2529:
180:
6473:
2600:
1982:
6727:
Bomhard: "This scenario is supported not only by linguistic evidence, but also by a growing body of archeological and genetic evidence. The Indo-Europeans have been identified with several cultural complexes existing in that area between 4,500—3,500 BCE. The literature supporting such a homeland is
4550:
is reconstructed today as having had variable lexical stress, which could appear on any syllable and whose position often varied among different members of a paradigm (e.g. between singular and plural of a verbal paradigm). Stressed syllables received a higher pitch; therefore it is often said that
2595:
theory. The last two of these theories are not regarded as credible within academia. Out of all the theories for a PIE homeland, the Kurgan and
Anatolian hypotheses are the ones most widely accepted, and also the ones most debated against each other. Following the publication of several studies on
6148:
Possessive or associated adjectives were probably created from nouns through internal derivation. Such words could be used directly as adjectives, or they could be turned back into a noun without any change in morphology, indicating someone or something characterised by the adjective. They were
4725:
Categories that PIE distinguished through ablaut were often also identifiable by contrasting endings, but the loss of these endings in some later Indo-European languages has led them to use ablaut alone to identify grammatical categories, as in the Modern
English words
2447:. Grimm showed correlations between the Germanic and other Indo-European languages and demonstrated that sound change systematically transforms all words of a language. From the 1870s, the Neogrammarians proposed that sound laws have no exceptions, as illustrated by
6731:
Anthony & Ringe: "Archaeological evidence and linguistic evidence converge in support of an origin of Indo-European languages on the Pontic-Caspian steppes around 4,000 years BCE. The evidence is so strong that arguments in support of other hypotheses should be
6149:
probably also used as the second elements in compounds. If the first element was a noun, this created an adjective that resembled a present participle in meaning, e.g. "having much rice" or "cutting trees". When turned back into nouns, such compounds were
2099:), morphology, and vocabulary. Over many centuries, these dialects transformed into the known ancient Indo-European languages. From there, further linguistic divergence led to the evolution of their current descendants, the modern Indo-European languages.
2380:
who spent all his life in India, had specifically demonstrated the analogy between
Sanskrit and European languages. According to current academic consensus, Jones's famous work of 1786 was less accurate than his predecessors', as he erroneously included
2596:
ancient DNA in 2015, Colin
Renfrew, the original author and proponent of the Anatolian hypothesis, has accepted the reality of migrations of populations speaking one or several Indo-European languages from the Pontic steppe towards Northwestern Europe.
4864:
that expresses movement towards something. It was preserved in
Anatolian (particularly Old Hittite), and fossilized traces of it have been found in Greek. It is also present in Tocharian. Its PIE shape is uncertain, with candidates including
6643:(2015) reports that the SVO hypothesis still has some adherents, but the "broad consensus" among PIE scholars is that PIE would have been an SOV language. The SOV default word order with other orders used to express emphasis (e.g.,
6139:
Internal derivation was a process that derived new words through changes in accent and ablaut alone. It was not as productive as external (affixing) derivation, but is firmly established by the evidence of various later languages.
6413:
Adjectives with accent on the thematic vowel could be turned into nouns by moving the accent back onto the root. A zero grade root could remain so, or be "upgraded" to full grade like in a vrddhi derivative. Some examples:
4914:) and neuter (or inanimate) gender. The feminine gender only arose in the later period of the language. Neuter nouns collapsed the nominative, vocative and accusative into a single form, the plural of which used a special
7679:
Gamkrelidze, Th. & Ivanov, V. (1995). Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans: A Reconstruction and
Historical Analysis of a Proto-Language and a Proto-Culture. 2 Vols. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
4653:
morphemes signaled the grammatical relationships between words. This dependence on inflectional morphemes means that roots in PIE, unlike those in
English, were rarely used without affixes. A root plus a
2480:, which explained irregularities in the reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European phonology as the effects of hypothetical sounds which no longer exist in all languages documented prior to the excavation of
2572:, which allowed them to migrate across Europe and Asia in wagons and chariots. By the early 3rd millennium BCE, they had expanded throughout the Pontic–Caspian steppe and into eastern Europe.
7688:
Gamkrelidze, T. V. (2008). Kartvelian and Indo-European: a typological comparison of reconstructed linguistic systems. Bulletin of the
Georgian National Academy of Sciences 2 (2): 154–160.
4590:
cuneiform. To account for mismatches between the accent of Vedic
Sanskrit and Ancient Greek, as well as a few other phenomena, a few historical linguists prefer to reconstruct PIE as a
6209:
In athematic stems, there was a change in the accent/ablaut class. The reconstructed four classes followed an ordering in which a derivation would shift the class one to the right:
4598:
had an inherent tone; the sequence of tones in a word then evolved, according to that hypothesis, into the placement of lexical stress in different ways in different IE branches.
8987:
6285:
derivation, named after the
Sanskrit grammatical term, signifying "of, belonging to, descended from". It was characterised by "upgrading" the root grade, from zero to full (
4933:
2041:, and it is the best understood of all proto-languages of its age. The majority of linguistic work during the 19th century was devoted to the reconstruction of PIE or its
4942:
8549:
Klein, Jared; Joseph, Brian; Fritz, Matthias, eds. (23 October 2017), "Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics: An International Handbook",
2506:('Indo-European Etymological Dictionary', 1959) gave a detailed, though conservative, overview of the lexical knowledge accumulated by 1959. Jerzy Kuryłowicz's 1956
4920:
6735:
Mallory: "The Kurgan solution is attractive and has been accepted by many archaeologists and linguists, in part or total. It is the solution one encounters in the
3669:—do not appear to be members of any other subfamilies of PIE, but are so poorly attested that proper classification of them is not possible. Forming an exception,
6580:, meanwhile, retained the conservative OV order. Lehmann attributes the context-dependent order preferences in Baltic, Slavic and Germanic to outside influences.
3732:
consonants, whose exact pronunciation is not well-established but which are believed to have existed in part based on their detectable effects on adjacent sounds;
5551:
The following table shows a possible reconstruction of the PIE verb endings from Sihler, which largely represents the current consensus among Indo-Europeanists.
4850:
is one of direct address where the identity of the party spoken to is set forth expressly within a sentence. For example, in the sentence, "I don't know, John",
8712:
6728:
both extensive and persuasive . Consequently, other scenarios regarding the possible Indo-European homeland, such as Anatolia, have now been mostly abandoned."
6293:). When upgrading from zero to full grade, the vowel could sometimes be inserted in the "wrong" place, creating a different stem from the original full grade.
7620:
Trumper, John (2018). "Some Celto-Albanian isoglosses and their implications". In Grimaldi, Mirko; Lai, Rosangela; Franco, Ludovico; Baldi, Benedetta (eds.).
8787:
7496:"The opposing argument, that speakers of Indo-European languages were indigenous to the Indian subcontinent, is not supported by any reliable scholarship".
7357:
Bouckaert, Remco; Lemey, P.; Dunn, M.; Greenhill, S. J.; Alekseyenko, A. V.; Drummond, A. J.; Gray, R. D.; Suchard, M. A.; et al. (24 August 2012),
7305:
6629:
OV. He also notes that these non-rigid OV languages mainly occur in parts of the IE area that overlap with OV languages from other families (such as
5458:: used to express various states of unreality such as wish, emotion, possibility, judgment, opinion, obligation, or action that has not yet occurred
5442:: indicates that something is a statement of fact; in other words, to express what the speaker considers to be a known state of affairs, as in
1965:
2363:
2414:
was related to the Germanic languages, and had even suggested a relation to the Baltic, Slavic, Greek, Latin and Romance languages. In 1816,
8971:
2501:
1929:
6522:
Since all the early attested IE languages were inflectional, PIE is thought to have relied primarily on morphological markers, rather than
8630:
6519:. In the second half of the twentieth century, interest in the topic increased and led to reconstructions of Proto-Indo-European syntax.
1127:
7475:
8705:
6637:), whereas VO is predominant in the central parts of the IE area. For these reasons, among others, he argues for a VO common ancestor.
7504:
6160:
In thematic stems, creating a possessive adjective seems to have involved shifting the accent one syllable to the right, for example:
4812:
or means by, or with, which the subject achieves or accomplishes an action. It may be either a physical object or an abstract concept.
3695:
has been reconstructed in some detail. Notable features of the most widely accepted (but not uncontroversial) reconstruction include:
7358:
7655:
6556:
in PIE verbs motivated a shift from OV to VO order in later dialects. Many of the descendant languages have VO order: modern Greek,
2451:, published in 1876, which resolved apparent exceptions to Grimm's law by exploring the role of accent (stress) in language change.
2267:
changes from the hypothetical ancestral words to the modern ones. These laws have become so detailed and reliable as to support the
8169:(2015). "Proto-Indo-European verb-finality: Reconstruction, typology, validation". In Kulikov, Leonid; Lavidas, Nikolaos (eds.).
6511:
of the older Indo-European languages has been studied in earnest since at least the late nineteenth century, by such scholars as
8508:
2603:
Classification of Indo-European languages. Red: Extinct languages. White: categories or unattested proto-languages. Left half:
2052:
PIE is hypothesized to have been spoken as a single language from approximately 4500 BCE to 2500 BCE during the Late
2422:, in which he investigated the common origin of Sanskrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, and German. In 1833, he began publishing the
9157:
9132:
9003:
8698:
8610:
8592:
8566:
8540:
8469:
8420:
8390:
8367:
8348:
8329:
8148:
7929:
7540:
7285:
7061:
1936:
1908:
7649:"Perfect Phylogenetic Networks: A New Methodology for Reconstructing the Evolutionary History of Natural Languages, pg. 396"
6850:
5452:: forms commands or requests, including the giving of prohibition or permission, or any other kind of advice or exhortation.
787:
7338:
Gimbutas, Marija (1985). "Primary and Secondary Homeland of the Indo-Europeans: comments on Gamkrelidze-Ivanov articles".
6460:
This kind of derivation is likely related to the possessive adjectives, and can be seen as essentially the reverse of it.
8979:
4501:
4446:
2003:
1893:
6794:
8995:
8000:
7275:
4764:) and restate the subject of that verb also use the nominative case. The nominative is the dictionary form of the noun.
2626:
The table lists the main Indo-European language families, comprising the languages descended from Proto-Indo-European.
1958:
1915:
846:
8441:
8245:
8198:
8062:
8031:
7972:
7756:
7711:
7631:
7484:
6978:
2095:
of Proto-Indo-European spoken by the various groups diverged, as each dialect underwent shifts in pronunciation (the
179:
6936:
9167:
6483:
2210:
1922:
686:
8646:
at the University of Helsinki, Department of Modern Languages, Department of World Cultures, Indo-European Studies
6887:
6695:
4369:
3832:
3812:
2714:
An extinct branch known from manuscripts dating from the 6th to the 8th century AD and found in northwest China.
2588:
197:
8480:
6964:
7425:
3032:
1778:
1553:
957:
2468:
had developed well-defined descriptions of PIE which scholars still accept today. Later, the discovery of the
9172:
9116:
8932:
8729:
8188:
6049:
3686:
2209:
No direct evidence of PIE exists; scholars have reconstructed PIE from its present-day descendants using the
2151:
2147:
2027:
1993:
1951:
1523:
792:
729:
530:
416:
8311:
6131:
Proto-Indo-European employed various means of deriving words from other words, or directly from verb roots.
2251:) that emerges far too frequently to be coincidental, one can infer that these languages stem from a common
9026:
8937:
8927:
8921:
7277:
The horse, the wheel, and language: how bronze-age riders from the Eurasian steppes shaped the modern world
7022:
6690:
6057:
5787:
4994:
4746:
4250:
3838:
3820:
2523:
2155:
2131:
2127:
2081:
2065:
1211:
714:
525:
520:
515:
72:
4560:
4556:
4538:
position. The syllabic allophones of *y and *w are realized as the surface vowels *i and *u respectively.
3818:
3810:
3757:
3753:
3749:
3739:
9121:
6644:
6625:
Friedrich notes that even among those Indo-European languages with basic OV word order, none of them are
6549:
6539:
4555:. The location of the stress is associated with ablaut variations, especially between full-grade vowels (
4271:
3516:
3250:
3121:
2274:
2077:
1528:
1023:
724:
603:
589:
570:
139:
119:
31:
7909:
6824:
8875:
8742:
8737:
7053:
5013:; this is most obvious in the first person singular where the two stems are still preserved in English
4547:
4484:
4190:
4105:
4019:
4009:
3994:
3899:
3885:
3673:
is sufficiently well-attested to allow proposals of a particularly close affiliation with Greek, and a
2569:
2325:
2123:
866:
824:
424:
7163:
7136:
7109:
7082:
6941:
6914:
4336:
9098:
8942:
8229:
6685:
6587:
5398:
4499:
4482:
4444:
4406:
4367:
4358:
4349:
4323:
4315:
4300:
4294:
4292:
4277:
4269:
4248:
4218:
4203:
4188:
4178:
4163:
4133:
4118:
4103:
4093:
4078:
4047:
4032:
4017:
4007:
3992:
3951:
3936:
3604:
2891:
2561:
2488:
in 1879 on the basis of internal reconstruction only, and progressively won general acceptance after
2316:, but he was not the first to state such a hypothesis. In the 16th century, European visitors to the
2139:
2073:
2031:
1568:
1533:
1206:
510:
67:
8509:"Uvular Stops or a Glottal Fricative? Theory and Data in Recent Reconstructions of PIE "Laryngeals""
5530:: referring to precisely two of the entities (objects or persons) identified by the noun or pronoun.
2514:. From the 1960s, knowledge of Anatolian became robust enough to establish its relationship to PIE.
9177:
9021:
8954:
8895:
8762:
6700:
6680:
6072:
4611:
4302:
3002:
2709:
2654:
2533:
2371:
2256:
2103:
2096:
2088:
1828:
1718:
1538:
1069:
901:
852:
748:
550:
505:
500:
420:
149:
109:
35:
8675:
6217:
The reason for this particular ordering of the classes in derivation is not known. Some examples:
4906:
This system is probably derived from an older two-gender system, attested in Anatolian languages:
8412:
6705:
5527:
5021:. There were also two varieties for the accusative, genitive and dative cases, a stressed and an
4983:
4715:
4711:
4360:
4095:
4080:
4034:
3537:
3471:
2998:
2994:
2988:
2621:
2459:
A Compendium of the Comparative Grammar of the Indo-European, Sanskrit, Greek and Latin Languages
2143:
1999:
1723:
1450:
560:
555:
545:
189:
129:
114:
104:
57:
8054:
8048:
6746:
Strazny: "The single most popular proposal is the Pontic steppes (see the Kurgan hypothesis)..."
8757:
6998:
6577:
4579:
3650:
3245:
3116:
3093:
2076:
of eastern Europe. The linguistic reconstruction of PIE has provided insight into the pastoral
1713:
1685:
1469:
1371:
1137:
983:
607:
445:
337:
276:
231:
171:
163:
8842:
8627:
5009:
were used instead. The personal pronouns had their own unique forms and endings, and some had
3615:, which is remarkably similar to the root ablaut system reconstructible for Proto-Kartvelian.
2544:
Scholars have proposed multiple hypotheses about when, where, and by whom PIE was spoken. The
9126:
9047:
7699:
6909:
6092:
5006:
4552:
4408:
3953:
3938:
2943:
2911:
2730:
2485:
2476:
added to the corpus of descendant languages. A subtle new principle won wide acceptance: the
2410:('Investigation of the Origin of the Old Norse or Icelandic Language'), where he argued that
2401:
2321:
2030:. No direct record of Proto-Indo-European exists; its proposed features have been derived by
1860:
1689:
597:
593:
578:
574:
144:
124:
8831:
9080:
9053:
8947:
8865:
8797:
8775:
8284:
8267:
7501:
7373:
6769:
6613:
5443:
4679:
4120:
3612:
3504:
3446:
3438:
3256:
3149:
2923:
2875:
2778:
2576:
2511:
2159:
2115:
2069:
1806:
1771:
1084:
767:
719:
656:
626:
584:
564:
428:
282:
134:
24:
20:
7393:
6516:
4997:
are difficult to reconstruct, owing to their variety in later languages. PIE had personal
952:
8:
9162:
9085:
9075:
8802:
8461:
7648:
7426:"Ancestry-constrained phylogenetic analysis supports the Indo-European steppe hypothesis"
7158:
6668:
6634:
6590:(1975) disagrees with Lehmann's analysis. He reconstructs PIE with the following syntax:
6573:
6569:
5916:
5418:
4847:
4623:
4235:
3704:
3624:
3458:
3320:
3264:
3229:
3197:
3183:
3141:
2947:
2883:
2851:
2791:
2704:
2649:
2584:
2473:
2469:
2317:
1079:
1074:
970:
894:
859:
782:
772:
631:
332:
327:
296:
8684:
7623:
Structuring Variation in Romance Linguistics and Beyond: In Honour of Leonardo M. Savoia
7377:
2489:
2461:(1874–77) represented an early attempt to reconstruct the proto-Indo-European language.
