021:
2000:
1848:
1477:
1467:
1437:
1415:
1329:
839:
569:
514:
490:
140:
4479:
4455:
4388:
4109:
3748:
3742:
3498:
stulti, nonne qui fecit, quod de foris est, etiam id, quod de intus est fecit?
3455:
3381:
3363:
2756:
2539:
2309:
2269:
2263:
2202:
2161:
2143:
2120:
2031:). Other neuter forms, however, were preserved in Romance; Catalan and French
2015:
1987:
1969:
1866:
1842:
1830:
1757:
1541:
1399:
1073:(an analogous development is found in many Indo-European languages, including
766:
699:
687:
663:
659:
8785:
8096:
8066:
7981:
7515:
7492:
7305:
7160:
7145:
7092:
6899:
6808:
5847:
Johnson, Mark J. (1988). "Toward a History of Theoderic's Building Program".
4825:
4539:
4365:
3847:
3756:
3150:
3078:
3068:
2605:
2411:
2402:
2045:
1339:
1319:
1074:
968:
565:
435:
377:
286:
172:
4561:
4461:
4453:. Similarly the Romance distinction between the Romance verbs for "to be",
3775:
3761:
3718:
3474:
2787:
2653:
2577:
2515:
2502:
2388:) and that the characteristic ending for words agreeing with these nouns is
2374:
2254:
2184:
2039:
2009:
1960:
1951:
1860:
1836:
1824:
1777:
1747:
1601:
1309:
1303:
1102:
631:
627:
8574:
8434:
7828:
7783:
7778:
7630:
7440:
7326:
7270:
7265:
7037:
6921:
6855:
6390:
The Text and Language of a Vulgar Latin Chronicle (Anonymus Valesianus II).
5724:
5707:
4885:
4706:
4483:
specialized into a verb denoting location or dwelling, or state of health.
4369:
4100:
2777:
2635:
2357:
2245:
1942:
1905:
1893:
1884:
1298:
1238:
421:
Explicit mention of certain constructions or pronunciation habits by Roman
147:
5744:
5554:
4747:
in Spanish, as this usage originally conveyed the sense of "the cathedral
4503:
3793:
became a productive suffix for forming adverbs in Romance such as Italian
3736:
3724:
3437:
3375:
2659:
2618:, which preserve the feminine gender along with the masculine appearance.
2380:
1878:
1872:
1509:
1389:
1379:
1293:
1206:
1200:
1096:
1090:
933:/ks/ before or after a consonant, or at the end of a word, reduced to /s/.
8369:
7991:
7813:
7703:
7097:
6813:
5839:
4870:
4548:
4246:
3825:
3379:(which in Romanian literally means "from where"/"where from"), or French
3358:
3166:
3132:
2732:
In Spanish, a three-way contrast is also made with the definite articles
2346:
2033:
1899:
1250:
1246:
1172:
1166:
895:
349:
322:
6418:
5894:
4382:
2746:
2740:
2734:
2677:
2671:
2665:
1515:
1190:
1184:
1178:
1160:
1154:
1148:
1142:
1136:
8594:
8534:
8499:
8291:
8226:
8216:
8111:
7996:
7884:
7467:
7435:
7180:
7107:
6939:
6934:
6691:
6128:
The origin of the Romance languages: Stages in the development of Latin
5870:
4932:
4880:
4764:
3162:
3157:
of the empire, and a bit later in parts of Italy and Iberia. Nowadays,
1118:
1112:
1025: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
927:
580:
469:
294:
6824:
5972:
5776:
4646:
ended up only denoting natural qualities that would not change, while
3805:'clearly'. The development of an originally autonomous form (the noun
3393:
3387:
3369:
204:
8624:
8619:
8579:
8504:
8474:
8454:
8331:
8271:
8181:
8131:
8126:
8051:
8011:
7899:
7869:
7678:
7553:
7346:
7230:
7205:
7084:
6733:
6663:
3713:
2525:; in French and Spanish it was replaced by the masculine derivations
1728:
1070:
869:
579:
A commonly-cited example is the replacement of the highly irregular (
553:
429:
352:) that replaced Latin some time before the year 1000. This he dubbed
188:
160:
124:
6562:
5904:
Congress of Arts and Sciences: Universal Exposition, St. Louis, 1904
5862:
3559:
followed by the ablative, then eventually the accusative (oblique).
3149:
developed as a prepositional case, displacing many instances of the
1000:
509:
By the end of the first century CE the Romans had seized the entire
428:
Recurrent grammatical, syntactic, or orthographic mistakes in Latin
8584:
8569:
8559:
8544:
8459:
8449:
8419:
8409:
8404:
8394:
8296:
8211:
8091:
8076:
8006:
7986:
7976:
7971:
7951:
7750:
7331:
7295:
7185:
7112:
6944:
6153:
The Cambridge History of the Romance Languages. Volume II: Contexts
6057:
Vincent, Nigel (1990). "Latin". In Harris, M.; Vincent, N. (eds.).
5964:
5910:
Nandris, Grigore. 1951. The development and structure of Rumanian.
5768:
5755:
Hall, Robert A. Jr. (1950). "The Reconstruction of Proto-Romance".
4801:
2240:; the plural form lies at the root of the French feminine singular
1792:
478:
326:
235:
6151:
Maiden, Martin; Smith, John Charles; Ledgeway, Adam, eds. (2013).
4290:) also developed in the same way (infinitive + conjugated form of
1286:
Erat autem... beatissimus Anianus in supradicta civitate episcopus
710:
Many words experienced a shift in meaning. Some notable cases are
8604:
8599:
8589:
8554:
8549:
8539:
8484:
8469:
8286:
8281:
8266:
8236:
8191:
8171:
8151:
8106:
7838:
7693:
7472:
7280:
7275:
7165:
5524:
3137:
1689:
1066:
552:
Over the centuries, spoken Latin lost certain words in favour of
231:
6612:
3752:. All of these derivational suffixes were lost in Vulgar Latin.
1802:-ending has been largely abandoned, and all substantives of the
8614:
8494:
8424:
8364:
8359:
8326:
8086:
8071:
8021:
8001:
7423:
7300:
7195:
4783:
4295:
3838:
3709:
3493:
3354:
2230:; some of these were reanalysed as feminine singulars, such as
1545:
in the meaning of "a certain" or "some" by the 1st century BC.
1524:
1176:(elision of -l- is a common feature of Portuguese) and Italian
447:
16:
Non-standard Latin variety spoken by the people of ancient Rome
6578:
Norberg, Dag (2009) . "Latin at the End of the Imperial Age".
4501:(that is, the verb signifying "to be") of Classical Latin was
4076:("I loved; he/she loved") in many areas became proto-Romance *
1554:
1st and 2nd adjectival declension paradigm in Classical Latin:
556:; in favour of borrowings from neighbouring languages such as
285:
understand the transition from Latin or Late Latin through to
8399:
8121:
7848:
7140:
6644:
6486:
Orthographic traditions and the sub-elite in the Roman Empire
6392:
London: University of London, Institute of Classical Studies.
4650:
was applied to transient qualities and location. In Italian,
4559:
In Vulgar Latin a second copula developed utilizing the verb
4107:. A new future was originally formed with the auxiliary verb
3708:
Classical Latin had a number of different suffixes that made
572:. The “lost” words often continued to enjoy some currency in
260:
82:
6171:
Late Latin and Early Romance in Spain and Carolingian France
6087:
Late Latin and Early Romance in Spain and Carolingian France
5649:
Vox Latina – a Guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Latin
2750:. The last is used with nouns denoting abstract categories:
2543:; and in Portuguese and Catalan by the feminine derivations
8609:
8176:
8116:
7698:
7074:
6478:
Outline of the historical and comparative grammar of Latin.
6411:
Glotta; Zeitschrift Für Griechische Und Lateinische Sprache
5565:
5563:
4782:
Relics of SOV word order still survive in the placement of
2782:
2507:
6136:
From Latin to Romance: Morphosyntactic Typology and Change
5501:
5499:
5497:
4821:
Phonological changes from Classical Latin to Proto-Romance
4511:
in Vulgar Latin by attaching the common infinitive suffix
4449:(or something like it) and the future tense deriving from
834:
Phonological changes from Classical Latin to Proto-Romance
304:
234:
characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
7170:
6076:
von Wartburg, Walther; Chambon, Jean-Pierre (1922–1967).
4654:
is used mainly for location, transitory state of health (
3353:
The loss of a productive noun case system meant that the
6397:
The Vulgar Latin of the letters of Claudius Terentianus.
6180:
Latin and the Romance Languages in the Early Middle ages
6075:
5560:
4891:
4681:
form carries the full semantic load of 'stand, stay' to
4611:, "the man stands in/at the marketplace", replacing the
3789:(originally "with a quick mind", "quick-mindedly"), and
5537:
5535:
5533:
5494:
5484:
5482:
5480:
5478:
5476:
5474:
3357:
purposes it formerly served now had to be performed by
917:
568:; or in favour of other Latin words that had undergone
6238:(Revised ed.). London, England: Grant and Cutler.
5792:
2049:("name") all preserve the Latin nominative/accusative
1531:("with a most immoral gladiator"). This suggests that
5793:
Harrington, K. P.; Pucci, J.; Elliott, A. G. (1997).
2277:, that originated the Catalan feminine singular noun
1198:
went its own way here also, forming its article from
543:
Lexical changes from Classical Latin to Proto-Romance
6261:
Rethinking Languages in Contact: The Case of Italian
5530:
5471:
4797:
4705:= subject first person singular, past), no longer a
4376:
forms—composed of a verb and a passivizing pronoun.
6360:. New York: Modern Language Association of America.
6207:. New York: Modern Language Association of America.
6150:
6104:
5951:Pulgram, Ernst (1950). "Spoken and Written Latin".
4515:to the classical infinitive; this produced Italian
4465:, was lost in French as these merged into the verb
6163:The Transition from Latin to the Romance Languages
5984:. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press.
6344:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
6292:. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
6155:. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
5443:
4685:of the construction as expression of progressive
4642:became more widespread. In the Iberian peninsula
4368:was utterly lost in Romance, being replaced with
3072:died out around the 3rd century AD, according to
982:
8783:
5820:. Translated by Wright, Roger. University Park:
4677:'I stand/stay (here) in thinking', in which the
3609:Reconstructed pronominal system of Vulgar Latin
2568:("hand"), another feminine noun with the ending
1058:It is difficult to place the point in which the
589:, meaning 'to carry', with the entirely regular
6308:A History of the Spanish Language Through Texts
6283:. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society.
5598:Bulletin de la Société de Linguistique de Paris
4420:was maintained as a separate verb derived from
6333:Latim e Romance na segunda metade do século XI
6196:A History of the French Language through Texts
6141:
3397:, while the equivalent Spanish and Portuguese
6840:
6628:
6505:Vjesnik Za Arheologiju I Povijest Dalmatinsku
6371:
6193:
6159:Latin and the Making of the Romance Languages
6142:Ledgeway, Adam; Maiden, Martin, eds. (2016).
5674:. Washington DC: Georgetown University Press.
5430:
5428:
3605:appears in manuscripts from the 6th century.
3136:lasted longer than the genitive, even though
2729:("all of him" / "all of her" / "all of it").
2222:Most neuter nouns had plural forms ending in
1065:Definite articles evolved from demonstrative
6013:A history of the Byzantine state and society
5945:The story of Latin and the Romance languages
5640:Romance Languages: A Historical Introduction
5574:sfn error: no target: CITEREFGrandgent1991 (
5510:sfn error: no target: CITEREFGrandgent1991 (
3348:
2805:, in the conservative orthography of French
2797:, and particularly in proper names: Spanish
1798:In modern Romance languages, the nominative
6301:. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
6146:. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
5692:(in German) (5th ed.). Bonn: E. Weber.
5669:
4408:, which derives some conjugated forms from
1533:
967:collapsed by the fifth century AD, leaving
827:
36:
6847:
6833:
6635:
6621:
5991:New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin
5425:
5418:
5416:
5414:
4701:= subject first person singular, present;
3854:Romance languages § Verbal morphology
3773:to the feminine form of the adjective. So
2267:is a borrowing from French); the same for
344:is often regarded as the father of modern
203:
6488:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
5732:
5723:
5569:
5505:
4759:Classical Latin in most cases adopted an
4099:Another major systemic change was to the
3755:An alternative formation with a feminine
2675:("to him" /"to her" / "to it"), Catalan:
1301:: "behold!"), which also spawned Italian
1230:), possibly a result of being within the
1041:Learn how and when to remove this message
958:
914:/b/ merge as the bilabial fricative /β/.
19:For obscene or "vulgar" Latin words, see
6584:. Translated by Johnson, R.H. New York:
6556:
6404:Social Variation and the Latin Language.
6339:
6330:
6305:
6125:
6116:
6037:
5633:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3824:
2824:
1806:-declension have an ending derived from
1548:
6854:
6577:
6399:Manchester, UK: Manchester Univ. Press.
6299:A Brief History of the Spanish Language
6296:
6258:
6096:A Sociophilological Study of Late Latin
6080:(in German and French). Bonn: F. Klopp.
6056:
5950:
5846:
5705:
5642:. New York: Cambridge University Press.
