Germanic languages

7086: 6526:), cleverly distributed in a way that is capable of expressing the various inflectional categories without too much ambiguity. As a result, the definite endings were thought of as too "weak" to carry inflectional meaning and in need of "strengthening" by the presence of an accompanying determiner, while the indefinite endings were viewed as "strong" enough to indicate the inflectional categories even when standing alone. (This view is enhanced by the fact that modern German largely uses weak-ending adjectives when accompanying an indefinite article, and hence the indefinite/definite distinction no longer clearly applies.) By analogy, the terms "strong" and "weak" were extended to the corresponding noun classes, with 283: 295: 5720:

back vowels and some front vowels; it operated independently in the various languages, occurring at differing times with differing results. Old English was the earliest and most-affected language, with nearly all vowels affected. Old High German was the last language to be affected; the only written evidence of the process is with short /a/, which is umlauted to /e/. However, later evidence suggests that other back vowels were also affected, perhaps still sub-phonemically in Old High German times. These are indicated with a

3172: 6677: 2432: 356: 6021:, with four or five noun cases; verbs marked for person, number, tense and mood; multiple noun and verb classes; few or no articles; and rather free word order. The old Germanic languages are famous for having only two tenses (present and past), with three PIE past-tense aspects (imperfect, aorist, and perfect/stative) merged into one and no new tenses (future, pluperfect, etc.) developing. There were three moods: indicative, subjunctive (developed from the PIE 14345: 3237: 2984: 34: 6005:), and /w/ sometimes disappeared. The loss of /j/ after a consonant occurred in the various languages at different times and to differing degrees. For example, /j/ was still present in most circumstances in written Old Saxon, and was still present in Old Norse when a short vowel preceded and a back vowel followed; but in Old English and Old High German, /j/ only remained after an /r/ preceded by a short vowel. 4572:

only to the point that absolutely-final short vowels (other than /i/ and /u/) were lost and absolutely-final long vowels were shortened, but all of the early literary languages show a more advanced state of vowel loss. This ultimately resulted in some languages (like Modern English) losing practically all vowels following the main stress and the consequent rise of a very large number of monosyllabic words.

5475:, which were pronounced . Likewise, it is generally agreed that the outcomes of cases 3 and 4 were pronounced and in Gothic. However, there is some argument over whether the outcomes of case 1 were still pronounced as diphthongs , as in Proto-Germanic, or had merged with case 2 as monophthongs . There is some historical evidence (particularly from Latin spelling variations of 3822:(V2) word order, which is uncommon cross-linguistically. Exactly one noun phrase or adverbial element must precede the verb; in particular, if an adverb or prepositional phrase precedes the verb, then the subject must immediately follow the finite verb. In modern English, this survives to a lesser extent, known as "inversion": examples include some constructions with 5719:

actually refers to two separate processes that both were triggered in the same environment. The earlier process raised /e/ and /eu/ to /i/ and /iu/, respectively, and may have operated still in Proto-Germanic (with its effects in Gothic obscured due to later changes). The later process affected all

4027:

The subgroupings of the Germanic languages are defined by shared innovations. It is important to distinguish innovations from cases of linguistic conservatism. That is, if two languages in a family share a characteristic that is not observed in a third language, that is evidence of common ancestry of

3572:

The North Germanic languages, on the other hand, remained unified until well past 1000 AD, and in fact the mainland Scandinavian languages still largely retain mutual intelligibility into modern times. The main split in these languages is between the mainland languages and the island languages to the

6000:

Proto-Germanic /j/ and /w/ were often lost between vowels in all languages, often with /j/ or /w/ later reappearing to break the hiatus, and not always corresponding to the sound previously present. After a consonant, Gothic consistently preserved /j/ and /w/, but most languages deleted /j/ (after

4571:

Proto-Germanic developed a strong stress accent on the first syllable of the root, but remnants of the original free PIE accent are visible due to Verner's Law, which was sensitive to this accent. That caused a steady erosion of vowels in unstressed syllables. In Proto-Germanic, that had progressed

5941:

Voiced fricatives were originally allophones of voiced stops, when occurring after a vowel or after certain consonants (and for /g/, also initially — hard occurred only in the combinations /gg/, /ng/). In Old Norse and Old English, voiceless fricatives became voiced between vowels (and finally

6052:

in English) that appears variously as /d/ or /t/, often assumed to be derived from the verb "to do"; and two separate sets of adjective endings, originally corresponding to a distinction between indefinite semantics ("a man", with a combination of PIE adjective and pronoun endings) and definite

4580:

The following table shows the main outcomes of Proto-Germanic vowels and consonants in the various older languages. For vowels, only the outcomes in stressed syllables are shown. Outcomes in unstressed syllables are quite different, vary from language to language and depend on a number of other

4118:"to be called") as part of a comprehensive reformation of the Gmc Class VII from a reduplicating to a new ablaut pattern, which presumably started in verbs beginning with vowel or /h/ (a development which continues the general trend of de-reduplication in Gmc); there are forms (such as OE dial. 3979:

The large inventory of vowel qualities is a later development, due to a combination of Germanic umlaut and the tendency in many Germanic languages for pairs of long/short vowels of originally identical quality to develop distinct qualities, with the length distinction sometimes eventually lost.

6505:

In the 19th century, the two types of adjectives – indefinite and definite – were respectively termed "strong" and "weak", names which are still commonly used. These names were based on the appearance of the two sets of endings in modern German. In German, the distinctive case endings formerly

6465:

An important innovation in Proto-Germanic was the development of two separate sets of adjective endings, originally corresponding to a distinction between indefinite semantics ("a man") and definite semantics ("the man"). The endings of indefinite adjectives were derived from a combination of

3663:

on the first syllable of the word, which triggered significant phonological reduction of all other syllables. This is responsible for the reduction of most of the basic English, Norwegian, Danish and Swedish words into monosyllables, and the common impression of modern English and German as

8388:

Estimates for English, German and Dutch are less precise than these for the rest of the Germanic languages. These three languages are the most widely spoken ones; the rest are largely concentrated in specific places (excluding Yiddish and Afrikaans), so precise estimates are easier to

6635:

As a result, newer grammatical descriptions of the Germanic languages often avoid the terms "strong" and "weak" except in conjunction with German itself, preferring instead to use the terms "indefinite" and "definite" for adjectives and to distinguish nouns by their actual stem class.

3948:, which are a class of short, unstressed words which speakers use to express their attitude towards the utterance or the hearer. This word category seems to be rare outside of the Germanic languages. An example would be the word 'just', which the speaker can use to express surprise. 6581:-stem nouns include six endings, meaning there is very little ambiguity of "weakness" in these endings and in fact much less than in the German "strong" endings.) Although it is possible to group the various noun declensions into three basic categories — vowel-stem, 6573:) with related endings, and these endings were in no way any "weaker" than the endings of any other declensions. (For example, among the eight possible inflectional categories of a noun — singular/plural crossed with nominative/accusative/dative/genitive — masculine 6518:) remain in modern German to express the sixteen possible inflectional categories of the language (masculine/feminine/neuter/plural crossed with nominative/accusative/dative/genitive – modern German merges all genders in the plural). The indefinite ( 6073:

and to a lesser extent modern German best preserve the Proto–Germanic inflectional system, with four noun cases, three genders, and well-marked verbs. English and Afrikaans are at the other extreme, with almost no remaining inflectional morphology.

2558:

Dots indicate areas where it is common for native non-Germanic speakers to also speak a neighbouring Germanic language, lines indicate areas where it is common for native Germanic speakers to also speak a non-Germanic or other neighbouring Germanic

2369:

in neither of the categories, but it is often considered a German dialect by linguists. The total number of Germanic languages throughout history is unknown as some of them, especially the East Germanic languages, disappeared during or after the

3568:

in the North, and, although both extremes are considered German, they are hardly mutually intelligible. The southernmost varieties had completed the second sound shift, while the northern varieties remained unaffected by the consonant shift.

3980:

Proto-Germanic had only five distinct vowel qualities, although there were more actual vowel phonemes because length and possibly nasality were phonemic. In modern German, long-short vowel pairs still exist but are also distinct in quality.

5595:

caused short /u/ to lower to /o/ before a non-high vowel (usually /a/) in the following syllable. All languages except Gothic were affected, although there are various exceptions in all the languages. Two similar process later operated:

6506:

present on nouns have largely disappeared, with the result that the load of distinguishing one case from another is almost entirely carried by determiners and adjectives. Furthermore, due to regular sound change, the various definite (

6060:

Note that most modern Germanic languages have lost most of the inherited inflectional morphology as a result of the steady attrition of unstressed endings triggered by the strong initial stress. (Contrast, for example, the

4082:/ into /ā/ (vs. Gothic /ē/) in stressed syllables. In unstressed syllables, West Germanic also has this change, but North Germanic has shortened the vowel to /e/, then raised it to /i/. This suggests it was an areal change. 8357:, which is spreading rapidly, often replacing other languages throughout the world, thus making it difficult to provide one definitive number. It is a rare case of a language with many more secondary speakers than natives. 6025:) and imperative. Gothic verbs had a number of archaic features inherited from PIE that were lost in the other Germanic languages with few traces, including dual endings, an inflected passive voice (derived from the PIE 2829: 9016: 6457:

class) used endings from a single vowel-stem declension for all genders, and various other classes existed that were based on other declensions. A quite different set of "pronominal" endings was used for pronouns,

2792:

Yiddish, once a native language of some 11 to 13 million people, remains in use by some 1.5 million speakers in Jewish communities around the world, mainly in North America, Europe, Israel, and other regions with

9102: 6585:-stem, and other-consonant-stem (a.k.a. "minor declensions") — the vowel-stem nouns do not display any sort of unity in their endings that supports grouping them together with each other but separate from the 5569:

and later unrounded again to /aː/), and /ø/, respectively. The vowels /i/ and /ai/ rounded to /y/ and /ey/, respectively, only before /w/. Short /a/ become /ø/ by a combination of i-umlaut and w-umlaut.

8960:

Dutch-speakers can understand Afrikaans with some difficulty, but Afrikaans-speakers have a harder time understanding Dutch because of the simplified grammar of Afrikaans, compared to that of Dutch,

8370:

affecting all modern-day living major languages with a complex set of dialects. As local dialects increasingly cease to be used, they are usually replaced by a standardized version of the language.

8440:

Estimates of native speakers of the Germanic languages vary from 450 million through 500 million and up to more than 520 million. Much of the uncertainty is caused by the rapid spread of the

8334:

Estimates of native speakers of the Germanic languages vary from 450 million through 500 million and up to more than 520 million. Much of the uncertainty is caused by the rapid spread of the

6486:-stem nouns. Originally both types of adjectives could be used by themselves, but already by Proto-Germanic times a pattern evolved whereby definite adjectives had to be accompanied by a 5715:

processes operating in the Germanic languages, and caused back vowels to become fronted, and front vowels to be raised, when /i/, /iː/ or /j/ followed in the next syllable. The term

6502:, or the like), while indefinite adjectives were used in other circumstances (either accompanied by a word with indefinite semantics such as "a", "one", or "some" or unaccompanied). 4525:

The oldest Germanic languages all share a number of features, which are assumed to be inherited from Proto-Germanic. Phonologically, it includes the important sound changes known as

2403:

The common ancestor of all of the languages in this branch is called Proto-Germanic, also known as Common Germanic, which was spoken in about the middle of the 1st millennium BC in

2326:, which are more conservative languages with no significant Low German influence, more complex grammar and limited mutual intelligibility with other North Germanic languages today. 8980: 6557:-stem declensions were the most common and represented targets into which the other declensions were eventually absorbed, but this process occurred only gradually. Originally the 5942:

after a vowel in Old Norse); as a result, voiced fricatives were reanalyzed as allophones of voiceless fricatives. In Old High German, all voiced fricatives hardened into stops.

2858:, where it was one of the official languages until 2009. Danish, a locally recognized minority language, is also natively spoken by the Danish minority in the German state of 10247:

Schumacher, Stefan (2005), "'Langvokalische Perfekta' in indogermanischen Einzelsprachen und ihr grundsprachlicher Hintergrund", in Meiser, Gerhard; Hackstein, Olav (eds.),

3232:

Some sources also give a date of 750 BC for the earliest expansion out of southern Scandinavia and northern Germany along the North Sea coast towards the mouth of the Rhine.

9042: 9012: 9244: 8649: 5788: 2314:, a West Germanic language, and Low German words account for about 30–60% of their vocabularies according to various estimates. Other extant North Germanic languages are 6545:, the most conservative Germanic language – the terms "strong" and "weak" are not clearly appropriate. For one thing, there were a large number of noun declensions. The 3983:

Proto-Germanic probably had a more general S-O-V-I word order. However, the tendency toward V2 order may have already been present in latent form and may be related to

9097: 4548:, with PIE /ai/ and /oi/ merging into /ai/ and PIE /au/ and /ou/ merging into /au/. PIE /ei/ developed into long /ī/. PIE long /ē/ developed into a vowel denoted as /ē 3767:, respectively). This change resulted in pervasive alternations in related words — prominent in modern German and present to a lesser extent in modern English (e.g., 9073: 8514: 5483:, used to represent the name of the Goths) that the Proto-Germanic diphthongs had changed into monophthongs shortly before (i.e., within a century of) the time of 2715:. Today, it is only used by older or traditionally educated people. Dutch was until 1983 an official language in South Africa but evolved into and was replaced by 9283: 8627: 8832: 8687:

The Other Languages of Europe: Demographic, Sociolinguistic, and Educational Perspectives by Guus Extra, Durk Gorter; Multilingual Matters, 2001 – 454; page 10.

4544:

The main vowel developments are the merging (in most circumstances) of long and short /a/ and /o/, producing short /a/ and long /ō/. That likewise affected the

3753:) followed in the next syllable. Generally, back vowels were fronted, and front vowels were raised. In many languages, the modified vowels are indicated with a 3648:). The recognition of these two sound laws were seminal events in the understanding of the regular nature of linguistic sound change and the development of the 327: Countries or regions where a Germanic language has no official status but is notable, i.e. used in some areas of life and/or spoken among a local minority 8750: 5979:

Old English and Old Norse lose /n/ before certain consonants, with the previous vowel lengthened (in Old Norse, the following consonant is also lengthened).

11845: 4216:

Changes to the 2nd person singular past-tense: Replacement of the past-singular stem vowel with the past-plural stem vowel, and substitution of the ending

3938:

Some words with etymologies that are difficult to link to other Indo-European families but with variants that appear in almost all Germanic languages. See

9980:

van Durme, Luc (2002). "Genesis and Evolution of the Romance-Germanic Language Border in Europe". In Treffers-Daller, Jeanine; Willemyns, Roland (eds.).

6904: 8549: 5923:/k,g,ɣ/ to /tʃ,dʒ,j/ near a front vowel. The sounds /k/ and /ɣ/ palatalized initially before any front vowel. Elsewhere /ɣ/ palatalized before /j/ or 2789:, where it is considered to be an official language. Similar varieties of Moselle Franconian are spoken in small parts of Belgium, France, and Germany. 7085: 10696: 5746:

Before Proto-Germanic /x/, /xʷ/ or /r/, but not before Proto-Germanic /z/ (which only merged with /r/ much later in North Germanic). Cf. Old Norse

10632: 7148:

in addition to their native Germanic varieties began writing the Germanic languages with slightly modified Latin letters. However, throughout the

5927:

any front vowel, where /k/ and /g/ (which occurred only in the combinations /gg/, /ng/) palatalized before /j/, or either before or after /i,iː/.

2665:

and Switzerland; it also has regional status in Italy, Poland, Namibia and Denmark. German also continues to be spoken as a minority language by

2383: 4623:

deletion of final short vowels, which occurred shortly after Proto-Germanic and is reflected in the history of all written languages except for

3507:

left traces in the English language and is suspected to have facilitated the collapse of Old English grammar that, combined with the influx of

2141: 10647:

of the same Germanic words in dozens of Germanic languages and 'dialects', including English accents, and compare instantaneously side by side

10000: 6029:), and a class of verbs with reduplication in the past tense (derived from the PIE perfect). The complex tense system of modern English (e.g. 3365:

from the 2nd century AD and later is still quite close to reconstructed Proto-Germanic, but other common innovations separating Germanic from

9120: 3544:

During the early Middle Ages, the West Germanic languages were separated by the insular development of Middle English on one hand and by the

2186: 8964: 3995:

Roughly speaking, Germanic languages differ in how conservative or how progressive each language is with respect to an overall trend toward

2105: 12220: 11298: 5519:, the phonology described here is that of "Pre-Gothic" (i.e., the phonology of Gothic just before the monophthongization of /ai/ and /au/). 4183:

Loss of final /z/. In single-syllable words, Old High German retains it (as /r/), while it disappears in the other West Germanic languages.

2247:

dialects, with roughly 4.35–7.15 million native speakers and probably 6.7–10 million people who can understand it (at least 2.2 million in

2310:

and an additional five million second language speakers; since the Middle Ages, however, these languages have been strongly influenced by

12018: 8878: 8351:

There are various conflicting estimates of L1/native users of English, from 360 million up to 430 million and more. English is a current

4075:"Labial umlaut" in unstressed medial syllables (the conversion of /a/ to /u/ and /ō/ to /ū/ before /m/, or /u/ in the following syllable) 1303: 10249:

Sprachkontakt und Sprachwandel. Akten der XI. Fachtagung der Indogermanischen Gesellschaft, 17. – 23. September 2000, Halle an der Saale

8987: 7202:

The table compares cognates in several different Germanic languages. In some cases, the meanings may not be identical in each language.

4092:

of /ai/ and /au/ to /ē/ and /ō/ in non-initial syllables (however, evidence for the development of /au/ in medial syllables is lacking).

13255: 6657:

Note that divisions between and among subfamilies of Germanic are rarely precisely defined; most form continuous clines, with adjacent

3908:) to indicate past tense. The vast majority of verbs in all Germanic languages are weak; the remaining verbs with vowel ablaut are the 10062: 8274: 10138:

Take Danish, for Instance: Linguistic Studies in Honour of Hans Basbøll Presented on the Occasion of His 60th Birthday, 12 July 2003

6632:

and modern German that the various vowel-stem nouns have merged to the point that a binary strong/weak distinction clearly applies.

14302: 8338:

and conflicting estimates of its native speakers. Here used is the most probable estimate (currently 515 million) as determined by

9222: 14320: 9514: 9038: 2365:

lists 48 different living Germanic languages, 41 of which belong to the Western branch and six to the Northern branch; it places

98: 9255: 9162: 8939: 8646: 5781: 9617: 70: 10689: 10401: 9654: 2749:

is a collection of very diverse dialects spoken in the northeast of the Netherlands and northern Germany. Some dialects like

2404: 2194: 2112: 2084: 5905:). A number of modern southern German dialects have /ʃ/ for this sound before all consonants, whether or not word-initially. 3407:(2nd to 4th centuries) predates the division in regional script variants, and linguistically essentially still reflects the 11835: 8801: 2407:. Proto-Germanic, along with all of its descendants, notably has a number of unique linguistic features, most famously the 963: 9065: 8510: 6437:

Originally, adjectives in Proto-Indo-European followed the same declensional classes as nouns. The most common class (the

2396:, as well as moribundity and extinction of several of its dialects. In the 21st century, German dialects are dying out as 2366: 77: 10640: 3577:, which has maintained the grammar of Old Norse virtually unchanged, while the mainland languages have diverged greatly. 2805: 2069: 51: 12747: 9272: 8909: 8775: 8624: 4085:

The raising of final /ō/ to /u/ (Gothic lowers it to /a/). It is kept distinct from the nasal /ǭ/, which is not raised.