2165:
Asterisks are used by linguists as a conventional mark of reconstructed words, such as *
8807:
8659:
8651:"Wheel and chariot in early IE: What exactly can we conclude from the linguistic data?"
8184:
7803:
7762:
7602:
7453:
7402:
6553:
6545:
5584:
5579:
5517:
5510:
5494:
5405:
5002:
4961:
4889:
4591:
4535:
4377:
3722:
3658:
3643:
3627:
was a marginally attested language spoken in areas near the border between present-day
3525:
3499:
3487:
3233:
3225:
3221:
3193:
3179:
3161:
3105:
3085:
3069:
2983:
2939:
2867:
2863:
2839:
2835:
2766:
2341:
2333:
2046:
1785:
1736:
1670:
1654:
1279:
932:
671:
357:
262:
257:
7306:"Mysterious Indo-European homeland may have been in the steppes of Ukraine and Russia"
2552:, has become the most popular. It proposes that the original speakers of PIE were the
9070:
8792:
8606:
8588:
8562:
8536:
8465:
8437:
8416:
8386:
8379:
8363:
8344:
8325:
8241:
8194:
8166:
8058:
8027:
7996:
7968:
7925:
7807:
7766:
7752:
7707:
7627:
7606:
7546:
7536:
7480:
7457:
7445:
7407:
7281:
7057:
6974:
6970:
6640:
6561:
6557:
6535:
5477:
5424:
5275:
4957:
in the early daughter languages) became used to form feminine nouns from masculines.
4805:
4757:
4702:), or no vowel. The forms are referred to as the "ablaut grades" of the morpheme—the
4663:
4646:
4431:
4351:
4065:
3906:
3865:
3670:
3662:
3559:
3549:
3532:
3492:
3466:
3454:
3426:
3418:
3392:
3376:
3356:
3344:
3314:
3286:
3260:
3213:
3165:
3157:
3153:
3145:
3081:
3044:
3028:
2951:
2895:
2887:
2847:
2843:
2831:
2823:
2811:
2795:
2770:
2750:
2740:
2690:
2592:
2545:
2454:
2386:
2382:
2357:
2337:
2061:
2042:
1799:
1765:
1757:
1701:
1695:
1677:
1648:
1627:
1613:
1605:
1375:
1236:
1176:
1158:
1099:
1094:
1089:
1056:
1051:
880:
743:
392:
385:
378:
364:
350:
310:
289:
226:
218:
7186:
7018:
4714:(e.g., different grammatical forms of a noun or verb may have different vowels) and
8827:
8817:
8812:
8752:
8747:
8580:
8554:
8528:
8495:
8457:
8404:
8317:
8279:
7917:
7793:
7744:
7736:
7594:
7437:
7397:
7389:
7381:
7313:
7271:
7131:
6660:
6619:
5469:
5465:
5455:
5432:
4587:
4388:
4340:
3917:
3875:
3870:
3860:
3729:
3708:
3654:
3646:
languages known from the North Adriatic region are sometimes classified as Italic.
3639:
3608:
3481:
3477:
3450:
3414:
3406:
3400:
3388:
3384:
3380:
3352:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3310:
3302:
3189:
3175:
3169:
3131:
3127:
3089:
3077:
3049:
2972:
2906:
2879:
2871:
2827:
2819:
2807:
2799:
2725:
2694:
2666:
2660:
2477:
2465:
2390:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2309:
2060:, though estimates vary by more than a thousand years. According to the prevailing
1793:
1743:
1560:
1366:
1254:
1194:
1171:
1114:
1109:
1046:
1033:
1028:
1018:
691:
304:
252:
244:
237:
8767:
8429:
7077:
4710:-grade, zero-grade (no vowel), etc. This variation in vowels occurred both within
4574:, and indirectly attested in a number of phenomena in other IE languages, such as
8679:
8634:
7621:
7508:
7049:
From Philology to English Studies: Language and Culture in the Nineteenth Century
7047:
6344:
5488:
5449:
5439:
5098:
5059:
4915:
4775:
4767:
4761:
4753:
4575:
4393:
3925:
3913:
3892:
3802:
3674:
3666:
3597:
3589:
3585:
3442:
3434:
3372:
3368:
3360:
3294:
3209:
3201:
3073:
3053:
3020:
3016:
2968:
2960:
2859:
2815:
2762:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2670:
2565:
2553:
2549:
2448:
2305:
2292:, caused an academic sensation when in 1786 he postulated the common ancestry of
2252:
1874:
1843:
1838:
1833:
1814:
1750:
1729:
1707:
1292:
1181:
1104:
1013:
946:
887:
753:
485:
470:
460:
455:
371:
343:
8650:
8409:
The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World
7532:
The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World
4626:
meaning of a word and were used to derive related words (cf. the English root "-
9093:
9031:
8900:
8885:
8847:
8837:
8822:
8690:
8358:
Kapović, Mate (2017). "Proto-Indo-European phonology". In Kapović, Mate (ed.).
7995:. Amsterdam: J. Benjamins Publishing Company. pp. 147, 212–217, 233, 243.
7582:
6997:(2004). "Archaeology and language: Methods and issues". In Bintliff, J. (ed.).
6648:
6565:
6309:
5567:
4911:
4567:
4563:) and zero-grade (i.e. lack of a vowel), but not entirely predictable from it.
3974:
3700:
3521:
3364:
3270:
3237:
3217:
3205:
3097:
3061:
3036:
2964:
2956:
2927:
2899:
2803:
2537:
2495:
2492:'s discovery of consonantal reflexes of these reconstructed sounds in Hittite.
2438:
2329:
2297:
2087:
As speakers of Proto-Indo-European became isolated from each other through the
2038:
1619:
1486:
1361:
919:
873:
841:
777:
268:
7921:
7798:
7781:
7740:
7598:
7564:
7188:
Mémoire sur le système primitif des voyelles dans les langues indo-européennes
7104:
2045:, and many of the modern techniques of linguistic reconstruction (such as the
9151:
8870:
8400:
8321:
8019:
7569:
The Oriental Institute lecture series : Marija Gimbutas memorial lecture
7550:
7497:
7470:
7449:
5572:
5502:
5461:
5353:
5314:
5155:
4907:
4861:
4857:
4843:
4821:
4815:
4781:
4771:
4571:
4325:
4317:
4220:
4205:
4180:
4165:
4151:
4135:
4049:
3980:
3712:
3593:
3567:
3563:
3553:
3512:
3430:
3422:
3348:
3306:
3274:
3040:
2976:
2916:
Once spoken across Europe, but now mostly confined to its northwestern edge.
2268:
1879:
1343:
1259:
976:
834:
696:
450:
8268:"The Indo-European Homeland from Linguistic and Archaeological Perspectives"
7385:
7317:
5427:: verbs depicting a completed action or actions viewed as an entire process.
4578:
in the Germanic branch. Sources for Indo-European accentuation are also the
3603:
There are numerous lexical similarities between the Proto-Indo-European and
2579:, which posits that PIE spread out from Anatolia with agriculture beginning
666:
8687:, an online collection of video lectures on Ancient Indo-European languages
8499:
8110:
8080:
7411:
7043:
6994:
6606:
6581:
6512:
6112:
5498:
5484:
5412:
4279:
3785:
3581:
3577:
3137:
2855:
2528:
2285:
2011:
1498:
1336:
810:
681:
480:
475:
465:
8584:
8558:
8532:
7530:
7441:
6374:
6332:
6312:
5404:
The most basic categorisation for the reconstructed Indo-European verb is
2189:; these forms are the reconstructed ancestors of the modern English words
8890:
6652:
5545:
5218:
4791:
4719:
3790:
3649:
Albanian and Greek are the only surviving Indo-European descendants of a
3282:
3008:
2434:
2313:
2278:
1474:
1460:
1424:
1132:
8523:
Klein, Jared; Joseph, Brian; Fritz, Matthias, eds. (25 September 2017),
8295:"The Origins of Proto-Indo-European: The Caucasian Substrate Hypothesis"
7359:"Mapping the Origins and Expansion of the Indo-European Language Family"
6472:
5544:, one for each combination of tense and voice, and an assorted array of
4824:: expresses location, corresponding vaguely to the English prepositions
2243:. Since there is a consistent correspondence of the initial consonants (
661:
8905:
8146:
Mallory, J. P.; Adams, Douglas Q., eds. (1997). "Proto-Indo-European".
6531:
6523:
6154:
5541:
5010:
4650:
4467:
3795:
3653:
language area, named for their occurrence in or in the vicinity of the
3101:
2415:
2135:
2107:
2057:
1437:
1351:
1229:
994:
8451:
7748:
6060:. These postpositions became prepositions in most daughter languages.
3509:
Modern Greek and Tsakonian are the only surviving varieties of Greek.
2540:
and across Central Asia according to the widely held Kurgan hypothesis
8643:
7424:
Chang, Will; Cathcart, Chundra; Hall, David; Garrett, Andrew (2015).
7280:(8th reprint ed.). Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
6656:
6150:
4794:: used to indicate the indirect object of a transitive verb, such as
4659:
4380:
3736:
3692:
3290:
3109:
3057:
3024:
3012:
2481:
2411:
2281:
2264:
2260:
2053:
1640:
1417:
1409:
1402:
1395:
1381:
1249:
8294:
7728:
7191:. University of California Libraries. Leipsick : B. G. Teubner.
6770:"Indo-European languages – The parent language: Proto-Indo-European"
6584:(2006), however, attributes these to internal developments instead.
2407:
Undersøgelse om det gamle Nordiske eller Islandske Sprogs Oprindelse
8575:
Klein, Jared; Joseph, Brian; Fritz, Matthias, eds. (11 June 2018),
7735:. HSK 41.3. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 1816–1831.
7585:; Jacques, Guillaume (2018). "L'indo-européen n'est pas un mythe".
6664:
6601:
5022:
4619:
4595:
4531:
3718:
3628:
3543:
3396:
2782:
2599:
2293:
1583:
1574:
1465:
1266:
1241:
1145:
636:
212:
19:"PIE" and "Proto-Indo-European" redirect here. For the people, see
4854:
is a vocative expression that indicates the party being addressed.
2213:. For example, compare the pairs of words in Italian and English:
4998:
3278:
3065:
2935:
2931:
2919:
2786:
2754:
2425:
2092:
2007:
1633:
1597:
1590:
1388:
1008:
641:
8658:
Martin Joachim Kümmel, department of Indo-European linguistics,
8638:
8577:
Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics
8551:
Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics
8525:
Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics
8381:
In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology, and Myth
7914:
Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics
7733:
Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics
7228:
6630:
6527:
6508:
6282:
6053:
5533:
4655:
3576:
Commonly proposed subgroups of Indo-European languages include
3410:
2674:
2604:
2557:
2377:
2289:
1356:
1310:
829:
646:
7865:
2037:
Far more work has gone into reconstructing PIE than any other
8667:
6386:
6370:
4615:
3745:
3632:
3324:
2774:
2758:
2746:
2736:
2608:
2394:
2301:
1988:
This article contains characters used to write reconstructed
1455:
1329:
1323:
1305:
676:
651:
8128:
Kulikov, Leonid; Lavidas, Nikolaos, eds. (2015). "Preface".
7782:"On the place of Phrygian among the Indo-European languages"
7209:
hittite". In: Witold Taszycki and Witold Doroszewki (eds.),
3851:
The corresponding consonants in commonly used notation are:
3756:
were the most frequently occurring vowels. The existence of
2271:
rule: the Indo-European sound laws apply without exception.
8988:
Lexikon der indogermanischen Partikeln und Pronominalstämme
8187:(1974). "Syntactic Developments from PIE to the Dialects".
7944:
7356:
6213:
acrostatic → proterokinetic → hysterokinetic → amphikinetic
5540:
Verbs were probably marked by a highly developed system of
5487:: used in a clause whose subject expresses the main verb's
4785:
4662:, and a word stem plus a desinence (usually an ending, see
3677:
branch of Indo-European is becoming increasingly accepted.
3328:
2564:
north of the Black Sea. According to the theory, they were
1847:
8481:"Voiceless high vowels and syncope in older Indo-European"
2428:, Greek, Latin, Lithuanian, Old Slavic, Gothic, and German
7476:
India: Historical Beginnings and the Concept of the Aryan
6534:) word order is thought to have existed in PIE. In 1892,
3611:, as well as some morphological similarities—notably the
3298:
2404:
elaborated the set of correspondences in his prize essay
8668:
Indo-European Grammar, Syntax & Etymology Dictionary
7877:
7855:
7853:
7423:
6823:
Ivić, Pavle; Hamp, Eric P.; Lyons, John (5 March 2024).
4949:(respectively on thematic and athematic nouns, becoming
2854:
of the Catholic Church and the official language of the
2484:
tablets in Anatolian. This theory was first proposed by
8672:
8626:
At the University of Texas Linguistic Research Center:
8091:
7826:
7731:. In Jared Klein; Brian Joseph; Matthias Fritz (eds.).
7535:. Douglas Q. Adams. New York: Oxford University Press.
7993:
Comparative Indo-European linguistics: an introduction
7889:
7252:
7240:
7019:"The Sanskrit Connection: Keeping Up With the Joneses"
5421:: verbs depicting ongoing, habitual or repeated action
2735:
This included many languages, but only descendants of
2517:
7850:
7838:
7814:
3657:. Most of the other languages of this area—including
3542:
Albanian is the only surviving representative of the
8876:
8777:
8685:
glottothèque – Ancient Indo-European Grammars online
8603:
Dictionary of Historical and Comparative Linguistics
7580:
7216:
6868:
6116:
6104:
6096:
6084:
6076:
6064:
6034:
6023:
6010:
5997:
5988:
5975:
5962:
5952:
5942:
5929:
5904:
5894:
5878:
5872:
5856:
5850:
5834:
5828:
5822:
5816:
5810:
5772:
5764:
5751:
5743:
5730:
5722:
5706:
5698:
5685:
5677:
5664:
5656:
5640:
5632:
5619:
5611:
5598:
5590:
5383:
5375:
5367:
5359:
5344:
5336:
5328:
5320:
5305:
5297:
5289:
5281:
5266:
5258:
5252:
5244:
5238:
5230:
5224:
5209:
5203:
5195:
5189:
5181:
5175:
5167:
5161:
5146:
5140:
5132:
5124:
5118:
5110:
5104:
5089:
5081:
5073:
5065:
4978:
These numbers were also distinguished in verbs (see
4534:(i.e. nasals, liquids and semivowels) can appear in
4494:
4477:
4439:
4401:
4310:
4287:
4264:
4243:
4213:
4198:
4173:
4158:
4128:
4113:
4088:
4072:
4042:
4027:
4002:
3987:
3946:
3931:
2720:
There are no living descendants of Proto-Tocharian.
2699:
There are no living descendants of Proto-Anatolian.
2182:
2174:
2166:
8362:(2nd ed.). London: Routledge. pp. 13–60.
8341:
Indo-European language and culture: an introduction
7565:
Marija Redivia : DNA and Indo-European origins
7211:
Symbolae Grammaticae in honorem Ioannis Rozwadowski
6937:"Sir William Jones, British orientalist and jurist"
2102:PIE is believed to have had an elaborate system of
8378:
8075:
8073:
6530:relationships within sentences. Still, a default (
4846:: used for a word that identifies an addressee. A
2332:("Scythian") for the following language families:
7213:, v. 1, 95–104. Krakow: Uniwersytet Jagielloński.
6548:(1974), on the other hand, reconstructs PIE as a
6400:in the full-grade stem of the original noun, but
6396:, etc.). Note the difference in vowel placement,
5464:: indicates a wish or hope. It is similar to the
4931:). This same collective suffix in extended forms
4630:-", from which are derived related words such as
9149:
8720:
8574:
8548:
8522:
4749:were probably declined for eight or nine cases:
4674:Many morphemes in Proto-Indo-European had short
3618:
2204:
8070:
7779:
7726:
7587:Bulletin de la Société de Linguistique de Paris
6552:(SOV) language. He posits that the presence of
2393:in the Indo-European languages, while omitting
1992:words (for an explanation of the notation, see
8171:Proto-Indo-European Syntax and its Development
8130:Proto-Indo-European Syntax and its Development
8127:
8050:Theoretical Bases of Indo-European Linguistics
7006:. Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell. pp. 52–74.