5631:Social variation and the Latin language
5624:. New York: Cambridge University Press.
5411:
5363:Grandgent 1907: §226; Pope 1934: §187.b
5354:Grandgent 1907: §267; Pope 1934: §156.3
5016:
4816:Palatalization in the Romance languages
3601:was lost by the end of the empire, and
3584:"Marcus is giving me book of father."
3169:had a two-case subject-oblique system.
2771:In a few isolated masculine nouns, the
2754:, literally "that which is good", from
855:Palatalization in the Romance languages
340:The early 19th-century French linguist
305:History of the Vulgar Latin controversy
228:question marks, boxes, or other symbols
8784:
6406:Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
6321:
6249:
6202:
6177:
6168:
6093:
6084:
6018:
5988:
5979:
5943:Pei, Mario & Gaeng, Paul A. 1976.
5940:. New York: Columbia University Press.
5917:
5815:
5696:
5637:
5541:
5488:
5454:from the original on 21 November 2022.
5249:
5200:
5188:
5176:
5164:
5152:
5140:
5128:
5116:
5104:
5056:
5044:
5028:
5004:
4980:
4968:
4956:
4754:
4253:) used as future is characteristic of
3813:'come to mind') is a textbook case of
6828:
6616:
6502:
6463:Saggi linguistici sul latino volgare.
6355:
6287:
6278:
6236:The French language: present and past
6233:
6211:
5912:The Slavonic and East European Review
5901:
5880:
5672:From Latin to Romance in Sound Charts
5646:
5628:
5622:The Regional Diversification of Latin
5619:
5261:
5092:
5080:
5068:
4992:
4892:History of specific Romance languages
4249:of the form 'to have to' (late Latin
2057:(which nevertheless produced Spanish
2053:, rather than the oblique stem form *
1649:
1643:
1243:Est tamen ille daemon sodalis peccati
948:
6483:
6220:
6042:(3rd ed.). Paris: Klincksieck.
5783:
5754:
5747:& Schweickard, Wolfgang (eds.),
5685:
5651:(2nd ed.). Cambridge, England:
5221:Wright 2002: 27–28; Pei 1941: 16, 23
3571:"Marcus is giving me father's book.
3551:"Marcus is giving book to father."
2351:ipsa animalia aliquas mortas fuerant
2249:, as well as of Catalan and Occitan
1023:adding citations to reliable sources
994:
918:Simplification of consonant clusters
6426:From Vulgar Latin to Old Provençal.
5822:Pennsylvania State University Press
4052:rather than containing a semivowel
3208:(definite article in parentheses).
3161:maintains a two-case system, while
2949:Evolution of a 2nd declension noun:
2853:Evolution of a 1st declension noun:
1317:. This is the origin of Old French
1053:
851:Romance languages § Consonants
547:
481:into neighboring languages such as
438:, as a special kind of inscription.
13:
6430:University of North Carolina Press
6382:
6324:Introdução à História do Português
6138:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
5689:Grammatik der romanischen Sprachen
5607:
5464:Menéndez Pidal 1968, p. 208;
4669:The historical development of the
4584:evolved to Spanish and Portuguese
4537:as well as Spanish and Portuguese
4103:, remodelled in Vulgar Latin with
4084:, yielding for example Portuguese
2418:("roe", "collection(s) of eggs"),
2037:, Leonese, Portuguese and Italian
905:
14:
8813:
6642:
6581:Manuel pratique de latin médiéval
6516:
6374:Storia linguistica della Sardegna
6306:Pountain, Christopher J. (2000).
6290:A History of the Spanish Language
5553:Romanian Explanatory Dictionary (
5345:Pope 1934: §155; Gouvert 2016: 48
4044:, many languages generalized the
3538:"Marcus is giving father book."
2378:is simply a regular neuter noun (
1917:in the accusative in both words:
1834:("sky") have evolved to: Italian
1085:); compare the fate of the Latin
890:
859:
705:
6594:"Corpus Grammaticorum Latinorum"
6465:Mantova: Universitas Studiorum.
6376:. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag.
6214:French: From Dialect to Standard
6105:Transitions to Romance languages
6021:Etymological Dictionary of Latin
5678:Carlton, Charles Merritt. 1973.
4928:History of the Romanian language
4800:
4771:In Late Latin works, such as in
1909:. However, Old French still had
999:
926:/kw/ delabialized to /k/ before
774:('send' → 'put', competing with
500:
369:Grammar of the Romance Languages
329:thinkers began to theorize that
301:, depending on the time period.
6372:Blasco Ferrer, Eduardo (1984).
6252:A Linguistic History of Italian
5749:Dictionnaire étymologique roman
5736:An Introduction to Vulgar Latin
5582:
5547:
5518:
5458:
5437:
5402:
5393:
5390:Leppänen & Alho 2018: 21–22
5384:
5375:
5366:
5357:
5348:
5339:
5330:
5321:
5312:
5303:
5294:
5285:
5276:
5267:
5255:
5243:
5233:
5224:
5215:
5206:
5194:
5182:
5170:
5158:
5146:
5134:
5122:
5110:
5098:
5086:
5074:
5062:
4923:History of the Spanish language
3915:Second conjugation (Classical)
3198:
2947:
2851:
2765:
1488:On the other hand, even in the
1010:needs additional citations for
944:Romance languages § Vowels
844:
477:The pronunciation of Roman-era
8792:Latin language in ancient Rome
6803:Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum
6358:An Introduction to Old Occitan
6335:. Lisbon: Fundação Gulbenkian.
6040:Introduction au latin vulgaire
5784:Hall, Robert Anderson (1976).
5050:
5038:
5022:
5010:
4998:
4986:
4974:
4962:
4950:
4786:object pronouns (e.g. Spanish
3973:Third conjugation (Classical)
3842:) is the earliest Spanish text
3569:Marcus mihi librum patris dat.
3101:("it is necessary") < "est
2954:("wall") (masculine singular)
2858:("onion") (feminine singular)
2572:, Italian and Spanish derived
2427:("section(s) of an edge") and
2065:
1552:
983:Loss of near-close front vowel
923:The cluster /nkt/ reduced to .
1:
6310:. London, England: Routledge.
6216:. London/New York: Routledge.
6205:An Introduction to Old French
6198:. London/New York: Routledge.
6194:Ayres-Bennett, Wendy (1995).
6182:. London/New York: Routledge.
5947:. New York: Harker & Row.
5883:Neuphilologische Mitteilungen
5751:2, 27–51. Berlin: De Gruyter.
4938:
4741:la catedral está en la ciudad
4527:through Proto-Gallo-Romance *
3582:*Marcos mi da libru de patre.
3200:Evolution of a masculine noun
3082:("Thursday") < Old French
1529:cum uno gladiatore nequissimo
876:of the preceding vowel (e.g.
818:'all, every', competing with
536:
342:François-Just-Marie Raynouard
255:, is the range of non-formal
7419:Frontiers and fortifications
6547:Resources in other libraries
6456:Wayne State University Press
6267:(Routledge). pp. 12–27.
6173:. Liverpool: Francis Cairns.
6119:Du latin aux langues romanes
6089:. Liverpool: Francis Cairns.
6015:. Stanford University Press.
5712:Journal of Latin Linguistics
5701:. London: Faber & Faber.
5300:Harrington et al. 1997: 7–10
5273:Alkire & Rosen 2010: 287
4943:
4556:, which means "to become").
4396:. In Spanish and Portuguese
3944:Second conjugation (Vulgar)
3765:(originally the ablative of
3680:
3660:
3641:
3625:
3612:
3340:
3332:
3324:
3306:
3285:
3280:
3272:
3264:
3246:
3225:
3036:
3031:
3016:
2996:
2976:
2940:
2920:
2910:
2900:
2880:
2178:
2137:
2096:
2080:
1661:
1653:
1639:
1622:
1595:
868:/n/ was usually lost before
513:and established hundreds of
450:from Egypt and tablets from
356:or "the Romance language".
7:
7478:Decorations and punishments
6340:Williams, Edwin B. (1968).
6227:Manchester University Press
6203:Kibler, William W. (1984).
6178:Wright, Roger, ed. (1991).
6126:Bonfante, Giuliano (1999).
6061:. Oxford University Press.
5799:University of Chicago Press
5670:Boyd-Bowman, Peter (1980).
4793:
4666:to express 'I am writing'.
4002:Third conjugation (Vulgar)
3588:
2077:Adjectives and determiners
937:
910:/w/ (except after /k/) and
10:
8818:
8385:Dionysius of Halicarnassus
6960:historiography of the fall
6557:Batzarov, Zdravko (2000).
6480:Ann Arbor, MI: Beechstave.
6461:Scarpanti, Edoardo. 2012.
6356:Paden, William D. (1998).
6331:Emiliano, António (2003).
6326:. Lisbon: Edições Colibri.
6297:Pharies, David A. (2007).
6212:Lodge, R. Anthony (1993).
6130:. Heidelberg: Carl Winter.
5922:. University of Oklahoma.
5653:Cambridge University Press
5629:Adams, James Noel (2013).
5291:Harrington et al. 1997: 11
4490:
3851:
3845:
3703:
3468:("outside") all represent
1781:("wine"), and conversely,
1539:was beginning to supplant
1367:) and (now mainly Tuscan)
990:
941:
848:
837:
831:
540:
412:
18:
8766:External wars and battles
8633:
8527:
8340:
7932:
7925:
7847:
7759:
7664:
7539:
7491:
7369:
7319:
7258:
7249:
7131:
7083:
7003:
6920:
6890:
6881:
6863:
6762:
6651:
6586:Columbia University Press
6542:Resources in your library
6402:Adams, James Noel. 2013.
6395:Adams, James Noel. 1977.
6388:Adams, James Noel. 1976.
6234:Price, Glanville (1998).
6221:Pope, Mildred K. (1934).
6117:Banniard, Michel (1997).
6038:Väänänen, Veikko (1981).
6011:Treadgold, Warren. 1997.
5733:Grandgent, C. H. (1907).
5647:Allen, W. Sidney (1965).
5434:Harrington et al. (1997).
4486:
4247:periphrastic construction
4056:, and in other cases the
3909:
3906:
3899:
3878:
3876:
3621:
3618:
3615:
3549:*Marcos da libru a patre.
3349:Wider use of prepositions
3336:
3317:
3286:
3276:
3257:
3226:
3212:
3114:
3102:
3087:
3025:
3020:
3010:
2934:
2929:
2924:
2894:
2889:
2315:
2076:
2073:
1671:
1665:
1626:
1615:
1600:
1571:
1568:
1566:
1485:), and many other forms.
1241:Bible contains a passage
214:
202:
186:
170:
158:
153:
137:
102:
56:
44:
35:
30:
5980:Posner, Rebecca (1996).
5686:Diez, Friedrich (1882).
5466:Survivances du cas sujet
4306:, but "I will love you"
3820:
3536:Marcus patrī librum dat.
3119:" as well as names like
2356:Alternations in Italian
2067:Typical Italian endings
2013:or accusative masculine
1502:North Germanic languages
1249:that were originally in
1210:an intensive adjective (
874:compensatory lengthening
828:Phonological development
788:'drown', competing with
764:'thing', competing with
463:, a veterinary treatise.
365:Friedrich Christian Diez
8761:Roman–Iranian relations
7236:Optimates and populares
6484:Zair, Nicholas (2023).
6450:Rohlfs, Gerhard. 1970.
6445:10.5325/style.40.1-2.56
6279:Lloyd, Paul M. (1987).
6263:. Oxford and New York:
6250:Maiden, Martin (1996).
6157:(esp. parts 1 & 2,
6134:Ledgeway, Adam (2012).
6019:Tucker, T. G. (1985) .
5995:Oxford University Press
5918:Palmer, L. R. (1988) .
5816:Herman, József (2000).
5786:Proto-Romance Phonology
5706:Eskhult, Josef (2018).
5450:. Speech 2, chapter 3.
5444:Marcus Tullius Cicero.
5230:Treadgold 1997: 371–372
4826:Proto-Romance languages
4591:
4532:
4471:. In Italian, the verb
4427:Italian instead merged
3506:("just recently") from
2273:("wood stick"), plural
1397:); Spanish and Occitan
1338:
1328:
1318:
1313:, a contracted form of
1263:per mediam vallem ipsam
1134:), Catalan and Spanish
1087:demonstrative adjective
613:or the Greek borrowing
48:Developed into various
8771:Civil wars and revolts
8037:Sextus Pompeius Festus
7684:Conflict of the Orders
7043:Legislative assemblies
6476:Weiss, Michael. 2009.
6169:Wright, Roger (1982).
6094:Wright, Roger (2002).
6085:Wright, Roger (1982).
5989:Sihler, A. L. (1995).
5725:10.1515/joll-2018-0006
5697:Elcock, W. D. (1960).
4585:
4560:
4547:
4538:
4522:
4516:
4502:
4478:
4472:
4466:
4460:
4454:
4436:
4387:
4381:
4214:
4188:
4159:
4125:
4108:
3843:
3800:
3794:
3780:
3774:
3760:
3747:
3741:
3735:
3729:
3723:
3717:
3501:
3479:
3473:
3463:
3454:
3445:
3436:
3422:
3416:
3398:
3392:
3386:
3380:
3374:
3368:
3367:, "where", from Latin
3362:
3188:("the good wine") vs.