2134: 2091: 1022: 8824: 6044:, a special set of verbs whose present tense looks like the past tense of other verbs and which is the origin of most 5541:

In Old Norse, non-rounded vowels become rounded when a /u/ or /w/ follows in the next syllable, in a process known as

13401: 10582: 10520: 10497: 10340: 10208: 10146: 9994: 9627: 9490: 9462: 9431: 9358: 9328: 9192: 8668: 8494: 6592:

It is only in later languages that the binary distinction between "strong" and "weak" nouns become more relevant. In

5870: 5667:. All diphthongs occur both long and short. Note that there is significant dispute about the actual pronunciation of 3457:(oldest texts 650, coherent texts 10th century). North Germanic is only attested in scattered runic inscriptions, as 355: 117: 8747: 8600: 3952:

Some of the characteristics present in Germanic languages were not present in Proto-Germanic but developed later as

84: 14374: 13363: 11291: 10682: 8701: 6037:) is almost entirely due to subsequent developments (although paralleled in many of the other Germanic languages). 3649: 2098: 862: 5599:

In Old High German, /iu/ (from Proto-Germanic /eu/,/iu/) became /io/ before a non-high vowel in the next syllable.

14325: 13533: 10709: 10566: 9401: 8269: 373: 14315: 13583: 13388: 13248: 7050: 2621: 2306:, which are in part mutually intelligible and have a combined total of about 20 million native speakers in the 1954: 1729: 1133: 66: 55: 5467:

It is generally agreed that the outcome of case 2 was pronounced in Gothic, distinct from the vowels written

5402: 3798:

Large numbers of vowel qualities. English has around 11–12 vowels in most dialects (not counting diphthongs),

13114: 9547:

These alternations are no longer easily distinguishable from vowel alternations due to earlier changes (e.g.

8539: 5920: 4095:

The development of an intensified demonstrative ending in /s/ (reflected in English "this" compared to "the")

3939: 2127: 1699: 968: 905: 706: 592: 8487:

The Role of Migration in the History of the Eurasian Steppe: Sedentary Civilization v. "Barbarian" and Nomad

13464: 13144: 12314: 12276: 12261: 11131: 10901: 8444:

and conflicting estimates of its native speakers. Here used is the most probable estimate as determined by

8300: 4267: 4008: 2794: 1387: 890: 701: 696: 691: 586: 11588: 10650: 10267:"Comment on "Phonemic Diversity Supports a Serial Founder Effect Model of Language Expansion from Africa"" 5461: 5451: 5447: 5430: 5420: 5416: 3897: 3893: 3889: 3764: 3750: 3746: 3742: 3609: 3605: 14369: 14330: 13343: 13124: 12984: 12334: 12293: 12283: 11284: 11212: 11159: 7175: 6837: 6608:-stem nouns have little in common with each other, and neither has much similarity to the small class of 5846: 3545: 3388:

Germanic. Their exact relation is difficult to determine from the sparse evidence of runic inscriptions.

2782: 2670: 1704: 1199: 900: 779: 765: 746: 13496: 13491: 11500: 8264: 6958: 6724: 6652: 2387: 1042: 1000: 600: 10759: 7128:. Early runic inscriptions also are largely limited to personal names and difficult to interpret. The 5545:. Some vowels were affected similarly, but only by a following /w/; this process is sometimes termed 3585:

Germanic languages possess a number of defining features compared with other Indo-European languages.

14348: 13528: 13435: 13428: 13406: 13241: 12841: 11219: 10989: 6697: 5877:) Modern standard German has /ʃ/ for this sound in some contexts, e.g. initially before a consonant ( 4456: 2786: 2730: 2650:

language of the United Kingdom, the United States and Australia, as well as a recognized language in

1744: 1709: 1382: 686: 5712: 3560:

varieties. By early modern times, the span had extended into considerable differences, ranging from

3537:

became linguistically assimilated by their respective neighbors by about the 7th century, with only

2923:

Germanic languages by share (West Germanic in yellow-red shades and North Germanic in blue shades):

13568: 13553: 13368: 13353: 13119: 13073: 13068: 12992: 12602: 12586: 12465: 12324: 12215: 12210: 11251: 11145: 10932: 10907: 9981: 8315: 6977: 6876: 6689: 6487: 6459: 4478: 4192: 3961: 3561: 3385: 3376:

From the time of their earliest attestation, the Germanic varieties are divided into three groups:

2441: 2435: 2291: 2004: 1894: 1714: 1245: 1077: 1028: 924: 726: 681: 676: 596: 255: 213: 9116: 5557:(by a following /u/ or /w/) caused /a/, /ja/ (broken /e/), /aː/, and /e/ to round to /ɔ/ (written 13683: 13573: 13563: 13558: 13378: 13358: 13315: 13058: 13002: 12997: 12917: 12590: 12540: 11840: 11658: 11414: 11342: 11330: 11189: 11152: 11138: 10937: 10926: 10705: 8961: 7225: 7037: 6912: 6737: 6685: 6661:

being mutually intelligible and more separated ones not. Within the Germanic language family are

4619:

means after a vowel (word-finally or before a consonant). Word-final outcomes generally occurred

4262:, which includes English, Frisian, and in a few cases Dutch and Low German, but not High German: 4259: 4176: 4163: 4004: 3969: 3965: 3538: 3403:, leaving southern Sweden as the original location of the northern group. The earliest period of 3381: 3377: 3332: 3285: 2712: 2491: 2330: 2212: 2190: 2159: 1899: 1626: 736: 731: 721: 365: 223: 218: 201: 184: 44: 13180: 12900: 12298: 2374:. Some of the West Germanic languages also did not survive past the Migration Period, including 2201: 91: 14085: 13518: 13513: 13440: 13335: 13063: 12545: 12511: 12129: 11945: 11805: 11645: 11540: 11242: 11226: 11002: 10947: 10873: 10819: 9957:

in the dative has become increasingly uncommon, and is found only in a few fixed phrases (e.g.

6966: 6832: 6062: 6041: 6018: 3928: 3653: 3492: 3176: 2720: 1889: 1861: 1645: 1547: 1313: 1159: 783: 621: 513: 452: 407: 347: 339: 8870: 7113:), but the earliest Germanic writing occurs in a single instance in the 2nd century BC on the 3814:

has 13 distinctions among long vowels alone, one of the largest such inventories in the world.

2423:

in the 2nd century BC to settle in the area of today's northern Germany and southern Denmark.

13383: 13273: 13221: 13185: 12453: 12446: 12398: 12168: 12139: 12108: 12071: 11996: 11753: 11666: 11527: 11489: 11235: 11182: 11173: 11166: 10878: 10868: 10849: 10843: 7255: 6953: 6948: 6742: 6658: 6495: 5721: 3446: 2912:

is the official language of the Faroe Islands, and is also spoken by some people in Denmark.

2801: 2765: 2036: 1865: 773: 769: 754: 750: 152: 12686: 11561: 10198: 7120:

From roughly the 2nd century AD, certain speakers of early Germanic varieties developed the

7103:

The earliest evidence of Germanic languages comes from names recorded in the 1st century by

5951:

In the early periods of the various languages, the sound written /r/ may have been strongly

3604:, which shifted the values of all the Indo-European stop consonants (for example, original * 13474: 13445: 13348: 13190: 13170: 13139: 13012: 12872: 12618: 12436: 12028: 11855: 11817: 11812: 11686: 11633: 11391: 11205: 11196: 10961: 10658: 10278: 10056: 9548: 9141: 8544: 8424: 7021: 5624: 4438: 4099: 3984: 3909: 3905: 3458: 3454: 1982: 1947: 1260: 943: 895: 832: 802: 760: 740: 604: 458: 282: 12846: 6620:-stem nouns have little in common with each other, and the continuations of the masculine 5959:(Lass 1994); this is one possible explanation for the various processes were triggered by 5804:

Before /r/, /h/ (including when derived from Proto-Germanic /xʷ/) or /w/, or word-finally.

5440:

is similarly used to represent vowels primarily deriving from the following four sources:

2669:

in North America, South America, Central America, Mexico and Australia. A German dialect,

1128: 8: 14310: 13523: 13129: 12365: 12319: 12253: 12006: 11653: 11566: 11364: 11014: 10971: 10719: 8511:"Germanic languages - Proto-Germanic, Indo-European, Germanic Dialects | Britannica" 6900: 6827: 6815: 6522:-stem) adjective endings were less affected by sound change, with six endings remaining ( 6466:

pronominal endings with one of the common vowel-stem adjective declensions – usually the

5602:

In Old English, /æ/ (from Proto-Germanic /a/) became /a/ before /a/ in the next syllable.

4557: 4556:/ developed in varied and not completely understood circumstances. Proto-Germanic had no 4538: 3845: 3412: 3366: 2876:). Norwegian is also the official language in the overseas territories of Norway such as 2597: 2268: 1255: 1250: 1146: 1070: 1035: 958: 948: 807: 508: 503: 472: 301:

World map showing countries where a Germanic language is the primary or official language

12676: 12521: 11768: 10359: 10282: 6780: 6720:). East Germanic includes most notably the extinct Gothic and Crimean Gothic languages. 3525:

The East Germanic languages were marginalized from the end of the Migration Period. The

13693: 13484: 13373: 13305: 13175: 13099: 13027: 13017: 12972: 12734: 12661: 12558: 12403: 12378: 12373: 12266: 12094: 11979: 11800: 11578: 11573: 11552: 11513: 11317: 10571: 10509: 10390: 10346: 10235: 9214: 8428: 7280: 7275: 7167: 7001: 6991: 6985: 6820: 6499: 6070: 6026: 4500: 4383: 4131: 4089: 4040: 4000: 3881: 3862: 3754: 3574: 3565: 3479: 3344: 3129: 3069: 2899: 2865: 2859: 2708: 2468: 2450: 2375: 2319: 2303: 1961: 1912: 1846: 1830: 1455: 1108: 847: 533: 438: 318: Countries or regions where a Germanic language is an official language but not a 12329: 9506: 8402:

dialects classified into the German language spectrum, while leaves some out like the

6561:-stem declension was not a single declension but a set of separate declensions (e.g., 5873:" sound as in modern European Spanish, sounding somewhere between English /s/ and /ʃ/. 4051:

The lowering of /u/ to /o/ in initial syllables before /a/ in the following syllable:

273: 13469: 13320: 13295: 13149: 12948: 12864: 12857: 12812: 12756: 12516: 12506: 12489: 12484: 12388: 12150: 11950: 11911: 11891: 11729: 11621: 11603: 11455: 11111: 11104: 11097: 11076: 11051: 11046: 10994: 10966: 10797: 10578: 10516: 10493: 10397: 10350: 10336: 10304: 10296: 10204: 10181: 10165: 10156:

Bethge, Richard (1900). "Konjugation des Urgermanischen". In Ferdinand Dieter (ed.).

10142: 10028: 9990: 9660: 9650: 9623: 9486: 9478: 9458: 9154: 8931: 8490: 8367: 7058: 6943: 6894: 6785: 6775: 5605:

All of these processes were blocked in an i-umlaut context (i.e. by a following /j/).

4328:

The development of Class III weak verbs into a relic class consisting of four verbs (

4290: 3996: 3858: 3842:) and sentences beginning with certain adverbs of motion to create a sense of drama ( 3660: 3508: 3370: 3109: 2988: 2771: 2757: 2723: 2569: 2518: 2357: 2342: 2311: 2284: 2244: 1975: 1941: 1933: 1877: 1871: 1853: 1824: 1803: 1789: 1781: 1551: 1412: 1352: 1334: 1275: 1270: 1265: 1232: 1227: 1056: 919: 568: 561: 554: 540: 526: 486: 465: 402: 394: 4581:

factors (such as whether the syllable was medial or final, whether the syllable was

13892: 13264: 13104: 12895: 12829: 12785: 12780: 12740: 12729: 12721: 12526: 12494: 12441: 12430: 12343: 12052: 11991: 11781: 11763: 11598: 11359: 11351: 11029: 10981: 10892: 10860: 10828: 10804: 10733: 10328: 10286: 10227: 8743: 8441: 8420: 8403: 8335: 7287: 7250: 7016: 6996: 6927: 6923: 6917: 6842: 6799: 6790: 6765: 6761: 6701: 6491: 6017:

The oldest Germanic languages have the typical complex inflected morphology of old

5956: 5866: 5830: 5817: 5507:

to represent a monophthong was evidently in imitation of 4th century Greek, where

5499:

were available to unambiguously represent diphthongs (and, in fact, alternate with

4012: 3945: 3927:, the so-called strong and weak inflections. A similar development happened in the 3799: 3139: 3039: 3009: 2909: 2833: 2821: 2740: 2678: 2629: 2577: 2509: 2486: 2459: 2371: 2315: 2307: 2295: 2216: 2182: 1969: 1919: 1736: 1542: 1430: 1370: 1347: 1290: 1285: 1222: 1209: 1204: 1194: 867: 480: 428: 420: 413: 226: 12941: 2832:

Finland. Swedish is also one of the two official languages in Finland, along with

2338: 13501: 13479: 13423: 13393: 13277: 13134: 13094: 12927: 12834: 12817: 12802: 12797: 12790: 12499: 12408: 12393: 12348: 12200: 12163: 12155: 12134: 12121: 12101: 12087: 11850: 11827: 11758: 11748: 11740: 11520: 11090: 11062: 10790: 10783: 10776: 10769: 10747: 10740: 10674: 10644: 10487: 10136: 9609: 8968: 8754: 8672: 8653: 8631: 8575: 8571: 7297: 7292: 7270: 7191: 7133: 7129: 7109: 7042: 7011: 6863: 6858: 6804: 6750: 6746: 6709: 6705: 6542: 4586: 4561: 4552:/ (often assumed to be phonetically ), while a new, fairly uncommon long vowel /ē 4530: 4399: 4200: 4169: 4044: 3973: 3811: 3807: 3738: 3601: 3515: 3450: 3426: 3408: 3392: 3340: 3307: 3059: 3019: 2889: 2843: 2750: 2666: 2641: 2477: 2416: 2397: 2334: 2299: 2220: 2178: 2162: 2050: 2019: 2014: 2009: 1990: 1926: 1905: 1883: 1468: 1357: 1280: 1189: 1122: 1063: 929: 661: 646: 636: 631: 547: 519: 179: 160: 20: 8797: 8738:

Holmberg, Anders and Christer Platzack (2005). "The Scandinavian languages". In

6676: 3453:(scattered words and sentences 6th century and coherent texts 9th century), and 2644:

and former British colonies in Asia, Africa and Oceania. Furthermore, it is the

14175: 13959: 13623: 13310: 13215: 13109: 13089: 13041: 12933: 12807: 12477: 12244: 12183: 11962: 11919: 11876: 11793: 11788: 11677: 11627: 11478: 11429: 11384: 11377: 11267: 11122: 11056: 9564: 8858: 7260: 7213: 7190:

were formerly used for German handwriting. Yiddish is written using an adapted

7156: 7125: 7066: 7030: 6932: 6885: 6881: 6810: 6717: 6713: 6670: 6640: 5734: 4594: 4590: 4526: 4236: 4033: 3597: 3557: 3519: 3485: 3336: 3318: 3258: 3247: 3183: 3099: 3029: 2893: 2825: 2601: 2545: 2527: 2500: 2412: 2346: 2264: 2224: 1795: 1662: 1537: 1095: 1049: 1017: 953: 444: 319: 309: 168: 10668: 10637: 10044:

Forms follow Orel 2003. þ represents IPA , χ IPA , ȝ IPA , đ IPA , and ƀ IPA .

6692:

branch. The West Germanic group is the larger by far, further subdivided into

5542: 3171: 2774:

is spoken among half a million people who live on the southern fringes of the

2431: 2189:

with an estimated 2 billion speakers. All Germanic languages are derived from

14363: 13934: 13897: 13857: 13723: 13452: 13411: 13165: 13007: 12763: 12714: 12531: 12470: 12383: 12288: 12226: 12173: 12057: 11984: 10837: 10385: 10300: 10158:

Laut- und Formenlehre der altgermanischen Dialekte (2. Halbband: Formenlehre)

9664: 9613: 9380: 8854: 8353: 8294: 8289: 8284: 8279: 7234: 7218: 7208: 7121: 6693: 6666: 6662: 6048:

in English; a past-tense ending; (in the so-called "weak verbs", marked with

6022: 4582: 4434: 4426: 4135: 4103: 3953: 3866: 3818: 3430: 3404: 3323: 3119: 2885: 2847: 2735: 2658: 2170: 2055: 1519: 1435: 1152: 1010: 872: 626: 148: 14036: 10291: 10266: 8901: 8767: 5675:. Their interpretation as /iu/ and /iy/, respectively, follows Lass (1994), 2677:

in daily life. A group of Alemannic German dialects commonly referred to as

842: 13628: 13618: 13601: 13418: 13034: 12458: 12422: 12355: 12178: 12001: 11974: 11957: 11901: 11860: 11442: 11421: 10413:

A linguistic history of English: From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic

10308: 10184:(1979), "The Reduplicating Syllable and Internal Open Juncture in Gothic", 9678: 9144:"Världens 100 största språk 2007" The World's 100 Largest Languages in 2007 7114: 6868: 6769: 6756: 6629: 6474:

class in the specific context of the Germanic languages) but sometimes the

6066: 5816:

Before /h/ (including when derived from Proto-Germanic /xʷ/) or before any

5488: 3916: 3593: 3549: 3504: 3469: 3438: 2705: 2697: 2674: 2581: 2554: 2379: 2260: 2236: 1674: 1512: 986: 857: 656: 651: 641: 12681: 9644: 9423: 9350: 9320: 9184: 8665: 7186: 7144:

in the 4th century. Later, Christian priests and monks who spoke and read

6639:

In English, both sets of adjective endings were lost entirely in the late

3473: 247: 14110: 14068: 13991: 13904: 13772: 13762: 13673: 13457: 12851: 12824: 12642: 12550: 12232: 12193: 11776: 11471: 11435: 11370: 10654:: Bibliography of medieval written forms of High and Low German and Dutch 9507:"Germanic languages | Definition, Language Tree, & List | Britannica" 8596: 8399: 8305: 7171: 7160: 6673:. However, East Germanic languages became extinct several centuries ago. 6593: 5515:

was apparently created by analogy. Consistent with many sources, such as

5491:

c. 360 AD. This accords with the fact that Wulfila used the same symbols

4624: 4414: 4391: 4159: 3932: 3920: 3803: 3526: 3396: 3362: 3295: 3280: 3269: 2420: 2272: 2227:, with 24 million native speakers. Other West Germanic languages include 2197: 1650: 1636: 1600: 1308: 12696: 8714: 6988:(of Western branch origin, but heavily influenced by the Eastern branch) 6510:-stem) adjective endings coalesced to the point where only two endings ( 5627:. In general, front vowels break into diphthongs before some subset of 4306: 3968:(which represent all modern Germanic languages) but not the now-extinct 3240:

The approximate extent of Germanic languages in the early 10th century:

2846:

is an official language of Denmark and in its overseas territory of the

837: 14287: 14075: 14058: 14006: 13996: 13981: 13949: 13939: 13817: 13767: 13643: 13638: 13606: 13325: 12691: 12671: 12036: 11706: 11407: 8579: 8407: 7265: 7149: 6853: 6449:-stems ending for feminine genders, but other common classes (e.g. the 6045: 5988:/n/ lost finally and before /s,p,t,k/, but not before other consonants. 5733:

Proto-Germanic /e/ usually became Old Norse /ja/ by a process known as

5588: 5409:

to represent vowels that derive primarily from four different sources:

4255: 3924: 3870: 3553: 3511: 3369:

suggest a common history of pre-Proto-Germanic speakers throughout the

3331:

All Germanic languages are thought to be descended from a hypothetical

3079: 2746: 2662: 2536: 2392: 2361: 2240: 2232: 1613: 1527: 1405: 1170: 164: 10239: 6723:

Modern classification looks like this. For a full classification, see

5503:

in a number of nominal and verbal paradigms). The use of the spelling

4607:

means before a vowel (word-initially, or sometimes after a consonant).