6063:Reconstructed particles include for example, *
5401:, like the nouns, exhibited an ablaut system.
2324:and European languages, and as early as 1653,
2026:) is the reconstructed common ancestor of the
8706:
8450:Szemerenyi, Oswald J. L. (13 February 1997).
8428:
6822:
4818:: used to express motion away from something.
4760:of a verb. Words that follow a linking verb (
3546:branch of the Indo-European language family.
2659:All now extinct, the best attested being the
2234:
2224:
2214:
1959:
8399:
8265:
8145:
7727:Ligorio, Orsat; Lubotsky, Alexander (2018).
7234:
6804:. The University of Edinburgh. 11 April 2018
6542:(SVO), based on evidence in Vedic Sanskrit.
6041:may originally have meant "a large number".
2499:
2442:
2405:
2369:
2361:
2118:(vowel alterations, as preserved in English
8026:. New York u. a.: Oxford Univ. Press.
6802:School of History, Classics and Archaeology
6795:"Archaeology et al: an Indo-European study"
6568:has VSO as the default order, and even the
2364:Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres
8972:Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch
8713:
8699:
8449:
8313:Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction
8024:New comparative grammar of Greek and Latin
7706:. Cambridge University Press. p. 72.
7517:Inference, International Review of Science
7299:
7297:
6741:Grand Dictionnaire Encyclopédique Larousse
6572:show some signs of this word order shift.
6126:
3774:The vowels in commonly used notation are:
2502:Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch
1966:
1952:
1930:Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch
8453:Introduction to Indo-European Linguistics
8283:
8228:
8222:
8115:The Prehistory of the Balto-Slavic Accent
8085:The Prehistory of the Balto-Slavic Accent
8014:
8012:
7986:
7984:
7916:, De Gruyter Mouton, pp. 1335–1352,
7908:Pinault, Georges-Jean (23 October 2017),
7797:
7401:
7350:
6663:, while traces of it can be found in the
6331:"relating to one's father-in-law" (Vedic
4718:(e.g., a verb and an associated abstract
2255:. Detailed analysis suggests a system of
2034:from documented Indo-European languages.
8309:
8109:
8079:
7337:
7184:
6902:
6445:"a kind of fish", literally "white one".
6143:
5790:are generally reconstructed as follows:
2598:
2527:
2420:On the System of Conjugation in Sanskrit
8600:
8376:
8357:
8343:(2nd ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
8338:
8292:
8183:
8177:
8161:
8159:
8141:
8139:
8097:
8046:
7950:
7907:
7895:
7883:
7871:
7859:
7832:
7820:
7619:
7528:
7294:
7270:
7258:
7246:
7222:
6874:
6175:"cutting" (i.e. "making slices"; Greek
5536:: a number other than singular or dual.
2004:question marks, boxes, or other symbols
16:Ancestor of the Indo-European languages
9150:
8673:Indo-European Lexical Cognacy Database
8478:
8285:10.1146/annurev-linguist-030514-124812
8266:Anthony, David W.; Ringe, Don (2015).
8232:(1975). "Proto-Indo-European Syntax".
8018:
8009:
7990:
7981:
7962:
7844:
7697:
7303:
6993:
6987:
6962:
6888:"Linguistics – The comparative method"
6851:"Telling Tales in Proto-Indo-European"
6647:to emphasise the verb) is attested in
6134:
4645:). Proto-Indo-European was probably a
9133:Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture
9004:Indo-European Etymological Dictionary
8694:
8216:Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic
8213:
8207:
8149:Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture
7626:. John Benjamins Publishing Company.
7042:
6956:
6463:
5556:
4466:
4234:
3856:
2320:became aware of similarities between
1937:Indo-European Etymological Dictionary
1909:Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture
8165:
8156:
8152:. Taylor & Francis. p. 463.
8136:
7661:from the original on 5 November 2010
7304:Balter, Michael (13 February 2015).
7159:"August Schleicher, German linguist"
6467:
6187:"woodcutter" with irregular accent).
5415:: verbs that depict a state of being
2112:child, child's, children, children's
8980:Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben
8310:Clackson, James (18 October 2007).
7704:The Ancient Languages of Asia Minor
7016:
4927:(manifested in most descendants as
4888:Late Proto-Indo-European had three
2518:Historical and geographical setting
1894:Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European
13:
8996:Nomina im Indogermanischen Lexikon
8579:, vol. 3, De Gruyter Mouton,
8553:, vol. 2, De Gruyter Mouton,
8527:, vol. 1, De Gruyter Mouton,
8506:
8462:10.1093/oso/9780198240150.001.0001
8240:(1). University of Chicago Press.
7780:Obrador-Cursach, Bartomeu (2019).
7574:
6890:. Science. Encyclopedia Britannica
6848:
6538:reconstructed PIE's word order as
5005:, but not the third person, where
2142:similarly had a complex system of
1916:The Horse, the Wheel, and Language
14:
9189:
8620:
7910:"76. The morphology of Tocharian"
6408:
6241:"having strength, strong" (Greek
4960:All nominals distinguished three
4641:, and newly coined words such as
3760:as a separate phoneme is debated.
2993:Branched into three subfamilies:
2424:Comparative Grammar of Sanskrit,
8299:Journal of Indo-European Studies
8234:Journal of Indo-European Studies
7786:Journal of Language Relationship
7340:Journal of Indo-European Studies
7078:"Franz Bopp, German philologist"
6966:History of the Language Sciences
6471:
4566:The accent is best preserved in
2437:formulated what became known as
1980:
1923:Journal of Indo-European Studies
687:Bible translations into Armenian
178:
8479:Kümmel, Martin Joachim (2022).
8258:
8121:
8103:
8040:
7956:
7901:
7773:
7720:
7691:
7682:
7673:
7641:
7613:
7557:
7522:
7490:
7479:. National Book Trust. p. 127.
7464:
7417:
7331:
7264:
7195:
7185:Saussure, Ferdinand de (1879).
7178:
7151:
7132:"Neogrammarian, German scholar"
7124:
7097:
7070:
7036:
7010:
6718:
6696:List of Indo-European languages
6033:Rather than specifically 100, *
4941:
4932:
4919:
2589:Paleolithic continuity paradigm
2548:, first put forward in 1956 by
2510:gave a better understanding of
2328:had published a proposal for a
198:List of Indo-European languages
8601:Strazny, Philipp, ed. (2000),
8488:Italian Journal of Linguistics
8316:. Cambridge University Press.
8053:, London: Routledge, pp.
7702:. In Woodard, Roger D. (ed.).
7394:11858/00-001M-0000-000F-EADF-A
6929:
6880:
6842:
6816:
6787:
6762:
6289:) or from full to lengthened (
6268:"having a good father" (Greek
5468:and is closely related to the
3721:consonants that could be used
2615:
2049:) were developed as a result.
1:
9117:Proto-Indo-European mythology
8339:Fortson, Benjamin W. (2010).
8193:. University of Texas Press.
7571:, Chicago. November 8, 2017).
6755:
6430:"thing that is born" (German
6050:Proto-Indo-European particles
4678:as their inherent vowel; the
4601:
3846:
3687:Proto-Indo-European phonology
3619:Marginally attested languages
2580:
2205:Development of the hypothesis
2162:are also well-reconstructed.
2028:Indo-European language family
1994:Proto-Indo-European phonology
1524:Proto-Indo-European mythology
793:Paleolithic continuity theory
84:
9158:Proto-Indo-European language
9027:Proto-Indo-European homeland
8722:Proto-Indo-European language
8272:Annual Review of Linguistics
8047:Lehmann, Winfried P (1993),
7967:. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.
7511:", review of Asko Parpola's
6691:Proto-Indo-European pronouns
6456:"dark one", also "antelope".
5788:Proto-Indo-European numerals
4995:Proto-Indo-European pronouns
4986:with their subject nominal.
4722:may have different vowels).
4682:is the change of this short
3680:
2524:Proto-Indo-European homeland
1212:Northern Black Polished Ware
411:Proto-Indo-European language
73:Proto-Indo-European homeland
7:
9122:Proto-Indo-European society
8644:Proto-Indo-European Lexicon
8516:Seminar für Indogermanistik
8456:. Oxford University Press.
8360:The Indo-European Languages
7201:Kuryłowicz, Jerzy (1927). "
6674:
6375:
6333:
6313:
6123:, expressing woe or agony.
6052:were probably used both as
6044:
5548:and adjectival formations.
5513:: first, second and third.
4570:and (in the case of nouns)
3764:
2575:Other theories include the
1529:Proto-Indo-Iranian paganism
99:Lower-order reconstructions
32:Pre-Indo-European languages
10:
9194:
8877:
8778:
8218:. Oxford University Press.
8190:Proto-Indo-European Syntax
7105:"Grimm's law, linguistics"
7054:Cambridge University Press
7000:A Companion to Archaeology
6361:"sky" > new full grade
6201:"having wishes" (Sanskrit
6153:or semantically resembled
6117:
6105:
6097:
6085:
6077:
6065:
6035:
6024:
6011:
5998:
5989:
5976:
5963:
5953:
5943:
5930:
5905:
5895:
5879:
5873:
5857:
5851:
5835:
5829:
5823:
5817:
5811:
5782:
5773:
5765:
5752:
5744:
5731:
5723:
5707:
5699:
5686:
5678:
5665:
5657:
5641:
5633:
5620:
5612:
5599:
5591:
5384:
5376:
5368:
5360:
5345:
5337:
5329:
5321:
5306:
5298:
5290:
5282:
5267:
5259:
5253:
5245:
5239:
5231:
5225:
5210:
5204:
5196:
5190:
5182:
5176:
5168:
5162:
5147:
5141:
5133:
5125:
5119:
5111:
5105:
5090:
5082:
5074:
5066:
4989:
4788:as modifying another noun.
4548:Proto-Indo-European accent
4495:
4478:
4440:
4402:
4311:
4288:
4265:
4244:
4214:
4199:
4174:
4159:
4129:
4114:
4089:
4073:
4043:
4028:
4003:
3988:
3947:
3932:
3684:
2619:
2521:
2360:. In a memoir sent to the
2326:Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn
2183:
2175:
2167:
825:Domestication of the horse
29:
18:
9109:
9099:North European hypothesis
9063:
9040:
9014:
8963:
8914:
8858:
8728:
8434:Indo-European Linguistics
7922:10.1515/9783110523874-031
7799:10.31826/jlr-2019-173-407
7741:10.1515/9783110542431-022
7599:10.2143/BSL.113.1.3285465
6910:"Comparative linguistics"
6686:Proto-Indo-European verbs
6667:personal pronouns of the
6614:comparative constructions
6609:rather than postpositions
6502:
6404:in the vrddhi derivative.
6323:) > lengthened grade *
6276:
5714:
5648:
5578:
5559:
5431:Verbs have at least four
5399:Proto-Indo-European verbs
5039:
5036:
5033:
4979:
4747:Proto-Indo-European nouns
4669:
4612:Proto-Indo-European roots
4541:
4511:
4509:
4507:
4490:
4473:
4471:
4426:
4387:
4260:
4258:
4256:
4241:
4239:
3973:
3924:
3911:
3879:
3874:
3869:
3864:
3859:
3801:
3769:
2717:Tocharian A, Tocharian B
2441:as a general rule in his
2400:In 1818, Danish linguist
2370:
2362:
2032:linguistic reconstruction
2010:combining characters and
1534:Historical Vedic religion
811:Chalcolithic (Copper Age)
98:
80:
63:
53:
48:
43:
9022:Indo-European migrations
8507:Kümmel, Martin Joachim.
8436:, New York: De Gruyter,
8322:10.1017/cbo9780511808616
7235:Anthony & Ringe 2015
7023:Carson–Newman University
6963:Auroux, Sylvain (2000).
6829:Encyclopaedia Britannica
6711:
6701:Indo-European sound laws
6681:Indo-European vocabulary
6111:"or" and others; and an
5961:under the influence of *
5408:. Verbs are classed as:
5001:in the first and second
4800:Maria gave Jacob a drink
2534:Indo-European migrations
2372:Gaston-Laurent Coeurdoux
2134:had a complex system of
2097:Indo-European sound laws
2089:Indo-European migrations
1539:Ancient Iranian religion
902:Novotitarovskaya culture
749:Indo-European migrations
36:Paleo-European languages
30:Not to be confused with
9168:Indo-European languages
9041:Artificial compositions
8678:7 November 2015 at the
8413:Oxford University Press
8385:. Thames & Hudson.
8377:Mallory, J. P. (1989).
8293:Bomhard, Allan (2019).
7991:Beekes, Robert (1995).
7698:Brixhe, Claude (2008).
7563:Renfrew, Colin (2017) "
7529:Mallory, J. P. (2006).
7386:10.1126/science.1219669
7318:10.1126/science.aaa7858
7164:Encyclopædia Britannica
7137:Encyclopædia Britannica
7110:Encyclopædia Britannica
7083:Encyclopædia Britannica
6942:Encyclopædia Britannica
6915:Encyclopædia Britannica
6774:Encyclopedia Britannica
6737:Encyclopædia Britannica
6706:List of proto-languages
6597:adjectives before nouns
6183:"cutting trees" (Greek
6127:Derivational morphology
5393:
4741:
4716:derivational morphology
4712:inflectional morphology
4606:
4333:Laryngeal Pronunciation
3607:languages due to early
2622:Indo-European languages
2607:languages; right half:
2560:(burial mounds) on the
1040:Northern/Eastern Steppe
58:Indo-European languages
8924:(nouns and adjectives)
8788:Glossary of sound laws
8500:10.26346/1120-2726-153
8430:Meier-Brügger, Michael
8214:Ringe, Donald (2006).
6480:This section is empty.
6233:) > proterokinetic
5007:demonstrative pronouns
4622:that carried the core
2612:
2570:domesticated the horse
2541:
2500:
2443:
2406:
2322:Indo-Iranian languages
2235:
2225:
2215:
2120:sing, sang, sung, song
2110:(analogous to English
1511:Religion and mythology
1470:Medieval Scandinavians
761:Alternative and fringe
54:Reconstruction of
23:. For other uses, see
9127:Indo-European studies
8639:Indo-European Lexicon
8585:10.1515/9783110542431
8559:10.1515/9783110523874
8533:10.1515/9783110261288
7965:The Sanskrit Language
7513:The Roots of Hinduism
7502:"Another Great Story"
7442:10.1353/lan.2015.0005
6612:no dominant order in
6229:"strength" (Sanskrit
6144:Possessive adjectives
5444:declarative sentences
4664:inflectional suffixes
4582:accentual system and
2641:Historical languages
2602:
2562:Pontic–Caspian steppe
2531:
2486:Ferdinand de Saussure
2402:Rasmus Christian Rask
2108:inflectional suffixes
2074:Pontic–Caspian steppe
2072:may have been in the
1861:Indo-European studies
1224:Peoples and societies
68:Pontic–Caspian steppe
9173:Proto-Indo-Europeans
9081:Anatolian hypothesis
9054:The king and the god
8633:28 July 2017 at the
8628:List of online books
7953:, pp. 102, 105.
7519:, Volume 3, Issue 2.
6618:main clauses before
6594:basic SVO word order
6260:) > amphikinetic
6071:"under, below"; the
4860:: used as a type of
4680:Indo-European ablaut
3691:Proto-Indo-European
3613:Indo-European ablaut
2577:Anatolian hypothesis
2566:nomadic pastoralists
2556:associated with the
2512:Indo-European ablaut
2464:By the early 1900s,
2070:Proto-Indo-Europeans
768:Anatolian hypothesis
720:Proto-Indo-Europeans
627:Hittite inscriptions
172:Indo-European topics
25:PIE (disambiguation)
21:Proto-Indo-Europeans
9090:Outdated theories:
9086:Armenian hypothesis
9076:Schleicher theories
8832:Edgerton's converse
8185:Lehmann, Winfred P.
7507:14 May 2023 at the
7378:2012Sci...337..957B
7237:, pp. 199–219.
6669:Tocharian languages
6645:verb–subject–object
6570:Anatolian languages
6550:subject–object–verb
6540:subject–verb–object
6135:Internal derivation
5518:grammatical numbers
5511:grammatical persons
5030:
4890:grammatical genders
4848:vocative expression
3778:
3625:Lusitanian language
3142:Old Church Slavonic
3001:(now extinct), and
2852:liturgical language
2644:Modern descendants
2585:Armenian hypothesis
2583:7500–6000 BCE, the
2474:Tocharian languages
2318:Indian subcontinent
2020:Proto-Indo-European
1990:Proto-Indo-European
1024:Multi-cordoned ware
895:Mikhaylovka culture
783:Indigenous Aryanism
773:Armenian hypothesis
632:Hieroglyphic Luwian
44:Proto-Indo-European
9048:Schleicher's fable
8660:University of Jena
8167:Hock, Hans Henrich
7963:Burrow, T (1955).