3108:
3096:
3077:
2792:
2786:
2776:
2755:
2745:
2739:
2733:
2724:
2718:
2712:
2694:
2688:
2682:
2676:
2670:
2664:
2658:
2652:
2646:
2640:
2634:
2628:
2622:
2613:
2604:
2591:
2585:
2576:
2556:
2547:
2538:
2529:
2520:
2514:
2501:
2491:
2485:
2479:
2473:
2464:
2455:
2446:
2437:
2428:
2419:
2410:
2401:
2379:
2373:
2336:
2326:
2308:
2299:
2290:
2281:
2268:
2262:
2253:
2244:
2231:
2201:
2183:
2160:
2142:
2119:
2101:
2058:
2044:
2038:
2032:
2026:
2020:
2014:
2008:
1999:
1986:
1977:
1968:
1959:
1950:
1941:
1913:in the nominative and
1904:
1898:
1892:
1883:
1877:
1871:
1865:
1859:
1853:
1847:
1841:
1835:
1829:
1823:
1786:
1776:
1766:
1756:
1746:
1736:
1731:'s work, one can find
1540:
1534:
1514:
1508:
1476:
1466:
1456:
1446:
1436:
1430:
1420:
1414:
1404:
1398:
1388:
1378:
1368:
1358:
1348:
1308:
1302:
1292:
1275:
1269:
1205:
1199:
1189:
1183:
1177:
1171:
1165:
1159:
1153:
1147:
1141:
1135:
1117:
1111:
1101:
1095:
1089:
959:Loss of vowel quantity
802:'pay', competing with
595:. Similarly, the verb
406:
393:
371:. Researchers such as
216:This article contains
37:
8480:Simplicius of Cilicia
8232:Quintus Curtius Rufus
7461:Siege in Ancient Rome
7070:Executive magistrates
6439:40, nos. 1–2: 56–61.
6424:Jensen, Frede. 1972.
6288:Penny, Ralph (2002).
6281:From Latin to Spanish
6111:To Romance in general
6059:The Romance Languages
5982:The Romance Languages
5850:Dumbarton Oaks Papers
5788:. New York: Elsevier.
5739:. Boston: D.C. Heath.
5699:The Romance Languages
5620:Adams, J. N. (2007).
4918:History of Portuguese
4404:merged into the verb
4380:concepts of "going":
4240:Chronicle of Fredegar
3828:
3779:("quick") instead of
3427:, "after", represent
3113:("earthquake") < "
2825:Loss of oblique cases
2785:("god") > Spanish
1828:("wall"), and neuter
1549:Loss of neuter gender
973:distinguishing factor
965:phonemic vowel length
460:Mulomedicina Chironis
401:
385:
120:Proto-Latino-Faliscan
8490:Stephanus Byzantinus
8395:Eusebius of Caesaria
8257:Sidonius Apollinaris
7947:Ammianus Marcellinus
7286:Tribune of the plebs
6797:Latino sine flexione
6782:Ecclesiastical Latin
6322:Castro, Ivo (2004).
6254:. New York: Longman.
5938:The Italian language
5682:. The Hague: Mouton.
5600:, 112/1, p. 123-130.
5399:Adams 2013: 60–1, 67
5372:Grandgent 1907: §255
2841:, and the merger of
2392:in the singular and
2364:("the fresh egg") /
1218:("the wolf" – from *
1019:improve this article
530:first Arab caliphate
8802:Gallo-Roman culture
8666:Distinguished women
8317:Velleius Paterculus
8157:Nicolaus Damascenus
8137:Marcellus Empiricus
7526:Republican currency
6565:on 25 December 2018
6098:. Utrecht: Brepols.
6023:. Ares Publishers.
5638:Alkire, Ti (2010).
5588:Peter Nahon (2017).
5212:Grandgent 1907: 2–3
4856:Glosas Emilianenses
4846:Oaths of Strasbourg
4755:Word order typology
4609:(h)omo stat in foro
4507:. This evolved to *
4286:(distinct from the
3734:, "fiercely", from
3610:
3209:
3086:< Vulgar Latin "
2955:
2859:
2657:("this"), Italian:
2322:"arm(s)" → Italian
2068:
1982:, Italian language
1700:("dead body"), and
1683:grammatical genders
1563:
1562:Excludes vocative.
1519:(one) supplies the
1494:pro christian poblo
1490:Oaths of Strasbourg
971:differences as the
511:Mediterranean Basin
373:Wilhelm Meyer-Lübke
265:Late Roman Republic
110:Proto-Indo-European
8440:Phlegon of Tralles
8247:Seneca the Younger
7721:Naming conventions
7451:Personal equipment
6984:Later Roman Empire
6750:Contemporary Latin
5936:Pei, Mario. 1941.
5920:The Latin Language
5264:, pp. 660–670
5071:, pp. 110–122
4913:History of Italian
4683:grammaticalization
4658:'s/he is ill' but
3844:
3815:grammaticalization
3608:
3199:
3057:synthetic language
2948:
2852:
2639:("this"), Spanish
2066:
1822:. E.g., masculine
1771:("amphitheatre"),
1553:
1521:indefinite article
1110:, becoming French
949:Monophthongization
760:('subject matter'
734:'fire', replacing
720:'city', replacing
479:lexical borrowings
361:comparative method
331:their own language
52:by the 9th century
8779:
8778:
8741:Pontifices maximi
8523:
8522:
8380:Diogenes Laërtius
8202:Pliny the Younger
7957:Asconius Pedianus
7917:Romance languages
7789:Civil engineering
7531:Imperial currency
7404:Political control
7365:
7364:
6999:
6998:
6822:
6821:
6792:Romance languages
6787:Neo-Latin studies
6757:
6756:
6718:Renaissance Latin
6600:on 7 January 2013
6523:Library resources
6266:
5408:Adams 2007: 626–9
5327:Allen 1965: 27–29
5309:Pope 1934: §156.2
4908:History of French
4903:Catalan phonology
4841:Reichenau Glosses
4836:Romance languages
4731:, etc.). Whereas
4693:the semantics of
4445:and another verb
4030:
4029:
3832:Cantar de Mio Cid
3785:("quickly") gave
3722:, "dear", formed
3701:
3700:
3346:
3345:
3052:
3051:
2946:
2945:
2867:(c. 1st century)
2609:, and Portuguese
2463:("cloak(s)") and
2321:
2229:
2225:
2220:
2219:
1679:
1678:
1498:Balkan sprachbund
1232:Balkan sprachbund
1108:Romance languages
1051:
1050:
1043:
748:'eat', replacing
346:Romance philology
242:
241:
224:rendering support
220:phonetic symbols.
50:Romance languages
8809:
8731:Magistri equitum
8646:Cities and towns
8639:
8565:Constantinopolis
8375:Diodorus Siculus
8307:Valerius Maximus
8242:Seneca the Elder
8162:Nonius Marcellus
7930:
7929:
7483:Hippika gymnasia
7446:Infantry tactics
7352:Consular tribune
7342:Magister equitum
7291:Military tribune
7256:
7255:
7216:Pontifex maximus
7211:Princeps senatus
7201:Magister militum
6967:Byzantine Empire
6888:
6887:
6849:
6842:
6835:
6826:
6825:
6772:Latin literature
6767:History of Latin
6746:
6730:
6676:
6654:
6653:
6637:
6630:
6623:
6614:
6613:
6609:
6607:
6605:
6589:
6588:, Orbis Latinus.
6574:
6572:
6570:
6561:. Archived from
6512:
6499:
6377:
6361:
6345:
6336:
6327:
6311:
6302:
6293:
6284:
6268:
6264:
6255:
6239:
6230:
6217:
6208:
6199:
6183:
6174:
6156:
6147:
6131:
6122:
6121:. Paris: Nathan.
6099:
6090:
6081:
6072:
6053:
6034:
6008:
5985:
5976:
5933:
5907:
5898:
5874:
5843:
5812:
5797:(2nd ed.).
5789:
5780:
5740:
5729:
5727:
5702:
5693:
5675:
5666:
5643:
5634:
5625:
5601:
5586:
5580:
5579:
5567:
5558:
5551:
5545:
5539:
5528:
5522:
5516:
5515:
5503:
5492:
5486:
5469:
5462:
5456:
5455:
5441:
5435:
5432:
5423:
5420:
5409:
5406:
5400:
5397:
5391:
5388:
5382:
5381:Palmer 1988: 157
5379:
5373:
5370:
5364:
5361:
5355:
5352:
5346:
5343:
5337:
5336:Gouvert 2015: 83
5334:
5328:
5325:
5319:
5316:
5310:
5307:
5301:
5298:
5292:
5289:
5283:
5280:
5274:
5271:
5265:
5259:
5253:
5247:
5241:
5237:
5231:
5228:
5222:
5219:
5213:
5210:
5204:
5198:
5192:
5186:
5180:
5179:, pp. 23–25
5174:
5168:
5167:, pp. 23–25
5162:
5156:
5155:, pp. 22–23
5150:
5144:
5143:, pp. 20–22
5138:
5132:
5131:, pp. 20–21
5126:
5120:
5114:
5108:
5102:
5096:
5090:
5084:
5078:
5072:
5066:
5060:
5054:
5048:
5042:
5036:
5033:la langue romane
5026:
5020:
5014:
5008:
5002:
4996:
4990:
4984:
4978:
4972:
4966:
4960:
4954:
4810:
4805:
4804:
4357:) except in the
4095:
4067:
4063:
4059:
4055:
4051:
3874:
3873:
3746:, "often", from
3611:
3607:
3596:
3563:Classical Latin:
3530:Classical Latin:
3385:, "since", from
3210:
3118:
3106:
3091:
2973:(c. 11th cent.)
2956:
2860:
2833:, the merger of
2818:
2769:
2496:("broth"), etc.
2320: : BRACCHIA
2319:
2314:
2236:("joy"), plural
2227:
2223:
2069:
1604:
1564:
1537:
1375:eccum tibi istum
1282:Gregory of Tours
1060:definite article
1054:Romance articles
1046:
1039:
1035:
1032:
1026:
1003:
995:
622:Classical Latin
576:Latin, however.
548:Lexical turnover
528:The rise of the
454:have been found.
354:la langue romane
311:Classical period
263:spoken from the
253:Colloquial Latin
247:, also known as
207:
198:
182:
163:
143:
62:
40:
28:
27:
8817:
8816:
8812:
8811:
8810:
8808:
8807:
8806:
8782:
8781:
8780:
8775:
8637:
8635:
8629:
8519:
8355:Aëtius of Amida
8336:
8322:Verrius Flaccus
8302:Valerius Antias
8262:Silius Italicus
8197:Pliny the Elder
8142:Marcus Aurelius
8017:Cornelius Nepos
7967:Aurelius Victor
7921:
7843:
7755:
7689:Secessio plebis
7660:
7535:
7487:
7361:
7315:
7245:
7127:
7079:
6995:
6916:
6877:
6859:
6853:
6823:
6818:
6758:
6753:
6748:
6744:
6737:
6732:
6728:
6721:
6716:
6708:
6703:
6695:
6690:
6682:
6679:Classical Latin
6677:
6672:
6667:
6662:
6647:
6641:
6603:
6601:
6592:
6568:
6566:
6559:"Orbis Latinus"
6553:
6552:
6551:
6531:
6530:
6526:
6519:
6496:
6385:
6383:Further reading
6380:
6107:
6102:
6069:
6050:
6031:
6005:
5930:
5863:10.2307/1291590
5832:
5809:
5663:
5610:
5608:Works consulted
5605:
5604:
5587:
5583:
5573:
5568:
5561:
5552:
5548:
5540:
5531:
5523:
5519:
5509:
5504:
5495:
5487:
5472:
5463:
5459:
5442:
5438:
5433:
5426:
5422:Vincent (1990).
5421:
5412:
5407:
5403:
5398:
5394:
5389:
5385:
5380:
5376:
5371:
5367:
5362:
5358:
5353:
5349:
5344:
5340:
5335:
5331:
5326:
5322:
5317:
5313:
5308:
5304:
5299:
5295:
5290:
5286:
5281:
5277:
5272:
5268:
5260:
5256:
5248:
5244:
5238:
5234:
5229:
5225:
5220:
5216:
5211:
5207:
5199:
5195:
5187:
5183:
5175:
5171:
5163:
5159:
5151:
5147:
5139:
5135:
5127:
5123:
5115:
5111:
5103:
5099:
5091:
5087:
5079:
5075:
5067:
5063:
5055:
5051:
5043:
5039:
5027:
5023:
5015:
5011:
5003:
4999:
4991:
4987:
4979:
4975:
4967:
4963:
4955:
4951:
4946:
4941:
4894:
4876:Common Romanian
4851:Veronese Riddle
4808:Language portal
4806:
4799:
4796:
4790:"I love you").
4757:
4751:in the city").
4605:vir est in foro
4596:(both through *
4590:and Old French
4531:and Old French
4495:
4489:
4105:auxiliary verbs
3901:
3856:
3850:
3823:
3811:venire in mente
3759:form modifying
3706:
3591:
3492:), and we find
3459:and Portuguese
3421:and Portuguese
3351:
3221:
3216:
3215:Classical Latin
3207:
3202:in Old French:
3201:
3146:accusative case
3107:"; and Italian
2972:
2968:(c. 5th cent.)