4203:. Gemination of /p/, /t/, /k/ and /h/ is also observed before liquids. 4126:) which retain traces of reduplication even in West and North Germanic 3931:. This distinction has been lost in modern English but was present in 3415:

include some of the oldest datable Germanic inscriptions, starting in

2693: 2165:

spoken natively by a population of about 515 million people mainly in

14282: 14277: 14267: 14200: 14105: 14001: 13964: 13954: 13914: 13867: 13862: 13812: 13752: 13678: 13668: 13648: 13611: 13596: 12877: 12625: 12271: 12188: 11969: 11924: 11896: 11722: 11276: 9393: 6890: 6085:("fish"), and its development in the various old literary languages: 5952: 4545: 4534: 4186:

Change of (fricative allophone of /d/) to stop in all environments.

4016: 3874: 3491:

By about the 10th century, the varieties had diverged enough to make

3476:), longer texts in the Latin alphabet survive from the 12th century ( 3462: 3442: 3303: 3299: 3049: 2881: 2855: 2809: 2775: 2716: 2651: 2609: 2408: 2323: 2228: 2205: 1816: 1593: 1585: 1578: 1571: 1557: 1425: 294: 267: 241: 237: 12701: 10662: 8746:

and Richard S. Kayne. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.

4003:

and, to a lesser extent, German, have preserved much of the complex

3976:, nor Proto-Germanic, the common ancestor of all Germanic languages. 3741:, which modified vowel qualities when a high front vocalic segment ( 3236: 2983: 2869: 33: 14255: 14240: 14220: 14205: 14185: 14160: 14145: 14140: 14120: 14090: 14080: 14031: 14021: 14016: 13847: 13832: 13807: 13787: 13757: 13747: 13742: 13713: 13708: 13698: 13633: 13591: 13300: 13233: 12666: 12014: 10332: 10231: 8310: 7163: 6002: 5708: 5550: 5495:

to represent all the outcomes, despite the fact that the spellings

4565: 3901: 3865:

combinations of the Indo-European verbal system into only two: the

3640: 2877: 2701: 2673:, is still used among various populations in the American state of 2646: 2617: 2589: 1759: 1750: 1641: 1442: 1417: 1321: 812: 388: 156: 144: 9485:. Chicago, IL, United States: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 1993. 9098:"German 'should be a working language of EU', says Merkel's party" 7155:

Modern Germanic languages mostly use an alphabet derived from the

3840:

Hardly had he said this when...; Only much later did he realize...

3468:

Longer runic inscriptions survive from the 8th and 9th centuries (

2837: 2287:

with over 500,000 native speakers in the Netherlands and Germany.

14272: 14260: 14250: 14225: 14215: 14210: 14190: 14180: 14155: 14095: 14053: 14026: 13944: 13877: 13872: 13852: 13842: 13797: 13792: 13782: 13777: 13718: 13703: 13653: 12707: 12303: 12205: 10955: 8583: 8468: 8466: 8464: 7180: 7137: 7104: 6700:

on the other. Anglo-Frisian notably includes English and all its

6035:

If you had not acted so stupidly, we would never have been caught

5484: 3534: 3500: 3434: 3425:

The earliest coherent Germanic text preserved is the 4th-century

3400: 3089: 2903: 2873: 2637: 2633: 2613: 2280: 2276: 2252: 2248: 2174: 1809: 1773: 1766: 1564: 1184: 817: 172: 143:

Worldwide, principally Northern, Western and Central Europe, the

2436:

The present-day distribution of the Germanic languages in Europe

14292: 14245: 14230: 14195: 14170: 14135: 14130: 14063: 14048: 13986: 13924: 13909: 13887: 13837: 13827: 13822: 13735: 13730: 13688: 13658: 12010: 11083: 10327:. Studies in Germanic Linguistics. Vol. 3. John Benjamin. 9105:

from the original on 11 January 2022 – via The Telegraph.

9013:"List of declarations made with respect to treaty No. 148" 6936: 4318: 4247: 4199:, before /j/. This only occurred in short-stemmed words due to 3988: 3935:

and remains in all other Germanic languages to various degrees.

3885: 3496: 2761: 2682: 2593: 2573: 2350: 2349:, spoken until the late 18th century in some isolated areas of 2166: 1532: 1486: 1005: 822: 10083:

Attested in this form in Crimean Gothic. See Winfred Lehmann,

8962:

http://www.let.rug.nl/~gooskens/pdf/publ_litlingcomp_2006b.pdf

8871:"Office pour la langue et les cultures d'Alsace et de Moselle" 8461: 6069:

and consequently preserved much of the inherited morphology.)

5724:

or "umlaut" symbol (two dots) placed over the affected vowels.

14165: 14150: 14125: 14115: 14100: 14043: 14011: 13976: 13971: 13929: 13919: 13802: 13663: 13506: 11928: 11069: 10265:

Wang, Chuan-Chao; Ding, Qi-Liang; Tao, Huan; Li, Hui (2012).

8656:, A. Adler, C. Ehlers, R. Goltz, A. Kleene, A. Plewnia (2016) 7145: 7141: 4032:

the characteristic is an innovation compared to the family's

3923:

that is marked by different sets of inflectional endings for

3617: 3530: 3180: 2854:

and language of education in its other overseas territory of

2689: 2605: 2585: 1631: 1505: 1499: 1481: 852: 827: 9862: 9578: 8825:"Sprache und Mundart: Das Aussterben der deutschen Dialekte" 8366:

This phenomenon is not restricted to German but constitutes

6482:

classes. Definite adjectives, however, had endings based on

4642:. If one is omitted, the previous one applies. For example, 3395:, and the eastern group may be derived from the 1st-century 2588:, New Zealand, Ireland, South Africa, Philippines, Jamaica, 2263:

Europe, now with approximately 1.5 million native speakers;

14235: 13882: 9590: 8709: 8620: 8618: 4315: 2625: 2256: 2023: 10035:, in "Indogermanische Forschungen", 93, 1988, pp. 168–185. 9736: 6600:-stem nouns form a single, clear class, but the masculine 6577:-stem nouns in Gothic include seven endings, and feminine 6462:, and words with related semantics (e.g., "all", "only"). 4206:

Labiovelar consonants become plain velar when non-initial.

9649:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 32–35. 7152:, runic alphabets remained in common use in Scandinavia. 6807:(a transitional dialect between Upper and Central German) 4425:(this may represent independent changes in Old Saxon and 2215:

include the three most widely spoken Germanic languages:

10141:. University Press of Southern Denmark. pp. 41–57. 9983:

Language Contact at the Romance–Germanic Language Border

9886: 9835: 9066:"How Many People Speak Swedish, And Where Is It Spoken?" 8615: 6040:

Among the primary innovations in Proto-Germanic are the

5869:/s/, somewhat like in English, while the latter was an " 3849:). It is more common in other modern Germanic languages. 2415:." Early varieties of Germanic entered history when the 2345:, all of which are now extinct. The last to die off was 312:

of the majority of the population is a Germanic language

10105:

Attested in Crimean Gothic in the nominative plural as

9922: 9748: 9688: 6432: 4589:

and (in some cases) whether the preceding syllable was

3664:

consonant-heavy languages. Examples are Proto-Germanic

2711:, but Dutch was scrapped as an official language after 10033:

The Elaboration of the Gothic Alphabet and Orthography

9944:+ dative, or with the dative alone after prepositions. 8379:

It uses the lowest estimate for English (360 million).

5766:

in Old English; in Gothic, they become, respectively,

3643: 2820:

In addition to being the official language in Sweden,

10325:

A Comparative Grammar of the Early Germanic Languages

9970:

Of questionable etymology. Possibly an old locative.

9961:"at home") and in certain archaizing literary styles. 9724: 8542:[The world's 100 largest languages in 2010]. 4344:"to live"; cf. the numerous Old High German verbs in 4270:, with loss of /n/ before voiceless fricatives: e.g. 4098:

Introduction of a distinct ablaut grade in Class VII

9910: 9874: 9811: 9765: 9763: 7069: 7061: 7053: 7045: 6612:-stem nouns. Similarly, in Old Norse, the masculine 6053:

semantics ("the man", with endings derived from PIE

6031:

In three months, the house will still be being built

4382:, but this is an independent development, caused by 4293: 4052: 3722: 3709: 3698: 3687: 3676: 3665: 2840:. Swedish is also spoken by some people in Estonia. 2828:

in Finland, which is a large part of the population

2251:(2016) and 2.15 million in the Netherlands (2003)); 227: 10431:. New York: Modern Language Association of America. 10368: 9852: 9850: 9823: 9775: 9529: 8472: 7159:. In print, German used to be predominately set in 6704:, while Continental West Germanic includes German ( 6684:All living Germanic languages belong either to the 6628:-stem nouns are also quite distinct. It is only in 6445:-stem endings for masculine and neuter genders and 5426:

Proto-Germanic /e/ and /i/ before /h/, /hʷ/ and /r/

4564:subsequently developed them through the process of 4235:) of the verbs for "stand" and "go"; but note that 4158:, "wild animal"); note that this is not present in 2657:German is a language of Austria, Belgium, Germany, 58:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 10704: 10570: 10508: 10389: 10122:Dialectally tvo, två, tvei (m), tvæ (f), tvau (n). 9898: 9799: 9787: 9608: 9301: 9096: 5762:(neut.) "bronze" < PG *aizan. (All four become 4189:Change of /lþ/ to stop /ld/ (except word-finally). 3838:), sentences beginning with certain conjunctions ( 9940:In speech, the genitive is usually replaced with 9760: 5537: 5535: 5533: 5531: 5529: 5527: 5525: 5487:, who designed the Gothic alphabet and wrote the 4130:The following innovations are also common to the 14361: 10659:Swadesh lists of Germanic basic vocabulary words 10556: 10316: 10135:Basbøll, Hans; Jacobsen, Henrik Galberg (2003). 10010: 9868: 9847: 8642: 8640: 5711:. This was the most significant of the various 4649:occurs after a vowel regardless of what follows. 4007:inherited from Proto-Germanic (and in turn from 3391:The western group would have formed in the late 3354:. Proto-Germanic itself was likely spoken after 2996:Germanic languages by number of native speakers 2812:regions, along the Dutch–Belgian–German border. 10592:Wright, Joseph; Wright, Mary Elizabeth (1925). 10369:König, Ekkehard; van der Auwera, Johan (1994). 10361:A comparative grammar of the Teutonic languages 10218:Joos, Martin (1952). "The Medieval Sibilants". 10134: 9642: 9596: 8695: 8693: 5647:is a consonant. The diphthong /æa/ is written 4398:, which is thought to be a late borrowing from 4063: 3987:, an Indo-European law dictating that sentence 3477: 10541:Old English: A historical linguistic companion 9245:"Status und Gebrauch des Niederdeutschen 2016" 8570:SIL Ethnologue (2006). 95 million speakers of 5727: 5677:Old English: A historical linguistic companion 5619: 5617: 5615: 5613: 5611: 5522: 3580: 3335:, united by subjection to the sound shifts of 13249: 11292: 10690: 10621:. Prospect Heights, Illinois: Waveland Press. 10532:A concise Anglo–Saxon dictionary, 4th edition 10264: 10186:Zeitschrift für Vergleichende Sprachforschung 10170:Zeitschrift für Vergleichende Sprachforschung 9584: 9563:) or later changes (e.g. vowel shortening in 9457:, vol. I, London: Penguin, p. 108, 8659: 8637: 8484: 5915: 5913: 5911: 5707:All languages except Gothic were affected by 5397: 5395: 5393: 4515: 4068:"messages" ("a-Umlaut", traditionally called 4019:, have moved toward a largely analytic type. 3912:. The distinction has been lost in Afrikaans. 3832:Here comes the sun; there are five continents 2223:, with over 100 million native speakers; and 2219:with around 360–400 million native speakers; 2135: 10591: 10547: 10061:. Digitales Wörterbuch Niederdeutsch (dwn). 9892: 9841: 9479:"Languages of the World: Germanic languages" 8690: 8647:Status und Gebrauch des Niederdeutschen 2016 8175: 6065:, which have largely kept the Indo-European 4433:The following innovations are common to the 4299:. Dutch has reclaimed the reflexive pronoun 4254:The following innovations are common to the 4175:The following innovations are common to the 4039:The following innovations are common to the 3758: 3729: 3716: 3548:on the continent on the other, resulting in 3437:. Early testimonies of West Germanic are in 2271:with roughly 1.3 million speakers along the 2231:, an offshoot of Dutch originating from the 2181:. The most widely spoken Germanic language, 13280:origin primarily identified as speakers of 10557:Mitchell, Bruce; Robinson, Fred C. (1992). 10357: 9928: 5841: 5839: 5703: 5701: 5699: 5697: 5695: 5693: 5691: 5689: 5687: 5685: 5608: 5583: 5581: 5579: 5577: 5575: 5457:Proto-Germanic /u/ before /h/, /hʷ/ and /r/ 4351:The split of the Class II weak verb ending 4300: 3630: 3620: 3488:dates back to as early as the 9th century. 3294: Continental West Germanic languages ( 2815: 16:Branch of the Indo-European language family 13256: 13242: 11299: 11285: 10697: 10683: 10246: 10180: 10164: 10096:The English word is a loan from Old Norse. 10053:Low German forms follow the dictionary of 9742: 9719: 9707: 9109: 8902:"Le dialecte alsacien : vers l'oubli" 6680:Germanic languages and main dialect groups 6541:However, in Proto-Germanic – and still in 5908: 5390: 4022: 3588:Some of the best-known are the following: 2563: 2142: 2128: 2106:Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch 10515:. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. 10290: 9979: 8899: 8574:; 105 million including Middle and Upper 8275:List of Germanic and Latinate equivalents 5975: 5973: 5937: 5935: 5933: 5812: 5810: 5175:g-, j(æ,e,i)-, --, -j(æ,e,i)-, -(æ,e,i)j- 4142:Proto-Germanic /z/ > /r/ (e.g. Gothic 3495:difficult. The linguistic contact of the 2868:is the official language of Norway (both 2628:, Hong Kong, Singapore, Pakistan, India, 2239:, with over 7.1 million native speakers; 118:Learn how and when to remove this message 10616: 10565: 10552:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 10543:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 10485: 10476: 9916: 9880: 9817: 9754: 9694: 8732: 8419:All other Germanic languages, including 7197: 7084: 6961:(last remaining dialect of East Frisian) 6675: 6077:The following shows a typical masculine 5836: 5740: 5682: 5572: 4560:, but all Germanic languages except for 3235: 3170: 2982: 2430: 2255:, once used by approximately 13 million 14321:Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England 10577:. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 10548:Lass, Roger; Anderson, John M. (1975). 10534:. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 10506: 10465:. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 10426: 10168:(1972), "Indo-European ē in Germanic", 10006:from the original on 16 September 2020. 9829: 9781: 9094: 9063: 8981:"A co-oficialização da língua pomerana" 8534: 8532: 5865:. It is thought that the former was a 5833:, i.e. /s/,/z/,/þ/,/t/,/d/,/r/,/l/,/n/. 5820:, i.e. /s/,/z/,/þ/,/t/,/d/,/r/,/l/,/n/. 5516: 4630:The above three are given in the order 4378:in a-stem nouns (note, Gothic also has 3956:that spread from language to language: 3853:Other significant characteristics are: 3343:. These probably took place during the 2830:along the coast of western and southern 14362: 11306: 10610:An Old High German primer, 2nd edition 10607: 10451: 10435: 10429:An introduction to the Gothic language 10196: 10155: 10054: 9904: 9805: 9793: 9730: 9452: 9307: 8973: 8699: 5970: 5930: 5823: 5807: 5798: 4808:ja, jø(...u), (w,r,l)e, (w,r,l)ø(...u) 3810:at least 11. The Amstetten dialect of 2243:, considered a separate collection of 13237: 12970: 12584: 11328: 11280: 10678: 10573:Old English and its closest relatives 10463:A Concise Dictionary of Old Icelandic 10460: 10410: 9769: 9682: 9535: 9517:from the original on 29 December 2023 9076:from the original on 25 February 2024 8822: 8517:from the original on 29 December 2023 8297:and its various subordinated articles 5996: 5994: 4533:, which introduced a large number of 3844:Over went the boat; out ran the cat; 3541:lingering on until the 18th century. 2785:dialect that is spoken mainly in the 2764:(where the local dialect is known as 2753:have been imported to South America. 2113:Indo-European Etymological Dictionary 2085:Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture 13263: 10538: 10529: 10384: 10322: 10255: 10217: 10065:from the original on 22 October 2021 10016: 9989:. Multilingual Matters. p. 13. 9856: 9195:from the original on 8 February 2021 9155:"Afrikaans - Worldwide distribution" 9123:from the original on 21 October 2012 8932:"Feiten en cijfers – Taalunieversum" 8912:from the original on 19 January 2023 8881:from the original on 19 January 2023 8823:Heine, Matthias (16 November 2017). 8603:from the original on 3 December 2013 8529: 7089:Germanic – Romance language border: 6433:Strong vs. weak nouns and adjectives 6288: 6132: 5874: 5750:(masc.) "messenger" < PG *airuz, 5107:k, tʃ(i,e,æ)-, -k-, -(i)tʃ-, -tʃ(i)- 4660:if /u/ occurs in the next syllable". 4575: 4314:The reduction of the three Germanic 3806:, standard German and Dutch 14, and 2836:, and the only official language in 2267:, with 1.5 million native speakers; 56:adding citations to reliable sources 27: 11861:Plautdietsch / Mennonite Low German 10559:A guide to Old English, 5th edition 9619:The Sounds of the World's Languages 9289:from the original on 5 October 2021 8942:from the original on 6 October 2022 8552:from the original on 6 October 2014 8489:. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 117. 8485:Bell-Fialkoll, Andrew, ed. (2000). 7184:and, since the early 20th century, 5794:from the original on 18 April 2003. 5623:The diphthongal results are due to 3213: New settlements by 250 3202: New settlements by 500 3191: Settlements before 750 2070:Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European 13: 13220:Languages between parentheses are 12585: 10601: 10596:. London: Oxford University Press. 10481:. London: Oxford University Press. 10456:. London: Oxford University Press. 10440:. London: Oxford University Press. 10415:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 10200:Yiddish: A Linguistic Introduction 9622:. Oxford: Blackwell. p. 290. 9471: 9434:from the original on 23 March 2021 9361:from the original on 22 March 2021 9331:from the original on 27 March 2021 9225:from the original on 23 March 2021 9135: 9045:from the original on 12 April 2023 8835:from the original on 23 March 2021 8778:from the original on 23 March 2021 5991: 5779: 3960:Germanic umlaut only affected the 3880:The development of a new class of 3834:), verbs of speech after a quote ( 3652:, which forms the basis of modern 2731:official languages in South Africa 2092:The Horse, the Wheel, and Language 14: 14386: 10652:Bibliographie der Schreibsprachen 10638:'Hover & Hear' pronunciations 10626: 10378: 9165:from the original on 3 April 2024 8804:from the original on 18 July 2013 8540:"Världens 100 största språk 2010" 8473:König & van der Auwera (1994) 6646: 6490:with definite semantics (e.g., a 5945: 5853:than the original Proto-Germanic 5549:. These processes operated after 2977: Other North Germanic (0.1%) 2688:Dutch is an official language of 2367:Riograndenser Hunsrückisch German 14344: 14343: 10958:(unknown further classification) 10619:A history of the German language 10594:Old English grammar, 3rd edition 10392:A Handbook of Germanic Etymology 10116: 10111:A Gothic Etymological Dictionary 10099: 10090: 10085:A Gothic Etymological Dictionary 10077: 10047: 9404:from the original on 26 May 2020 9095:Vasagar, Jeevan (18 June 2013). 9064:Koyfman, Steph (29 April 2018). 9019:from the original on 9 July 2011 8740:The Comparative Syntax Handbook, 8431:) and any other minor languages. 6534:-stem nouns termed "strong" and 5754:(fem.) "oar" < PG *airō, vs. 5663:. All diphthongs umlaut to /iy/ 4718:æ, a(...a), a/o(n), æ̆ă(h,rC,lC) 4282:> "mouth, goose", but German 2778:in the Netherlands and Germany. 2739:of Namibia. It is used in other 2426: 2099:Journal of Indo-European Studies 863:Bible translations into Armenian 354: 293: 281: 32: 14326:Christianization of Scandinavia 10038: 10022: 9973: 9964: 9947: 9934: 9712: 9700: 9671: 9636: 9602: 9541: 9499: 9483:The New Encyclopædia Britannica 9446: 9416: 9386: 9373: 9343: 9313: 9237: 9207: 9177: 9147: 9088: 9057: 9031: 9005: 8954: 8924: 8893: 8863: 8847: 8816: 8790: 8760: 8681: 8434: 8413: 8392: 8382: 8373: 8368:a common linguistic development 8360: 8270:Language families and languages 5982: 4687:Development of Germanic sounds 4374:Development of a plural ending 2824:is also spoken natively by the 2721:partially mutually intelligible 374:List of Indo-European languages 43:needs additional citations for 14316:Christianization of the Franks 13389:Continental Germanic mythology 13224:of the language on their left. 10511:Old English grammar and reader 10470: 10438:Grammar of the Gothic language 10203:. Cambridge University Press. 9869:Mitchell & Robinson (1992) 9455:Penguin Atlas of World History 9119:. Nederlandse Taalunie. 2010. 9039:"An intro to 'Lëtzebuergesch'" 8589: 8564: 8503: 8478: 8345: 8328: 5758:(fem.) "honor" < PG *aizō, 4321:forms into one form ending in 2953: Other West Germanic (1%) 2622:St. Vincent and the Grenadines 1: 13115:Germanic substrate hypothesis 12971: 10317:Germanic languages in general 10087:(Brill: Leiden, 1986), p. 40. 9597:Basbøll & Jacobsen (2003) 6441:class) used a combination of 6012: 5849:produced a different sort of 4682:if /n/ immediately precedes". 4493:represents any consonant and 4402:). Cf. modern English plural 3940:Germanic substrate hypothesis 3857:The reduction of the various 3416: 3355: 3348: 2915: 1700:Proto-Indo-European mythology 969:Paleolithic continuity theory 13145:Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law 11836:Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch 10669:Germanic languages fragments 10454:An introduction to Old Norse 10445: 10427:Bennett, William H. (1980). 10113:(Brill: Leiden, 1986), p. 2. 9254:. p. 40. Archived from 8748:Excerpt at Durham University 8634:, H. Bloemhoff. (2005). p88. 8321: 8301:Germanic placename etymology 6097:"fish" in various languages 4671:if /n/ immediately follows". 4520: 4268:Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law 4114:, preterite of the Gmc verb 4011:). Others, such as English, 3659:The development of a strong 2902:is the official language of 1388:Northern Black Polished Ware 587:Proto-Indo-European language 19:Not to be confused with the 7: 14331:Christianization of Iceland 13125:High German consonant shift 10507:Diamond, Robert E. (1970). 10486:Campbell, Alistair (1983). 10364:. London: MacMillan and Co. 10358:Helfenstein, James (1870). 10058:Das Fritz-Reuter-Wörterbuch 9273:"Taaltelling Nedersaksisch" 8258: 7140:for his translation of the 6905:official minority *language 6538:-stem nouns termed "weak". 6081:-stem noun, Proto-Germanic 5847:High German consonant shift 3644: 3581:Distinctive characteristics 3556:, with graded intermediate 3546:High German consonant shift 3004:Native speakers (millions) 2729:Afrikaans is one of the 11 2185:, is also the world's most 1705:Proto-Indo-Iranian paganism 287:European Germanic languages 10: 14391: 11663:Westlauwers–Terschellings 11316:According to contemporary 10617:Waterman, John C. (1976). 10612:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 10436:Wright, Joseph C. (1919). 10128: 9893:Wright & Wright (1925) 9842:Lass & Anderson (1975) 8265:List of Germanic languages 7107:(especially from his work 7096:• Early Twentieth Century 7080: 6725:List of Germanic languages 6653:List of Germanic languages 6650: 5857:. The former was written 5782:"Altenglisches Wörterbuch" 5124:kw-, -k-, -(i)tʃ-, -tʃ(i)- 4516:Common linguistic features 4162:and must be ordered after 3804:pure vowels (monophthongs) 3224: New settlements by 3166: 1001:Domestication of the horse 308: Countries where the 18: 14339: 14301: 13582: 13544: 13334: 13288: 13271: 13207: 13158: 13082: 13051: 12983: 12979: 12966: 12915: 12888: 12842:Southern Schleswig Danish 12773: 12654: 12610: 12601: 12597: 12580: 12421: 12364: 12252: 12243: 12148: 12120: 12079: 12070: 12045: 12027: 11938: 11910: 11884: 11875: 11826: 11739: 11714: 11705: 11644: 11539: 11488: 11463: 11454: 11350: 11341: 11337: 11324: 11314: 11261: 11121: 11039: 11012: 10980: 10946: 10916: 10891: 10859: 10827: 10818: 10757: 10728: 10717: 10213:– via Google Books. 8625:Taaltelling Nedersaksisch 7244: 7241: 7238: 7233: 7224: 7217: 7212: 7207: 6698:Continental West Germanic 6524:-, -e, -es, -er, -em, -en 6318: 6315: 6312: 6309: 6306: 6162: 6159: 6156: 6153: 6150: 6147: 6144: 6101: 5511:likewise stood for , and 5047: 5038: 5007: 4988: 4979: 4948: 4917: 4886: 4804: 4773: 4742: 4711: 4457:Anglo-Frisian brightening 4289:The loss of the Germanic 3149:Other Germanic languages 2826:Swedish-speaking minority 2787:Grand Duchy of Luxembourg 2685:, part of modern France. 