7056:. pp. 65–66.
6600:head nouns before
6546:Winfred P. Lehmann
6464:Affixal derivation
6350:"brother-in-law").
5949:originally perhaps
5478:grammatical voices
5406:grammatical aspect
5029:Personal pronouns
5028:
5011:two distinct stems
5003:grammatical person
4523:Syllabic allophone
3777:
3517:Ancient Macedonian
3488:Classical Armenian
3255:Branched into the
3251:Proto-Indo-Iranian
3126:Branched into the
3122:Proto-Balto-Slavic
2613:
2542:
2444:Deutsche Grammatik
2211:comparative method
2047:comparative method
2043:daughter languages
604:Proto-Indo-Iranian
590:Proto-Balto-Slavic
571:Proto-Italo-Celtic
140:Proto-Indo-Iranian
120:Proto-Balto-Slavic
9143:
9142:
9071:Kurgan hypothesis
8612:978-1-579-58218-0
8594:978-3-110-54243-1
8568:978-3-110-52387-4
8542:978-3-110-26128-8
8471:978-1-383-01320-7
8422:978-0-199-29668-2
8392:978-0-500-05052-1
8369:978-0-415-73062-4
8350:978-1-405-18896-8
8331:978-0-521-65367-1
8173:. John Benjamins.
8132:. John Benjamins.
8020:Sihler, Andrew L.
7931:978-3-11-052387-4
7886:, pp. 73–74.
7581:Pellard, Thomas;
7542:978-1-4294-7104-6
7372:(6097): 957–960,
7287:978-0-691-05887-0
7272:Anthony, David W.
7205:indo-européen et
7063:978-0-521-51886-4
6971:Walter de Gruyter
6641:Hans Henrich Hock
6536:Jacob Wackernagel
6517:Berthold Delbrück
6500:
6499:
6308:"father-in-law" (
6193:"wish" (Sanskrit
6031:
6030:
5780:
5779:
5433:grammatical moods
5391:
5390:
4666:) formed a word.
4647:fusional language
4528:
4527:
4524:
4383:
4344:
4154:
4068:
3983:
3920:
3909:
3902:
3895:
3888:
3844:
3843:
3703:reconstructed as
3574:
3573:
3279:Prakrit languages
3045:Greenlandic Norse
2741:Romance languages
2593:indigenous Aryans
2546:Kurgan hypothesis
2466:Indo-Europeanists
2455:August Schleicher
2084:of its speakers.
2066:original homeland
2062:Kurgan hypothesis
2000:rendering support
1976:
1975:
1237:Anatolian peoples
1207:Painted Grey Ware
1095:Nordic Bronze Age
744:Kurgan hypothesis
697:Old Irish glosses
662:Gaulish epigraphy
157:
156:
9185:
8880:
8879:
8781:
8780:
8753:Laryngeal theory
8748:Glottalic theory
8743:Centum and satem
8715:
8708:
8701:
8692:
8691:
8664:
8655:
8615:
8597:
8571:
8545:
8519:
8513:
8503:
8485:
8475:
8446:
8425:
8396:
8384:
8373:
8354:
8335:
8306:
8289:
8287:
8252:
8251:
8226:
8220:
8219:
8211:
8205:
8204:
8181:
8175:
8174:
8163:
8154:
8153:
8143:
8134:
8133:
8125:
8119:
8118:
8107:
8101:
8100:, pp. 116f.
8095:
8089:
8088:
8077:
8068:
8067:
8044:
8038:
8037:
8016:
8007:
8006:
7988:
7979:
7978:
7960:
7954:
7948:
7942:
7941:
7940:
7938:
7905:
7899:
7893:
7887:
7881:
7875:
7869:
7863:
7857:
7848:
7842:
7836:
7830:
7824:
7818:
7812:
7811:
7801:
7777:
7771:
7770:
7724:
7718:
7717:
7695:
7689:
7686:
7680:
7677:
7671:
7670:
7668:
7666:
7660:
7653:
7645:
7639:
7637:
7617:
7611:
7610:
7578:
7572:
7561:
7555:
7554:
7526:
7520:
7494:
7488:
7468:
7462:
7461:
7421:
7415:
7414:
7405:
7363:
7354:
7348:
7347:
7335:
7329:
7328:
7326:
7324:
7301:
7292:
7291:
7268:
7262:
7256:
7250:
7244:
7238:
7232:
7226:
7220:
7214:
7199:
7193:
7192:
7182:
7176:
7175:
7173:
7171:
7155:
7149:
7148:
7146:
7144:
7128:
7122:
7121:
7119:
7117:
7101:
7095:
7094:
7092:
7090:
7074:
7068:
7067:
7040:
7034:
7033:
7031:
7029:
7014:
7008:
7007:
7005:
6991:
6985:
6984:
6973:. p. 1156.
6960:
6954:
6953:
6951:
6949:
6933:
6927:
6926:
6924:
6922:
6906:
6900:
6899:
6897:
6895:
6884:
6878:
6872:
6866:
6865:
6863:
6861:
6849:Powell, Eric A.
6846:
6840:
6839:
6837:
6835:
6820:
6814:
6813:
6811:
6809:
6799:
6791:
6785:
6784:
6782:
6780:
6766:
6749:
6722:
6620:relative clauses
6495:
6492:
6482:You can help by
6475:
6468:
6384:
6357:> zero grade
6342:
6322:
6256:"father" (Greek
6122:
6121:
6110:
6109:
6102:
6101:
6090:
6089:
6082:
6081:
6070:
6069:
6040:
6039:
6027:
6026:
6014:
6013:
6001:
6000:
5992:
5991:
5979:
5978:
5966:
5965:
5956:
5955:
5946:
5945:
5933:
5932:
5908:
5907:
5898:
5897:
5882:
5881:
5876:
5875:
5860:
5859:
5854:
5853:
5838:
5837:
5832:
5831:
5826:
5825:
5820:
5819:
5814:
5813:
5793:
5792:
5776:
5775:
5768:
5767:
5755:
5754:
5747:
5746:
5734:
5733:
5726:
5725:
5710:
5709:
5702:
5701:
5689:
5688:
5681:
5680:
5668:
5667:
5660:
5659:
5644:
5643:
5636:
5635:
5623:
5622:
5615:
5614:
5602:
5601:
5594:
5593:
5554:
5553:
5516:Verbs had three
5509:Verbs had three
5470:subjunctive mood
5466:cohortative mood
5387:
5386:
5379:
5378:
5371:
5370:
5363:
5362:
5348:
5347:
5340:
5339:
5332:
5331:
5324:
5323:
5309:
5308:
5301:
5300:
5293:
5292:
5285:
5284:
5270:
5269:
5262:
5261:
5256:
5255:
5248:
5247:
5242:
5241:
5234:
5233:
5228:
5227:
5213:
5212:
5207:
5206:
5199:
5198:
5193:
5192:
5185:
5184:
5179:
5178:
5171:
5170:
5165:
5164:
5150:
5149:
5144:
5143:
5136:
5135:
5128:
5127:
5122:
5121:
5114:
5113:
5108:
5107:
5093:
5092:
5085:
5084:
5077:
5076:
5069:
5068:
5031:
5027:
4562:
4558:
4522:
4505:
4498:
4497:
4488:
4481:
4480:
4450:
4443:
4442:
4412:
4405:
4404:
4376:
4373:
4364:
4355:
4332:
4329:
4321:
4314:
4313:
4306:
4298:
4291:
4290:
4283:
4275:
4268:
4267:
4254:
4247:
4246:
4224:
4217:
4216:
4209:
4202:
4201:
4194:
4184:
4177:
4176:
4169:
4162:
4161:
4150:
4139:
4132:
4131:
4124:
4117:
4116:
4109:
4099:
4092:
4091:
4084:
4076:
4075:
4064:
4053:
4046:
4045:
4038:
4031:
4030:
4023:
4013:
4006:
4005:
3998:
3991:
3990:
3979:
3957:
3950:
3949:
3942:
3935:
3934:
3912:
3905:
3898:
3891:
3884:
3854:
3853:
3823:
3815:
3779:
3776:
3759:
3755:
3751:
3748:system in which
3741:
3728:three so-called
3699:three series of
3655:Balkan peninsula
3609:language contact
3605:Proto-Kartvelian
3482:Western Armenian
3478:Eastern Armenian
3132:Slavic languages
3128:Baltic languages
2892:Emilian-Romagnol
2661:Hittite language
2629:
2628:
2582:
2505:
2490:Jerzy Kuryłowicz
2478:laryngeal theory
2446:
2409:
2375:
2374:
2367:
2366:
2310:Celtic languages
2259:to describe the
2238:
2228:
2218:
2201:, respectively.
2188:
2187:
2180:
2179:
2172:
2171:
2080:and patriarchal
2006: instead of
1984:
1983:
1968:
1961:
1954:
1809:
1802:
1788:
1781:
1774:
1760:
1753:
1746:
1739:
1732:
1657:
1643:
1636:
1622:
1600:
1593:
1586:
1577:
1412:
1405:
1398:
1391:
1384:
1367:Germanic peoples
1357:Hellenic peoples
1346:
1339:
1332:
1255:Mycenaean Greeks
1244:
1172:Thraco-Cimmerian
1070:Globular Amphora
1047:Abashevo culture
986:
979:
949:
904:
897:
890:
883:
876:
869:
862:
855:
692:Tocharian script
395:
388:
381:
374:
367:
360:
353:
346:
313:
299:
292:
285:
271:
247:
240:
221:
182:
159:
158:
93:
89:
86:
76:
41:
40:
9193:
9192:
9188:
9187:
9186:
9184:
9183:
9182:
9178:Proto-languages
9148:
9147:
9144:
9139:
9105:
9059:
9036:
9010:
8959:
8915:Parts of speech
8910:
8854:
8724:
8719:
8680:Wayback Machine
8653:
8649:
8635:Wayback Machine
8623:
8618:
8613:
8595:
8569:
8543:
8511:
8483:
8472:
8444:
8423:
8393:
8370:
8351:
8332:
8261:
8256:
8255:
8248:
8230:Friedrich, Paul
8227:
8223:
8212:
8208:
8201:
8182:
8178:
8164:
8157:
8144:
8137:
8126:
8122:
8108:
8104:
8096:
8092:
8078:
8071:
8065:
8045:
8041:
8034:
8017:
8010:
8003:
7989:
7982:
7975:
7961:
7957:
7949:
7945:
7936:
7934:
7932:
7906:
7902:
7894:
7890:
7882:
7878:
7870:
7866:
7858:
7851:
7843:
7839:
7831:
7827:
7819:
7815:
7778:
7774:
7759:
7729:"101. Phrygian"
7725:
7721:
7714:
7696:
7692:
7687:
7683:
7678:
7674:
7664:
7662:
7658:
7651:
7647:
7646:
7642:
7634:
7618:
7614:
7583:Sagart, Laurent
7579:
7575:
7562:
7558:
7543:
7527:
7523:
7509:Wayback Machine
7495:
7491:
7469:
7465:
7422:
7418:
7361:
7355:
7351:
7346:(1–2): 185–202.
7336:
7332:
7322:
7320:
7302:
7295:
7288:
7269:
7265:
7257:
7253:
7245:
7241:
7233:
7229:
7221:
7217:
7200:
7196:
7183:
7179:
7169:
7167:
7157:
7156:
7152:
7142:
7140:
7130:
7129:
7125:
7115:
7113:
7103:
7102:
7098:
7088:
7086:
7076:
7075:
7071:
7064:
7041:
7037:
7027:
7025:
7015:
7011:
7003:
6992:
6988:
6981:
6961:
6957:
6947:
6945:
6935:
6934:
6930:
6920:
6918:
6908:
6907:
6903:
6893:
6891:
6886:
6885:
6881:
6873:
6869:
6859:
6857:
6847:
6843:
6833:
6831:
6821:
6817:
6807:
6805:
6797:
6793:
6792:
6788:
6778:
6776:
6768:
6767:
6763:
6758:
6753:
6752:
6723:
6719:
6714:
6677:
6505:
6496:
6490:
6487:
6466:
6411:
6345:Old High German
6279:
6266:*h₁su-ph₂-tr-és
6248:Hysterokinetic
6181:*dr-u-tomh₁-ó-s
6167:"slice" (Greek
6146:
6137:
6129:
6047:
5912:
5877:(full grade), *
5855:(full grade), *
5833:(full grade), *
5785:
5396:
4992:
4946:
4937:
4924:
4878:
4870:
4776:transitive verb
4770:: used for the
4762:copulative verb
4744:
4672:
4609:
4604:
4544:
4337:J. E. Rasmussen
4334:
3849:
3772:
3767:
3701:stop consonants
3689:
3683:
3675:Graeco-Phrygian
3621:
3598:Thraco-Illyrian
3590:Graeco-Phrygian
3586:Graeco-Armenian
3021:Old High German
2961:Scottish Gaelic
2763:African Romance
2710:Proto-Tocharian
2655:Proto-Anatolian
2635:Proto-language
2624:
2618:
2554:Yamnaya culture
2550:Marija Gimbutas
2526:
2520:
2253:parent language
2207:
2091:, the regional
2017:
2016:
2015:
1998:Without proper
1985:
1981:
1972:
1943:
1942:
1875:Marija Gimbutas
1863:
1853:
1852:
1844:Winter solstice
1834:Horse sacrifice
1805:
1798:
1784:
1777:
1770:
1756:
1749:
1742:
1735:
1728:
1681:
1666:
1653:
1639:
1632:
1618:
1609:
1596:
1589:
1582:
1573:
1564:
1543:
1512:
1504:
1503:
1446:
1433:
1408:
1401:
1394:
1387:
1380:
1342:
1335:
1328:
1319:
1301:
1288:
1275:
1246:
1240:
1225:
1217:
1216:
1190:
1167:
1154:
1142:
1123:
1065:
1042:
1004:
997:
991:
982:
975:
966:
964:Northern Europe
945:
941:
928:
915:
900:
893:
886:
879:
872:
865:
858:
851:
847:Steppe cultures
820:
813:
806:
798:
797:
788:Baltic homeland
762:
758:
754:Eurasian nomads
738:
734:
710:
702:
701:
672:Runic epigraphy
667:Latin epigraphy
622:
614:
613:
551:Proto-Anatolian
535:
490:
486:Thraco-Illyrian
471:Graeco-Phrygian
461:Graeco-Armenian
456:Graeco-Albanian
435:
413:
400:
391:
384:
377:
370:
363:
356:
349:
342:
309:
295:
288:
281:
267:
243:
236:
217:
202:
194:
192:
150:Proto-Tocharian
110:Proto-Anatolian
91:
87:
70:
39:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
9191:
9181:
9180:
9175:
9170:
9165:
9160:
9141:
9140:
9138:
9137:
9129:
9124:
9119:
9113:
9111:
9107:
9106:
9104:
9103:
9102:
9101:
9096:
9094:Beech argument
9088:
9083:
9078:
9073:
9067:
9065:
9061:
9060:
9058:
9057:
9050:
9044:
9042:
9038:
9037:
9035:
9034:
9032:Salmon problem
9029:
9024:
9018:
9016:
9012:
9011:
9009:
9008:
9000:
8992:
8984:
8976:
8967:
8965:
8961:
8960:
8958:
8957:
8952:
8951:
8950:
8940:
8935:
8930:
8925:
8918:
8916:
8912:
8911:
8909:
8908:
8903:
8901:Thematic vowel
8898:
8893:
8888:
8886:Narten present
8883:
8873:
8868:
8862:
8860:
8856:
8855:
8853:
8852:
8851:
8850:
8845:
8840:
8835:
8825:
8820:
8815:
8810:
8805:
8800:
8795:
8790:
8785:
8773:
8760:
8755:
8750:
8745:
8740:
8734:
8732:
8726:
8725:
8718:
8717:
8710:
8703:
8695:
8689:
8688:
8682:
8670:
8665:
8647:
8641:
8622:
8621:External links
8619:
8617:
8616:
8611:
8598:
8593:
8572:
8567:
8546:
8541:
8520:
8504:
8494:(1): 175–190.
8476:
8470:
8447:
8442:
8426:
8421:
8401:Mallory, J. P.