2967:
2963:(c. 1st cent.)
2962:
2950:
2876:
2872:(c. 5th cent.)
2871:
2866:
2854:
2827:
2822:
2821:
2791:and Portuguese
2770:
2766:
2711:); Portuguese:
2709:that over there
2454:) ("sack(s)"),
2445:("bag(s)") and
2436:) ("edge(s)"),
2409:("egg(s)") and
2366:le uova fresche
1698:cadaver mortuum
1694:cadaver mortuus
1692:graffiti, e.g.
1561:
1555:
1551:
1435:and Portuguese
1419:and Portuguese
1403:and Portuguese
1297:(originally an
1106:"that", in the
1056:
1047:
1036:
1030:
1027:
1016:
1004:
993:
985:
961:
951:
946:
940:
920:
908:
906:Fricativization
893:
882:'fiancée' >
872:, resulting in
862:
857:
847:
842:
836:
830:
708:
550:
545:
539:
503:
415:
389:
388:
307:
291:Classical Latin
222:Without proper
210:
194:
178:
175:
159:
144:
139:
133:
105:
98:
78:Latino-Faliscan
63:
60:Language family
58:
24:
21:Latin obscenity
17:
12:
11:
5:
8815:
8805:
8804:
8799:
8797:Forms of Latin
8794:
8777:
8776:
8774:
8773:
8768:
8763:
8758:
8753:
8748:
8743:
8738:
8733:
8728:
8723:
8718:
8713:
8708:
8703:
8698:
8693:
8688:
8683:
8678:
8673:
8668:
8663:
8658:
8653:
8648:
8642:
8640:
8631:
8630:
8628:
8627:
8622:
8617:
8612:
8607:
8602:
8597:
8592:
8587:
8582:
8577:
8572:
8567:
8562:
8557:
8552:
8547:
8542:
8537:
8531:
8529:
8525:
8524:
8521:
8520:
8518:
8517:
8512:
8507:
8502:
8497:
8492:
8487:
8482:
8477:
8472:
8467:
8462:
8457:
8452:
8447:
8442:
8437:
8432:
8427:
8422:
8417:
8412:
8407:
8402:
8397:
8392:
8387:
8382:
8377:
8372:
8367:
8362:
8357:
8352:
8346:
8344:
8338:
8337:
8335:
8334:
8329:
8324:
8319:
8314:
8309:
8304:
8299:
8294:
8289:
8284:
8279:
8274:
8269:
8264:
8259:
8254:
8249:
8244:
8239:
8234:
8229:
8224:
8219:
8214:
8209:
8207:Pomponius Mela
8204:
8199:
8194:
8189:
8184:
8179:
8174:
8169:
8164:
8159:
8154:
8149:
8144:
8139:
8134:
8129:
8124:
8119:
8114:
8109:
8104:
8099:
8094:
8089:
8084:
8079:
8074:
8069:
8064:
8059:
8054:
8049:
8044:
8039:
8034:
8029:
8024:
8019:
8014:
8009:
8004:
7999:
7994:
7989:
7984:
7979:
7974:
7969:
7964:
7959:
7954:
7949:
7944:
7942:Aelius Donatus
7938:
7936:
7927:
7923:
7922:
7920:
7919:
7914:
7913:
7912:
7910:Ecclesiastical
7907:
7902:
7897:
7892:
7887:
7882:
7877:
7872:
7864:
7859:
7853:
7851:
7845:
7844:
7842:
7841:
7836:
7831:
7826:
7821:
7816:
7811:
7806:
7801:
7796:
7791:
7786:
7781:
7776:
7771:
7765:
7763:
7757:
7756:
7754:
7753:
7748:
7743:
7738:
7733:
7728:
7723:
7718:
7713:
7712:
7711:
7701:
7696:
7691:
7686:
7681:
7676:
7670:
7668:
7662:
7661:
7659:
7658:
7653:
7651:Toys and games
7648:
7643:
7638:
7633:
7628:
7623:
7622:
7621:
7611:
7606:
7601:
7596:
7591:
7586:
7581:
7576:
7571:
7566:
7561:
7556:
7551:
7545:
7543:
7537:
7536:
7534:
7533:
7528:
7523:
7518:
7513:
7508:
7503:
7497:
7495:
7489:
7488:
7486:
7485:
7480:
7475:
7470:
7465:
7464:
7463:
7458:
7453:
7448:
7443:
7433:
7428:
7427:
7426:
7416:
7411:
7406:
7401:
7396:
7391:
7386:
7381:
7375:
7373:
7367:
7366:
7363:
7362:
7360:
7359:
7354:
7349:
7344:
7339:
7334:
7329:
7323:
7321:
7317:
7316:
7314:
7313:
7308:
7303:
7298:
7293:
7288:
7283:
7278:
7273:
7268:
7262:
7260:
7253:
7247:
7246:
7244:
7243:
7238:
7233:
7228:
7223:
7218:
7213:
7208:
7203:
7198:
7193:
7191:Vigintisexviri
7188:
7183:
7178:
7173:
7168:
7163:
7158:
7153:
7151:Cursus honorum
7148:
7143:
7137:
7135:
7129:
7128:
7126:
7125:
7120:
7115:
7110:
7105:
7100:
7095:
7089:
7087:
7081:
7080:
7078:
7077:
7072:
7067:
7066:
7065:
7060:
7055:
7050:
7040:
7035:
7030:
7025:
7020:
7015:
7009:
7007:
7001:
7000:
6997:
6996:
6994:
6993:
6992:
6991:
6981:
6980:
6979:
6974:
6964:
6963:
6962:
6957:
6950:Western Empire
6947:
6942:
6937:
6932:
6926:
6924:
6918:
6917:
6915:
6914:
6909:
6908:
6907:
6897:
6891:
6885:
6879:
6878:
6876:
6875:
6870:
6864:
6861:
6860:
6852:
6851:
6844:
6837:
6829:
6820:
6819:
6817:
6816:
6811:
6806:
6799:
6794:
6789:
6784:
6779:
6774:
6769:
6763:
6760:
6759:
6755:
6754:
6740:
6738:
6724:
6722:
6711:
6709:
6705:Medieval Latin
6698:
6696:
6685:
6683:
6674:75 BC – 200 AD
6670:
6668:
6657:
6652:
6649:
6648:
6640:
6639:
6632:
6625:
6617:
6611:
6610:
6590:
6575:
6550:
6549:
6544:
6539:
6533:
6532:
6521:
6520:
6518:
6517:External links
6515:
6514:
6513:
6500:
6494:
6481:
6474:
6459:
6448:
6433:
6422:
6407:
6400:
6393:
6384:
6381:
6379:
6378:
6368:
6367:
6363:
6362:
6352:
6351:
6347:
6346:
6337:
6328:
6318:
6317:
6313:
6312:
6303:
6294:
6285:
6275:
6274:
6270:
6269:
6256:
6246:
6245:
6241:
6240:
6231:
6225:. Manchester:
6218:
6209:
6200:
6190:
6189:
6185:
6184:
6175:
6166:
6148:
6139:
6132:
6123:
6113:
6112:
6108:
6106:
6103:
6101:
6100:
6091:
6082:
6073:
6067:
6054:
6048:
6035:
6029:
6016:
6009:
6003:
5986:
5977:
5965:10.2307/410397
5959:(4): 458–466.
5948:
5941:
5934:
5928:
5915:
5908:
5899:
5889:(2): 110–122.
5878:
5875:
5844:
5830:
5813:
5807:
5795:Medieval Latin
5790:
5781:
5769:10.2307/410406
5752:
5741:
5730:
5718:(2): 191–230.
5703:
5694:
5683:
5676:
5667:
5661:
5644:
5635:
5626:
5616:
5615:
5611:
5609:
5606:
5603:
5602:
5581:
5572:, p. 238.
5570:Grandgent 1991
5559:
5546:
5529:
5517:
5506:Grandgent 1991
5493:
5470:
5457:
5436:
5424:
5410:
5401:
5392:
5383:
5374:
5365:
5356:
5347:
5338:
5329:
5320:
5318:Hall 1976: 180
5311:
5302:
5293:
5284:
5282:Herman 2000: 2
5275:
5266:
5254:
5242:
5232:
5223:
5214:
5205:
5193:
5181:
5169:
5157:
5145:
5133:
5121:
5109:
5097:
5085:
5073:
5061:
5049:
5037:
5021:
5009:
4997:
4985:
4983:, pp. 5–7
4973:
4961:
4948:
4947:
4945:
4942:
4940:
4937:
4936:
4935:
4930:
4925:
4920:
4915:
4910:
4905:
4900:
4893:
4890:
4889:
4888:
4883:
4878:
4873:
4868:
4863:
4858:
4853:
4848:
4843:
4838:
4833:
4831:Romance copula
4828:
4823:
4818:
4812:
4811:
4795:
4792:
4756:
4753:
4577:signified the
4569:signified the
4493:Romance copula
4491:Main article:
4488:
4485:
4435:into the verb
4412:and some from
4282:An innovative
4280:
4279:
4269:
4235:
4234:
4208:
4178:
4149:
4068:. Thus Latin
4028:
4027:
4024:
4021:
4018:
4015:
4012:
4009:
4006:
4003:
3999:
3998:
3995:
3992:
3989:
3986:
3983:
3980:
3977:
3974:
3970:
3969:
3966:
3963:
3960:
3957:
3954:
3951:
3948:
3945:
3941:
3940:
3937:
3934:
3931:
3928:
3925:
3922:
3919:
3916:
3912:
3911:
3908:
3904:
3903:
3898:
3895:
3892:
3889:
3886:
3883:
3880:
3877:
3846:Main article:
3822:
3819:
3705:
3702:
3699:
3698:
3695:
3692:
3689:
3686:
3683:
3679:
3678:
3675:
3672:
3669:
3666:
3663:
3659:
3658:
3656:
3653:
3650:
3647:
3644:
3640:
3639:
3636:
3633:
3630:
3627:
3624:
3623:
3620:
3617:
3614:
3590:
3587:
3586:
3585:
3573:
3572:
3553:
3552:
3540:
3539:
3350:
3347:
3344:
3343:
3339:
3338:
3335:
3331:
3330:
3327:
3323:
3322:
3316:
3309:
3305:
3304:
3298:
3291:
3288:
3284:
3283:
3279:
3278:
3275:
3271:
3270:
3267:
3263:
3262:
3256:
3249:
3245:
3244:
3238:
3231:
3228:
3224:
3223:
3218:
3213:
3190:il vin ei buns
3050:
3049:
3044:
3039:
3035:
3034:
3030:
3029:
3024:
3019:
3015:
3014:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2995:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2979:
2975:
2974:
2969:
2964:
2959:
2944:
2943:
2939:
2938:
2933:
2928:
2923:
2919:
2918:
2913:
2909:
2908:
2903:
2899:
2898:
2893:
2888:
2883:
2879:
2878:
2873:
2868:
2863:
2826:
2823:
2820:
2819:
2763:
2762:
2360:nouns such as
2218:
2217:
2209:
2199:
2191:
2181:
2177:
2176:
2168:
2158:
2150:
2140:
2136:
2135:
2127:
2117:
2109:
2099:
2095:
2094:
2091:
2088:
2085:
2082:
2079:
2078:
2075:
2072:
1677:
1676:
1673:
1670:
1667:
1664:
1660:
1659:
1656:
1652:
1651:
1648:
1645:
1642:
1638:
1637:
1634:
1631:
1628:
1625:
1621:
1620:
1617:
1614:
1611:
1608:
1605:
1598:
1594:
1593:
1590:
1587:
1584:
1581:
1578:
1574:
1573:
1570:
1567:
1550:
1547:
1445:); Portuguese
1377:), as well as
1055:
1052:
1049:
1048:
1007:
1005:
998:
992:
989:
984:
981:
963:The system of
960:
957:
956:
955:
950:
947:
939:
936:
935:
934:
931:
924:
919:
916:
907:
904:
892:
891:Palatalization
889:
888:
887:
866:
861:
860:Loss of nasals
858:
846:
843:
840:Appendix Probi
832:Main article:
829:
826:
707:
706:Semantic drift
704:
570:semantic shift
549:
546:
541:Main article:
538:
535:
502:
499:
498:
497:
494:
475:
474:
473:
467:
464:
455:
452:Hadrian's Wall
441:
440:
439:
426:
414:
411:
319:sermo vulgaris
315:sermo plebeius
306:
303:
240:
239:
226:, you may see
212:
211:
208:
200:
199:
192:
184:
183:
176:
171:
168:
167:
164:
156:
155:
154:Language codes
151:
150:
145:
141:Writing system
138:
135:
134:
132:
131:
130:
129:
128:
127:
108:
106:
103:
100:
99:
97:
96:
95:
94:
93:
92:
91:
90:
66:
64:
57:
54:
53:
46:
42:
41:
38:sermo vulgaris
33:
32:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8814:
8803:
8800:
8798:
8795:
8793:
8790:
8789:
8787:
8772:
8769:
8767:
8764:
8762:
8759:
8757:
8754:
8752:
8749:
8747:
8744:
8742:
8739:
8737:
8734:
8732:
8729:
8727:
8724:
8722:
8719:
8717:
8714:
8712:
8709:
8707:
8704:
8702:
8699:
8697:
8694:
8692:
8689:
8687:
8684:
8682:
8679:
8677:
8674:
8672:
8669:
8667:
8664:
8662:
8659:
8657:
8654:
8652:
8649:
8647:
8644:
8643:
8641:
8632:
8626:
8623:
8621:
8618:
8616:
8613:
8611:
8608:
8606:
8603:
8601:
8598:
8596:
8593:
8591:
8588:
8586:
8583:
8581:
8578:
8576:
8573:
8571:
8568:
8566:
8563:
8561:
8558:
8556:
8553:
8551:
8548:
8546:
8543:
8541:
8538:
8536:
8533:
8532:
8530:
8526:
8516:
8513:
8511:
8508:
8506:
8503:
8501:
8498:
8496:
8493:
8491:
8488:
8486:
8483:
8481:
8478:
8476:
8473:
8471:
8468:
8466:
8463:
8461:
8458:
8456:
8453:
8451:
8448:
8446:
8443:
8441:
8438:
8436:
8433:
8431:
8428:
8426:
8423:
8421:
8418:
8416:
8413:
8411:
8408:
8406:
8403:
8401:
8398:
8396:
8393:
8391:
8388:
8386:
8383:
8381:
8378:
8376:
8373:
8371:
8368:
8366:
8363:
8361:
8358:
8356:
8353:
8351:
8348:
8347:
8345:
8343:
8339:
8333:
8330:
8328:
8325:
8323:
8320:
8318:
8315:
8313:
8310:
8308:
8305:
8303:
8300:
8298:
8295:
8293:
8290:
8288:
8285:
8283:
8280:
8278:
8275:
8273:
8270:
8268:
8265:
8263:
8260:
8258:
8255:
8253:
8250:
8248:
8245:
8243:
8240:
8238:
8235:
8233:
8230:
8228:
8225:
8223:
8220:
8218:
8215:
8213:
8210:
8208:
8205:
8203:
8200:
8198:
8195:
8193:
8190:
8188:
8185:
8183:
8180:
8178:
8175:
8173:
8170:
8168:
8165:
8163:
8160:
8158:
8155:
8153:
8150:
8148:
8145:
8143:
8140:
8138:
8135:
8133:
8130:
8128:
8125:
8123:
8120:
8118:
8115:
8113:
8110:
8108:
8105:
8103:
8100:
8098:
8097:Julius Paulus
8095:
8093:
8090:
8088:
8085:
8083:
8080:
8078:
8075:
8073:
8070:
8068:
8065:
8063:
8060:
8058:
8055:
8053:
8050:
8048:
8045:
8043:
8040:
8038:
8035:
8033:
8032:Fabius Pictor
8030:
8028:
8025:
8023:
8020:
8018:
8015:
8013:
8010:
8008:
8005:
8003:
8000:
7998:
7995:
7993:
7990:
7988:
7985:
7983:
7980:
7978:
7975:
7973:
7970:
7968:
7965:
7963:
7960:
7958:
7955:
7953:
7950:
7948:
7945:
7943:
7940:
7939:
7937:
7935:
7931:
7928:
7924:
7918:
7915:
7911:
7908:
7906:
7903:
7901:
7898:
7896:
7893:
7891:
7888:
7886:
7883:
7881:
7878:
7876:
7873:
7871:
7868:
7867:
7865:
7863:
7860:
7858:
7855:
7854:
7852:
7850:
7846:
7840:
7837:
7835:
7832:
7830:
7827:
7825:
7822:
7820:
7817:
7815:
7812:
7810:
7807:
7805:
7802:
7800:
7797:
7795:
7792:
7790:
7787:
7785:
7782:
7780:
7777:
7775:
7772:
7770:
7769:Amphitheatres
7767:
7766:
7764:
7762:
7758:
7752:
7749:
7747:
7744:
7742:
7739:
7737:
7734:
7732:
7729:
7727:
7724:
7722:
7719:
7717:
7714:
7710:
7707:
7706:
7705:
7702:
7700:
7697:
7695:
7692:
7690:
7687:
7685:
7682:
7680:
7677:
7675:
7672:
7671:
7669:
7667:
7663:
7657:
7654:
7652:
7649:
7647:
7644:
7642:
7639:
7637:
7634:
7632:
7629:
7627:
7624:
7620:
7617:
7616:
7615:
7612:
7610:
7607:
7605:
7602:
7600:
7597:
7595:
7592:
7590:
7587:
7585:
7582:
7580:
7577:
7575:
7572:
7570:
7567:
7565:
7562:
7560:
7557:
7555:
7552:
7550:
7547:
7546:
7544:
7542:
7538:
7532:
7529:
7527:
7524:
7522:
7519:
7517:
7514:
7512:
7509:
7507:
7506:Deforestation
7504:
7502:
7499:
7498:
7496:
7494:
7490:
7484:
7481:
7479:
7476:
7474:
7471:
7469:
7466:
7462:
7459:
7457:
7456:Siege engines
7454:
7452:
7449:
7447:
7444:
7442:
7439:
7438:
7437:
7434:
7432:
7429:
7425:
7422:
7421:
7420:
7417:
7415:
7412:
7410:
7407:
7405:
7402:
7400:
7397:
7395:
7392:
7390:
7389:Establishment
7387:
7385:
7382:
7380:
7377:
7376:
7374:
7372:
7368:
7358:
7355:
7353:
7350:
7348:
7345:
7343:
7340:
7338:
7335:
7333:
7330:
7328:
7325:
7324:
7322:
7320:Extraordinary
7318:
7312:
7309:
7307:
7306:Promagistrate
7304:
7302:
7299:
7297:
7294:
7292:
7289:
7287:
7284:
7282:
7279:
7277:
7274:
7272:
7269:
7267:
7264:
7263:
7261:
7257:
7254:
7252:
7248:
7242:
7239:
7237:
7234:
7232:
7229:
7227:
7224:
7222:
7219:
7217:
7214:
7212:
7209:
7207:
7204:
7202:
7199:
7197:
7194:
7192:
7189:
7187:
7184:
7182:
7179:
7177:
7174:
7172:
7169:
7167:
7164:
7162:
7159:
7157:
7154:
7152:
7149:
7147:
7144:
7142:
7139:
7138:
7136:
7134:
7130:
7124:
7121:
7119:
7116:
7114:
7111:
7109:
7106:
7104:
7101:
7099:
7096:
7094:
7093:Twelve Tables
7091:
7090:
7088:
7086:
7082:
7076:
7073:
7071:
7068:
7064:
7061:
7059:
7056:
7054:
7051:
7049:
7046:
7045:
7044:
7041:
7039:
7036:
7034:
7031:
7029:
7026:
7024:
7021:
7019:
7016:
7014:
7011:
7010:
7008:
7006:
7002:
6990:
6987:
6986:
6985:
6982:
6978:
6975:
6973:
6970:
6969:
6968:
6965:
6961:
6958:
6956:
6953:
6952:
6951:
6948:
6946:
6943:
6941:
6938:
6936:
6933:
6931:
6928:
6927:
6925:
6923:
6919:
6913:
6910:
6906:
6903:
6902:
6901:
6898:
6896:
6893:
6892:
6889:
6886:
6884:
6880:
6874:
6871:
6869:
6866:
6865:
6862:
6857:
6850:
6845:
6843:
6838:
6836:
6831:
6830:
6827:
6815:
6812:
6810:
6809:Hiberno-Latin
6807:
6805:
6804:
6800:
6798:
6795:
6793:
6790:
6788:
6785:
6783:
6780:
6778:
6775:
6773:
6770:
6768:
6765:
6764:
6761:
6752:
6751:
6747:
6739:
6736:
6735:
6731:
6723:
6720:
6719:
6715:
6710:
6707:
6706:
6702:
6697:
6694:
6693:
6689:
6684:
6681:
6680:
6675:
6669:
6666:
6665:
6661:
6656:
6655:
6650:
6646:
6638:
6633:
6631:
6626:
6624:
6619:
6618:
6615:
6599:
6595:
6591:
6587:
6583:
6582:
6576:
6564:
6560:
6555:
6554:
6548:
6545:
6543:
6540:
6538:
6535:
6534:
6529:
6524:
6510:
6506:
6501:
6497:
6495:9781009327664
6491:
6487:
6482:
6479:
6475:
6472:
6471:9788833690087
6468:
6464:
6460:
6457:
6453:
6449:
6446:
6442:
6438:
6434:
6431:
6428:Chapel Hill:
6427:
6423:
6420:
6416:
6412:
6408:
6405:
6401:
6398:
6394:
6391:
6387:
6386:
6375:
6370:
6369:
6365:
6364:
6359:
6354:
6353:
6349:
6348:
6343:
6338:
6334:
6329:
6325:
6320:
6319:
6316:To Portuguese
6315:
6314:
6309:
6304:
6300:
6295:
6291:
6286:
6282:
6277:
6276:
6272:
6271:
6262:
6257:
6253:
6248:
6247:
6243:
6242:
6237:
6232:
6228:
6224:
6219:
6215:
6210:
6206:
6201:
6197:
6192:
6191:
6187:
6186:
6181:
6176:
6172:
6167:
6164:
6160:
6154:
6149:
6145:
6140:
6137:
6133:
6129:
6124:
6120:
6115:
6114:
6110:
6109:
6097:
6092:
6088:
6083:
6079:
6074:
6070:
6068:0-19-520829-3
6064:
6060:
6055:
6051:
6049:2-252-02360-0
6045:
6041:
6036:
6032:
6030:0-89005-172-0
6026:
6022:
6017:
6014:
6010:
6006:
6004:0-19-508345-8
6000:
5996:
5992:
5987:
5983:
5978:
5974:
5970:
5966:
5962:
5958:
5954:
5949:
5946:
5942:
5939:
5935:
5931:
5929:0-8061-2136-X
5925:
5921:
5916:
5913:
5909:
5905:
5900:
5896:
5892:
5888:
5884:
5879:
5876:
5872:
5868:
5864:
5860:
5856:
5852:
5851:
5845:
5841:
5837:
5833:
5831:0-271-02001-6
5827:
5823:
5819:
5814:
5810:
5808:0-226-31712-9
5804:
5800:
5796:
5791:
5787:
5782:
5778:
5774:
5770:
5766:
5762:
5758:
5753:
5750:
5746:
5742:
5738:
5737:
5731:
5726:
5721:
5717:
5713:
5709:
5704:
5700:
5695:
5691:
5690:
5684:
5681:
5677:
5673:
5668:
5664:
5662:0-521-37936-9
5658:
5654:
5650:
5645:
5641:
5636:
5632:
5627:
5623:
5618:
5617:
5613:
5612:
5599:
5595:
5593:
5585:
5577:
5571:
5566:
5564:
5556:
5550:
5544:, p. 53.
5543:
5538:
5536:
5534:
5526:
5521:
5513:
5508:, p. 82.
5507:
5502:
5500:
5498:
5491:, p. 52.