2384:mass expulsion of Germans 2202:Iron Age Northern Germany 1710:Historical Vedic religion 987:Chalcolithic (Copper Age) 292: 280: 266: 254: 236: 207: 197: 180:Linguistic classification 178: 137: 132: 13569:North Germanic languages 13554:Germanic parent language 13120:West Germanic gemination 13074:Ancient Belgian language 13069:Germanic parent language 13013:Weser-Rhine (Istvaeonic) 12135:Austrian Standard German 11329: 10633:Germanic Lexicon Project 10197:Jacobs, Neil G. (2005). 9643:Harbert, Wayne. (2007). 9453:Kinder, Hermann (1988), 9117:"Nederlands, wereldtaal" 8578:; 120 million including 8455: 8316:South Germanic languages 6470:class (often termed the 4459:: Fronting of non-nasal 4305:from Middle High German 4193:West Germanic gemination 4134:languages but represent 3461:, until it evolves into 3347:of Northern Europe from 2816:North Germanic languages 2442:North Germanic languages 2292:North Germanic languages 1715:Ancient Iranian religion 1078:Novotitarovskaya culture 925:Indo-European migrations 14375:Indo-European languages 13574:West Germanic languages 13564:East Germanic languages 13559:Proto-Germanic language 13379:Proto-Germanic folklore 13316:Romano-Germanic culture 10706:Indo-European languages 10608:Wright, Joseph (1906). 10561:. Cambridge: Blackwell. 10461:Zoëga, Geir T. (2004). 10292:10.1126/science.1207846 10260:. Blackwell Publishing. 10109:. See Winfred Lehmann, 9015:. Conventions.coe.int. 8753:3 December 2007 at the 8652:16 January 2021 at the 8410:is regarded separately. 8398:Estimate includes most 8176: 7124:, an early form of the 6042:preterite present verbs 6019:Indo-European languages 4307: 4295: 4260:West Germanic languages 4177:West Germanic languages 4054: 4023:Linguistic developments 4005:inflectional morphology 3970:East Germanic languages 3966:West Germanic languages 3724: 3711: 3700: 3689: 3678: 3667: 3612:in most cases; compare 3522:from the 12th century. 3179:into previously mostly 2713:Indonesian independence 2704:. The Netherlands also 2564:West Germanic languages 2492:West Germanic languages 2213:West Germanic languages 1216:Northern/Eastern Steppe 13181:Preterite-present verb 13064:Proto-Germanic grammar 13018:North Sea (Ingvaeonic) 12130:German Standard German 11806:East Frisian Low Saxon 10371:The Germanic languages 10256:Todd, Malcolm (1992). 10055:Reuter, Fritz (1905). 9646:The Germanic languages 9381:Luxembourgish language 8671:2 January 2018 at the 8630:5 October 2021 at the 7100: 6871:(Mennonite Low German) 6681: 6063:Balto-Slavic languages 5659:; and /iy/ is written 5376:∅-, v-(a,e,i), -v-, -∅ 4367:, but Old High German 4301: 4195:of consonants, except 4064: 3991:must be placed second. 3929:Balto-Slavic languages 3763:in German, pronounced 3759: 3730: 3717: 3654:historical linguistics 3631: 3621: 3493:mutual intelligibility 3478: 3328: 3233: 2992: 2947: Afrikaans (1.4%) 2760:Scotland and parts of 2560: 2390:a significant loss of 2386:, the German language 2187:widely spoken language 1687:Religion and mythology 1646:Medieval Scandinavians 937:Alternative and fringe 13384:Anglo-Saxon mythology 13274:Ethnolinguistic group 13186:Grammatischer Wechsel 12169:Namibian Black German 12140:Swiss Standard German 12109:Early New High German 11667:Mainland West Frisian 11528:Harlingerland Frisian 10663:Swadesh-list appendix 10550:Old English phonology 10477:Campbell, A. (1959). 10452:Gordon, E.V. (1927). 10251:, Wiesbaden: Reichert 8857:used to be a part of 7198:Vocabulary comparison 7088: 6743:High German languages 6712:), as well as Dutch ( 6679: 6496:demonstrative pronoun 6292:Nominative, Vocative 5889:/ʃtant/, cf. English 5501:⟨ai/au⟩ 5497:⟨aj/aw⟩ 5493:⟨ai/au⟩ 5403:Gothic writing system 4983:ei, ey(...w), aː(h,r) 4613:means between vowels. 4467:when not followed by 4445:Raising of nasalized 4246:The development of a 4213:/e-u-i/ > /i-u-i/. 4209:A particular type of 3514:vocabulary after the 3447:Bergakker inscription 3239: 3177:early Germanic tribes 3174: 2986: 2929: English (69.9%) 2667:immigrant communities 2434: 2037:Indo-European studies 1400:Peoples and societies 153:Caribbean Netherlands 13191:Indo-European ablaut 13171:Germanic strong verb 13140:Germanic spirant law 12277:Southeast Limburgish 11773:Gelders-Overijssels 11402:Irish Middle English 11392:Early Modern English 10643:8 March 2016 at the 10539:Lass, Roger (1994). 10373:. London: Routledge. 10160:. Leipzig: Reisland. 9549:Indo-European ablaut 9394:"Statistics Iceland" 9142:Nationalencyklopedin 8967:4 March 2016 at the 8548:(in Swedish). 2010. 8545:Nationalencyklopedin 8425:Dalecarlian dialects 7136:developed by Bishop 7091:• Early Middle Ages 7022:Dalecarlian dialects 6214:fisc-es < fisc-æs 5625:Old English breaking 4558:front rounded vowels 4439:Ingvaeonic languages 4406:, but German plural 4102:, while Gothic uses 4078:The conversion of /ē 3906:Indo-European ablaut 2971: Norwegian (1%) 2959: Swedish (1.8%) 2935: German (19.4%) 2405:Iron Age Scandinavia 2331:East Germanic branch 2269:Limburgish varieties 2158:are a branch of the 944:Anatolian hypothesis 896:Proto-Indo-Europeans 803:Hittite inscriptions 348:Indo-European topics 67:"Germanic languages" 52:improve this article 14311:Gothic Christianity 13159:Synchronic features 13130:Germanic a-mutation 13083:Diachronic features 12433:in the broad sense 12366:East Central German 12320:Lorraine Franconian 12294:Transylvanian Saxon 12254:West Central German 12029:East Low Franconian 11939:West Low Franconian 11132:Proto-Indo-European 10661:(from Wiktionary's 10530:Hall, J.R. (1984). 10492:. Clarendon Press. 10489:Old English Grammar 10479:Old English grammar 10411:Ringe, Don (2006). 10283:2012Sci...335..657W 9553:write/wrote/written 8993:on 21 December 2012 7132:was written in the 6828:West Central German 6816:East Central German 6624:-stem and feminine 6616:-stem and feminine 6604:-stem and feminine 6098: 5587:A process known as 5443:Proto-Germanic /au/ 5412:Proto-Germanic /ai/ 5325:n-, -∅(s,p,t,k), -∅ 4688: 4541:had only one, /s/. 4539:Proto-Indo-European 4043:languages (all but 4009:Proto-Indo-European 3946:Discourse particles 3846:Pop Goes The Weasel 3721:"autumn, harvest", 3429:translation of the 3413:Vimose inscriptions 3367:Proto-Indo-European 2997: 2991:culture, ca 1200 BC 2965: Danish (1.1%) 2781:Luxembourgish is a 2756:Scots is spoken in 2696:, the Netherlands, 2598:Trinidad and Tobago 2576:, Canada, Nigeria, 2208:and Baltic coasts. 1200:Multi-cordoned ware 1071:Mikhaylovka culture 959:Indigenous Aryanism 949:Armenian hypothesis 808:Hieroglyphic Luwian 14370:Germanic languages 13694:Germani cisrhenani 13402:Funerary practices 13306:Pre-Roman Iron Age 13282:Germanic languages 13176:Germanic weak verb 12985:Language subgroups 12335:Pennsylvania Dutch 12284:Moselle Franconian 12262:Central Franconian 12095:Middle High German 11846:Central Pomeranian 11801:Northern Low Saxon 11514:Wangerooge Frisian 11308:Germanic languages 11213:Proto-Indo-Iranian 11160:Proto-Balto-Slavic 10902:Continental Celtic 10323:Fulk, R D (2018). 10182:Cercignani, Fausto 10166:Cercignani, Fausto 10029:Cercignani, Fausto 9929:Helfenstein (1870) 9585:Wang et al. (2012) 9511:www.britannica.com 9398:Statistics Iceland 9261:on 16 January 2021 8936:taalunieversum.org 7101: 7008:East Scandinavian 6982:West Scandinavian 6838:Pennsylvania Dutch 6682: 6500:possessive pronoun 6394:fisk-um, -on, -em 6278:fisc-e < fisc-i 6246:fisc-e < fisc-æ 6116:Middle High German 6088: 6027:mediopassive voice 5893:), and after /r/ ( 5845:The result of the 5655:; /iu/ is written 5651:; /eo/ is written 5513:⟨au⟩ 5509:⟨ai⟩ 5505:⟨ai⟩ 5438:⟨au⟩ 5407:⟨ai⟩ 5405:uses the spelling 4732:e, æ, ĭy̆(h,rC,lC) 4686: 4501:Monophthongization 4415:monophthongization 4384:terminal devoicing 4132:Northwest Germanic 4090:monophthongization 4041:Northwest Germanic 4028:the two languages 3884:that use a dental 3737:A change known as 3650:comparative method 3566:Northern Low Saxon 3345:Pre-Roman Iron Age 3329: 3234: 2995: 2993: 2941: Dutch (4.5%) 2860:Schleswig-Holstein 2804:are spoken in the 2795:Jewish populations 2783:Moselle Franconian 2743:nations, as well. 2671:Pennsylvania Dutch 2561: 2156:Germanic languages 780:Proto-Indo-Iranian 766:Proto-Balto-Slavic 747:Proto-Italo-Celtic 14357: 14356: 13529:Gothic and Vandal 13321:Germanic Iron Age 13296:Nordic Bronze Age 13278:Northern European 13231: 13230: 13216:extinct languages 13203: 13202: 13199: 13198: 13150:Great Vowel Shift 12962: 12961: 12958: 12957: 12911: 12910: 12757:Greenlandic Norse 12576: 12575: 12572: 12571: 12568: 12567: 12507:Southern Bavarian 12490:Northern Bavarian 12466:Highest Alemannic 12417: 12416: 12151:standard variants 12066: 12065: 11912:Standard variants 11871: 11870: 11730:Middle Low German 11701: 11700: 11697: 11696: 11501:Saterland Frisian 11274: 11273: 11268:extinct languages 10887: 10886: 10814: 10813: 10403:978-90-04-12875-0 10386:Orel, Vladimir E. 10258:The Early Germans 9743:Schumacher (2005) 9720:Cercignani (1979) 9708:Cercignani (1972) 9656:978-0-511-26991-2 9161:. October 2023 . 8772:lrc.la.utexas.edu 8256: 8255: 7178:the 1940s, while 6959:Saterland Frisian 6895:standard language 6714:standard register 6706:standard register 6430: 6429: 5863:⟨s⟩ 5859:⟨z⟩ 5780:Köbler, Gerhard. 5671:and (especially) 5565:), /ɔː/ (written 5561:), /jɔ/ (written 5473:⟨o⟩ 5469:⟨e⟩ 5386: 5385: 4576:Table of outcomes 4359:(cf. Old English 4291:reflexive pronoun 4278:> Old English 4166:loss of final /z/ 3985:Wackernagel's Law 3915:A distinction in 3902:vowel alternation 3873:(also called the 3608:became Germanic * 3573:west, especially 3562:Highest Alemannic 3445:(the 5th-century 3371:Nordic Bronze Age 3164: 3163: 3110:Frisian languages 2989:Nordic Bronze Age 2724:daughter language 2570:official language 2419:moved south from 2411:change known as " 2378:. As a result of 2312:Middle Low German 2285:Frisian languages 2152: 2151: 1413:Anatolian peoples 1383:Painted Grey Ware 1271:Nordic Bronze Age 920:Kurgan hypothesis 873:Old Irish glosses 838:Gaulish epigraphy 333: 332: 128: 127: 120: 102: 14382: 14347: 14346: 14303:Christianization 13893:Ripuarian Franks 13265:Germanic peoples 13258: 13251: 13244: 13235: 13234: 13008:Elbe (Irminonic) 12981: 12980: 12968: 12967: 12896:Mainland Gutnish 12786:Swedish dialects 12748:Middle Icelandic 12722:Middle Norwegian 12611:Historical forms 12608: 12607: 12599: 12598: 12582: 12581: 12541:South Franconian 12527:Hutterite German 12495:Central Bavarian 12315:Rhine Franconian 12250: 12249: 12080:Historical forms 12077: 12076: 11992:Surinamese Dutch 11885:Historical forms 11882: 11881: 11715:Historical forms 11712: 11711: 11464:Historical forms 11461: 11460: 11348: 11347: 11339: 11338: 11326: 11325: 11301: 11294: 11287: 11278: 11277: 11220:Proto-Indo-Aryan 10825: 10824: 10726: 10725: 10699: 10692: 10685: 10676: 10675: 10671:—YouTube (14:06) 10622: 10613: 10597: 10588: 10576: 10562: 10553: 10544: 10535: 10526: 10514: 10503: 10482: 10466: 10457: 10441: 10432: 10416: 10407: 10395: 10374: 10365: 10354: 10312: 10294: 10261: 10252: 10243: 10214: 10193: 10177: 10161: 10152: 10123: 10120: 10114: 10103: 10097: 10094: 10088: 10081: 10075: 10074: 10072: 10070: 10051: 10045: 10042: 10036: 10026: 10020: 10014: 10008: 10007: 10005: 9988: 9977: 9971: 9968: 9962: 9951: 9945: 9938: 9932: 9926: 9920: 9914: 9908: 9902: 9896: 9890: 9884: 9878: 9872: 9866: 9860: 9854: 9845: 9839: 9833: 9827: 9821: 9815: 9809: 9803: 9797: 9791: 9785: 9779: 9773: 9767: 9758: 9752: 9746: 9740: 9734: 9728: 9722: 9716: 9710: 9704: 9698: 9692: 9686: 9675: 9669: 9668: 9640: 9634: 9633: 9610:Ladefoged, Peter 9606: 9600: 9594: 9588: 9582: 9576: 9545: 9539: 9533: 9527: 9526: 9524: 9522: 9503: 9497: 9496: 9475: 9469: 9467: 9450: 9444: 9443: 9441: 9439: 9420: 9414: 9413: 9411: 9409: 9390: 9384: 9377: 9371: 9370: 9368: 9366: 9347: 9341: 9340: 9338: 9336: 9317: 9311: 9305: 9299: 9298: 9296: 9294: 9288: 9277: 9270: 9268: 9266: 9260: 9249: 9241: 9235: 9234: 9232: 9230: 9221:(in Norwegian). 9211: 9205: 9204: 9202: 9200: 9181: 9175: 9174: 9172: 9170: 9151: 9145: 9139: 9133: 9132: 9130: 9128: 9113: 9107: 9106: 9100: 9092: 9086: 9085: 9083: 9081: 9061: 9055: 9054: 9052: 9050: 9035: 9029: 9028: 9026: 9024: 9009: 9003: 9002: 9000: 8998: 8992: 8986:. Archived from 8985: 8977: 8971: 8958: 8952: 8951: 8949: 8947: 8928: 8922: 8921: 8919: 8917: 8897: 8891: 8890: 8888: 8886: 8867: 8861: 8851: 8845: 8844: 8842: 8840: 8820: 8814: 8813: 8811: 8809: 8794: 8788: 8787: 8785: 8783: 8768:"1 Cor. 13:1–12" 8764: 8758: 8744:Guglielmo Cinque 8736: 8730: 8729: 8727: 8725: 8720:on 22 March 2012 8719: 8713:. Archived from 8706: 8697: 8688: 8685: 8679: 8663: 8657: 8644: 8635: 8622: 8613: 8612: 8610: 8608: 8593: 8587: 8568: 8562: 8561: 8559: 8557: 8536: 8527: 8526: 8524: 8522: 8507: 8501: 8500: 8482: 8476: 8470: 8449: 8442:English language 8438: 8432: 8417: 8411: 8404:Yiddish language 8396: 8390: 8386: 8380: 8377: 8371: 8364: 8358: 8349: 8343: 8336:English language 8332: 8179: 8058:tveir, tvær, tvö 7205: 7204: 7099: 7094: 7071: 7063: 7055: 7047: 6935:in Scotland and 6791:Hutterite German 6781:Mòcheno language 6762:Alemannic German 6696:on one hand and 6492:definite article 6099: 6087: 6006: 5998: 5989: 5986: 5980: 5977: 5968: 5963:(probably ) and 5957:American English 5949: 5943: 5939: 5928: 5917: 5906: 5864: 5860: 5843: 5834: 5831:dental consonant 5827: 5821: 5818:dental consonant 5814: 5805: 5802: 5796: 5795: 5793: 5786: 5770:, (unattested), 5744: 5738: 5731: 5725: 5705: 5680: 5621: 5606: 5585: 5570: 5539: 5520: 5514: 5510: 5506: 5502: 5498: 5494: 5474: 5470: 5463: 5453: 5449: 5439: 5432: 5422: 5418: 5408: 5399: 4989:ei, eː(r,h,w,#) 4704:Old High German 4689: 4685: 4437:subgroup of the 4310: 4304: 4298: 4258:subgroup of the 4067: 4057: 3999:. Some, such as 3899: 3895: 3891: 3836:"Yes", said John 3800:Standard Swedish 3766: 3762: 3752: 3748: 3744: 3733: 3727: 3720: 3714: 3703: 3692: 3681: 3670: 3647: 3634: 3624: 3611: 3607: 3564:in the South to 3499:settlers of the 3483: 3421: 3418: 3360: 3357: 3353: 3350: 3315: 3293: 3277: 3266: 3255: 3244: 3229: 3228: 3223: 3218: 3217: 3212: 3207: 3206: 3201: 3196: 3195: 3190: 2998: 2994: 2976: 2970: 2964: 2958: 2952: 2946: 2940: 2934: 2928: 2741:Southern African 2630:Papua New Guinea 2578:Falkland Islands 2552: 2543: 2534: 2525: 2516: 2507: 2498: 2484: 2475: 2466: 2457: 2448: 2372:Migration Period 2308:Nordic countries 2283:border; and the 2144: 2137: 2130: 1985: 1978: 1964: 1957: 1950: 1936: 1929: 1922: 1915: 1908: 1833: 1819: 1812: 1798: 1776: 1769: 1762: 1753: 1588: 1581: 1574: 1567: 1560: 1543:Germanic peoples 1533:Hellenic peoples 1522: 1515: 1508: 1431:Mycenaean Greeks 1420: 1348:Thraco-Cimmerian 1246:Globular Amphora 1223:Abashevo culture 1162: 1155: 1125: 1080: 1073: 1066: 1059: 1052: 1045: 1038: 1031: 868:Tocharian script 571: 564: 557: 550: 543: 536: 529: 522: 489: 475: 468: 461: 447: 423: 416: 397: 358: 335: 334: 326: 320:primary language 317: 307: 297: 285: 276: 262: 250: 229: 130: 129: 123: 116: 112: 109: 103: 101: 60: 36: 28: 14390: 14389: 14385: 14384: 14383: 14381: 14380: 14379: 14360: 14359: 14358: 14353: 14335: 14297: 13578: 13540: 13502:Gothic alphabet 13394:Norse mythology 13330: 13284: 13267: 13262: 13232: 13227: 13195: 13154: 13135:Germanic umlaut 13100:Holtzmann's law 13078: 13047: 12975: 12954: 12907: 12884: 12818:South Jutlandic 12803:Danish dialects 12769: 12650: 12593: 12564: 12546:East Franconian 12500:Viennese German 12413: 12394:Silesian German 12360: 12349:Central Hessian 12239: 12164:Namibian German 12153: 12144: 12122:Standard German 12116: 12102:New High German 12088:Old High German 12062: 12041: 12023: 11934: 11906: 11867: 11851:East Pomeranian 11841:Brandenburgisch 11828:East Low German 11822: 11749:Dutch Low Saxon 11741:West Low German 11735: 11693: 11659:Schiermonnikoog 11640: 11535: 11521:Wursten Frisian 11484: 11450: 11333: 11320: 11310: 11305: 11275: 11270: 11257: 11252:Proto-Tocharian 11146:Proto-Anatolian 11123:Proto-languages 11117: 11035: 11008: 10990:Latino-Faliscan 10976: 10942: 10912: 10883: 10855: 10810: 10753: 10713: 10703: 10645:Wayback Machine 10629: 10604: 10602:Old High German 10585: 10567:Robinson, Orrin 10523: 10500: 10473: 10448: 10404: 10381: 10343: 10319: 10211: 10149: 10131: 10126: 10121: 10117: 10104: 10100: 10095: 10091: 10082: 10078: 10068: 10066: 10052: 10048: 10043: 10039: 10027: 10023: 10015: 10011: 10003: 9997: 9986: 9978: 9974: 9969: 9965: 9952: 9948: 9939: 9935: 9927: 9923: 9917:Waterman (1976) 9915: 9911: 9903: 9899: 9891: 9887: 9881:Robinson (1992) 9879: 9875: 9867: 9863: 9855: 9848: 9840: 9836: 9828: 9824: 9818:Campbell (1959) 9816: 9812: 9804: 9800: 9792: 9788: 9780: 9776: 9768: 9761: 9755:Campbell (1983) 9753: 9749: 9745:, p. 603f. 9741: 9737: 9729: 9725: 9717: 9713: 9705: 9701: 9695:Campbell (1983) 9693: 9689: 9676: 9672: 9657: 9641: 9637: 9630: 9607: 9603: 9595: 9591: 9583: 9579: 9546: 9542: 9534: 9530: 9520: 9518: 9505: 9504: 9500: 9493: 9477: 9476: 9472: 9465: 9451: 9447: 9437: 9435: 9422: 9421: 9417: 9407: 9405: 9392: 9391: 9387: 9378: 9374: 9364: 9362: 9349: 9348: 9344: 9334: 9332: 9319: 9318: 9314: 9306: 9302: 9292: 9290: 9286: 9275: 9271: 9264: 9262: 9258: 9247: 9243: 9242: 9238: 9228: 9226: 9213: 9212: 9208: 9198: 9196: 9183: 9182: 9178: 9168: 9166: 9153: 9152: 9148: 9140: 9136: 9126: 9124: 9115: 9114: 9110: 9093: 9089: 9079: 9077: 9070:Babbel Magazine 9062: 9058: 9048: 9046: 9037: 9036: 9032: 9022: 9020: 9011: 9010: 9006: 8996: 8994: 8990: 8983: 8979: 8978: 8974: 8969:Wayback Machine 8959: 8955: 8945: 8943: 8930: 8929: 8925: 8915: 8913: 8900:Pierre Vogler. 