8397:
8391:
8374:
8368:
8355:
8349:
8336:
8330:
8307:
8290:
8278:(1): 199–219.
8262:
8260:
8257:
8254:
8253:
8246:
8221:
8206:
8199:
8176:
8155:
8135:
8120:
8102:
8098:Fortson (2010)
8090:
8069:
8063:
8039:
8032:
8008:
8002:978-1556195044
8001:
7980:
7973:
7955:
7951:Fortson (2010)
7943:
7930:
7900:
7898:, p. 102.
7896:Fortson (2010)
7888:
7884:Fortson (2010)
7876:
7874:, §4.2, §4.20.
7872:Fortson (2010)
7864:
7860:Kapović (2017)
7849:
7837:
7833:Fortson (2010)
7825:
7821:Kapović (2017)
7813:
7772:
7757:
7719:
7712:
7690:
7681:
7672:
7640:
7632:
7612:
7573:
7556:
7541:
7521:
7498:Doniger, Wendy
7489:
7471:Thapar, Romila
7463:
7436:(1): 194–244.
7416:
7349:
7330:
7293:
7286:
7263:
7261:, p. 163.
7251:
7249:, p. 185.
7239:
7227:
7215:
7194:
7177:
7150:
7123:
7096:
7069:
7062:
7035:
7017:Wheeler, Kip.
7009:
6986:
6979:
6955:
6928:
6901:
6879:
6875:Fortson (2010)
6867:
6841:
6815:
6786:
6760:
6759:
6757:
6754:
6751:
6750:
6748:
6747:
6744:
6733:
6729:
6716:
6715:
6713:
6710:
6709:
6708:
6703:
6698:
6693:
6688:
6683:
6676:
6673:
6649:Old Indo-Aryan
6623:
6622:
6616:
6610:
6604:
6598:
6595:
6588:Paul Friedrich
6566:Insular Celtic
6554:person marking
6504:
6501:
6498:
6497:
6478:
6476:
6465:
6462:
6458:
6457:
6446:
6435:
6422:"born" (Vedic
6410:
6409:Nominalization
6407:
6406:
6405:
6351:
6310:Vedic Sanskrit
6278:
6275:
6274:
6273:
6262:*h₁su-péh₂-tōr
6246:
6215:
6214:
6207:
6206:
6188:
6145:
6142:
6136:
6133:
6128:
6125:
6046:
6043:
6029:
6028:
6020:
6016:
6015:
6007:
6003:
6002:
5985:
5981:
5980:
5972:
5968:
5967:
5939:
5935:
5934:
5926:
5922:
5921:
5917:kʷetwóres rule
5891:
5887:
5886:
5869:
5865:
5864:
5847:
5843:
5842:
5807:
5803:
5802:
5797:
5784:
5781:
5778:
5777:
5769:
5761:
5757:
5756:
5748:
5740:
5736:
5735:
5727:
5719:
5716:
5712:
5711:
5703:
5695:
5691:
5690:
5682:
5674:
5670:
5669:
5661:
5653:
5650:
5646:
5645:
5637:
5629:
5625:
5624:
5616:
5608:
5604:
5603:
5595:
5587:
5582:
5576:
5575:
5570:
5564:
5563:
5558:
5538:
5537:
5531:
5525:
5507:
5506:
5492:
5476:Verbs had two
5474:
5473:
5459:
5453:
5447:
5429:
5428:
5422:
5416:
5395:
5392:
5389:
5388:
5380:
5372:
5364:
5356:
5350:
5349:
5341:
5333:
5325:
5317:
5311:
5310:
5302:
5294:
5286:
5278:
5272:
5271:
5263:
5249:
5235:
5221:
5215:
5214:
5200:
5186:
5172:
5158:
5152:
5151:
5137:
5129:
5115:
5101:
5095:
5094:
5086:
5078:
5070:
5062:
5056:
5055:
5052:
5049:
5046:
5042:
5041:
5040:Second person
5038:
5035:
4991:
4988:
4976:
4975:
4972:
4969:
4944:
4935:
4922:
4904:
4903:
4900:
4897:
4886:
4885:
4876:
4868:
4855:
4841:
4819:
4813:
4803:
4789:
4779:
4765:
4743:
4740:
4671:
4668:
4608:
4605:
4603:
4600:
4568:Vedic Sanskrit
4543:
4540:
4526:
4525:
4520:
4517:
4513:
4512:
4510:
4508:
4506:
4491:
4489:
4474:
4472:
4470:
4464:
4463:
4461:
4459:
4457:
4455:
4453:
4451:
4436:
4434:
4428:
4427:
4425:
4423:
4421:
4419:
4417:
4415:
4413:
4398:
4396:
4391:
4385:
4384:
4374:
4365:
4356:
4346:
4345:
4330:
4307:
4284:
4261:
4259:
4257:
4255:
4240:
4238:
4232:
4231:
4229:
4227:
4225:
4210:
4195:
4185:
4170:
4155:
4147:
4146:
4144:
4142:
4140:
4125:
4110:
4100:
4085:
4069:
4061:
4060:
4058:
4056:
4054:
4039:
4024:
4014:
3999:
3984:
3977:
3971:
3970:
3968:
3966:
3964:
3962:
3960:
3958:
3943:
3928:
3922:
3921:
3910:
3903:
3896:
3889:
3881:
3880:
3878:
3873:
3868:
3863:
3858:
3848:
3845:
3842:
3841:
3835:
3829:
3825:
3824:
3816:
3808:
3805:
3799:
3798:
3793:
3788:
3783:
3771:
3768:
3766:
3763:
3762:
3761:
3742:
3733:
3726:
3716:
3713:breathy voiced
3685:Main article:
3682:
3679:
3620:
3617:
3572:
3571:
3557:
3547:
3540:
3538:Proto-Albanian
3535:
3529:
3528:
3519:
3510:
3507:
3502:
3496:
3495:
3490:
3485:
3476:Branched into
3474:
3472:Proto-Armenian
3469:
3463:
3462:
3317:
3271:Vedic Sanskrit
3268:
3253:
3248:
3242:
3241:
3218:Serbo-Croatian
3172:
3135:
3124:
3119:
3113:
3112:
3047:
3037:Crimean Gothic
3006:
3003:North Germanic
2991:
2989:Proto-Germanic
2986:
2980:
2979:
2954:
2917:
2914:
2909:
2903:
2902:
2850:, Latin (as a
2789:
2744:
2733:
2728:
2722:
2721:
2718:
2715:
2712:
2707:
2701:
2700:
2697:
2664:
2657:
2652:
2646:
2645:
2642:
2639:
2636:
2633:
2620:Main article:
2617:
2614:
2538:Pontic steppes
2522:Main article:
2519:
2516:
2496:Julius Pokorny
2330:proto-language
2206:
2203:
2106:that included
2039:proto-language
2002:, you may see
1986:
1979:
1978:
1977:
1974:
1973:
1971:
1970:
1963:
1956:
1948:
1945:
1944:
1941:
1940:
1933:
1926:
1919:
1912:
1904:
1903:
1897:
1896:
1890:
1889:
1883:
1882:
1877:
1871:
1870:
1864:
1859:
1858:
1855:
1854:
1851:
1850:
1841:
1836:
1831:
1829:Fire sacrifice
1825:
1824:
1818:
1817:
1812:
1811:
1810:
1803:
1791:
1790:
1789:
1782:
1775:
1763:
1762:
1761:
1754:
1747:
1740:
1733:
1721:
1716:
1711:
1674:
1673:
1661:
1660:
1659:
1658:
1646:
1645:
1644:
1637:
1625:
1624:
1623:
1620:Zoroastrianism
1602:
1601:
1594:
1587:
1580:
1579:
1578:
1557:
1556:
1550:
1549:
1542:
1541:
1536:
1531:
1526:
1520:
1519:
1513:
1510:
1509:
1506:
1505:
1502:
1501:
1490:
1489:
1487:Medieval India
1478:
1477:
1472:
1463:
1458:
1453:
1441:
1440:
1428:
1427:
1421:
1420:
1415:
1414:
1413:
1406:
1399:
1392:
1385:
1369:
1364:
1362:Italic peoples
1359:
1354:
1349:
1348:
1347:
1340:
1333:
1314:
1313:
1308:
1296:
1295:
1283:
1282:
1270:
1269:
1263:
1262:
1257:
1252:
1247:
1233:
1232:
1226:
1223:
1222:
1219:
1218:
1215:
1214:
1209:
1198:
1197:
1185:
1184:
1179:
1174:
1162:
1161:
1149:
1148:
1141:
1140:
1138:Gandhara grave
1135:
1130:
1118:
1117:
1112:
1107:
1102:
1097:
1092:
1087:
1082:
1077:
1072:
1060:
1059:
1054:
1049:
1037:
1036:
1031:
1026:
1021:
1016:
1011:
999:
998:
990:
989:
988:
987:
984:Middle Dnieper
980:
961:
960:
955:
950:
939:Eastern Europe
936:
935:
923:
922:
910:
909:
908:
907:
906:
905:
898:
884:
877:
870:
867:Dnieper–Donets
863:
856:
844:
842:Kurgan culture
839:
838:
837:
827:
815:
814:
807:
804:
803:
800:
799:
796:
795:
790:
785:
780:
778:Beech argument
775:
770:
764:
763:
757:
756:
751:
746:
740:
739:
733:
732:
727:
722:
717:
711:
708:
707:
704:
703:
700:
699:
694:
689:
684:
679:
674:
669:
664:
659:
654:
649:
644:
639:
634:
629:
623:
620:
619:
616:
615:
612:
611:
601:
587:
582:
568:
561:Proto-Germanic
558:
556:Proto-Armenian
553:
548:
546:Proto-Albanian
542:
541:
534:
533:
528:
523:
518:
513:
508:
503:
497:
496:
489:
488:
483:
478:
473:
468:
463:
458:
453:
448:
442:
441:
434:
433:
432:
431:
407:
406:
399:
398:
397:
396:
389:
382:
375:
368:
361:
354:
347:
335:
330:
324:
323:
317:
316:
315:
314:
302:
301:
300:
293:
286:
274:
273:
272:
260:
255:
250:
249:
248:
241:
229:
224:
223:
222:
209:
208:
201:
200:
193:
188:
187:
184:
183:
175:
174:
168:
167:
155:
154:
153:
152:
147:
142:
137:
132:
130:Proto-Germanic
127:
122:
117:
115:Proto-Armenian
112:
107:
105:Proto-Albanian
100:
96:
95:
82:
78:
77:
65:
61:
60:
55:
51:
50:
46:
45:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
9190:
9179:
9176:
9174:
9171:
9169:
9166:
9164:
9161:
9159:
9156:
9155:
9153:
9146:
9136:
9134:
9130:
9128:
9125:
9123:
9120:
9118:
9115:
9114:
9112:
9108:
9100:
9097:
9095:
9092:
9091:
9089:
9087:
9084:
9082:
9079:
9077:
9074:
9072:
9069:
9068:
9066:
9062:
9056:
9055:
9051:
9049:
9046:
9045:
9043:
9039:
9033:
9030:
9028:
9025:
9023:
9020:
9019:
9017:
9013:
9007:
9005:
9001:
8999:
8997:
8993:
8991:
8989:
8985:
8983:
8981:
8977:
8975:
8973:
8969:
8968:
8966:
8962:
8956:
8953:
8949:
8946:
8945:
8944:
8941:
8939:
8936:
8934:
8931:
8929:
8926:
8923:
8920:
8919:
8917:
8913:
8907:
8904:
8902:
8899:
8897:
8894:
8892:
8889:
8887:
8884:
8882:
8874:
8872:
8871:Caland system
8869:
8867:
8864:
8863:
8861:
8857:
8849:
8846:
8844:
8841:
8839:
8836:
8833:
8829:
8826:
8824:
8821:
8819:
8816:
8814:
8811:
8809:
8806:
8804:
8801:
8799:
8798:Bartholomae's
8796:
8794:
8791:
8789:
8786:
8784:
8782:
8774:
8772:
8770:
8766:
8765:
8764:
8761:
8759:
8756:
8754:
8751:
8749:
8746:
8744:
8741:
8739:
8736:
8735:
8733:
8731:
8727:
8723:
8716:
8711:
8709:
8704:
8702:
8697:
8696:
8693:
8686:
8683:
8681:
8677:
8674:
8671:
8669:
8666:
8662:
8661:
8652:
8648:
8645:
8642:
8640:
8636:
8632:
8629:
8625:
8624:
8614:
8608:
8605:, Routledge,
8604:
8599:
8596:
8590:
8586:
8582:
8578:
8573:
8570:
8564:
8560:
8556:
8552:
8547:
8544:
8538:
8534:
8530:
8526:
8521:
8517:
8510:
8505:
8501:
8497:
8493:
8489:
8482:
8477:
8473:
8467:
8463:
8459:
8455:
8454:
8448:
8445:
8443:3-110-17433-2
8439:
8435:
8431:
8427:
8424:
8418:
8414:
8410:
8406:
8402:
8398:
8394:
8388:
8383:
8382:
8375:
8371:
8365:
8361:
8356:
8352:
8346:
8342:
8337:
8333:
8327:
8323:
8319:
8315:
8314:
8308:
8304:
8300:
8296:
8291:
8286:
8281:
8277:
8273:
8269:
8264:
8263:
8249:
8247:0-941694-25-9
8243:
8239:
8235:
8231:
8225:
8217:
8210:
8202:
8200:9780292733411
8196:
8192:
8191:
8186:
8180:
8172:
8168:
8162:
8160:
8151:
8150:
8142:
8140:
8131:
8124:
8117:. p. 22.
8116:
8112:
8106:
8099:
8094:
8087:. p. 21.
8086:
8082:
8076:
8074:
8066:
8064:0-415-08201-3
8060:
8056:
8052:
8051:
8043:
8035:
8033:0-19-508345-8
8029:
8025:
8021:
8015:
8013:
8004:
7998:
7994:
7987:
7985:
7976:
7974:81-208-1767-2
7970:
7966:
7959:
7952:
7947:
7933:
7927:
7923:
7919:
7915:
7911:
7904:
7897:
7892:
7885:
7880:
7873:
7868:
7862:, p. 14.
7861:
7856:
7854:
7846:
7845:Beekes (1995)
7841:
7834:
7829:
7823:, p. 13.
7822:
7817:
7809:
7805:
7800:
7795:
7791:
7787:
7783:
7776:
7768:
7764:
7760:
7758:9783110542431
7754:
7750:
7746:
7742:
7738:
7734:
7730:
7723:
7715:
7713:9781139469333
7709:
7705:
7701:
7694:
7685:
7676:
7657:
7650:
7644:
7635:
7633:9789027263179
7629:
7625:
7624:
7616:
7608:
7604:
7600:
7596:
7593:(1): 79–102.
7592:
7588:
7584:
7577:
7570:
7566:
7560:
7552:
7548:
7544:
7538:
7534:
7533:
7525:
7518:
7514:
7510:
7506:
7503:
7499:
7493:
7486:
7485:9788123747798
7482:
7478:
7477:
7472:
7467:
7459:
7455:
7451:
7447:
7443:
7439:
7435:
7431:
7427:
7420:
7413:
7409:
7404:
7399:
7395:
7391:
7387:
7383:
7379:
7375:
7371:
7367:
7360:
7353:
7345:
7341:
7334:
7319:
7315:
7311:
7307:
7300:
7298:
7289:
7283:
7279:
7278:
7273:
7267:
7260:
7255:
7248:
7243:
7236:
7231:
7224:
7219:
7212:
7208:
7204:
7198:
7190:
7189:
7181:
7166:
7165:
7160:
7154:
7139:
7138:
7133:
7127:
7112:
7111:
7106:
7100:
7085:
7084:
7079:
7073:
7065:
7059:
7055:
7051:
7050:
7045:
7044:Momma, Haruko
7039:
7024:
7020:
7013:
7002:
7001:
6996:
6995:Blench, Roger
6990:
6982:
6980:3-11-016735-2
6976:
6972:
6968:
6967:
6959:
6944:
6943:
6938:
6932:
6917:
6916:
6911:
6905:
6889:
6883:
6877:, p. 16.