5490:
5485:
5483:
5481:
5479:
5477:
5475:
5467:
5461:
5453:
5449:
5448:
5440:
5431:
5429:
5419:
5417:
5415:
5405:
5396:
5387:
5378:
5369:
5360:
5351:
5342:
5333:
5324:
5315:
5306:
5297:
5288:
5279:
5270:
5263:
5258:
5252:, p. 117
5251:
5246:
5236:
5227:
5218:
5209:
5202:
5197:
5190:
5185:
5178:
5173:
5166:
5161:
5154:
5149:
5142:
5137:
5130:
5125:
5118:
5113:
5106:
5101:
5095:, p. 122
5094:
5089:
5083:, p. 120
5082:
5077:
5070:
5065:
5058:
5053:
5046:
5041:
5034:
5030:
5025:
5018:
5013:
5006:
5001:
4995:, p. 120
4994:
4989:
4982:
4977:
4970:
4965:
4958:
4953:
4949:
4934:
4931:
4929:
4926:
4924:
4921:
4919:
4916:
4914:
4911:
4909:
4906:
4904:
4901:
4899:
4896:
4895:
4887:
4884:
4882:
4879:
4877:
4874:
4872:
4869:
4867:
4864:
4862:
4861:Gallo-Romance
4859:
4857:
4854:
4852:
4849:
4847:
4844:
4842:
4839:
4837:
4834:
4832:
4829:
4827:
4824:
4822:
4819:
4817:
4814:
4813:
4809:
4803:
4798:
4791:
4789:
4785:
4780:
4778:
4774:
4769:
4766:
4762:
4752:
4750:
4746:
4742:
4738:
4737:sto scappando
4734:
4733:sto scappando
4730:
4728:
4723:
4721:
4716:
4714:
4708:
4704:
4700:
4696:
4692:
4688:
4684:
4680:
4676:
4672:
4667:
4665:
4664:sto scrivendo
4661:
4657:
4653:
4649:
4645:
4641:
4637:
4633:
4628:
4626:
4622:
4618:
4614:
4610:
4606:
4601:
4599:
4595:
4594:
4589:
4588:
4583:
4580:
4576:
4572:
4568:
4564:
4563:
4557:
4555:
4552:derives from
4551:
4550:
4546:
4542:
4541:
4536:
4535:
4530:
4526:
4525:
4520:
4519:
4514:
4510:
4506:
4505:
4500:
4494:
4484:
4482:
4481:
4476:
4475:
4470:
4469:
4464:
4463:
4458:
4457:
4452:
4448:
4444:
4440:
4439:
4434:
4430:
4425:
4423:
4419:
4415:
4411:
4407:
4403:
4399:
4395:
4391:
4390:
4385:
4384:
4377:
4375:
4371:
4367:
4366:passive voice
4362:
4360:
4356:
4352:
4348:
4343:
4341:
4337:
4333:
4329:
4325:
4321:
4317:
4313:
4309:
4305:
4301:
4297:
4293:
4289:
4285:
4277:
4273:
4270:
4268:'I will stay'
4267:
4263:
4260:
4259:
4258:
4256:
4252:
4248:
4243:
4242:
4241:
4232:
4228:
4224:
4220:
4216:
4212:
4209:
4206:
4202:
4198:
4194:
4190:
4186:
4182:
4179:
4177:
4173:
4169:
4165:
4161:
4157:
4153:
4150:
4147:
4143:
4139:
4135:
4131:
4127:
4123:
4120:
4119:
4118:
4116:
4112:
4111:
4106:
4102:
4097:
4091:
4087:
4083:
4079:
4075:
4071:
4047:
4043:
4038:
4034:
4025:
4022:
4019:
4016:
4013:
4010:
4007:
4004:
4001:
4000:
3996:
3993:
3990:
3987:
3984:
3981:
3978:
3975:
3972:
3971:
3967:
3964:
3961:
3958:
3955:
3952:
3949:
3946:
3943:
3942:
3938:
3935:
3932:
3929:
3926:
3923:
3920:
3917:
3914:
3913:
3905:
3896:
3893:
3890:
3887:
3884:
3881:
3875:
3872:
3869:
3865:
3859:
3855:
3849:
3848:Romance verbs
3841:
3840:
3834:
3833:
3827:
3818:
3816:
3812:
3808:
3804:
3803:
3798:
3797:
3792:
3788:
3784:
3783:
3778:
3777:
3772:
3768:
3764:
3763:
3758:
3753:
3751:
3750:
3745:
3744:
3739:
3738:
3733:
3732:
3727:
3726:
3721:
3720:
3715:
3711:
3696:
3693:
3690:
3687:
3684:
3681:
3676:
3673:
3670:
3667:
3664:
3661:
3657:
3654:
3651:
3648:
3645:
3642:
3637:
3634:
3631:
3628:
3626:
3613:
3606:
3604:
3600:
3583:
3580:
3579:
3578:
3577:
3576:Vulgar Latin:
3570:
3567:
3566:
3565:
3564:
3560:
3558:
3550:
3547:
3546:
3545:
3544:
3543:Vulgar Latin:
3537:
3534:
3533:
3532:
3531:
3527:
3525:
3521:
3517:
3513:
3509:
3505:
3504:
3499:
3495:
3491:
3487:
3483:
3482:
3477:
3476:
3471:
3467:
3466:
3462:
3458:
3457:
3453:
3449:
3448:
3442:
3440:
3439:
3434:
3430:
3426:
3425:
3420:
3419:
3414:
3410:
3406:
3402:
3401:
3396:
3395:
3390:
3389:
3384:
3383:
3378:
3377:
3372:
3371:
3366:
3365:
3360:
3356:
3341:
3333:
3328:
3325:
3321:
3314:
3310:
3307:
3303:
3299:
3296:
3292:
3289:
3281:
3273:
3268:
3265:
3261:
3254:
3250:
3247:
3243:
3239:
3236:
3232:
3229:
3222:(11th cent.)
3219:
3214:
3211:
3206:("neighbor").
3205:
3197:
3195:
3191:
3187:
3183:
3178:
3175:
3170:
3168:
3164:
3160:
3154:
3152:
3148:
3147:
3141:
3139:
3135:
3134:
3128:
3126:
3122:
3117:
3112:
3111:
3105:
3100:
3099:
3095:
3090:
3085:
3081:
3080:
3075:
3071:
3070:
3069:genitive case
3064:
3062:
3058:
3048:
3045:
3043:
3040:
3037:
3032:
3028:
3023:
3017:
3013:
3008:
3005:
3003:
3000:
2997:
2993:
2990:
2988:
2985:
2983:
2980:
2977:
2970:
2965:
2960:
2958:
2957:
2953:
2941:
2937:
2932:
2927:
2926:caepae, cēpae
2921:
2917:
2914:
2911:
2907:
2906:caepam, cēpam
2904:
2901:
2897:
2892:
2887:
2884:
2881:
2874:
2869:
2864:
2862:
2861:
2857:
2850:
2848:
2844:
2840:
2836:
2832:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2795:
2790:
2789:
2784:
2780:
2779:
2774:
2768:
2764:
2761:
2759:
2758:
2753:
2749:
2748:
2743:
2742:
2737:
2736:
2730:
2728:
2727:
2722:
2721:
2716:
2715:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2697:
2692:
2691:
2686:
2685:
2680:
2679:
2674:
2673:
2668:
2667:
2662:
2661:
2656:
2655:
2650:
2649:
2644:
2643:
2638:
2637:
2632:
2631:
2626:
2625:
2619:
2617:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2607:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2594:
2589:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2579:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2562:
2560:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2550:
2546:
2542:
2541:
2537:
2533:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2523:
2519:and Romanian
2518:
2517:
2513:
2509:
2505:
2504:
2497:
2495:
2494:
2489:
2488:
2483:
2482:
2477:
2476:
2471:
2468:
2467:
2462:
2459:
2458:
2453:
2450:
2449:
2444:
2441:
2440:
2435:
2432:
2431:
2426:
2423:
2422:
2417:
2414:
2413:
2408:
2405:
2404:
2398:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2382:
2377:
2376:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2362:l'uovo fresco
2359:
2354:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2339:
2334:
2330:
2329:
2325:
2318:
2312:
2311:
2307:
2303:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2293:
2289:
2286:, Portuguese
2285:
2284:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2271:
2266:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2234:
2216:
2215:
2210:
2208:
2207:
2206:
2200:
2198:
2197:
2192:
2190:
2189:
2188:
2182:
2179:
2175:
2174:
2169:
2167:
2166:
2165:
2159:
2157:
2156:
2151:
2149:
2148:
2147:
2141:
2138:
2134:
2133:
2128:
2126:
2125:
2124:
2118:
2116:
2115:
2110:
2108:
2107:
2106:
2100:
2097:
2092:
2089:
2086:
2083:
2081:
2071:
2070:
2064:
2062:
2061:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2047:
2042:
2041:
2036:
2035:
2030:
2029:
2024:
2023:
2018:
2017:
2012:
2011:
2006:
2003:
2002:
1998:and Romanian
1997:
1994:
1990:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1980:
1976:
1973:, Portuguese
1972:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1944:
1940:
1934:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1907:
1902:
1901:
1896:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1886:
1881:
1880:
1875:
1874:
1869:
1868:
1863:
1862:
1857:
1856:
1851:
1850:
1846:; Portuguese
1845:
1844:
1839:
1838:
1833:
1832:
1827:
1826:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1796:
1794:
1790:
1789:
1784:
1780:
1779:
1774:
1770:
1769:
1768:amphitheatrum
1764:
1760:
1759:
1754:
1750:
1749:
1744:
1740:
1739:
1734:
1730:
1725:
1724:-declension.
1723:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1691:
1686:
1684:
1674:
1668:
1662:
1657:
1654:
1646:
1640:
1635:
1632:
1629:
1623:
1618:
1612:
1609:
1606:
1603:
1599:
1596:
1591:
1588:
1585:
1582:
1579:
1576:
1575:
1565:
1559:
1546:
1544:
1543:
1538:
1536:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1517:
1512:
1511:
1505:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1486:
1484:
1480:
1479:
1474:
1470:
1469:
1464:
1460:
1459:
1454:
1450:
1449:
1444:
1440:
1439:
1434:
1433:
1428:
1424:
1423:
1418:
1417:
1412:
1408:
1407:
1402:
1401:
1396:
1392:
1391:
1386:
1382:
1381:
1376:
1372:
1371:
1366:
1362:
1361:
1356:
1352:
1351:
1346:
1342:
1341:
1336:
1332:
1331:
1326:
1322:
1321:
1316:
1312:
1311:
1306:
1305:
1300:
1296:
1295:
1289:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1278:
1273:
1272:
1266:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1235:
1233:
1229:
1226:("the man" –
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1208:
1203:
1202:
1197:
1193:
1192:
1187:
1186:
1181:
1180:
1175:
1174:
1169:
1168:
1164:, Portuguese
1163:
1162:
1157:
1156:
1151:
1150:
1145:
1144:
1139:
1138:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1120:
1115:
1114:
1109:
1105:
1104:
1099:
1098:
1093:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1063:
1061:
1045:
1042:
1034:
1024:
1020:
1014:
1013:
1008:This section
1006:
1002:
997:
996:
988:
980:
978:
974:
970:
966:
953:
952:
945:
932:
929:
925:
922:
921:
915:
913:
903:
901:
897:
885:
881:
880:
875:
871:
867:
864:
863:
856:
852:
841:
835:
825:
823:
822:
817:
813:
812:
807:
806:
801:
797:
793:
792:
787:
783:
779:
778:
773:
769:
768:
763:
759:
758:
753:
752:
747:
743:
739:
738:
733:
729:
725:
724:
719:
716:('citizenry'
715:
714:
703:
701:
697:
693:
689:
685:
681:
677:
673:
669:
665:
661:
657:
653:
649:
645:
641:
637:
633:
629:
625:
620:
618:
617:
612:
611:
606:
605:
600:
599:
594:
593:
588:
587:
582:
577:
575:
571:
567:
563:
559:
555:
544:
534:
531:
526:
524:
521:and cultural
520:
516:
512:
507:
501:Fragmentation
495:
492:
488:
484:
480:
476:
471:
468:
465:
462:
461:
456:
453:
449:
445:
444:
442:
437:
436:Curse tablets
434:
433:
431:
427:
424:
420:
419:
418:
410:
405:
400:
396:
392:
384:
381:
379:
378:Proto-Romance
374:
370:
366:
362:
357:
355:
351:
347:
343:
338:
336:
332:
328:
324:
320:
316:
312:
302:
300:
296:
292:
288:
287:Proto-Romance
283:
277:
275:
270:
266:
262:
258:
254:
250:
246:
237:
233:
229:
225:
221:
219:
213:
206:
201:
197:
193:
191:
190:
185:
181:
177:
174:
173:Linguist List
169:
165:
162:
157:
152:
149:
146:
142:
136:
126:
123:
122:
121:
118:
117:
116:
113:
112:
111:
107:
101:
89:
86:
85:
84:
81:
80:
79:
76:
75:
74:
71:
70:
69:
68:Indo-European
65:
61:
55:
51:
47:
43:
39:
34:
29:
26:
22:
8711:Institutions
8575:Leptis Magna
8528:Major cities
8435:Philostratus
8222:Quadrigarius
8042:Rufus Festus
7905:Contemporary
7879:
7626:Romanization
7549:Architecture
7156:Collegiality
7005:Constitution
6856:Ancient Rome
6801:
6777:Vulgar Latin
6776:
6742:
6741:
6726:
6725:
6713:
6712:
6700:
6699:
6687:
6686:
6673:
6671:
6659:
6658:
6604:19 September
6602:. Retrieved
6598:the original
6580:
6569:19 September
6567:. Retrieved
6563:the original
6537:Online books
6528:Vulgar Latin
6527:
6508:
6504:
6485:
6477:
6462:
6451:
6436:
6425:
6410:
6403:
6396:
6389:
6373:
6366:To Sardinian
6357:
6341:
6332:
6323:
6307:
6298:
6289:
6280:
6260:
6251:
6235:
6222:
6213:
6204:
6195:
6179:
6170:
6162:
6158:
6152:
6143:
6135:
6127:
6118:
6095:
6086:
6077:
6058:
6039:
6020:
6012:
5990:
5981:
5956:
5952:
5944:
5937:
5919:
5911:
5903:
5886:
5882:
5854:
5848:
5818:Vulgar Latin
5817:
5794:
5785:
5760:
5756:
5748:
5735:
5715:
5711:
5698:
5688:
5679:
5671:
5648:
5639:
5630:
5621:
5597:
5591:
5584:
5555:DEXOnline.ro
5549:
5520:
5460:
5446:
5439:
5404:
5395:
5386:
5377:
5368:
5359:
5350:
5341:
5332:
5323:
5314:
5305:
5296:
5287:
5278:
5269:
5257:
5245:
5235:
5226:
5217:
5208:
5203:, p. 26
5196:
5191:, p. 21
5184:
5172:
5160:
5148:
5136:
5124:
5119:, p. 21
5112:
5100:
5088:
5076:
5064:
5052:
5040:
5032:
5024:
5017:Eskhult 2018
5012:
5007:, p. 20
5000:
4988:
4976:
4964:
4952:
4886:Thraco-Roman
4866:Gallo-Italic
4787:
4781:
4776:
4770:
4765:inflectional
4758:
4748:
4744:
4740:
4736:
4732:
4726:
4725:
4719:
4718:
4712:
4710:
4707:lexical verb
4702:
4698:
4694:
4678:
4675:sto pensando
4674:
4670:
4668:
4663:
4659:
4655:
4651:
4647:
4643:
4639:
4635:
4631:
4629:
4624:
4620:
4616:
4612:
4608:
4604:
4602:
4597:
4581:
4578:
4574:
4570:
4566:
4558:
4553:
4544:
4528:
4512:
4508:
4496:
4450:
4446:
4442:
4432:
4428:
4426:
4421:
4417:
4413:
4409:
4405:
4401:
4397:
4393:
4378:
4370:periphrastic
4363:
4354:
4350:
4346:
4344:
4339:
4335:
4331:
4327:
4323:
4319:
4315:
4311:
4307:
4303:
4299:
4291:
4281:
4278:'I will say'
4276:apo a nàrrer
4275:
4272:Ap'a nàrrere
4271:
4266:apo a istàre
4265:
4261:
4250:
4244:
4238:
4236:
4230:
4226:
4222:
4218:
4204:
4200:
4196:
4192:
4175:
4171:
4167:
4163:
4145:
4141:
4137:
4133:
4129:
4114:
4101:future tense
4098:
4089:
4085:
4081:
4077:
4073:
4069:
4045:
4039:
4035:
4031:
3867:
3863:
3860:
3857:
3836:
3830:
3810:
3806:
3790:
3787:veloci mente
3786:
3770:
3766:
3754:
3728:, "dearly";
3707:
3677:*si, *sẹ́be
3602:
3598:
3592:
3581:
3575:
3574:
3568:
3562:
3561:
3556:
3554:
3548:
3542:
3541:
3535:
3529:
3528:
3523:
3519:
3515:
3511:
3507:
3497:
3489:
3485:
3469:
3460:
3451:
3443:
3432:
3428:
3412:
3408:
3404:
3359:prepositions
3352:
3329:"vīcīnōrum"
3319:
3312:
3301:
3294:
3259:
3252:
3241:
3234:
3203:
3193:
3189:
3185:
3179:
3173:
3171:
3155:
3144:
3142:
3131:
3129:
3124:
3120:
3093:
3083:
3067:
3065:
3061:analytic one
3053:
3046:
3041:
3026:
3021:
3011:
3006:
3001:
2991:
2986:
2981:
2951:
2935:
2930:
2925:
2915:
2905:
2895:
2890:
2885:
2855:
2846:
2842:
2838:
2834:
2830:
2828:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2772:
2767:
2751:
2731:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2620:
2610:
2601:
2597:
2582:
2573:
2569:
2565:
2563:
2553:
2544:
2535:
2526:
2511:
2498:
2469:
2460:
2451:
2442:
2433:
2424:
2415:
2406:
2399:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2358:heteroclitic
2355:
2350:
2342:
2333:(le) braccia
2332:
2323:
2305:
2304:and Italian
2296:
2287:
2278:
2274:
2259:
2250:
2241:
2237:
2221:
2213:
2211:
2204:
2195:
2193:
2186:
2172:
2170:
2163:
2154:
2152:
2145:
2131:
2129:
2122:
2113:
2111:
2104:
2054:
2050:
2004:
1995:
1983:
1974:
1965:
1956:
1947:
1938:
1935:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1889:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1797:
1782:
1772:
1763:amphitheater
1762:
1761:("heaven"),
1752:
1742:
1732:
1726:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1687:
1680:
1557:
1532:
1528:
1507:The numeral
1506:
1493:
1487:
1482:
1472:
1465:); Romanian
1462:
1452:
1442:
1426:
1410:
1394:
1384:
1374:
1364:
1354:
1344:
1334:
1324:
1314:
1299:interjection
1290:
1285:
1267:
1262:
1258:
1247:sacred texts
1242:
1239:Vetus Latina
1236:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1122:(Old French
1064:
1057:
1037:
1028:
1017:Please help
1012:verification
1009:
986:
962:
912:intervocalic
909:
896:Front vowels
894:
883:
877:
845:Consonantism
819:
815:
809:
803:
799:
795:
789:
785:
781:
775:
771:
765:
761:
755:
749:
745:
741:
735:
731:
727:
721:
717:
711:
709:
621:
614:
608:
602:
596:
591:
585:
578:
551:
527:
523:assimilation
508:
504:
458:
416:
407:
402:
397:
394:
391:scholarship.
386:
382:
368:
358:
353:
339:
318:
314:
308:
282:Vulgar Latin
281:
278:
269:Vulgar Latin
268:
252:
248:
245:Vulgar Latin
244:
243:
215:
187:
115:Proto-Italic
88:Vulgar Latin
87:
31:Vulgar Latin
25:
8706:Geographers
8390:Dioscorides
8370:Cassius Dio
7992:Cassiodorus
7895:Renaissance
7501:Agriculture
7473:Auxiliaries
7414:Engineering
7251:Magistrates
7103:Citizenship
7098:Mos maiorum
7033:Late Empire
6814:Judeo-Latin
6660:until 75 BC
6413:91: 15–26.
5914:, 30. 7–39.
5763:(1): 6–27.
5590:Paléoroman
5542:Herman 2000
5489:Herman 2000
5250:Herman 2000
5201:Herman 2000
5189:Elcock 1960
5177:Herman 2000
5165:Herman 2000
5153:Herman 2000
5141:Herman 2000
5129:Herman 2000
5117:Elcock 1960
5107:, p. 5
5105:Herman 2000
5059:, p. 5
5057:Herman 2000
5047:, p. 1
5045:Herman 2000
5029:Posner 1996
5005:Elcock 1960
4981:Herman 2000
4969:Herman 2000
4959:, p. 7
4957:Herman 2000
4871:Ibero-Roman
4630:The use of
4573:nce, while
4521:and French
4288:subjunctive
4284:conditional
4262:Ap'a istàre
4115:amare habeo
3879:Infinitive
3837:Song of my
3796:chiaramente
3682:Accusative
3671:*ti, *tẹ́be
3643:Nominative
3622:3rd person
3308:accusative
3290:nominative
3248:accusative
3230:nominative
3217:(1st cent.)
3186:il bien vin
3167:Old Occitan
3133:dative case
3116:terrae motu
3092:"; Spanish
3074:Meyer-Lübke
2998:accusative
2978:nominative
2971:Old French
2916:caepā, cēpā
2902:accusative
2886:caepa, cēpa
2882:nominative
2581:, Romanian
2484:("fruit"),
2347:Merovingian
2345:. Cf. also
2335:, Romanian
2043:, Romanian
1996:(el) lleche
1882:; Romanian
1624:accusative
1597:nominative
1453:eccum illac
1429:); Spanish
1413:); Spanish
1365:eccum illum
1355:eccum istum
1347:); Italian
1277:supradictus
1261:similarly:
1251:Koine Greek
1228:*homo illum
1220:lupum illum
928:back vowels
798:('placate'
423:grammarians
367:'s seminal
350:Old Occitan
323:Renaissance
309:During the
297:, or early
230:instead of
104:Early forms
8786:Categories
8595:Mediolanum
8535:Alexandria
8500:Themistius
8465:Porphyrius
8292:Tertullian
8227:Quintilian
8217:Propertius
8112:Lactantius
8062:Fulgentius
7997:Censorinus
7819:Sanitation
7804:Metallurgy
7761:Technology
7726:Demography
7674:Patricians
7641:Spectacles
7599:Literature
7594:Hairstyles
7431:Technology
7181:Praefectus
7133:Government
7123:Litigation
7108:Auctoritas
7053:Centuriate
6940:Principate
6935:Pax Romana
6895:Foundation
6692:Late Latin
6511:: 157–222.
6350:To Occitan
6273:To Spanish
6244:To Italian
5993:. Oxford:
5745:Buchi, Éva
5447:Philippics
5262:Adams 2007
5093:Lloyd 1979
5081:Lloyd 1979
5069:Lloyd 1979
4993:Lloyd 1979
4939:References
4933:Old French
4881:Daco-Roman
4543:(Romanian
4359:imperative
4340:amar-te-ei
4308:amar-te-ei
4152:Portuguese
3900:Imperative
3866:with long
3852:See also:
3802:claramente
3799:, Spanish
3714:adjectives
3619:2nd person
3616:1st person
3478:(Romanian
3450:, Spanish
3415:. Spanish
3337:"vīcīnīs"
3220:Old French
3163:Old French
3089:jovis diēs
3059:to a more
2961:Classical
2865:Classical
2856:caepa/cēpa
2600:, Catalan
2295:, Spanish
2098:masculine
1964:, Spanish
1955:, Occitan
1946:, Catalan
1870:, Catalan
1858:; Spanish
1751:("fate"),
1741:("bath"),
1706:hunc locum
1681:The three
1463:eccum inde
1411:eccum ille
1271:praedictus
1152:, Occitan
1071:adjectives
1031:March 2023
977:lengthened
942:See also:
870:fricatives
849:See also:
838:See also:
791:submergere
784:('murder'
730:('hearth'
616:parabolare
581:suppletive
537:Vocabulary
519:linguistic
470:Late Latin
295:Late Latin
8751:Quaestors
8681:Empresses
8671:Dynasties
8661:Dictators
8636:and other
8625:Volubilis
8620:Vindobona
8580:Londinium
8505:Theodoret
8475:Procopius
8455:Polyaenus
8430:Pausanias
8332:Vitruvius
8277:Symmachus
8272:Suetonius
8182:Petronius
8167:Obsequens
8132:Macrobius
8127:Lucretius
8052:Frontinus
8027:Eutropius
8012:Columella
7962:Augustine
7952:Appuleius
7900:Neo-Latin
7875:Classical
7866:Versions
7774:Aqueducts
7716:Patronage
7636:Sexuality
7609:Mythology
7584:Education
7574:Cosmetics
7399:Campaigns
7394:Structure
7347:Decemviri
7206:Imperator
6905:overthrow
6734:Neo-Latin
6714:1300–1500
6664:Old Latin
6454:Detroit:
6188:To French
5857:: 73–96.
4944:Citations
4788:yo te amo
4777:Itinerary
4660:è gracile
4374:reflexive
4255:Sardinian
4251:habere ad
4126:j'aimerai
3907:singular
3902:singular
3782:vēlōciter
3674:*vọ́be(s)
3668:*nọ́be(s)
3503:adineauri
3355:syntactic
3342:ablative
3326:genitive
3282:ablative
3277:"vīcīnō"
3269:"vīcīnī"
3266:genitive
3227:singular
3110:terremoto
3104:ministeri
3038:genitive
3018:ablative
2942:genitive
2912:ablative
2877:Romanian
2705:this-that
2596:/ (reg.)
2384:, plural
2343:brațe(le)
2317:BRACCHIUM
2258:(Italian
2139:feminine
1897:; French
1890:cieru>
1788:thesaurus
1783:thesaurum
1729:Petronius
1720:) in the
1702:hoc locum
1663:genitive
1655:ablative
1592:feminine
1586:masculine
1577:masculine
1483:ecce ille
1473:ecce iste
1443:eccum hic
1427:eccum hac
1395:eccum hac
1335:ecce iste
1325:ecce ille
1196:Sardinian
814:('whole'
742:manducare
624:particles
430:epigraphy
335:Classical
274:Raynouard
257:registers
189:Glottolog
161:ISO 639-3
125:Old Latin
8756:Tribunes
8746:Praetors
8696:Generals
8676:Emperors
8585:Lugdunum
8570:Eboracum
8560:Carthage
8545:Aquileia
8460:Polybius
8450:Plutarch
8420:Libanius
8410:Josephus
8405:Herodian
8297:Tibullus
8212:Priscian
8187:Phaedrus
8147:Manilius
8092:Jordanes
8077:Hydatius
8007:Claudian
7987:Catullus
7977:Boëthius
7972:Ausonius
7890:Medieval
7862:Alphabet
7834:Theatres
7809:Numerals
7794:Concrete
7784:Circuses
7751:Bagaudae
7741:Adoption
7736:Marriage
7709:Assembly
7614:Religion
7589:Folklore
7569:Clothing
7564:Calendar
7521:Currency
7511:Commerce
7409:Strategy
7371:Military
7357:Triumvir
7337:Dictator
7332:Interrex
7311:Governor
7296:Quaestor
7259:Ordinary
7241:Province
7231:Tetrarch
7221:Augustus
7186:Vicarius
7176:Officium
7113:Imperium
7063:Plebeian
7023:Republic
6945:Dominate
6912:Republic
6873:Timeline
6701:700–1500
6643:Ages of
6419:24368205
5953:Language
5895:43343254
5757:Language
5452:Archived
5240:regions.
4898:Sicilian
4794:See also
4691:bleached
4656:sta male
4447:ambulare
4433:ambitare
4422:ambitare
4394:ambitare
4355:je viens
4349:> Sp
4156:Galician
4023:*-on(t)
3965:*-en(t)
3962:*-ẹ́tes
3959:*-ẹ́mos
3757:ablative
3635:singular
3629:singular
3589:Pronouns
3496:writing
3159:Romanian
3151:ablative
3098:menester
2760:: good.