8898: 8894: 8884: 8882: 8869: 8868: 8864: 8852: 8848: 8838: 8836: 8821: 8817: 8807: 8805: 8796: 8795: 8791: 8781: 8779: 8766: 8765: 8761: 8755:Wayback Machine 8737: 8733: 8723: 8721: 8717: 8704: 8698: 8691: 8686: 8682: 8673:Wayback Machine 8664: 8660: 8654:Wayback Machine 8645: 8638: 8632:Wayback Machine 8623: 8616: 8606: 8604: 8595: 8594: 8590: 8576:German dialects 8572:Standard German 8569: 8565: 8555: 8553: 8538: 8537: 8530: 8520: 8518: 8509: 8508: 8504: 8497: 8483: 8479: 8471: 8462: 8458: 8453: 8452: 8439: 8435: 8418: 8414: 8397: 8393: 8387: 8383: 8378: 8374: 8365: 8361: 8350: 8346: 8333: 8329: 8324: 8261: 8070:twái, twós, twa 7687: 7282: 7227: 7220: 7200: 7192:Hebrew alphabet 7134:Gothic alphabet 7130:Gothic language 7097: 7095: 7092: 7090: 7083: 7078: 6864:East Low German 6859:West Low German 6805:High Franconian 6747:Standard German 6655: 6649: 6589:-stem endings. 6435: 6252:fisk-a, -i, -e 6113:Old High German 6015: 6010: 6009: 5999: 5992: 5987: 5983: 5978: 5971: 5955:, as in modern 5950: 5946: 5940: 5931: 5925:before or after 5918: 5909: 5862: 5861:and the latter 5858: 5844: 5837: 5828: 5824: 5815: 5808: 5803: 5799: 5791: 5784: 5745: 5741: 5732: 5728: 5706: 5683: 5622: 5609: 5586: 5573: 5540: 5523: 5512: 5508: 5504: 5500: 5496: 5492: 5472: 5468: 5446:Proto-Germanic 5437: 5415:Proto-Germanic 5406: 5400: 5391: 5048:io, iu(...i/u) 4735:e, a(hs,ht,Cw) 4674:Something like 4663:Something like 4652:Something like 4578: 4555: 4551: 4523: 4518: 4170:Germanic umlaut 4081: 4025: 3812:Bavarian German 3739:Germanic umlaut 3583: 3516:Norman Conquest 3451:Old High German 3419: 3409:Common Germanic 3393:Jastorf culture 3358: 3351: 3327: 3313: 3311: 3308:Old High German 3291: 3289: 3275: 3273: 3264: 3262: 3253: 3251: 3242: 3231: 3226: 3225: 3221: 3219: 3215: 3214: 3210: 3208: 3204: 3203: 3199: 3197: 3193: 3192: 3188: 3169: 2981: 2980: 2979: 2978: 2974: 2972: 2968: 2966: 2962: 2960: 2956: 2954: 2950: 2948: 2944: 2942: 2938: 2936: 2932: 2930: 2926: 2918: 2890:Queen Maud Land 2818: 2751:East Pomeranian 2642:Solomon Islands 2624:, Puerto Rico, 2566: 2557: 2550: 2548: 2541: 2539: 2532: 2530: 2523: 2521: 2514: 2512: 2505: 2503: 2496: 2489: 2482: 2480: 2473: 2471: 2464: 2462: 2455: 2453: 2446: 2439: 2429: 2417:Germanic tribes 2400:gains primacy. 2398:Standard German 2382:and subsequent 2179:Southern Africa 2163:language family 2148: 2119: 2118: 2051:Marija Gimbutas 2039: 2029: 2028: 2020:Winter solstice 2010:Horse sacrifice 1981: 1974: 1960: 1953: 1946: 1932: 1925: 1918: 1911: 1904: 1857: 1842: 1829: 1815: 1808: 1794: 1785: 1772: 1765: 1758: 1749: 1740: 1719: 1688: 1680: 1679: 1622: 1609: 1584: 1577: 1570: 1563: 1556: 1518: 1511: 1504: 1495: 1477: 1464: 1451: 1422: 1416: 1401: 1393: 1392: 1366: 1343: 1330: 1318: 1299: 1241: 1218: 1180: 1173: 1167: 1158: 1151: 1142: 1140:Northern Europe 1121: 1117: 1104: 1091: 1076: 1069: 1062: 1055: 1048: 1041: 1034: 1027: 1023:Steppe cultures 996: 989: 982: 974: 973: 964:Baltic homeland 938: 934: 930:Eurasian nomads 914: 910: 886: 878: 877: 848:Runic epigraphy 843:Latin epigraphy 798: 790: 789: 727:Proto-Anatolian 711: 666: 662:Thraco-Illyrian 647:Graeco-Phrygian 637:Graeco-Armenian 632:Graeco-Albanian 611: 589: 576: 567: 560: 553: 546: 539: 532: 525: 518: 485: 471: 464: 457: 443: 419: 412: 393: 378: 370: 368: 329: 328: 324: 322: 315: 313: 305: 303: 298: 288: 272: 261:52- (phylozone) 260: 246: 161:Southern Africa 139: 124: 113: 107: 104: 61: 59: 49: 37: 24: 21:German language 17: 12: 11: 5: 14388: 14378: 14377: 14372: 14355: 14354: 14352: 14351: 14340: 14337: 14336: 14334: 14333: 14328: 14323: 14318: 14313: 14307: 14305: 14299: 14298: 14296: 14295: 14290: 14285: 14280: 14275: 14270: 14265: 14264: 14263: 14258: 14248: 14243: 14238: 14233: 14228: 14223: 14218: 14213: 14208: 14203: 14198: 14193: 14188: 14183: 14178: 14173: 14168: 14163: 14158: 14153: 14148: 14143: 14138: 14133: 14128: 14123: 14118: 14113: 14108: 14103: 14098: 14093: 14088: 14083: 14078: 14073: 14072: 14071: 14066: 14061: 14056: 14051: 14041: 14040: 14039: 14029: 14024: 14019: 14014: 14009: 14004: 13999: 13994: 13989: 13984: 13979: 13974: 13969: 13968: 13967: 13962: 13960:Thracian Goths 13957: 13952: 13947: 13942: 13937: 13927: 13922: 13917: 13912: 13907: 13902: 13901: 13900: 13895: 13885: 13880: 13875: 13870: 13865: 13860: 13855: 13850: 13845: 13840: 13835: 13830: 13825: 13820: 13815: 13810: 13805: 13800: 13795: 13790: 13785: 13780: 13775: 13770: 13765: 13760: 13755: 13750: 13745: 13740: 13739: 13738: 13733: 13728: 13727: 13726: 13721: 13716: 13711: 13706: 13701: 13686: 13681: 13676: 13671: 13666: 13661: 13656: 13651: 13646: 13641: 13636: 13631: 13626: 13621: 13616: 13615: 13614: 13609: 13604: 13599: 13588: 13586: 13580: 13579: 13577: 13576: 13571: 13566: 13561: 13556: 13550: 13548: 13542: 13541: 13539: 13538: 13537: 13536: 13531: 13526: 13516: 13511: 13510: 13509: 13504: 13494: 13489: 13488: 13487: 13482: 13477: 13467: 13462: 13461: 13460: 13450: 13449: 13448: 13443: 13433: 13432: 13431: 13426: 13416: 13415: 13414: 13409: 13399: 13398: 13397: 13391: 13386: 13381: 13371: 13366: 13361: 13356: 13351: 13346: 13340: 13338: 13332: 13331: 13329: 13328: 13323: 13318: 13313: 13311:Roman Iron Age 13308: 13303: 13298: 13292: 13290: 13286: 13285: 13272: 13269: 13268: 13261: 13260: 13253: 13246: 13238: 13229: 13228: 13226: 13225: 13218: 13208: 13205: 13204: 13201: 13200: 13197: 13196: 13194: 13193: 13188: 13183: 13178: 13173: 13168: 13162: 13160: 13156: 13155: 13153: 13152: 13147: 13142: 13137: 13132: 13127: 13122: 13117: 13112: 13107: 13102: 13097: 13092: 13086: 13084: 13080: 13079: 13077: 13076: 13071: 13066: 13061: 13059:Proto-Germanic 13055: 13053: 13049: 13048: 13046: 13045: 13038: 13031: 13023: 13022: 13021: 13020: 13015: 13010: 13000: 12995: 12989: 12987: 12977: 12976: 12964: 12963: 12960: 12959: 12956: 12955: 12953: 12952: 12945: 12938: 12934:Crimean Gothic 12923: 12921: 12913: 12912: 12909: 12908: 12906: 12905: 12904: 12903: 12898: 12889: 12886: 12885: 12883: 12882: 12881: 12880: 12870: 12869: 12868: 12861: 12854: 12849: 12844: 12839: 12838: 12837: 12832: 12822: 12821: 12820: 12810: 12808:Insular Danish 12805: 12795: 12794: 12793: 12791:Rinkebysvenska 12788: 12777: 12775: 12771: 12770: 12768: 12767: 12760: 12753: 12752: 12751: 12744: 12732: 12727: 12726: 12725: 12718: 12711: 12705: 12699: 12694: 12689: 12684: 12679: 12674: 12669: 12658: 12656: 12652: 12651: 12649: 12648: 12647: 12646: 12639: 12637:Old East Norse 12634: 12632:Old West Norse 12622: 12614: 12612: 12605: 12595: 12594: 12578: 12577: 12574: 12573: 12570: 12569: 12566: 12565: 12563: 12562: 12555: 12554: 12553: 12543: 12538: 12537: 12536: 12535: 12534: 12529: 12524: 12519: 12514: 12512:South Tyrolean 12504: 12503: 12502: 12492: 12482: 12481: 12480: 12475: 12474: 12473: 12463: 12462: 12461: 12454:High Alemannic 12451: 12450: 12449: 12444: 12427: 12425: 12419: 12418: 12415: 12414: 12412: 12411: 12406: 12401: 12396: 12391: 12386: 12381: 12376: 12370: 12368: 12362: 12361: 12359: 12358: 12353: 12352: 12351: 12341: 12340: 12339: 12338: 12337: 12332: 12322: 12312: 12311: 12310: 12309: 12308: 12307: 12306: 12296: 12291: 12281: 12280: 12279: 12274: 12258: 12256: 12247: 12245:Central German 12241: 12240: 12238: 12237: 12236: 12235: 12230: 12223: 12218: 12213: 12203: 12198: 12197: 12196: 12186: 12184:Barossa German 12181: 12176: 12171: 12166: 12160: 12158: 12146: 12145: 12143: 12142: 12137: 12132: 12126: 12124: 12118: 12117: 12115: 12114: 12113: 12112: 12098: 12091: 12083: 12081: 12074: 12068: 12067: 12064: 12063: 12061: 12060: 12055: 12049: 12047: 12043: 12042: 12040: 12039: 12033: 12031: 12025: 12024: 12022: 12021: 12004: 11999: 11994: 11988: 11987: 11982: 11977: 11972: 11967: 11966: 11965: 11963:French Flemish 11955: 11954: 11953: 11942: 11940: 11936: 11935: 11933: 11932: 11922: 11916: 11914: 11908: 11907: 11905: 11904: 11899: 11894: 11888: 11886: 11879: 11877:Low Franconian 11873: 11872: 11869: 11868: 11866: 11865: 11864: 11863: 11853: 11848: 11843: 11838: 11832: 11830: 11824: 11823: 11821: 11820: 11815: 11810: 11809: 11808: 11798: 11797: 11796: 11791: 11786: 11785: 11784: 11779: 11771: 11766: 11761: 11756: 11745: 11743: 11737: 11736: 11734: 11733: 11726: 11718: 11716: 11709: 11703: 11702: 11699: 11698: 11695: 11694: 11692: 11691: 11690: 11689: 11684: 11683: 11682: 11681: 11680: 11678:Westereendersk 11672: 11661: 11656: 11650: 11648: 11642: 11641: 11639: 11638: 11637: 11636: 11631: 11624: 11619: 11618: 11617: 11612: 11609: 11601: 11596: 11595: 11594: 11583: 11582: 11581: 11576: 11571: 11570: 11569: 11564: 11556: 11545: 11543: 11537: 11536: 11534: 11533: 11532: 11531: 11524: 11517: 11505: 11504: 11503: 11494: 11492: 11486: 11485: 11483: 11482: 11479:Middle Frisian 11475: 11467: 11465: 11458: 11452: 11451: 11449: 11448: 11447: 11446: 11439: 11427: 11426: 11425: 11418: 11411: 11399: 11398: 11397: 11396: 11395: 11385:Modern English 11381: 11378:Middle English 11374: 11367: 11356: 11354: 11345: 11335: 11334: 11322: 11321: 11315: 11312: 11311: 11304: 11303: 11296: 11289: 11281: 11272: 11271: 11262: 11259: 11258: 11256: 11255: 11248: 11247: 11246: 11232: 11231: 11230: 11223: 11209: 11206:Proto-Hellenic 11202: 11201: 11200: 11190:Proto-Germanic 11186: 11179: 11178: 11177: 11170: 11156: 11153:Proto-Armenian 11149: 11142: 11139:Proto-Albanian 11135: 11127: 11125: 11119: 11118: 11116: 11115: 11108: 11101: 11094: 11087: 11080: 11073: 11066: 11059: 11054: 11049: 11043: 11041: 11037: 11036: 11034: 11033: 11026: 11020: 11018: 11010: 11009: 11007: 11006: 10999: 10998: 10997: 10986: 10984: 10978: 10977: 10975: 10974: 10969: 10964: 10959: 10952: 10950: 10944: 10943: 10941: 10940: 10935: 10933:North Germanic 10930: 10922: 10920: 10914: 10913: 10911: 10910: 10908:Insular Celtic 10905: 10897: 10895: 10889: 10888: 10885: 10884: 10882: 10881: 10876: 10871: 10865: 10863: 10857: 10856: 10854: 10853: 10846: 10841: 10838:Dnieper Baltic 10833: 10831: 10822: 10816: 10815: 10812: 10811: 10809: 10808: 10801: 10794: 10787: 10780: 10773: 10765: 10763: 10755: 10754: 10752: 10751: 10744: 10737: 10729: 10723: 10715: 10714: 10702: 10701: 10694: 10687: 10679: 10673: 10672: 10666: 10656: 10648: 10635: 10628: 10627:External links 10625: 10624: 10623: 10614: 10603: 10600: 10599: 10598: 10589: 10583: 10563: 10554: 10545: 10536: 10527: 10521: 10504: 10498: 10483: 10472: 10469: 10468: 10467: 10458: 10447: 10444: 10443: 10442: 10433: 10423: 10422: 10418: 10417: 10408: 10402: 10380: 10379:Proto-Germanic 10377: 10376: 10375: 10366: 10355: 10341: 10333:10.1075/sigl.3 10318: 10315: 10314: 10313: 10262: 10253: 10244: 10232:10.2307/410515 10226:(2): 222–231. 10215: 10209: 10194: 10178: 10162: 10153: 10147: 10130: 10127: 10125: 10124: 10115: 10098: 10089: 10076: 10046: 10037: 10021: 10009: 9995: 9972: 9963: 9946: 9933: 9921: 9909: 9897: 9885: 9873: 9861: 9846: 9834: 9830:Diamond (1970) 9822: 9810: 9798: 9786: 9782:Bennett (1980) 9774: 9759: 9757:, p. 169. 9747: 9735: 9733:, p. 361. 9723: 9711: 9699: 9697:, p. 139. 9687: 9670: 9655: 9635: 9628: 9614:Maddieson, Ian 9601: 9589: 9587:, p. 657. 9577: 9565:Middle English 9557:sing/sang/sung 9540: 9528: 9498: 9491: 9470: 9463: 9445: 9428:ethnologue.com 9415: 9385: 9372: 9342: 9312: 9300: 9282:. p. 78. 9236: 9215:"Befolkningen" 9206: 9189:ethnologue.com 9176: 9159:Worlddata.info 9146: 9134: 9108: 9087: 9056: 9030: 9004: 8972: 8953: 8923: 8892: 8862: 8859:British Empire 8846: 8815: 8789: 8759: 8731: 8689: 8680: 8658: 8636: 8614: 8588: 8563: 8528: 8502: 8495: 8477: 8459: 8457: 8454: 8451: 8450: 8433: 8412: 8391: 8381: 8372: 8359: 8344: 8342:section below. 8326: 8325: 8323: 8320: 8319: 8318: 8313: 8308: 8303: 8298: 8292: 8287: 8282: 8277: 8272: 8267: 8260: 8257: 8254: 8253: 8250: 8247: 8244: 8241: 8238: 8235: 8232: 8229: 8226: 8223: 8219: 8218: 8215: 8212: 8209: 8206: 8203: 8200: 8197: 8194: 8191: 8188: 8184: 8183: 8180: 8173: 8170: 8167: 8164: 8161: 8158: 8155: 8152: 8149: 8145: 8144: 8141: 8138: 8135: 8132: 8129: 8126: 8123: 8120: 8117: 8114: 8110: 8109: 8106: 8103: 8100: 8097: 8094: 8091: 8088: 8085: 8082: 8079: 8075: 8074: 8071: 8068: 8065: 8062: 8059: 8056: 8053: 8050: 8047: 8044: 8040: 8039: 8036: 8033: 8030: 8027: 8024: 8021: 8018: 8015: 8012: 8009: 8005: 8004: 8001: 7998: 7995: 7992: 7989: 7986: 7983: 7980: 7977: 7974: 7970: 7969: 7966: 7963: 7960: 7957: 7954: 7951: 7948: 7945: 7942: 7939: 7935: 7934: 7931: 7928: 7925: 7922: 7919: 7916: 7913: 7910: 7907: 7904: 7900: 7899: 7896: 7893: 7890: 7887: 7884: 7881: 7878: 7875: 7872: 7869: 7865: 7864: 7861: 7858: 7855: 7852: 7849: 7846: 7843: 7840: 7837: 7834: 7830: 7829: 7826: 7823: 7820: 7817: 7814: 7811: 7808: 7805: 7802: 7799: 7795: 7794: 7791: 7788: 7785: 7782: 7779: 7776: 7773: 7770: 7767: 7764: 7760: 7759: 7756: 7753: 7750: 7747: 7744: 7741: 7738: 7735: 7732: 7729: 7725: 7724: 7721: 7718: 7715: 7712: 7709: 7706: 7703: 7700: 7697: 7694: 7690: 7689: 7684: 7681: 7678: 7675: 7672: 7669: 7666: 7663: 7660: 7657: 7653: 7652: 7649: 7646: 7643: 7640: 7637: 7634: 7631: 7628: 7625: 7622: 7618: 7617: 7614: 7611: 7608: 7605: 7602: 7599: 7596: 7593: 7590: 7587: 7583: 7582: 7579: 7576: 7573: 7570: 7567: 7564: 7561: 7558: 7555: 7552: 7548: 7547: 7544: 7541: 7538: 7535: 7532: 7529: 7526: 7523: 7520: 7517: 7513: 7512: 7509: 7506: 7503: 7500: 7497: 7494: 7491: 7488: 7485: 7482: 7478: 7477: 7474: 7471: 7468: 7465: 7462: 7459: 7456: 7453: 7450: 7447: 7443: 7442: 7439: 7436: 7433: 7430: 7427: 7424: 7421: 7418: 7415: 7412: 7408: 7407: 7404: 7401: 7398: 7395: 7392: 7389: 7386: 7383: 7380: 7377: 7373: 7372: 7369: 7366: 7363: 7360: 7357: 7354: 7351: 7348: 7345: 7342: 7338: 7337: 7334: 7329: 7326: 7323: 7320: 7317: 7314: 7311: 7308: 7305: 7301: 7300: 7295: 7290: 7285: 7278: 7273: 7268: 7263: 7258: 7253: 7247: 7246: 7243: 7240: 7237: 7231: 7230: 7228:Proto-Germanic 7223: 7216: 7214:North Germanic 7211: 7199: 7196: 7157:Latin Alphabet 7126:runic alphabet 7082: 7079: 7077: 7076: 7075: 7074: 7073: 7072: 7067:Crimean Gothic 7064: 7056: 7048: 7035: 7034: 7033: 7028: 7027: 7026: 7025: 7024: 7014: 7006: 7005: 7004: 6999: 6994: 6989: 6978:North Germanic 6975: 6974: 6973: 6972: 6971: 6970: 6969: 6964: 6963: 6962: 6951: 6941: 6940: 6939: 6930: 6910: 6909: 6908: 6898: 6888: 6877:Low Franconian 6874: 6873: 6872: 6866: 6861: 6851: 6850: 6849: 6848: 6847: 6846: 6845: 6840: 6835: 6825: 6824: 6823: 6811:Central German 6808: 6802: 6797: 6796: 6795: 6794: 6793: 6788: 6783: 6773: 6729: 6690:North Germanic 6671:North Germanic 6651:Main article: 6648: 6647:Classification 6645: 6641:Middle English 6434: 6431: 6428: 6427: 6424: 6421: 6418: 6415: 6412: 6409: 6406: 6403: 6400: 6396: 6395: 6392: 6389: 6386: 6383: 6380: 6377: 6374: 6371: 6368: 6364: 6363: 6360: 6357: 6354: 6351: 6348: 6345: 6342: 6338: 6337: 6334: 6331: 6328: 6325: 6321: 6320: 6317: 6314: 6311: 6308: 6305: 6302: 6299: 6296: 6293: 6290: 6286: 6285: 6282: 6279: 6276: 6273: 6270: 6267: 6264: 6261: 6258: 6254: 6253: 6250: 6247: 6244: 6241: 6238: 6235: 6232: 6229: 6226: 6222: 6221: 6218: 6215: 6212: 6209: 6206: 6203: 6200: 6197: 6194: 6190: 6189: 6186: 6183: 6180: 6176: 6175: 6172: 6169: 6165: 6164: 6161: 6158: 6155: 6152: 6149: 6146: 6143: 6140: 6137: 6134: 6130: 6129: 6126: 6123: 6120: 6117: 6114: 6111: 6108: 6105: 6104:Proto-Germanic 6102: 6089:Declension of 6057:-stem nouns). 