6876:
6871:
6856:
6852:
6845:
6830:
6826:
6825:"Linguistics"
6819:
6803:
6796:
6790:
6775:
6771:
6765:
6761:
6745:
6742:
6738:
6734:
6730:
6726:
6725:
6721:
6717:
6707:
6704:
6702:
6699:
6697:
6694:
6692:
6689:
6687:
6684:
6682:
6679:
6678:
6672:
6670:
6666:
6662:
6658:
6654:
6650:
6646:
6642:
6638:
6636:
6632:
6628:
6621:
6617:
6615:
6611:
6608:
6605:
6603:
6599:
6596:
6593:
6592:
6591:
6589:
6585:
6583:
6579:
6575:
6571:
6567:
6563:
6559:
6555:
6551:
6547:
6543:
6541:
6537:
6533:
6529:
6525:
6520:
6518:
6514:
6510:
6494:
6485:
6481:
6477:
6474:
6470:
6469:
6461:
6455:
6451:
6447:
6444:
6441:"white" >
6440:
6436:
6433:
6429:
6425:
6421:
6417:
6416:
6415:
6403:
6399:
6395:
6393:
6388:
6383:
6382:
6380:
6372:
6368:
6366:
6360:
6356:
6352:
6349:
6346:
6341:
6340:
6338:
6330:
6328:
6321:
6320:
6318:
6311:
6307:
6305:
6299:
6298:
6297:
6294:
6292:
6288:
6284:
6271:
6267:
6263:
6259:
6255:
6251:
6247:
6244:
6240:
6236:
6232:
6228:
6224:
6220:
6219:
6218:
6212:
6211:
6210:
6204:
6200:
6196:
6192:
6189:
6186:
6182:
6178:
6174:
6170:
6166:
6163:
6162:
6161:
6158:
6156:
6152:
6141:
6132:
6124:
6120:
6114:
6108:
6100:
6094:
6088:
6080:
6074:
6068:
6061:
6059:
6058:postpositions
6055:
6051:
6042:
6038:
6021:
6018:
6017:
6008:
6005:
6004:
5995:
5986:
5983:
5982:
5973:
5970:
5969:
5960:
5950:
5940:
5937:
5936:
5927:
5924:
5923:
5919:
5918:
5915:see also the
5911:
5902:
5892:
5889:
5888:
5885:
5870:
5867:
5866:
5863:
5848:
5845:
5844:
5841:
5808:
5805:
5804:
5801:
5798:
5795:
5794:
5791:
5789:
5770:
5762:
5759:
5758:
5749:
5741:
5738:
5737:
5728:
5720:
5717:
5713:
5704:
5696:
5693:
5692:
5683:
5675:
5672:
5671:
5662:
5654:
5651:
5647:
5638:
5630:
5627:
5626:
5617:
5609:
5606:
5605:
5596:
5588:
5586:
5583:
5581:
5577:
5574:
5571:
5569:
5566:
5565:
5562:
5561:Sihler (1995)
5555:
5552:
5549:
5547:
5543:
5535:
5532:
5529:
5526:
5523:
5522:
5521:
5519:
5514:
5512:
5504:
5503:passive voice
5500:
5496:
5493:
5490:
5486:
5483:
5482:
5481:
5479:
5471:
5467:
5463:
5460:
5457:
5454:
5451:
5448:
5445:
5441:
5438:
5437:
5436:
5434:
5426:
5423:
5420:
5417:
5414:
5411:
5410:
5409:
5407:
5402:
5400:
5381:
5373:
5365:
5357:
5355:
5352:
5351:
5342:
5334:
5326:
5318:
5316:
5313:
5312:
5303:
5295:
5287:
5279:
5277:
5274:
5273:
5264:
5250:
5236:
5222:
5220:
5217:
5216:
5201:
5187:
5173:
5159:
5157:
5154:
5153:
5138:
5130:
5116:
5102:
5100:
5097:
5096:
5087:
5079:
5071:
5063:
5061:
5058:
5057:
5053:
5050:
5047:
5044:
5043:
5037:First person
5032:
5026:
5024:
5020:
5016:
5012:
5008:
5004:
5000:
4996:
4987:
4985:
4982:), requiring
4981:
4973:
4970:
4967:
4966:
4965:
4963:
4958:
4956:
4952:
4948:
4947:
4939:
4938:
4930:
4926:
4925:
4917:
4913:
4909:
4901:
4898:
4895:
4894:
4893:
4891:
4883:
4879:
4872:
4863:
4862:locative case
4859:
4856:
4853:
4849:
4845:
4842:
4839:
4835:
4831:
4827:
4823:
4820:
4817:
4814:
4811:
4807:
4804:
4801:
4797:
4793:
4790:
4787:
4783:
4780:
4777:
4773:
4772:direct object
4769:
4766:
4763:
4759:
4755:
4752:
4751:
4750:
4748:
4739:
4737:
4733:
4729:
4723:
4721:
4717:
4713:
4709:
4705:
4701:
4697:
4693:
4689:
4685:
4681:
4677:
4667:
4665:
4661:
4657:
4652:
4648:
4644:
4640:
4636:
4633:
4629:
4625:
4621:
4617:
4613:
4599:
4597:
4593:
4592:tone language
4589:
4585:
4581:
4577:
4573:
4572:Ancient Greek
4569:
4564:
4554:
4549:
4539:
4537:
4533:
4521:
4518:
4515:
4514:
4503:
4492:
4486:
4475:
4469:
4465:
4462:
4460:
4458:
4456:
4454:
4452:
4448:
4437:
4435:
4433:
4430:
4429:
4424:
4422:
4420:
4418:
4416:
4414:
4410:
4399:
4397:
4395:
4392:
4390:
4386:
4382:
4379:
4375:
4371:
4366:
4362:
4357:
4353:
4348:
4347:
4342:
4338:
4331:
4327:
4319:
4308:
4304:
4296:
4285:
4281:
4273:
4262:
4252:
4237:
4233:
4230:
4228:
4226:
4222:
4211:
4207:
4196:
4192:
4186:
4182:
4171:
4167:
4156:
4153:
4149:
4148:
4145:
4143:
4141:
4137:
4126:
4122:
4111:
4107:
4101:
4097:
4086:
4082:
4070:
4067:
4063:
4062:
4059:
4057:
4055:
4051:
4040:
4036:
4025:
4021:
4015:
4011:
4000:
3996:
3985:
3982:
3978:
3976:
3972:
3969:
3967:
3965:
3963:
3961:
3959:
3955:
3944:
3940:
3929:
3927:
3923:
3919:
3915:
3908:
3904:
3901:
3897:
3894:
3890:
3887:
3883:
3882:
3877:
3872:
3867:
3862:
3855:
3852:
3840:
3836:
3834:
3830:
3827:
3826:
3822:
3817:
3814:
3809:
3806:
3804:
3800:
3797:
3794:
3792:
3789:
3787:
3784:
3781:
3780:
3775:
3747:
3743:
3738:
3734:
3731:
3727:
3724:
3720:
3717:
3714:
3710:
3706:
3702:
3698:
3697:
3696:
3694:
3688:
3678:
3676:
3672:
3668:
3664:
3660:
3656:
3652:
3647:
3645:
3641:
3636:
3634:
3630:
3626:
3616:
3614:
3610:
3606:
3601:
3599:
3595:
3594:Daco-Thracian
3591:
3587:
3583:
3579:
3569:
3565:
3561:
3558:
3555:
3554:Daco-Thracian
3551:
3548:
3545:
3541:
3539:
3536:
3534:
3531:
3530:
3527:
3523:
3520:
3518:
3514:
3513:Ancient Greek
3511:
3508:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3498:
3497:
3494:
3491:
3489:
3486:
3483:
3479:
3475:
3473:
3470:
3468:
3465:
3464:
3461:
3460:
3456:
3452:
3448:
3444:
3440:
3436:
3432:
3428:
3424:
3420:
3416:
3412:
3408:
3402:
3398:
3394:
3390:
3386:
3382:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3350:
3346:
3342:
3338:
3334:
3330:
3326:
3322:
3318:
3316:
3312:
3308:
3304:
3300:
3296:
3292:
3288:
3284:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3269:
3266:
3262:
3258:
3254:
3252:
3249:
3247:
3244:
3243:
3240:
3239:
3235:
3231:
3227:
3223:
3219:
3215:
3211:
3207:
3203:
3199:
3195:
3191:
3185:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3171:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3155:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3139:
3136:
3133:
3129:
3125:
3123:
3120:
3118:
3115:
3114:
3111:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3094:Luxembourgish
3091:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3055:
3051:
3048:
3046:
3042:
3038:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3014:
3010:
3007:
3004:
3000:
2999:East Germanic
2996:
2995:West Germanic
2992:
2990:
2987:
2985:
2982:
2981:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2966:
2962:
2958:
2955:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2918:
2915:
2913:
2910:
2908:
2905:
2904:
2901:
2897:
2893:
2889:
2885:
2881:
2877:
2873:
2869:
2865:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2833:
2829:
2825:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2801:
2797:
2793:
2790:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2748:
2745:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2723:
2719:
2716:
2713:
2711:
2708:
2706:
2703:
2702:
2698:
2696:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2680:
2676:
2672:
2668:
2665:
2662:
2658:
2656:
2653:
2651:
2648:
2647:
2643:
2640:
2637:
2634:
2631:
2630:
2627:
2623:
2610:
2606:
2601:
2597:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2578:
2573:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2539:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2515:
2513:
2509:
2504:
2503:
2497:
2493:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2462:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2450:
2445:
2440:
2436:
2431:
2429:
2427:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2408:
2403:
2398:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2384:
2379:
2373:
2365:
2359:
2355:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2280:
2276:
2275:William Jones
2272:
2270:
2269:Neogrammarian
2266:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2237:
2232:
2227:
2222:
2217:
2212:
2202:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2186:
2178:
2170:
2163:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2114:) as well as
2113:
2109:
2105:
2100:
2098:
2094:
2090:
2085:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2050:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2035:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1995:
1991:
1969:
1964:
1962:
1957:
1955:
1950:
1949:
1947:
1946:
1939:
1938:
1934:
1932:
1931:
1927:
1925:
1924:
1920:
1918:
1917:
1913:
1911:
1910:
1906:
1905:
1902:
1899:
1898:
1895:
1892:
1891:
1888:
1885:
1884:
1881:
1880:J. P. Mallory
1878:
1876:
1873:
1872:
1869:
1866:
1865:
1862:
1857:
1856:
1849:
1845:
1842:
1840:
1837:
1835:
1832:
1830:
1827:
1826:
1823:
1820:
1819:
1816:
1813:
1808:
1804:
1801:
1797:
1796:
1795:
1792:
1787:
1783:
1780:
1776:
1773:
1769:
1768:
1767:
1764:
1759:
1755:
1752:
1748:
1745:
1741:
1738:
1734:
1731:
1727:
1726:
1725:
1722:
1720:
1717:
1715:
1712:
1709:
1706:
1703:
1700:
1697:
1694:
1691:
1687:
1684:
1683:
1682:
1680:
1679:
1672:
1669:
1668:
1667:
1665:
1656:
1652:
1651:
1650:
1647:
1642:
1638:
1635:
1631:
1630:
1629:
1626:
1621:
1617:
1616:
1615:
1612:
1611:
1610:
1608:
1607:
1599:
1595:
1592:
1588:
1585:
1581:
1576:
1572:
1571:
1570:
1567:
1566:
1565:
1563:
1562:
1555:
1552:
1551:
1548:
1545:
1544:
1540:
1537:
1535:
1532:
1530:
1527:
1525:
1522:
1521:
1518:
1517:Reconstructed
1515:
1514:
1508:
1507:
1500:
1497:
1496:
1495:
1494:
1488:
1485:
1484:
1483:
1482:
1476:
1473:
1471:
1467:
1464:
1462:
1459:
1457:
1454:
1452:
1449:
1448:
1447:
1445:
1439:
1436:
1435:
1434:
1432:
1426:
1423:
1422:
1419:
1416:
1411:
1407:
1404:
1400:
1397:
1393:
1390:
1386:
1383:
1379:
1378:
1377:
1373:
1370:
1368:
1365:
1363:
1360:
1358:
1355:
1353:
1350:
1345:
1344:Insular Celts
1341:
1338:
1334:
1331:
1327:
1326:
1325:
1322:
1321:
1320:
1318:
1312:
1309:
1307:
1304:
1303:
1302:
1300:
1294:
1291:
1290:
1289:
1287:
1281:
1278:
1277:
1276:
1274:
1268:
1265:
1264:
1261:
1260:Indo-Iranians
1258:
1256:
1253:
1251:
1248:
1243:
1238:
1235:
1234:
1231:
1228:
1227:
1221:
1220:
1213:
1210:
1208:
1205:
1204:
1203:
1202:
1196:
1193:
1192:
1191:
1189:
1183:
1180:
1178:
1175:
1173:
1170:
1169:
1168:
1166:
1160:
1157:
1156:
1155:
1153:
1147:
1144:
1143:
1139:
1136:
1134:
1131:
1129:
1126:
1125:
1124:
1122:
1116:
1113:
1111:
1108:
1106:
1103:
1101:
1098:
1096:
1093:
1091:
1088:
1086:
1083:
1081:
1078:
1076:
1073:
1071:
1068:
1067:
1066:
1064:
1058:
1055:
1053:
1050:
1048:
1045:
1044:
1043:
1041:
1035:
1032:
1030:
1027:
1025:
1022:
1020:
1017:
1015:
1012:
1010:
1007:
1006:
1005:
1003:
1002:Pontic Steppe
996:
993:
992:
985:
981:
978:
974:
973:
972:
969:
968:
967:
965:
959:
956:
954:
951:
948:
944:
943:
942:
940:
934:
931:
930:
929:
927:
921:
918:
917:
916:
914:
903:
899:
896:
892:
891:
889:
885:
882:
878:
875:
871:
868:
864:
861:
857:
854:
850:
849:
848:
845:
843:
840:
836:
835:Kurgan stelae
833:
832:
831:
828:
826:
823:
822:
821:
819:
818:Pontic Steppe
812:
809:
808:
802:
801:
794:
791:
789:
786:
784:
781:
779:
776:
774:
771:
769:
766:
765:
760:
759:
755:
752:
750:
747:
745:
742:
741:
736:
735:
731:
728:
726:
723:
721:
718:
716:
713:
712:
706:
705:
698:
695:
693:
690:
688:
685:
683:
680:
678:
675:
673:
670:
668:
665:
663:
660:
658:
655:
653:
650:
648:
645:
643:
640:
638:
635:
633:
630:
628:
625:
624:
618:
617:
609:
608:Proto-Iranian
605:
602:
599:
595:
591:
588:
586:
583:
580:
576:
572:
569:
566:
562:
559:
557:
554:
552:
549:
547:
544:
543:
540:
537:
536:
532:
529:
527:
524:
522:
519:
517:
514:
512:
509:
507:
504:
502:
499:
498:
495:
492:
491:
487:
484:
482:
479:
477:
474:
472:
469:
467:
464:
462:
459:
457:
454:
452:
451:Daco-Thracian
449:
447:
444:
443:
440:
437:
436:
430:
426:
422:
418:
415:
414:
412:
409:
408:
405:
404:Reconstructed
402:
401:
394:
390:
387:
383:
380:
376:
373:
369:
366:
362:
359:
355:
352:
348:
345:
341:
340:
339:
336:
334:
331:
329:
326:
325:
322:
319:
318:
312:
308:
307:
306:
303:
298:
294:
291:
287:
284:
280:
279:
278:
275:
270:
266:
265:
264:
261:
259:
256:
254:
251:
246:
242:
239:
235:
234:
233:
230:
228:
225:
220:
216:
215:
214:
211:
210:
207:
204:
203:
199:
196:
195:
191:
186:
185:
181:
177:
176:
173:
170:
169:
165:
161:
160:
151:
148:
146:
143:
141:
138:
136:
133:
131:
128:
126:
123:
121:
118:
116:
113:
111:
108:
106:
103:
102:
101:
97:
83:
79:
74:
69:
66:
62:
59:
56:
52:
47:
42:
37:
33:
26:
22:
9145:
9131:
9052:
9002:
8994:
8986:
8978:
8970:
8964:Main sources
8881:-conjugation
8843:Szemerényi's
8803:Fortunatov's
8776:
8768:
8721:
8657:
8602:
8576:
8550:
8524:
8515:
8491:
8487:
8452:
8433:
8408:
8405:Adams, D. Q.
8380:
8359:
8340:
8312:
8302:
8298:
8275:
8271:
8259:Bibliography
8237:
8233:
8224:
8215:
8209:
8189:
8179:
8170:
8147:
8129:
8123:
8114:
8111:Jay Jasanoff
8105:
8093:
8084:
8081:Jay Jasanoff
8049:
8042:
8023:
7992:
7964:
7958:
7946:
7935:, retrieved
7913:
7903:
7891:
7879:
7867:
7840:
7828:
7816:
7792:(3–4): 239.
7789:
7785:
7775:
7732:
7722:
7703:
7693:
7684:
7675:
7665:22 September
7663:. Retrieved
7643:
7638:pp. 383–386.