2752:lo bueno
2699:("it" /
2630:celle-ci
2624:celui-ci
2583:mânu>
2341: :
2338:braț(ul)
2331: :
2090:singular
2084:singular
1793:freedman
1690:Pompeian
1675:altārum
1583:feminine
1569:singular
1560:("tall")
1500:and the
1385:eccu hic
1345:ecce hic
1315:ecce eum
1307:through
1284:writes,
1255:Aetheria
1083:Germanic
1067:pronouns
938:Vocalism
744:('chew'
668:postquam
604:fabulari
574:literary
562:Germanic
554:coinages
515:colonies
487:Albanian
404:society.
267:onward.
236:Help:IPA
196:vulg1234
8726:Legions
8686:Fiction
8656:Consuls
8651:Climate
8605:Ravenna
8600:Pompeii
8590:Lutetia
8555:Bononia
8550:Berytus
8540:Antioch
8515:Zosimus
8510:Zonaras
8485:Sozomen
8470:Priscus
8445:Photius
8287:Terence
8282:Tacitus
8267:Statius
8252:Servius
8237:Sallust
8192:Plautus
8172:Orosius
8152:Martial
8107:Juvenal
8082:Hyginus
8067:Gellius
7926:Writers
7857:History
7839:Thermae
7829:Temples
7779:Bridges
7746:Slavery
7694:Equites
7666:Society
7646:Theatre
7619:Deities
7579:Cuisine
7559:Bathing
7541:Culture
7516:Finance
7493:Economy
7384:Borders
7379:History
7281:Tribune
7276:Praetor
7166:Legatus
7161:Emperor
7048:Curiate
7018:Kingdom
7013:History
6989:History
6972:decline
6930:History
6900:Kingdom
6883:History
6868:Outline
6745:present
6729:present
6688:200–700
6265:LEGENDA
5871:1291590
5614:General
5527:, 1019.
5525:Captivi
4729:escrito
4722:scritto
4619:) with
4392:, and *
4310:, from
4211:Italian
4185:Catalan
4181:Spanish
4042:perfect
4040:In the
4020:*-etes
4017:*-emos
4014:*-e(t)
3956:*-e(t)
3950:*-(j)o
3947:*-ẹ́re
3910:plural
3771:ment(e)
3731:ācriter
3710:adverbs
3704:Adverbs
3662:Dative
3638:plural
3418:después
3334:dative
3320:veisins
3313:vīcīnōs
3287:plural
3274:dative
3253:vīcīnum
3242:veisins
3235:vīcīnus
3182:Romansh
3138:Plautus
3033:dative
2922:dative
2811:Charles
2807:Jacques
2549:pereira
2531:poirier
2522:păr(ul)
2328:braccio
2233:gaudium
2180:neuter
2112:giardin
2103:giardin
2093:plural
2028:lăpturi
1993:Leonese
1738:balneum
1733:balneus
1672:altōrum
1641:dative
1572:plural
1527:writes
1370:codesto
991:Grammar
969:quality
808:), and
805:solvere
772:mittere
713:civitas
610:narrare
592:portare
583:) verb
558:Gaulish
413:Sources
327:Italian
325:, when
299:Romance
249:Popular
232:Unicode
180:lat-vul
8736:Nomina
8721:Legacy
8701:Gentes
8638:topics
8634:Lists
8615:Smyrna
8495:Strabo
8425:Lucian
8415:Julian
8365:Arrian
8360:Appian
8350:Aelian
8327:Vergil
8102:Justin
8087:Jerome
8072:Horace
8057:Fronto
8047:Florus
8022:Ennius
8002:Cicero
7982:Caesar
7880:Vulgar
7704:Tribes
7631:Romans
7441:Legion
7424:castra
7301:Aedile
7271:Censor
7266:Consul
7226:Caesar
7196:Lictor
7118:Status
7058:Tribal
7038:Senate
7028:Empire
6922:Empire
6858:topics
6525:about
6492:
6469:
6443:
6417:
6065:
6046:
6027:
6001:
5973:410397
5971:
5926:
5893:
5869:
5840:42565M
5838:
5828:
5805:
5777:410406
5775:
5659:
4784:clitic
4773:Egeria
4749:stands
4687:aspect
4623:(from
4615:(from
4598:estare
4579:state.
4567:essere
4518:essere
4509:essere
4499:copula
4487:Copula
4474:essere
4456:essere
4443:vadere
4438:andare
4429:vadere
4414:vadere
4402:vadere
4389:vadere
4304:amarei
4296:clitic
4292:habere
4160:amarei
4122:French
4110:habere
4074:amauit
4005:*-ere
3991:-itis
3988:-imus
3933:-ētis
3930:-ēmus
3791:-mente
3749:crēber
3743:crēbrō
3632:plural
3494:Jerome
3447:dehors
3424:depois
3318:(les)
3302:veisin
3295:vīcīnī
3260:veisin
3204:veisin
3174:veisin
3084:juesdi
2987:*múros
2966:Vulgar
2875:Modern
2870:Vulgar
2817:, etc.
2803:Marcos
2799:Carlos
2744:, and
2590:, pl.
2558:perera
2349:Latin
2283:llenya
2270:lignum
2238:gaudia
2087:plural
2074:Nouns
2060:nombre
2055:nomin-
2016:lactem
1831:caelum
1758:caelum
1753:caelus
1716:after
1650:altīs
1636:altās
1619:altae
1589:neuter
1580:neuter
1542:quidam
1525:Cicero
1475:) and
1455:) and
1406:aquele
1360:quello
1350:questo
1337:) and
1222:) and
1212:su, sa
1079:Celtic
900:hiatus
879:sponsa
853:, and
796:pacare
782:necare
777:ponere
684:quoque
672:quidem
656:igitur
483:Basque
448:papyri
73:Italic
8400:Galen
8342:Greek
8312:Varro
8122:Lucan
7934:Latin
7849:Latin
7824:Ships
7814:Roads
7799:Domes
7731:Women
7679:Plebs
7604:Music
7146:Forum
7141:Curia
6743:1900–
6727:1300–
6645:Latin
6441:JSTOR
6437:Style
6415:JSTOR
5969:JSTOR
5891:JSTOR
5867:JSTOR
5773:JSTOR
5592:Daras
4745:estar
4715:écrit
4703:stavo
4695:stare
4679:stare
4671:stare
4652:stare
4648:stare
4640:stare
4632:stare
4625:stare
4593:ester
4587:estar
4582:Stare
4575:stare
4562:stare
4554:fieri
4534:estre
4529:essre
4480:stare
4462:stare
4418:andar
4351:vengo
4347:venio
4274:<
4264:<
4227:amare
4215:amerò
4189:amaré
4142:aimer
4134:aimer
4082:amaut
4080:and *
4070:amaui
4054:/awi/
4011:*-es
3994:-unt
3976:-ere
3953:*-es
3936:-ent
3918:-ēre
3821:Verbs
3807:mente
3776:vēlōx
3762:mente
3719:cārus
3712:from
3490:foris
3481:afară
3475:foris
3456:fuera
3400:desde
3364:donde
3300:(li)
3258:(le)
3240:(li)
3125:Pieri
3121:Paoli
3079:jeudi
3047:*múri
3027:*múro
3007:*múru
3002:mūrum
2982:mūrus
2952:mūrus
2931:*cépe
2896:ceapă
2891:*cépa
2845:with
2837:with
2815:Jules
2757:bueno
2593:mâini
2566:manus
2540:peral
2503:pirus
2493:calda
2487:caldo
2481:fruta
2475:fruto
2466:manta
2457:manto
2430:borda
2421:bordo
2310:legna
2292:lenha
2275:ligna
2264:gioia
2051:nomen
2022:lapte
2010:lacte
2001:lapte
1988:latte
1979:leite
1970:leche
1923:ciels
1867:cielo
1843:cielo
1825:murus
1818:, or
1778:vinum
1773:vinus
1748:fatum
1743:fatus
1669:altae
1658:altā
1647:altae
1633:altōs
1630:altam
1627:altum
1607:altum
1602:altus
1558:altus
1556:e.g.
1478:acela
1468:acest
1458:aquém
1448:acolá
1400:aquel
1310:eccum
1257:uses
1216:lupul
1103:illud
1075:Greek
884:spōsa
821:omnis
811:totus
757:causa
751:edere
737:ignis
728:focus
696:utrum
680:quoad
648:etiam
640:donec
636:autem
598:loqui
586:ferre
566:Greek
564:, or
491:Welsh
489:, or
261:Latin
148:Latin
83:Latin
8716:Laws
8691:Film
8610:Roma
8177:Ovid
8117:Livy
7885:Late
7699:Gens
7656:Wine
7468:Navy
7436:Army
7075:SPQR
6977:fall
6955:fall
6606:2009
6571:2009
6490:ISBN
6467:ISBN
6063:ISBN
6044:ISBN
6025:ISBN
5999:ISBN
5924:ISBN
5826:ISBN
5803:ISBN
5657:ISBN
5576:help
5512:help
5019:, §6
4644:esse
4636:esse
4621:stat
4617:esse
4571:esse
4524:être
4504:esse
4497:The
4468:être
4459:and
4431:and
4400:and
4328:amar
4312:amar
4225:) ←
4219:amar
4201:amar
4199:) ←
4193:amar
4183:and
4172:amar
4170:) ←
4164:amar
4154:and
4140:) ←
4090:amou
4086:amei
4078:amai
4066:/β̞/
4050:/au/
4046:-aui
4026:*-e
4008:*-o
3985:-it
3982:-is
3968:*-e
3927:-et
3924:-ēs
3921:-eō
3897:3rd
3894:2nd
3891:1st
3888:3rd
3885:2nd
3882:1st
3829:The
3767:mēns
3737:ācer
3725:cārē
3697:*sẹ
3694:*vọs
3688:*nọs
3655:*vọs
3649:*nọs
3524:hora
3520:illa
3465:fora
3438:post
3376:unde
3165:and
3143:The
3130:The
3066:The
3042:mūrī
3022:mūrō
2992:murs
2936:cepe
2794:deus
2788:dios
2783:DEUS
2778:fils
2726:tudo
2720:toda
2714:todo
2701:this
2696:allò
2690:això
2654:esto
2648:ésta
2642:éste
2636:ceci
2602:(la)
2598:mâni
2587:mână
2578:mano
2574:(la)
2554:(la)
2536:(el)
2527:(le)
2516:pero
2512:(il)
2508:pear
2448:saca
2439:saco
2381:ovum
2375:uovo
2324:(il)
2306:(la)
2301:leña
2297:(la)
2279:(la)
2255:joia
2251:(la)
2246:joie
2242:(la)
2212:buon
2203:buon
2171:buon
2162:buon
2153:donn
2144:donn
2130:buon
2121:buon
2046:nume
2040:nome
2005:(le)
1984:(il)
1966:(la)
1961:lach
1957:(lo)
1952:llet
1948:(la)
1943:lait
1939:(le)
1931:ciel
1919:murs
1906:ciel
1861:muro
1849:muro
1837:muro
1785:for
1775:for
1765:for
1755:for
1745:for
1735:for
1704:for
1696:for
1666:altī
1644:altō
1616:alta
1613:altī
1610:alta
1535:unus
1510:unus
1438:aqui
1432:aquí
1330:cist
1304:ecco
1294:ecce
1259:ipse
1224:omul
1207:ipsa
1201:ipse
1188:and
1170:and
1158:and
1146:and
1116:and
1097:illa
1091:ille
1081:and
723:urbs
692:sive
676:quin
652:haud
644:enim
607:and
363:was
7870:Old
7554:Art
7327:Rex
7171:Dux
7085:Law
6509:108
5961:doi
5859:doi
5765:doi
5720:doi
4775:'s
4761:SOV
4699:sto
4638:to
4613:est
4540:ser
4513:-re
4451:ire
4410:ire
4398:ire
4383:ire
4324:hei
4318:+ (
4257::
4176:hei
4113:, *
4094:/w/
4064:to
4062:/w/
4058:/w/
3997:-e
3979:-ō
3939:-ē
3839:Cid
3817:.
3691:*tẹ
3685:*mẹ
3665:*mi
3652:*tu
3646:*éo
3599:ego
3597:of
3595:/ɡ/
3403:is
3382:dès
3194:-us
3012:mur
2684:açò
2660:gli
2615:mão
2611:(a)
2570:-us
2545:(a)
2470:(s)
2461:(s)
2443:(s)
2425:(s)
2416:(s)
2412:ova
2407:(s)
2403:ovo
2386:ova
2288:(a)
2228:-IA
2226:or
2194:uov
2185:uov
2063:).
2034:nom
1975:(o)
1927:mur
1900:mur
1894:cer
1885:mur
1879:cel
1873:mur
1855:céu
1808:-um
1727:In
1710:-us
1516:una
1416:acá
1390:qua
1387:),
1380:qui
1357:),
1340:ici
1327:),
1320:cil
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1021:by
898:in
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794:);
780:);
770:);
767:res
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700:vel
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664:nam
660:ita
317:or
259:of
251:or
218:IPA
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5532:^
5496:^
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