6014: 6011: 6008: 6007: 5990: 5981: 5969: 5944: 5929: 5907: 5897:, cf. English 5835: 5822: 5806: 5797: 5739: 5735:vowel breaking 5726: 5681: 5607: 5604: 5603: 5600: 5571: 5521: 5517:Bennett (1980) 5466: 5465: 5458: 5455: 5444: 5435: 5434: 5427: 5424: 5413: 5388: 5387: 5384: 5383: 5380: 5377: 5374: 5371: 5367: 5366: 5363: 5360: 5357: 5354: 5350: 5349: 5346: 5343: 5340: 5337: 5333: 5332: 5329: 5326: 5323: 5320: 5316: 5315: 5312: 5309: 5306: 5303: 5299: 5298: 5295: 5292: 5289: 5286: 5282: 5281: 5278: 5275: 5272: 5269: 5265: 5264: 5261: 5258: 5255: 5252: 5248: 5247: 5244: 5241: 5238: 5235: 5231: 5230: 5227: 5224: 5221: 5218: 5214: 5213: 5210: 5207: 5204: 5201: 5197: 5196: 5193: 5190: 5187: 5184: 5180: 5179: 5176: 5173: 5170: 5167: 5163: 5162: 5159: 5156: 5153: 5150: 5146: 5145: 5142: 5139: 5136: 5133: 5129: 5128: 5127:kw-, -xx-, -x 5125: 5122: 5119: 5116: 5112: 5111: 5108: 5105: 5102: 5099: 5095: 5094: 5093:ts-, -ss-, -s 5091: 5088: 5085: 5082: 5078: 5077: 5076:pf-, -ff-, -f 5074: 5071: 5068: 5065: 5061: 5060: 5057: 5054: 5050: 5049: 5046: 5043: 5040: 5037: 5033: 5032: 5029: 5026: 5023: 5019: 5018: 5015: 5012: 5009: 5006: 5002: 5001: 4998: 4995: 4991: 4990: 4987: 4984: 4981: 4978: 4974: 4973: 4970: 4967: 4964: 4960: 4959: 4956: 4953: 4950: 4947: 4943: 4942: 4939: 4936: 4933: 4929: 4928: 4925: 4922: 4919: 4916: 4912: 4911: 4908: 4905: 4902: 4898: 4897: 4894: 4891: 4888: 4885: 4881: 4880: 4877: 4874: 4871: 4868: 4864: 4863: 4860: 4857: 4854: 4851: 4847: 4846: 4843: 4840: 4837: 4834: 4830: 4829: 4826: 4823: 4820: 4816: 4815: 4812: 4809: 4806: 4803: 4799: 4798: 4795: 4792: 4789: 4785: 4784: 4781: 4778: 4775: 4772: 4768: 4767: 4764: 4761: 4758: 4754: 4753: 4750: 4747: 4744: 4741: 4737: 4736: 4733: 4730: 4727: 4723: 4722: 4719: 4716: 4713: 4710: 4706: 4705: 4702: 4699: 4696: 4693: 4692:Proto-Germanic 4684: 4683: 4672: 4661: 4650: 4628: 4614: 4608: 4577: 4574: 4553: 4549: 4522: 4519: 4517: 4514: 4513: 4512: 4498: 4476: 4454: 4431: 4430: 4413:Possibly, the 4411: 4372: 4349: 4326: 4312: 4287: 4266:The so-called 4252: 4251: 4244: 4237:Crimean Gothic 4225: 4214: 4207: 4204: 4190: 4187: 4184: 4173: 4172: 4167: 4128: 4127: 4096: 4093: 4086: 4083: 4079: 4076: 4073: 4034:proto-language 4024: 4021: 3993: 3992: 3981: 3977: 3954:areal features 3950: 3949: 3943: 3936: 3913: 3878: 3851: 3850: 3815: 3796: 3765:/ɛ(ː)œ~øːʏ~yː/ 3735: 3657: 3582: 3579: 3558:Central German 3539:Crimean Gothic 3520:Middle English 3518:, resulted in 3486:skaldic poetry 3465:by about 800. 3333:Proto-Germanic 3319:Crimean Gothic 3312: 3290: 3274: 3263: 3259:Old East Norse 3252: 3248:Old West Norse 3241: 3220: 3209: 3198: 3187: 3184:Central Europe 3168: 3165: 3162: 3161: 3158: 3154: 3153: 3150: 3146: 3145: 3142: 3136: 3135: 3132: 3126: 3125: 3122: 3116: 3115: 3112: 3106: 3105: 3102: 3096: 3095: 3092: 3086: 3085: 3082: 3076: 3075: 3072: 3066: 3065: 3062: 3056: 3055: 3052: 3046: 3045: 3042: 3036: 3035: 3032: 3026: 3025: 3022: 3016: 3015: 3012: 3006: 3005: 3002: 2973: 2967: 2961: 2955: 2949: 2943: 2937: 2931: 2925: 2921: 2920: 2919: 2917: 2914: 2894:Peter I island 2850:, and it is a 2817: 2814: 2654:and Malaysia. 2602:American Samoa 2568:English is an 2565: 2562: 2549: 2546:Central German 2540: 2531: 2522: 2513: 2504: 2495: 2481: 2472: 2463: 2454: 2445: 2428: 2425: 2347:Crimean Gothic 2245:unstandardized 2204:and along the 2191:Proto-Germanic 2150: 2149: 2147: 2146: 2139: 2132: 2124: 2121: 2120: 2117: 2116: 2109: 2102: 2095: 2088: 2080: 2079: 2073: 2072: 2066: 2065: 2059: 2058: 2053: 2047: 2046: 2040: 2035: 2034: 2031: 2030: 2027: 2026: 2017: 2012: 2007: 2005:Fire sacrifice 2001: 2000: 1994: 1993: 1988: 1987: 1986: 1979: 1967: 1966: 1965: 1958: 1951: 1939: 1938: 1937: 1930: 1923: 1916: 1909: 1897: 1892: 1887: 1850: 1849: 1837: 1836: 1835: 1834: 1822: 1821: 1820: 1813: 1801: 1800: 1799: 1796:Zoroastrianism 1778: 1777: 1770: 1763: 1756: 1755: 1754: 1733: 1732: 1726: 1725: 1718: 1717: 1712: 1707: 1702: 1696: 1695: 1689: 1686: 1685: 1682: 1681: 1678: 1677: 1666: 1665: 1663:Medieval India 1654: 1653: 1648: 1639: 1634: 1629: 1617: 1616: 1604: 1603: 1597: 1596: 1591: 1590: 1589: 1582: 1575: 1568: 1561: 1545: 1540: 1538:Italic peoples 1535: 1530: 1525: 1524: 1523: 1516: 1509: 1490: 1489: 1484: 1472: 1471: 1459: 1458: 1446: 1445: 1439: 1438: 1433: 1428: 1423: 1409: 1408: 1402: 1399: 1398: 1395: 1394: 1391: 1390: 1385: 1374: 1373: 1361: 1360: 1355: 1350: 1338: 1337: 1325: 1324: 1317: 1316: 1314:Gandhara grave 1311: 1306: 1294: 1293: 1288: 1283: 1278: 1273: 1268: 1263: 1258: 1253: 1248: 1236: 1235: 1230: 1225: 1213: 1212: 1207: 1202: 1197: 1192: 1187: 1175: 1174: 1166: 1165: 1164: 1163: 1160:Middle Dnieper 1156: 1137: 1136: 1131: 1126: 1115:Eastern Europe 1112: 1111: 1099: 1098: 1086: 1085: 1084: 1083: 1082: 1081: 1074: 1060: 1053: 1046: 1043:Dnieper–Donets 1039: 1032: 1020: 1018:Kurgan culture 1015: 1014: 1013: 1003: 991: 990: 983: 980: 979: 976: 975: 972: 971: 966: 961: 956: 954:Beech argument 951: 946: 940: 939: 933: 932: 927: 922: 916: 915: 909: 908: 903: 898: 893: 887: 884: 883: 880: 879: 876: 875: 870: 865: 860: 855: 850: 845: 840: 835: 830: 825: 820: 815: 810: 805: 799: 796: 795: 792: 791: 788: 787: 777: 763: 758: 744: 737:Proto-Germanic 734: 732:Proto-Armenian 729: 724: 722:Proto-Albanian 718: 717: 710: 709: 704: 699: 694: 689: 684: 679: 673: 672: 665: 664: 659: 654: 649: 644: 639: 634: 629: 624: 618: 617: 610: 609: 608: 607: 583: 582: 575: 574: 573: 572: 565: 558: 551: 544: 537: 530: 523: 511: 506: 500: 499: 493: 492: 491: 490: 478: 477: 476: 469: 462: 450: 449: 448: 436: 431: 426: 425: 424: 417: 405: 400: 399: 398: 385: 384: 377: 376: 369: 364: 363: 360: 359: 351: 350: 344: 343: 331: 330: 323: 314: 310:first language 304: 299: 290: 289: 286: 278: 277: 270: 264: 263: 258: 252: 251: 244: 234: 233: 232: 231: 221: 216: 214:North Germanic 209: 205: 204: 202:Proto-Germanic 199: 198:Proto-language 195: 194: 193: 192: 182: 176: 175: 169:Southeast Asia 141: 135: 134: 126: 125: 40: 38: 31: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 14387: 14376: 14373: 14371: 14368: 14367: 14365: 14350: 14342: 14341: 14338: 14332: 14329: 14327: 14324: 14322: 14319: 14317: 14314: 14312: 14309: 14308: 14306: 14304: 14300: 14294: 14291: 14289: 14286: 14284: 14281: 14279: 14276: 14274: 14271: 14269: 14266: 14262: 14259: 14257: 14254: 14253: 14252: 14249: 14247: 14244: 14242: 14239: 14237: 14234: 14232: 14229: 14227: 14224: 14222: 14219: 14217: 14214: 14212: 14209: 14207: 14204: 14202: 14199: 14197: 14194: 14192: 14189: 14187: 14184: 14182: 14179: 14177: 14174: 14172: 14169: 14167: 14164: 14162: 14159: 14157: 14154: 14152: 14149: 14147: 14144: 14142: 14139: 14137: 14134: 14132: 14129: 14127: 14124: 14122: 14119: 14117: 14114: 14112: 14109: 14107: 14104: 14102: 14099: 14097: 14094: 14092: 14089: 14087: 14084: 14082: 14079: 14077: 14074: 14070: 14067: 14065: 14062: 14060: 14057: 14055: 14052: 14050: 14047: 14046: 14045: 14042: 14038: 14035: 14034: 14033: 14030: 14028: 14025: 14023: 14020: 14018: 14015: 14013: 14010: 14008: 14005: 14003: 14000: 13998: 13995: 13993: 13990: 13988: 13985: 13983: 13980: 13978: 13975: 13973: 13970: 13966: 13963: 13961: 13958: 13956: 13953: 13951: 13948: 13946: 13943: 13941: 13938: 13936: 13935:Crimean Goths 13933: 13932: 13931: 13928: 13926: 13923: 13921: 13918: 13916: 13913: 13911: 13908: 13906: 13903: 13899: 13898:Salian Franks 13896: 13894: 13891: 13890: 13889: 13886: 13884: 13881: 13879: 13876: 13874: 13871: 13869: 13866: 13864: 13861: 13859: 13856: 13854: 13851: 13849: 13846: 13844: 13841: 13839: 13836: 13834: 13831: 13829: 13826: 13824: 13821: 13819: 13816: 13814: 13811: 13809: 13806: 13804: 13801: 13799: 13796: 13794: 13791: 13789: 13786: 13784: 13781: 13779: 13776: 13774: 13771: 13769: 13766: 13764: 13761: 13759: 13756: 13754: 13751: 13749: 13746: 13744: 13741: 13737: 13734: 13732: 13729: 13725: 13722: 13720: 13717: 13715: 13712: 13710: 13707: 13705: 13702: 13700: 13697: 13696: 13695: 13692: 13691: 13690: 13687: 13685: 13682: 13680: 13677: 13675: 13672: 13670: 13667: 13665: 13662: 13660: 13657: 13655: 13652: 13650: 13647: 13645: 13642: 13640: 13637: 13635: 13632: 13630: 13627: 13625: 13622: 13620: 13617: 13613: 13610: 13608: 13605: 13603: 13600: 13598: 13595: 13594: 13593: 13590: 13589: 13587: 13585: 13581: 13575: 13572: 13570: 13567: 13565: 13562: 13560: 13557: 13555: 13552: 13551: 13549: 13547: 13543: 13535: 13532: 13530: 13527: 13525: 13522: 13521: 13520: 13517: 13515: 13512: 13508: 13505: 13503: 13500: 13499: 13498: 13495: 13493: 13490: 13486: 13483: 13481: 13478: 13476: 13473: 13472: 13471: 13468: 13466: 13463: 13459: 13456: 13455: 13454: 13451: 13447: 13444: 13442: 13439: 13438: 13437: 13434: 13430: 13427: 13425: 13422: 13421: 13420: 13417: 13413: 13410: 13408: 13405: 13404: 13403: 13400: 13395: 13392: 13390: 13387: 13385: 13382: 13380: 13377: 13376: 13375: 13372: 13370: 13367: 13365: 13362: 13360: 13357: 13355: 13352: 13350: 13347: 13345: 13342: 13341: 13339: 13337: 13336:Early culture 13333: 13327: 13324: 13322: 13319: 13317: 13314: 13312: 13309: 13307: 13304: 13302: 13299: 13297: 13294: 13293: 13291: 13287: 13283: 13279: 13275: 13270: 13266: 13259: 13254: 13252: 13247: 13245: 13240: 13239: 13236: 13223: 13219: 13217: 13213: 13210: 13209: 13206: 13192: 13189: 13187: 13184: 13182: 13179: 13177: 13174: 13172: 13169: 13167: 13166:Germanic verb 13164: 13163: 13161: 13157: 13151: 13148: 13146: 13143: 13141: 13138: 13136: 13133: 13131: 13128: 13126: 13123: 13121: 13118: 13116: 13113: 13111: 13108: 13106: 13105:Sievers's law 13103: 13101: 13098: 13096: 13093: 13091: 13088: 13087: 13085: 13081: 13075: 13072: 13070: 13067: 13065: 13062: 13060: 13057: 13056: 13054: 13052:Reconstructed 13050: 13044: 13043: 13039: 13037: 13036: 13032: 13030: 13029: 13025: 13024: 13019: 13016: 13014: 13011: 13009: 13006: 13005: 13004: 13001: 12999: 12996: 12994: 12991: 12990: 12988: 12986: 12982: 12978: 12974: 12969: 12965: 12951: 12950: 12946: 12944: 12943: 12939: 12936: 12935: 12930: 12929: 12925: 12924: 12922: 12920: 12919: 12914: 12902: 12899: 12897: 12894: 12893: 12891: 12890: 12887: 12879: 12876: 12875: 12874: 12871: 12867: 12866: 12865:Middle Danish 12862: 12860: 12859: 12855: 12853: 12850: 12848: 12845: 12843: 12840: 12836: 12833: 12831: 12828: 12827: 12826: 12823: 12819: 12816: 12815: 12814: 12811: 12809: 12806: 12804: 12801: 12800: 12799: 12796: 12792: 12789: 12787: 12784: 12783: 12782: 12779: 12778: 12776: 12772: 12766: 12765: 12761: 12759: 12758: 12754: 12750: 12749: 12745: 12743: 12742: 12741:Old Icelandic 12738: 12737: 12736: 12733: 12731: 12728: 12724: 12723: 12719: 12717: 12716: 12715:Old Norwegian 12712: 12709: 12706: 12703: 12700: 12698: 12695: 12693: 12690: 12688: 12685: 12683: 12680: 12678: 12675: 12673: 12670: 12668: 12665: 12664: 12663: 12660: 12659: 12657: 12653: 12645: 12644: 12640: 12638: 12635: 12633: 12630: 12629: 12628: 12627: 12623: 12621: 12620: 12616: 12615: 12613: 12609: 12606: 12604: 12600: 12596: 12592: 12588: 12583: 12579: 12561: 12560: 12556: 12552: 12549: 12548: 12547: 12544: 12542: 12539: 12533: 12532:Gottscheerish 12530: 12528: 12525: 12523: 12520: 12518: 12515: 12513: 12510: 12509: 12508: 12505: 12501: 12498: 12497: 12496: 12493: 12491: 12488: 12487: 12486: 12483: 12479: 12476: 12472: 12471:Walser German 12469: 12468: 12467: 12464: 12460: 12457: 12456: 12455: 12452: 12448: 12445: 12443: 12440: 12439: 12438: 12437:Low Alemannic 12435: 12434: 12432: 12429: 12428: 12426: 12424: 12420: 12410: 12407: 12405: 12402: 12400: 12399:High Prussian 12397: 12395: 12392: 12390: 12387: 12385: 12384:Erzgebirgisch 12382: 12380: 12377: 12375: 12372: 12371: 12369: 12367: 12363: 12357: 12354: 12350: 12347: 12346: 12345: 12342: 12336: 12333: 12331: 12328: 12327: 12326: 12323: 12321: 12318: 12317: 12316: 12313: 12305: 12302: 12301: 12300: 12297: 12295: 12292: 12290: 12289:Luxembourgish 12287: 12286: 12285: 12282: 12278: 12275: 12273: 12270: 12269: 12268: 12265: 12264: 12263: 12260: 12259: 12257: 12255: 12251: 12248: 12246: 12242: 12234: 12231: 12229: 12228: 12227:Klezmer-loshn 12224: 12222: 12221:Scots Yiddish 12219: 12217: 12214: 12212: 12209: 12208: 12207: 12204: 12202: 12199: 12195: 12192: 12191: 12190: 12187: 12185: 12182: 12180: 12177: 12175: 12172: 12170: 12167: 12165: 12162: 12161: 12159: 12157: 12152: 12147: 12141: 12138: 12136: 12133: 12131: 12128: 12127: 12125: 12123: 12119: 12111: 12110: 12106: 12105: 12104: 12103: 12099: 12097: 12096: 12092: 12090: 12089: 12085: 12084: 12082: 12078: 12075: 12073: 12069: 12059: 12058:Meuse-Rhenish 12056: 12054: 12051: 12050: 12048: 12044: 12038: 12035: 12034: 12032: 12030: 12026: 12020: 12016: 12012: 12008: 12005: 12003: 12000: 11998: 11995: 11993: 11990: 11989: 11986: 11985:Kleverlandish 11983: 11981: 11978: 11976: 11973: 11971: 11968: 11964: 11961: 11960: 11959: 11956: 11952: 11949: 11948: 11947: 11946:Central Dutch 11944: 11943: 11941: 11937: 11930: 11926: 11923: 11921: 11918: 11917: 11915: 11913: 11909: 11903: 11900: 11898: 11895: 11893: 11890: 11889: 11887: 11883: 11880: 11878: 11874: 11862: 11859: 11858: 11857: 11854: 11852: 11849: 11847: 11844: 11842: 11839: 11837: 11834: 11833: 11831: 11829: 11825: 11819: 11816: 11814: 11811: 11807: 11804: 11803: 11802: 11799: 11795: 11792: 11790: 11787: 11783: 11780: 11778: 11775: 11774: 11772: 11770: 11767: 11765: 11762: 11760: 11757: 11755: 11754:Stellingwarfs 11752: 11751: 11750: 11747: 11746: 11744: 11742: 11738: 11732: 11731: 11727: 11725: 11724: 11720: 11719: 11717: 11713: 11710: 11708: 11704: 11688: 11685: 11679: 11676: 11675: 11674:Wood Frisian 11673: 11670: 11669: 11668: 11665: 11664: 11662: 11660: 11657: 11655: 11652: 11651: 11649: 11647: 11643: 11635: 11632: 11630: 11629: 11625: 11623: 11620: 11616: 11613: 11610: 11607: 11606: 11605: 11602: 11600: 11597: 11592: 11591: 11590: 11587: 11586: 11584: 11580: 11577: 11575: 11572: 11568: 11565: 11563: 11560: 11559: 11557: 11555: 11554: 11550: 11549: 11547: 11546: 11544: 11542: 11541:North Frisian 11538: 11530: 11529: 11525: 11523: 11522: 11518: 11516: 11515: 11511: 11510: 11509: 11506: 11502: 11499: 11498: 11496: 11495: 11493: 11491: 11487: 11481: 11480: 11476: 11474: 11473: 11469: 11468: 11466: 11462: 11459: 11457: 11453: 11445: 11444: 11440: 11438: 11437: 11433: 11432: 11431: 11428: 11424: 11423: 11419: 11417: 11416: 11412: 11410: 11409: 11405: 11404: 11403: 11400: 11394: 11393: 11389: 11388: 11387: 11386: 11382: 11380: 11379: 11375: 11373: 11372: 11368: 11366: 11363: 11362: 11361: 11358: 11357: 11355: 11353: 11349: 11346: 11344: 11343:Anglo-Frisian 11340: 11336: 11332: 11327: 11323: 11319: 11313: 11309: 11302: 11297: 11295: 11290: 11288: 11283: 11282: 11279: 11269: 11265: 11260: 11254: 11253: 11249: 11245: 11244: 11243:Proto-Romance 11240: 11239: 11238: 11237: 11233: 11229: 11228: 11227:Proto-Iranian 11224: 11222: 11221: 11217: 11216: 11215: 11214: 11210: 11208: 11207: 11203: 11199: 11198: 11194: 11193: 11192: 11191: 11187: 11185: 11184: 11180: 11176: 11175: 11171: 11169: 11168: 11164: 11163: 11162: 11161: 11157: 11155: 11154: 11150: 11148: 11147: 11143: 11141: 11140: 11136: 11134: 11133: 11129: 11128: 11126: 11124: 11120: 11114: 11113: 11109: 11107: 11106: 11102: 11100: 11099: 11095: 11093: 11092: 11088: 11086: 11085: 11081: 11079: 11078: 11074: 11072: 11071: 11067: 11065: 11064: 11060: 11058: 11055: 11053: 11050: 11048: 11045: 11044: 11042: 11038: 11032: 11031: 11027: 11025: 11022: 11021: 11019: 11017: 11016: 11011: 11005: 11004: 11000: 10996: 10993: 10992: 10991: 10988: 10987: 10985: 10983: 10979: 10973: 10970: 10968: 10965: 10963: 10960: 10957: 10954: 10953: 10951: 10949: 10945: 10939: 10938:West Germanic 10936: 10934: 10931: 10929: 10928: 10927:East Germanic 10924: 10923: 10921: 10919: 10915: 10909: 10906: 10904: 10903: 10899: 10898: 10896: 10894: 10890: 10880: 10877: 10875: 10872: 10870: 10867: 10866: 10864: 10862: 10858: 10852: 10851: 10847: 10845: 10842: 10840: 10839: 10835: 10834: 10832: 10830: 10826: 10823: 10821: 10817: 10807: 10806: 10802: 10800: 10799: 10795: 10793: 10792: 10788: 10786: 10785: 10781: 10779: 10778: 10774: 10772: 10771: 10767: 10766: 10764: 10762: 10761: 10756: 10750: 10749: 10745: 10743: 10742: 10738: 10736: 10735: 10731: 10730: 10727: 10724: 10722: 10721: 10716: 10711: 10707: 10700: 10695: 10693: 10688: 10686: 10681: 10680: 10677: 10670: 10667: 10664: 10660: 10657: 10655: 10653: 10649: 10646: 10642: 10639: 10636: 10634: 10631: 10630: 10620: 10615: 10611: 10606: 10605: 10595: 10590: 10586: 10584:9780804714549 10580: 10575: 10574: 10568: 10564: 10560: 10555: 10551: 10546: 10542: 10537: 10533: 10528: 10524: 10522:9780814313909 10518: 10513: 10512: 10505: 10501: 10499:9780198119432 10495: 10491: 10490: 10484: 10480: 10475: 10474: 10464: 10459: 10455: 10450: 10449: 10439: 10434: 10430: 10425: 10424: 10420: 10419: 10414: 10409: 10405: 10399: 10394: 10393: 10387: 10383: 10382: 10372: 10367: 10363: 10362: 10356: 10352: 10348: 10344: 10342:9789027263131 10338: 10334: 10330: 10326: 10321: 10320: 10310: 10306: 10302: 10298: 10293: 10288: 10284: 10280: 10277:(6069): 657. 