7622:
7615:
7590:
7586:
7576:
7568:
7559:
7531:
7524:
7516:
7512:
7492:
7474:
7466:
7433:
7429:
7419:
7369:
7365:
7352:
7343:
7339:
7333:
7321:. Retrieved
7309:
7276:
7266:
7259:Strazny 2000
7254:
7247:Mallory 1989
7242:
7230:
7225:, p. 2.
7223:Bomhard 2019
7218:
7210:
7206:
7202:
7197:
7187:
7180:
7168:. Retrieved
7162:
7153:
7141:. Retrieved
7135:
7126:
7114:. Retrieved
7108:
7099:
7087:. Retrieved
7081:
7072:
7048:
7038:
7026:. Retrieved
7012:
6999:
6989:
6965:
6958:
6946:. Retrieved
6940:
6931:
6919:. Retrieved
6913:
6904:
6892:. Retrieved
6882:
6870:
6858:. Retrieved
6854:
6844:
6832:. Retrieved
6828:
6818:
6806:. Retrieved
6801:
6789:
6779:19 September
6777:. Retrieved
6773:
6764:
6740:
6736:
6732:reexamined."
6720:
6639:
6626:
6624:
6607:prepositions
6586:
6582:Donald Ringe
6578:Indo-Iranian
6564:prefer SVO,
6544:
6526:, to signal
6521:
6513:Hermann Hirt
6506:
6488:
6484:adding to it
6479:
6459:
6453:
6452:"dark" >
6449:
6442:
6438:
6431:
6427:
6423:
6419:
6412:
6401:
6397:
6391:
6389:
6378:
6376:
6364:
6362:
6358:
6354:
6347:
6336:
6334:
6326:
6324:
6316:
6314:
6303:
6301:
6295:
6290:
6286:
6280:
6269:
6265:
6261:
6257:
6253:
6249:
6242:
6238:
6234:
6230:
6226:
6222:
6216:
6208:
6202:
6198:
6194:
6190:
6184:
6180:
6176:
6172:
6168:
6164:
6159:
6147:
6138:
6130:
6118:
6113:interjection
6106:
6098:
6093:conjunctions
6086:
6078:
6066:
6062:
6048:
6036:
6032:
5993:
5958:
5948:
5914:
5910:(zero grade)
5909:
5900:
5884:(zero grade)
5883:
5862:(zero grade)
5861:
5840:(zero grade)
5839:
5799:
5786:
5560:
5550:
5546:verbal nouns
5539:
5515:
5508:
5499:middle voice
5495:mediopassive
5475:
5430:
5419:imperfective
5403:
5397:
5276:Instrumental
5067:h₁eǵ(oH/Hom)
5018:
5014:
4993:
4977:
4959:
4954:
4950:
4928:
4905:
4887:
4881:
4874:
4866:
4851:
4837:
4833:
4829:
4825:
4809:
4808:: marks the
4806:instrumental
4799:
4795:
4756:: marks the
4745:
4735:
4731:
4727:
4724:
4707:
4703:
4699:
4695:
4691:
4687:
4683:
4675:
4673:
4651:inflectional
4642:
4638:
4634:
4631:
4627:
4610:
4586:spelling in
4583:
4580:Balto-Slavic
4576:Verner's Law
4565:
4553:pitch accent
4545:
4529:
3850:
3773:
3723:syllabically
3690:
3651:Paleo-Balkan
3648:
3637:
3622:
3602:
3582:Graeco-Aryan
3578:Italo-Celtic
3575:
3552:(disputed);
3404:
3319:Indo-Aryan:
3246:Indo-Iranian
3187:
3138:Old Prussian
3117:Balto-Slavic
2944:Middle Welsh
2912:Proto-Celtic
2856:Vatican City
2731:Proto-Italic
2638:Description
2625:
2574:
2543:
2507:
2494:
2463:
2458:
2453:
2449:Verner's law
2432:
2423:
2419:
2399:
2286:puisne judge
2273:
2265:phonological
2248:
2244:
2240:
2230:
2220:
2208:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2184:
2176:
2168:
2164:
2119:
2111:
2101:
2086:
2051:
2036:
2023:
2019:
2018:
1989:
1987:
1935:
1928:
1921:
1914:
1907:
1901:Publications
1900:
1886:
1867:
1821:
1704:
1698:
1692:
1686:Paleo-Balkan
1676:
1675:
1663:
1662:
1604:
1603:
1559:
1558:
1546:
1516:
1499:Greater Iran
1492:
1491:
1480:
1479:
1443:
1442:
1430:
1429:
1372:Paleo-Balkan
1337:Celtiberians
1316:
1315:
1298:
1297:
1285:
1284:
1272:
1271:
1200:
1199:
1187:
1186:
1164:
1163:
1151:
1150:
1120:
1119:
1062:
1061:
1039:
1038:
1001:
1000:
963:
962:
938:
937:
925:
924:
912:
911:
853:Bug–Dniester
817:
816:
682:Gothic Bible
598:Proto-Baltic
594:Proto-Slavic
579:Proto-Italic
575:Proto-Celtic
538:
493:
481:Italo-Celtic
476:Indo-Hittite
466:Graeco-Aryan
439:Hypothetical
438:
410:
403:
338:Paleo-Balkan
320:
277:Indo-Iranian
232:Balto-Slavic
205:
145:Proto-Italic
125:Proto-Celtic
8891:Nasal infix
8808:Grassmann's
8793:Brugmann's
7323:17 February
6948:3 September
6855:Archaeology
6653:Old Iranian
6420:*ǵn̥h₁-tó-s
6353:full grade
6300:full grade
6272:, eupátōr).
6221:Acrostatic
6155:agent nouns
5824:(H)óyk(ʷ)os
5542:participles
5456:subjunctive
4720:verbal noun
4649:, in which
4632:friendship,
4594:where each
3556:(disputed)
3505:Proto-Greek
3447:Mazandarani
3283:Old Persian
3267:languages.
3150:Semigallian
3009:Old English
2876:Piedmontese
2779:Pre-Samnite
2743:) survive.
2616:Descendants
2439:Grimm's law
2435:Jacob Grimm
2376:, a French
2314:Old Persian
2282:philologist
2279:Anglo-Welsh
2144:conjugation
2014:characters.
1779:Continental
1772:Anglo-Saxon
1475:Middle Ages
1425:Middle Ages
1280:Indo-Aryans
1273:Indo-Aryans
1080:Bell Beaker
1075:Corded ware
971:Corded ware
860:Sredny Stog
805:Archaeology
585:Proto-Greek
565:Proto-Norse
135:Proto-Greek
92: 2500
88: 4500
9163:Bronze Age
9152:Categories
8955:Vocabulary
8859:Morphology
8779:*kʷetwóres
8763:Sound laws
7749:1887/63481
7700:"Phrygian"
6808:1 December
6756:References
6524:word order
6428:*ǵénh₁-to-
6296:Examples:
6254:*ph₂-tr-és
6239:*kr̥t-éw-s
6205:"suitor").
6199:*wolh₁-ó-s
6191:*wólh₁-o-s
6173:*tomh₁-ó-s
6165:*tómh₁-o-s
6151:Bahuvrihis
5906:kʷ(e)twr̥-
5903:-grade), *
5497:: for the
5450:imperative
5440:indicative
5425:perfective
5099:Accusative
5060:Nominative
4916:collective
4810:instrument
4784:: marks a
4768:accusative
4754:nominative
4694:(ē), long
4602:Morphology
4551:PIE had a
4468:Semivowels
4341:Kloekhorst
4236:Fricatives
3847:Consonants
3321:Hindustani
3257:Indo-Aryan
3230:Macedonian
3198:Belarusian
3184:Lithuanian
3102:Limburgish
3033:Burgundian
2948:Gallaecian
2884:Neapolitan
2792:Portuguese
2591:, and the
2418:published
2416:Franz Bopp
2257:sound laws
2146:. The PIE
2136:declension
2104:morphology
2058:Bronze Age
1887:Institutes
1807:Lithuanian
1561:Indo-Aryan
1547:Historical
1481:Indo-Aryan
1438:Tocharians
1352:Cimmerians
1230:Bronze Age
1121:South Asia
995:Bronze Age
933:Afanasievo
737:Mainstream
501:Vocabulary
421:Sound laws
283:Indo-Aryan
90: – c.
8933:Particles
8828:Sievers's
8818:Pinault's
8813:Osthoff's
8730:Phonology
7808:215769896
7767:242082908
7607:171874630
7551:139999117
7458:143978664
7450:1535-0665
7170:26 August
7143:26 August
7116:26 August
7089:26 August
6921:27 August
6657:Old Latin
6635:Dravidian
6602:genitives
6574:Tocharian
6528:syntactic
6373:" (Vedic
6235:*krét-u-s
6227:*krét-u-s
6223:*krót-u-s
5999:h₃eḱtṓ(w)
5896:kʷetwóres
5568:Athematic
5205:yus(er)o-
5051:Singular
5045:Singular
4984:agreement
4896:masculine
4686:to short
4660:word stem
4658:formed a
4620:morphemes
4618:-lacking
4532:sonorants
4381:allophone
4152:aspirated
3981:voiceless
3876:Laryngeal
3737:fricative
3730:laryngeal
3705:voiceless
3693:phonology
3681:Phonology
3644:Liburnian
3526:Tsakonian
3459:Nuristani
3291:Old Azeri
3265:Nuristani
3234:Kashubian
3226:Slovenian
3222:Bulgarian
3194:Ukrainian
3180:Latgalian
3162:Galindian
3110:Elfdalian
3106:Wymysorys
3086:Icelandic
3070:Norwegian
3058:Afrikaans
3025:Old Saxon
3013:Old Norse
2940:Old Irish
2868:Aragonese
2864:Mirandese
2840:Sardinian
2836:Aromanian
2767:Dalmatian
2705:Tocharian
2650:Anatolian
2611:languages
2536:from the
2508:Apophonie
2482:cuneiform
2470:Anatolian
2433:In 1822,
2412:Old Norse
2368:in 1767,
2152:particles
2148:phonology
2056:to Early
2054:Neolithic
1822:Practices
1641:Yarsanism
1451:Albanians
1431:East Asia
1418:Scythians
1410:Phrygians
1403:Paeonians
1396:Illyrians
1382:Thracians
1299:East Asia
1250:Armenians
1177:Hallstatt
1159:Chernoles
1100:Terramare
1090:Trzciniec
1057:Sintashta
1052:Andronovo
953:Cernavodă
926:East Asia
881:Khvalynsk
621:Philology
531:Particles
417:Phonology
358:Liburnian
333:Tocharian
328:Anatolian
297:Nuristani
190:Languages
9110:See also
9064:Theories
8938:Pronouns
8928:Numerals
8922:Nominals
8769:boukólos
8758:s-mobile
8676:Archived
8631:Archived
8432:(2003),
8407:(2006),
8022:(1995).
7656:Archived
7505:Archived
7500:(2017).
7473:(2006).
7430:Language
7412:22923579
7274:(2007).
7046:(2013).
7028:16 April
6834:9 August
6739:and the
6675:See also
6665:enclitic
6562:Albanian
6532:unmarked
6491:May 2019
6250:*ph₂-tḗr
6185:drutómos
6103:"and", *
6073:negators
6045:Particle
6025:déḱm̥(t)
5852:d(u)wóh₁
5818:(H)óywos
5812:(H)óynos
5580:Singular
5573:Thematic
5524:singular
5501:and the
5462:optative
5354:Locative
5315:Ablative
5226:h₁méǵʰio
5177:ns(er)o-
5156:Genitive
5023:enclitic
4999:pronouns
4968:singular
4899:feminine
4858:allative
4844:vocative
4822:locative
4816:ablative
4782:genitive
4706:-grade,
4643:unfriend
4639:befriend
4635:friendly
4596:morpheme
4536:syllabic
4378:Syllabic
3765:Notation
3719:sonorant
3671:Phrygian
3663:Thracian
3659:Illyrian
3629:Portugal
3560:Albanian
3550:Illyrian
3544:Albanoid
3533:Albanian
3500:Hellenic
3493:Armenian
3467:Armenian
3455:Yaghnobi
3427:Ossetian
3405:Iranic:
3397:Sanskrit
3393:Kashmiri
3377:Maithili
3357:Gujarati
3345:Assamese
3315:Bactrian
3287:Parthian
3188:Slavic:
3174:Baltic:
3166:Polabian
3158:Skalvian
3154:Selonian
3146:Sudovian
3130:and the
3029:Vandalic
2984:Germanic
2952:Galatian
2924:Lepontic
2896:Ligurian
2888:Sicilian
2848:Venetian
2844:Corsican
2832:Romanian
2824:Friulian
2796:Galician
2783:Paeligni
2771:Volscian
2751:Faliscan
2691:Pisidian
2387:Japanese
2383:Egyptian
2334:Germanic
2294:Sanskrit
2261:phonetic
2156:numerals
2132:pronouns
2128:nominals
2093:dialects
2082:religion
1868:Scholars
1766:Germanic
1737:Scottish
1702:Thracian
1696:Illyrian
1690:Albanian
1678:European
1671:Armenian
1655:Ossetian
1649:Scythian
1634:Yazidism
1584:Buddhism
1575:Hinduism
1466:Norsemen
1376:Anatolia
1293:Iranians
1286:Iranians
1267:Iron Age
1242:Hittites
1195:Colchian
1188:Caucasus
1146:Iron Age
1115:Lusatian
1110:Urnfield
1034:Srubnaya
1029:Poltavka
1019:Catacomb
958:Cucuteni
913:Caucasus
730:Religion
715:Homeland
657:Behistun
637:Linear B
526:Numerals
521:Pronouns
446:Balkanic
393:Thracian
386:Phrygian
379:Paeonian
365:Messapic
351:Illyrian
263:Hellenic
258:Germanic
227:Armenian
219:Albanian
213:Albanoid
164:a series
162:Part of
9015:Origins
8848:Weise's
8838:Stang's
8823:Siebs's
7937:8 March
7835:, §3.2.
7403:4112997
7374:Bibcode
7366:Science
7310:Science
6894:27 July
6860:30 July
6661:Hittite
6627:rigidly
6558:Romance
6454:kṛ́ṣṇa-
6426:) >
6371:sky god
6359:*diw-és
6355:*dyḗw-s
6270:εὑπάτωρ
6197:) >
6179:) >
6171:) >
6056:and as
6054:adverbs
6012:h₁néwn̥
5990:oḱtṓ(w)
5957:, with
5944:s(w)éḱs
5796:Number
5783:Numbers
5715:Plural
5687:-eth₁es
5557:Person
5413:stative
5054:Plural
5048:Plural
4990:Pronoun
4962:numbers
4918:suffix
4912:animate
4758:subject
4690:, long
4624:lexical
4588:Hittite
4432:Lateral
4389:Liquids
3907:glottal
3886:palatal
3866:Coronal
3640:Venetic
3451:Semnani
3435:Talyshi
3419:Kurdish
3415:Balochi
3407:Persian
3401:revived
3389:Punjabi
3385:Dhivehi
3381:Sinhala
3353:Konkani
3341:Bengali
3337:Sylheti
3333:Marathi
3311:Avestan
3303:Sogdian
3261:Iranian
3214:Sorbian
3190:Russian
3176:Latvian
3170:Knaanic
3090:Faroese
3082:Frisian
3078:Swedish
3066:Yiddish
3050:English
2973:Cornish
2936:Cumbric
2932:Pictish
2920:Gaulish
2880:Lombard
2872:Walloon
2828:Romansh
2820:Italian
2812:Occitan
2808:Catalan
2800:Spanish
2755:Umbrian
2695:Sidetic
2667:Hittite
2558:kurgans
2391:Chinese
2358:Iranian
2338:Romance
2177:ḱwn̥tós
2078:culture
2068:of the
2008:Unicode
1800:Latvian
1758:Cornish
1628:Kurdish
1614:Persian
1606:Iranian
1598:Sikhism
1591:Jainism
1554:Hittite
1493:Iranian
1389:Dacians
1182:Jastorf
1105:Tumulus
1085:Únětice
1014:Yamnaya
1009:Chariot
947:Usatovo
888:Yamnaya
725:Society
709:Origins
642:Rigveda
494:Grammar
321:Extinct
311:Romance
290:Iranian
9006:(IEED)
8990:(LIPP)
8948:copula
8906:Vṛddhi
8866:Ablaut
8738:Accent
8609:
8591:
8565:
8539:
8468:
8440:
8419:
8389:
8366:
8347:
8328:
8305:(1–2).
8244:
8197:
8061:
8055:252–55
8030:
7999:
7971:
7928:
7847:, §11.
7806:
7765:
7755:
7710:
7630:
7605:
7549:
7539:
7515:. In:
7483:
7456:
7448:
7410:
7400:
7284:
7060:
6977:
6631:Uralic
6509:syntax
6503:Syntax
6450:kṛṣṇá-
6448:Vedic
6443:leũkos
6439:leukós
6437:Greek
6402:*deyw-
6398:*dyew-
6369:"god,
6367:yw-o-s
6348:swāgur
6329:ḱuró-s
6306:ḱuro-s
6283:vrddhi
6277:Vrddhi
6243:kratús
6231:krátu-
6091:; the
6037:ḱm̥tóm
5984:eight
5977:septḿ̥
5971:seven
5964:septḿ̥
5931:pénkʷe
5874:tréyes
5868:three
5800:Sihler
5679:-th₁es
5534:plural
5485:active
5254:tébʰio
5219:Dative
5163:h₁méne
5025:form.
4974:plural
4908:common
4902:neuter
4875:*-(e)h
4836:, and
4792:dative
4670:Ablaut
4656:suffix
4628:friend
4542:Accent
4066:voiced
3926:Nasals
3918:uvular
3900:labial
3871:Dorsal
3861:Labial
3807:short
3786:length
3770:Vowels
3711:, and
3709:voiced
3667:Dacian
3665:, and
3596:, and
3443:Gilaki
3411:Pashto
3373:Sindhi
3369:Romani
3361:Nepali
3295:Median
3210:Slovak
3202:Polish
3074:Danish
3054:German
3017:Gothic
2969:Breton
2907:Celtic
2860:Picard
2816:French
2804:Ladino
2787:Sabine
2726:Italic
2687:Carian
2683:Lydian
2679:Lycian
2675:Palaic
2671:Luwian
2632:Clade
2605:centum
2587:, the
2532:Early
2378:Jesuit
2356:, and
2354:Celtic
2350:Slavic
2346:Baltic
2312:, and
2308:, the
2306:Gothic
2290:Bengal
2231:father
2197:, and
2185:tréyes
2181:, or *
2160:copula
2158:, and
2138:, and
2126:. PIE
2124:accent
2122:) and
2116:ablaut
2064:, the
1815:Slavic
1794:Baltic
1744:Breton
1724:Celtic
1708:Dacian
1664:Others
1444:Europe
1317:Europe
1311:Yuezhi
1165:Europe
1152:Steppe
1063:Europe
920:Maykop
874:Samara
830:Kurgan
647:Avesta
429:Ablaut
425:Accent
372:Mysian
344:Dacian
305:Italic
253:Celtic
245:Slavic
238:Baltic
206:Extant
64:Region
9135:(EIE)
8998:(NIL)
8982:(LIV)
8974:(IEW)
8943:Verbs
8654:(PDF)
8512:(PDF)
8484:(PDF)
7804:S2CID
7763:S2CID
7659:(PDF)
7652:(PDF)
7603:S2CID
7454:S2CID
7362:(PDF)
7004:(PDF)
6798:(PDF)
6724:See:
6712:Notes
6424:jātá-
6387:Latin
6339:śura-
6319:śura-
6258:patḗr
6203:vará-
6195:vára-
6177:tomós
6169:tómos
6006:nine
5925:five
5890:four
5774:-onti
5732:-omos
5708:-etes
5666:-owos
5649:Dual
5489:agent
5361:h₁moí
5346:usmed
5330:nsmed
5322:h₁med
5307:usmoí
5291:nsmoí
5283:h₁moí
5268:usmei
5240:nsmei
5232:h₁moi
5169:h₁moi
5120:n̥smé
5034:Case
4980:below
4880:, or
4796:Jacob
4774:of a
4616:affix
4614:were
4584:plene
4394:Trill
4372:]
4368:[
4363:]
4359:[
4354:]
4350:[
3975:Stops
3914:velar
3893:plain
3857:Type
3828:long
3791:front
3782:Type
3746:vowel
3633:Spain
3522:Greek
3365:Dogri
3325:Hindi
3238:Rusyn
3206:Czech
3098:Scots
3062:Dutch
2965:Welsh
2957:Irish
2928:Noric
2900:Ladin
2775:Marsi
2759:Oscan
2747:Latin
2739:(the
2737:Latin
2609:satem
2395:Hindi
2342:Greek
2302:Latin
2298:Greek
2277:, an
2236:pesce
2226:padre
2216:piede
2199:three
2195:hound
2191:water
2169:wódr̥
2140:verbs
2012:Latin
1786:Norse
1751:Welsh
1730:Irish
1719:Roman
1714:Greek
1569:Vedic
1461:Slavs
1456:Balts
1330:Gauls
1324:Celts
1306:Wusun
1201:India
977:Baden
677:Ogham
652:Homer
539:Other
516:Nouns
511:Verbs
269:Greek
8896:Root
8783:rule
8771:rule
8607:ISBN
8589:ISBN
8563:ISBN
8537:ISBN
8466:ISBN
8438:ISBN
8417:ISBN
8387:ISBN
8364:ISBN
8345:ISBN
8326:ISBN
8242:ISBN
8195:ISBN
8059:ISBN
8028:ISBN
7997:ISBN
7969:ISBN
7939:2023
7926:ISBN
7753:ISBN
7708:ISBN
7667:2010
7628:ISBN
7547:OCLC
7537:ISBN
7481:ISBN
7446:ISSN
7408:PMID
7325:2015
7282:ISBN
7172:2016
7145:2016
7118:2016
7091:2016
7058:ISBN
7030:2013
6975:ISBN
6950:2016
6923:2016
6896:2016
6862:2017
6836:2024
6810:2018
6781:2021
6659:and
6633:and
6576:and
6560:and
6515:and
6507:The
6432:Kind
6418:PIE
6119:wai!
6019:ten
5954:wéḱs
5938:six
5880:tri-
5858:dwi-
5846:two
5836:sm̥-
5806:one
5766:-nti
5760:3rd
5753:-ete
5739:2nd
5724:-mos
5718:1st
5700:-tes
5694:3rd
5673:2nd
5658:-wos
5652:1st
5642:-eti
5628:3rd
5621:-esi
5607:2nd
5600:-oh₂
5528:dual
5394:Verb
5385:usmi
5369:nsmi
5338:tued
5191:tewe
5142:usmé
5112:h₁me
5106:h₁mé
5017:and
4971:dual
4953:and
4943:*-ih
4940:and
4934:*-eh
4910:(or
4852:John
4786:noun
4742:Noun
4736:sung
4732:sang
4728:sing
4607:Root
4559:and
4546:The
4530:All
4519:*u
4516:*i
4187:*ǵʰ
3796:back
3752:and
3735:the
3642:and
3638:The
3631:and
3623:The
3568:Tosk
3566:and
3564:Gheg
3480:and
3439:Tati
3431:Luri
3423:Zaza
3349:Odia
3329:Urdu
3327:and
3307:Saka
3275:Pali
3263:and
3182:and
3041:Norn
2977:Manx
2568:who
2472:and
2426:Zend
2389:and
2284:and
2263:and
2247:and
2241:fish
2239:and
2229:and
2221:foot
2219:and
2130:and
1848:Yule
1839:Sati
1128:BMAC
506:Root
8878:h₂e
8581:doi
8555:doi
8529:doi
8496:doi
8458:doi
8318:doi
8280:doi
7918:doi
7794:doi
7745:hdl
7737:doi
7595:doi
7591:113
7567:" (
7438:doi
7398:PMC
7390:hdl
7382:doi
7370:337
7314:doi
6486:.
6381:vás
6302:*sw
6115:, *
6099:kʷe
6083:, *
6067:upo
5959:*s-
5830:sḗm
5827:; *
5745:-te
5634:-ti
5613:-si
5592:-mi
5585:1st
5377:toí
5299:toí
5260:toi
5257:, *
5243:, *
5229:, *
5211:wos
5208:, *
5197:toi
5194:, *
5183:nos
5180:, *
5166:, *
5148:wōs
5145:, *
5134:twé
5126:nōs
5123:, *
5109:, *
5091:yuH
5083:tuH
5075:wei
4921:*-h
4882:*-a
4871:(e)
4867:*-h
4798:in
4561:/o/
4557:/e/
4339:,
4326:qʷː
4221:gʷʱ
4215:gʷʰ
4191:gʲʱ
4102:*ǵ
4016:*ḱ
3916:or
3803:Mid
3758:/a/
3754:/o/
3750:/e/
3740:/s/
3403:);
3331:),
3299:Elu
2858:),
2498:'s
2457:'s
2288:in
2173:, *
2024:PIE
1133:Yaz
81:Era
49:PIE
34:or
9154::
8656:.
8637:,
8587:,
8561:,
8535:,
8514:.
8492:32
8490:.
8486:.
8464:.
8415:,
8411:,
8403:;
8324:.
8303:47
8301:.
8297:.
8274:.
8270:.
8236:.
8158:^
8138:^
8113:.
8083:.
8072:^
8057:,
8011:^
7983:^
7924:,
7912:,
7852:^
7802:.
7790:17
7788:.
7784:.
7761:.
7751:.
7743:.
7654:.
7601:.
7589:.
7545:.
7452:.
7444:.
7434:91
7432:.
7428:.
7406:,
7396:,
7388:,
7380:,
7368:,
7364:,
7344:13
7342:.
7312:.
7308:.
7296:^
7161:.
7134:.
7107:.
7080:.
7052:.
7021:.
6969:.
6939:.
6912:.
6853:.
6827:.
6800:.
6772:.
6743:."
6671:.
6655:,
6651:,
6434:).
6394:us
6385:,
6363:*d
6343:,
6335:śv
6325:sw
6315:śv
6281:A
6264:~
6252:~
6245:).
6237:~
6225:~
6157:.
6107:wē
6087:mē
6079:ne
5994:or
5947:;
5920:)
5821:/*
5815:/*
5520::
5480::
5435::
5246:ns
5019:me
4964::
4955:-ī
4951:-ā
4929:-a
4892::
4873:,
4838:by
4834:at
4832:,
4830:on
4828:,
4826:in
4738:.
4734:,
4730:,
4637:,
4318:ɣʷ
4312:h₃
4303:qː
4289:h₂
4266:h₁
4206:gʱ
4200:gʰ
4181:dʱ
4175:dʰ
4166:bʱ
4160:bʰ
4136:gʷ
4130:gʷ
4106:gʲ
4077:)
4071:(*
4050:kʷ
4044:kʷ
4020:kʲ
3744:a
3707:,
3661:,
3635:.
3600:.
3592:,
3588:,
3584:,
3580:,
3570:)
3524:,
3515:,
3484:.
3457:;
3453:,
3449:,
3445:,
3441:,
3437:,
3433:,
3429:,
3425:,
3421:,
3417:,
3413:,
3409:,
3395:,
3391:,
3387:,
3383:,
3379:,
3375:,
3371:,
3367:,
3363:,
3359:,
3355:,
3351:,
3347:,
3343:,
3339:,
3335:,
3313:,
3309:,
3305:,
3301:,
3297:,
3293:,
3289:,
3285:,
3281:;
3277:,
3273:,
3259:,
3236:,
3232:,
3228:,
3224:,
3220:,
3216:,
3212:,
3208:,
3204:,
3200:,
3196:,
3192:,
3186:;
3178:,
3168:,
3164:,
3160:,
3156:,
3152:,
3148:,
3144:,
3140:,
3134:.
3108:,
3104:,
3100:,
3096:,
3092:,
3088:,
3084:,
3080:,
3076:,
3072:,
3068:,
3064:,
3060:,
3056:,
3052:,
3043:,
3039:,
3035:,
3031:,
3027:,
3023:,
3019:,
3015:,
3011:,
3005:.
2997:,
2975:,
2971:,
2967:,
2963:,
2959:,
2950:,
2946:,
2942:,
2938:,
2934:,
2930:,
2926:,
2922:,
2898:,
2894:,
2890:,
2886:,
2882:,
2878:,
2874:,
2870:,
2866:,
2862:,
2846:,
2842:,
2838:,
2834:,
2830:,
2826:,
2822:,
2818:,
2814:,
2810:,
2806:,
2802:,
2798:,
2794:,
2785:,
2781:,
2777:,
2773:,
2769:,
2765:,
2761:,
2757:,
2753:,
2749:,
2693:,
2689:,
2685:,
2681:,
2677:,
2673:,
2669:,
2663:.
2581:c.
2430:.
2397:.
2385:,
2352:,
2348:,
2344:,
2340:,
2336:,
2304:,
2300:,
2296:,
2233:,
2223:,
2193:,
2154:,
2150:,
1996:).
1245:)
596:·
577:·
427:,
423:,
419::
166:on
94:BC
85:c.
8834:)
8830:(
8714:e
8707:t
8700:v
8663:.
8583::
8557::
8531::
8518:.
8502:.
8498::
8474:.
8460::
8395:.
8372:.
8353:.
8334:.
8320::
8288:.
8282::
8276:1
8250:.
8238:1
8203:.
8036:.
8005:.
7977:.
7920::
7810:.
7796::
7769:.
7747::
7739::
7716:.
7669:.
7636:.
7609:.
7597::
7553:.
7487:.
7460:.
7440::
7392::
7384::
7376::
7327:.
7316::
7290:.
7207:ḫ
7203:ə
7174:.
7147:.
7120:.
7093:.
7066:.
7032:.
6983:.
6952:.
6925:.
6898:.
6864:.
6838:.
6812:.
6783:.
6493:)
6489:(
6392:e
6390:d
6379:e
6377:d
6365:e
6337:ā
6327:ē
6317:á
6304:é
6291:ē
6287:e
6095:*
6075:*
6022:*
6009:*
5996:*
5987:*
5974:*
5951:*
5941:*
5928:*
5913:(
5901:o
5899:(
5893:*
5871:*
5849:*
5809:*
5771:*
5763:*
5750:*
5742:*
5729:*
5721:*
5705:*
5697:*
5684:*
5676:*
5663:*
5655:*
5639:*
5631:*
5618:*
5610:*
5597:*
5589:*
5505:.
5491:.
5472:.
5446:.
5382:*
5374:*
5366:*
5358:*
5343:*
5335:*
5327:*
5319:*
5304:*
5296:*
5288:*
5280:*
5265:*
5251:*
5237:*
5223:*
5202:*
5188:*
5174:*
5160:*
5139:*
5131:*
5117:*
5103:*
5088:*
5080:*
5072:*
5064:*
5015:I
4945:2
4936:2
4923:2
4884:.
4877:2
4869:2
4840:.
4802:.
4778:.
4708:o
4704:e
4700:ō
4698:(
4696:o
4692:e
4688:o
4684:e
4676:e
4504:/
4502:w
4500:/
4496:w
4493:*
4487:/
4485:j
4483:/
4479:y
4476:*
4449:/
4447:l
4445:/
4441:l
4438:*
4411:/
4409:r
4407:/
4403:r
4400:*
4370:ɵ
4361:ɐ
4352:ə
4343:)
4335:(
4328:/
4324:/
4322:~
4320:/
4316:/
4309:*
4305:/
4301:/
4299:~
4297:/
4295:x
4293:/
4286:*
4282:/
4280:ʔ
4278:/
4276:~
4274:/
4272:h
4270:/
4263:*
4253:/
4251:s
4249:/
4245:s
4242:*
4223:/
4219:/
4212:*
4208:/
4204:/
4197:*
4193:/
4189:/
4183:/
4179:/
4172:*
4168:/
4164:/
4157:*
4138:/
4134:/
4127:*
4123:/
4121:g
4119:/
4115:g
4112:*
4108:/
4104:/
4098:/
4096:d
4094:/
4090:d
4087:*
4083:/
4081:b
4079:/
4074:b
4052:/
4048:/
4041:*
4037:/
4035:k
4033:/
4029:k
4026:*
4022:/
4018:/
4012:/
4010:t
4008:/
4004:t
4001:*
3997:/
3995:p
3993:/
3989:p
3986:*
3956:/
3954:n
3952:/
3948:n
3945:*
3941:/
3939:m
3937:/
3933:m
3930:*
3839:ō
3837:*
3833:ē
3831:*
3821:o
3819:*
3813:e
3811:*
3725:;
3715:;
3562:(
3399:(
3323:(
2249:f
2245:p
2022:(
1967:e
1960:t
1953:v
1846:/
1710:)
1705:·
1699:·
1693:·
1688:(
1468:/
1374:/
1239:(
610:)
606:(
600:)
592:(
581:)
573:(
567:)
563:(
75:)
71:(
38:.
27:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