10276: 10272: 10268: 10263: 10259: 10254: 10250: 10245: 10241: 10237: 10233: 10229: 10225: 10221: 10216: 10212: 10210:9780521772150 10206: 10202: 10201: 10195: 10192:(11): 126–132 10191: 10187: 10183: 10179: 10175: 10171: 10167: 10163: 10159: 10154: 10150: 10148:9788778388261 10144: 10140: 10139: 10133: 10132: 10119: 10112: 10108: 10102: 10093: 10086: 10080: 10064: 10060: 10059: 10050: 10041: 10034: 10030: 10025: 10018: 10013: 10002: 9998: 9996:9781853596278 9992: 9985: 9984: 9976: 9967: 9960: 9956: 9950: 9943: 9937: 9930: 9925: 9918: 9913: 9906: 9905:Wright (1906) 9901: 9894: 9889: 9882: 9877: 9870: 9865: 9858: 9853: 9851: 9843: 9838: 9831: 9826: 9819: 9814: 9807: 9806:Gordon (1927) 9802: 9795: 9794:Wright (1919) 9790: 9783: 9778: 9771: 9766: 9764: 9756: 9751: 9744: 9739: 9732: 9731:Bethge (1900) 9727: 9721: 9715: 9709: 9703: 9696: 9691: 9684: 9680: 9677:According to 9674: 9666: 9662: 9658: 9652: 9648: 9647: 9639: 9631: 9629:0-631-19815-6 9625: 9621: 9620: 9615: 9611: 9605: 9598: 9593: 9586: 9581: 9574: 9570: 9566: 9562: 9558: 9554: 9550: 9544: 9538:, p. 67. 9537: 9532: 9516: 9512: 9508: 9502: 9494: 9492:0-85229-571-5 9488: 9484: 9480: 9474: 9466: 9464:0-14-051054-0 9460: 9456: 9449: 9433: 9429: 9425: 9419: 9403: 9399: 9395: 9389: 9382: 9376: 9360: 9356: 9352: 9346: 9330: 9326: 9322: 9316: 9309: 9308:Jacobs (2005) 9304: 9285: 9281: 9280:stellingia.nl 9274: 9257: 9253: 9252:ins-bremen.de 9246: 9240: 9224: 9220: 9216: 9210: 9194: 9190: 9186: 9180: 9164: 9160: 9156: 9150: 9143: 9138: 9122: 9118: 9112: 9104: 9099: 9091: 9075: 9071: 9067: 9060: 9044: 9040: 9034: 9018: 9014: 9008: 8989: 8982: 8976: 8970: 8966: 8963: 8957: 8941: 8937: 8933: 8927: 8911: 8907: 8903: 8896: 8880: 8876: 8875:olcalsace.org 8872: 8866: 8860: 8856: 8855:Miskito Coast 8850: 8834: 8830: 8826: 8819: 8803: 8799: 8793: 8777: 8773: 8769: 8763: 8756: 8752: 8749: 8745: 8741: 8735: 8716: 8712: 8711: 8703: 8696: 8694: 8684: 8677: 8674: 8670: 8667: 8662: 8655: 8651: 8648: 8643: 8641: 8633: 8629: 8626: 8621: 8619: 8602: 8598: 8592: 8585: 8581: 8577: 8573: 8567: 8551: 8547: 8546: 8541: 8535: 8533: 8516: 8512: 8506: 8498: 8496:0-312-21207-0 8492: 8488: 8481: 8474: 8469: 8467: 8465: 8460: 8447: 8443: 8437: 8430: 8426: 8422: 8416: 8409: 8405: 8401: 8395: 8385: 8376: 8369: 8363: 8356: 8355: 8354:lingua franca 8348: 8341: 8337: 8331: 8327: 8317: 8314: 8312: 8309: 8307: 8304: 8302: 8299: 8296: 8295:Germanic verb 8293: 8291: 8290:Germanic name 8288: 8286: 8285:Anglicization 8283: 8281: 8280:Germanization 8278: 8276: 8273: 8271: 8268: 8266: 8263: 8262: 8251: 8248: 8245: 8242: 8239: 8236: 8233: 8230: 8227: 8224: 8221: 8220: 8216: 8213: 8210: 8207: 8204: 8201: 8198: 8195: 8192: 8189: 8186: 8185: 8181: 8178: 8174: 8171: 8168: 8165: 8162: 8159: 8156: 8153: 8150: 8147: 8146: 8142: 8139: 8136: 8133: 8130: 8127: 8124: 8121: 8118: 8115: 8112: 8111: 8107: 8104: 8101: 8098: 8095: 8092: 8089: 8086: 8083: 8080: 8077: 8076: 8072: 8069: 8066: 8063: 8060: 8057: 8054: 8051: 8048: 8045: 8042: 8041: 8037: 8034: 8031: 8028: 8025: 8022: 8019: 8016: 8013: 8010: 8007: 8006: 8002: 7999: 7996: 7993: 7990: 7987: 7984: 7981: 7978: 7975: 7972: 7971: 7967: 7964: 7961: 7958: 7955: 7952: 7949: 7946: 7943: 7940: 7937: 7936: 7932: 7929: 7926: 7923: 7920: 7917: 7914: 7911: 7908: 7905: 7902: 7901: 7897: 7894: 7891: 7888: 7885: 7882: 7879: 7876: 7873: 7870: 7867: 7866: 7862: 7859: 7856: 7853: 7850: 7847: 7844: 7841: 7838: 7835: 7832: 7831: 7827: 7824: 7821: 7818: 7815: 7812: 7809: 7806: 7803: 7800: 7797: 7796: 7792: 7789: 7786: 7783: 7780: 7777: 7774: 7771: 7768: 7765: 7762: 7761: 7757: 7754: 7751: 7748: 7745: 7742: 7739: 7736: 7733: 7730: 7727: 7726: 7722: 7719: 7716: 7713: 7710: 7707: 7704: 7701: 7698: 7695: 7692: 7691: 7685: 7682: 7679: 7676: 7673: 7670: 7667: 7664: 7661: 7658: 7655: 7654: 7650: 7647: 7644: 7641: 7638: 7635: 7632: 7629: 7626: 7623: 7620: 7619: 7615: 7612: 7609: 7606: 7603: 7600: 7597: 7594: 7591: 7588: 7585: 7584: 7580: 7577: 7574: 7571: 7568: 7565: 7562: 7559: 7556: 7553: 7550: 7549: 7545: 7542: 7539: 7536: 7533: 7530: 7527: 7524: 7521: 7518: 7515: 7514: 7510: 7507: 7504: 7501: 7498: 7495: 7492: 7489: 7486: 7483: 7480: 7479: 7475: 7472: 7469: 7466: 7463: 7460: 7457: 7454: 7451: 7448: 7445: 7444: 7440: 7437: 7434: 7431: 7428: 7425: 7422: 7419: 7416: 7413: 7410: 7409: 7405: 7402: 7399: 7396: 7393: 7390: 7387: 7384: 7381: 7378: 7375: 7374: 7370: 7367: 7364: 7361: 7358: 7355: 7352: 7349: 7346: 7343: 7340: 7339: 7335: 7333: 7330: 7327: 7324: 7321: 7318: 7315: 7312: 7309: 7306: 7303: 7302: 7299: 7296: 7294: 7291: 7289: 7286: 7284: 7279: 7277: 7274: 7272: 7269: 7267: 7264: 7262: 7259: 7257: 7254: 7252: 7249: 7248: 7236: 7235:Anglo-Frisian 7232: 7229: 7226:Reconstructed 7222: 7215: 7210: 7209:West Germanic 7206: 7203: 7195: 7193: 7189: 7188: 7183: 7182: 7177: 7173: 7169: 7165: 7162: 7158: 7153: 7151: 7147: 7143: 7139: 7135: 7131: 7127: 7123: 7122:Elder Futhark 7118: 7116: 7112: 7111: 7106: 7087: 7068: 7065: 7060: 7057: 7052: 7049: 7044: 7041: 7040: 7039: 7038:East Germanic 7036: 7032: 7029: 7023: 7020: 7019: 7018: 7015: 7013: 7010: 7009: 7007: 7003: 7000: 6998: 6995: 6993: 6990: 6987: 6984: 6983: 6981: 6980: 6979: 6976: 6968: 6967:North Frisian 6965: 6960: 6957: 6956: 6955: 6952: 6950: 6947: 6946: 6945: 6942: 6938: 6934: 6931: 6929: 6925: 6922: 6921: 6920:(or English) 6919: 6916: 6915: 6914: 6913:Anglo-Frisian 6911: 6906: 6902: 6899: 6896: 6892: 6889: 6887: 6883: 6880: 6879: 6878: 6875: 6870: 6867: 6865: 6862: 6860: 6857: 6856: 6855: 6852: 6844: 6841: 6839: 6836: 6834: 6833:Luxembourgish 6831: 6830: 6829: 6826: 6822: 6819: 6818: 6817: 6814: 6813: 6812: 6809: 6806: 6803: 6801: 6798: 6792: 6789: 6787: 6784: 6782: 6779: 6778: 6777: 6774: 6771: 6767: 6763: 6760: 6759: 6758: 6755: 6754: 6752: 6748: 6744: 6741: 6740: 6739: 6738:West Germanic 6736: 6735: 6734: 6731: 6730: 6728: 6726: 6721: 6719: 6715: 6711: 6707: 6703: 6699: 6695: 6694:Anglo-Frisian 6691: 6687: 6686:West Germanic 6678: 6674: 6672: 6668: 6667:West Germanic 6664: 6663:East Germanic 6660: 6654: 6644: 6642: 6637: 6633: 6631: 6627: 6623: 6619: 6615: 6611: 6607: 6603: 6599: 6595: 6590: 6588: 6584: 6580: 6576: 6572: 6568: 6564: 6560: 6556: 6552: 6548: 6544: 6539: 6537: 6533: 6529: 6525: 6521: 6517: 6513: 6509: 6503: 6501: 6497: 6493: 6489: 6485: 6481: 6477: 6473: 6469: 6463: 6461: 6456: 6452: 6448: 6444: 6440: 6425: 6422: 6419: 6416: 6413: 6410: 6407: 6404: 6401: 6399:Instrumental 6398: 6397: 6393: 6390: 6387: 6384: 6381: 6378: 6375: 6372: 6369: 6366: 6365: 6361: 6358: 6355: 6352: 6349: 6346: 6343: 6340: 6339: 6335: 6332: 6329: 6326: 6323: 6322: 6303: 6300: 6297: 6295:*fisk-ôs, -ôz 6294: 6291: 6287: 6283: 6280: 6277: 6274: 6271: 6268: 6265: 6262: 6259: 6257:Instrumental 6256: 6255: 6251: 6248: 6245: 6242: 6239: 6236: 6233: 6230: 6227: 6224: 6223: 6220:fisk-is, -es 6219: 6216: 6213: 6210: 6207: 6204: 6201: 6198: 6196:*fisk-as, -is 6195: 6192: 6191: 6187: 6184: 6181: 6178: 6177: 6173: 6170: 6167: 6166: 6141: 6138: 6135: 6131: 6127: 6124: 6121: 6119:Modern German 6118: 6115: 6112: 6109: 6106: 6103: 6100: 6096: 6092: 6086: 6084: 6080: 6075: 6072: 6068: 6064: 6058: 6056: 6051: 6047: 6043: 6038: 6036: 6032: 6028: 6024: 6023:optative mood 6020: 6004: 5997: 5995: 5985: 5976: 5974: 5966: 5962: 5958: 5954: 5948: 5938: 5936: 5934: 5926: 5922: 5916: 5914: 5912: 5904: 5900: 5896: 5892: 5888: 5884: 5880: 5876: 5872: 5871:apicoalveolar 5868: 5856: 5852: 5848: 5842: 5840: 5832: 5826: 5819: 5813: 5811: 5801: 5790: 5783: 5777: 5773: 5769: 5765: 5761: 5757: 5753: 5749: 5743: 5736: 5730: 5723: 5718: 5714: 5710: 5704: 5702: 5700: 5698: 5696: 5694: 5692: 5690: 5688: 5686: 5678: 5674: 5670: 5666: 5662: 5658: 5654: 5650: 5646: 5642: 5638: 5634: 5630: 5626: 5620: 5618: 5616: 5614: 5612: 5601: 5598: 5597: 5594: 5590: 5584: 5582: 5580: 5578: 5576: 5568: 5564: 5560: 5556: 5552: 5548: 5544: 5538: 5536: 5534: 5532: 5530: 5528: 5526: 5518: 5490: 5486: 5482: 5478: 5459: 5456: 5454:before vowels 5445: 5442: 5441: 5436:The spelling 5428: 5425: 5423:before vowels 5414: 5411: 5410: 5404: 5398: 5396: 5394: 5389: 5381: 5378: 5375: 5372: 5369: 5368: 5364: 5361: 5358: 5355: 5352: 5351: 5347: 5344: 5341: 5338: 5335: 5334: 5330: 5327: 5324: 5321: 5318: 5317: 5313: 5310: 5307: 5304: 5301: 5300: 5296: 5293: 5290: 5287: 5284: 5283: 5279: 5276: 5273: 5270: 5267: 5266: 5262: 5259: 5256: 5253: 5250: 5249: 5245: 5242: 5239: 5236: 5233: 5232: 5228: 5225: 5222: 5219: 5216: 5215: 5211: 5208: 5205: 5202: 5199: 5198: 5194: 5191: 5188: 5185: 5182: 5181: 5177: 5174: 5171: 5168: 5165: 5164: 5160: 5157: 5154: 5151: 5148: 5147: 5143: 5140: 5137: 5134: 5131: 5130: 5126: 5123: 5120: 5117: 5114: 5113: 5110:k-, -xx-, -x 5109: 5106: 5103: 5100: 5097: 5096: 5092: 5089: 5086: 5083: 5080: 5079: 5075: 5072: 5069: 5066: 5063: 5062: 5058: 5055: 5052: 5051: 5044: 5041: 5035: 5034: 5030: 5027: 5024: 5021: 5020: 5016: 5013: 5010: 5004: 5003: 4999: 4996: 4993: 4992: 4985: 4982: 4976: 4975: 4971: 4968: 4965: 4962: 4961: 4957: 4954: 4951: 4945: 4944: 4940: 4937: 4934: 4931: 4930: 4926: 4923: 4920: 4914: 4913: 4909: 4906: 4903: 4900: 4899: 4895: 4892: 4889: 4883: 4882: 4878: 4875: 4872: 4869: 4866: 4865: 4861: 4859:i, ĭŭ(h,w,rC) 4858: 4855: 4852: 4849: 4848: 4844: 4841: 4838: 4835: 4832: 4831: 4827: 4824: 4821: 4818: 4817: 4813: 4811:e, ĕŏ(h,w,rC) 4810: 4807: 4801: 4800: 4796: 4793: 4790: 4787: 4786: 4782: 4779: 4776: 4770: 4769: 4765: 4762: 4759: 4756: 4755: 4751: 4748: 4745: 4739: 4738: 4734: 4731: 4728: 4725: 4724: 4720: 4717: 4714: 4708: 4707: 4703: 4700: 4697: 4694: 4691: 4690: 4681: 4677: 4673: 4670: 4666: 4662: 4659: 4655: 4651: 4648: 4645: 4641: 4637: 4633: 4629: 4626: 4622: 4618: 4615: 4612: 4609: 4606: 4603: 4602: 4601: 4598: 4596: 4592: 4588: 4584: 4573: 4569: 4567: 4563: 4559: 4547: 4542: 4540: 4536: 4532: 4528: 4510: 4506: 4502: 4499: 4496: 4492: 4488: 4484: 4480: 4477: 4474: 4470: 4466: 4462: 4458: 4455: 4452: 4448: 4444: 4443: 4442: 4440: 4436: 4435:Anglo-Frisian 4428: 4427:Anglo-Frisian 4424: 4420: 4416: 4412: 4409: 4405: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4389: 4385: 4381: 4377: 4373: 4370: 4366: 4362: 4358: 4354: 4350: 4347: 4343: 4339: 4335: 4331: 4327: 4324: 4320: 4317: 4313: 4309: 4303: 4297: 4292: 4288: 4285: 4281: 4277: 4273: 4269: 4265: 4264: 4263: 4261: 4257: 4249: 4245: 4242: 4238: 4234: 4230: 4227:Short forms ( 4226: 4223: 4219: 4215: 4212: 4208: 4205: 4202: 4198: 4194: 4191: 4188: 4185: 4182: 4181: 4180: 4178: 4171: 4168: 4165: 4164:West Germanic 4161: 4157: 4153: 4149: 4145: 4141: 4140: 4139: 4137: 4136:areal changes 4133: 4125: 4121: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4106:(e.g. Gothic 4105: 4104:reduplication 4101: 4097: 4094: 4091: 4087: 4084: 4077: 4074: 4071: 4066: 4061: 4056: 4050: 4049: 4048: 4046: 4042: 4037: 4035: 4031: 4020: 4018: 4014: 4010: 4006: 4002: 3998: 3990: 3986: 3982: 3978: 3975: 3971: 3967: 3963: 3959: 3958: 3957: 3955: 3947: 3944: 3941: 3937: 3934: 3930: 3926: 3922: 3918: 3914: 3911: 3907: 3903: 3900:) instead of 3887: 3883: 3879: 3876: 3872: 3868: 3867:present tense 3864: 3860: 3856: 3855: 3854: 3848: 3847: 3841: 3837: 3833: 3829: 3825: 3821: 3820: 3816: 3813: 3809: 3805: 3801: 3797: 3794: 3790: 3786: 3782: 3778: 3777:broad/breadth 3774: 3770: 3761: 3756: 3740: 3736: 3734:"witch, hag". 3732: 3726: 3719: 3713: 3707: 3702: 3696: 3691: 3685: 3680: 3674: 3669: 3662: 3658: 3655: 3651: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3633: 3628: 3623: 3619: 3615: 3603: 3599: 3595: 3594:sound changes 3591: 3590: 3589: 3586: 3578: 3576: 3570: 3567: 3563: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3547: 3542: 3540: 3536: 3532: 3528: 3523: 3521: 3517: 3513: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3489: 3487: 3482: 3481: 3480:Íslendingabók 3475: 3471: 3466: 3464: 3460: 3456: 3452: 3448: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3431:New Testament 3428: 3423: 3420: 160 AD 3414: 3410: 3406: 3405:Elder Futhark 3402: 3398: 3394: 3389: 3387: 3383: 3379: 3374: 3372: 3368: 3364: 3359: 500 BC 3352: 500 BC 3346: 3342: 3338: 3334: 3325: 3324:East Germanic 3321: 3320: 3309: 3305: 3301: 3297: 3287: 3286:West Germanic 3283: 3282: 3272: 3271: 3261: 3260: 3250: 3249: 3238: 3185: 3182: 3178: 3175:Expansion of 3173: 3159: 3156: 3155: 3151: 3148: 3147: 3143: 3141: 3138: 3137: 3133: 3131: 3128: 3127: 3123: 3121: 3120:Luxembourgish 3118: 3117: 3113: 3111: 3108: 3107: 3103: 3101: 3098: 3097: 3093: 3091: 3088: 3087: 3083: 3081: 3078: 3077: 3073: 3071: 3068: 3067: 3063: 3061: 3058: 3057: 3053: 3051: 3048: 3047: 3043: 3041: 3038: 3037: 3033: 3031: 3028: 3027: 3023: 3021: 3018: 3017: 3013: 3011: 3008: 3007: 3003: 3000: 2999: 2990: 2985: 2924: 2913: 2911: 2907: 2905: 2901: 2897: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2886:Bouvet island 2883: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2863: 2861: 2857: 2853: 2852:lingua franca 2849: 2848:Faroe Islands 2845: 2841: 2839: 2835: 2831: 2827: 2823: 2813: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2798: 2796: 2790: 2788: 2784: 2779: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2767: 2763: 2759: 2754: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2742: 2738: 2737: 2736:lingua franca 2732: 2727: 2725: 2722: 2718: 2714: 2710: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2686: 2684: 2681:is spoken in 2680: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2664: 2660: 2659:Liechtenstein 2655: 2653: 2649: 2648: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2631: 2627: 2623: 2619: 2615: 2611: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2556: 2547: 2538: 2529: 2520: 2511: 2502: 2494: 2493: 2488: 2479: 2470: 2461: 2452: 2444: 2443: 2437: 2433: 2427:Modern status 2424: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2406: 2401: 2399: 2395: 2394: 2389: 2385: 2381: 2377: 2373: 2368: 2364: 2363: 2359: 2354: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2336: 2332: 2327: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2297: 2293: 2288: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2270: 2266: 2262: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2238: 2234: 2230: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2209: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2196: 2192: 2188: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2172: 2171:North America 2168: 2164: 2161: 2160:Indo-European 2157: 2145: 2140: 2138: 2133: 2131: 2126: 2125: 2123: 2122: 2115: 2114: 2110: 2108: 2107: 2103: 2101: 2100: 2096: 2094: 2093: 2089: 2087: 2086: 2082: 2081: 2078: 2075: 2074: 2071: 2068: 2067: 2064: 2061: 2060: 2057: 2056:J. P. Mallory 2054: 2052: 2049: 2048: 2045: 2042: 2041: 2038: 2033: 2032: 2025: 2021: 2018: 2016: 2013: 2011: 2008: 2006: 2003: 2002: 1999: 1996: 1995: 1992: 1989: 1984: 1980: 1977: 1973: 1972: 1971: 1968: 1963: 1959: 1956: 1952: 1949: 1945: 1944: 1943: 1940: 1935: 1931: 1928: 1924: 1921: 1917: 1914: 1910: 1907: 1903: 1902: 1901: 1898: 1896: 1893: 1891: 1888: 1885: 1882: 1879: 1876: 1873: 1870: 1867: 1863: 1860: 1859: 1858: 1856: 1855: 1848: 1845: 1844: 1843: 1841: 1832: 1828: 1827: 1826: 1823: 1818: 1814: 1811: 1807: 1806: 1805: 1802: 1797: 1793: 1792: 1791: 1788: 1787: 1786: 1784: 1783: 1775: 1771: 1768: 1764: 1761: 1757: 1752: 1748: 1747: 1746: 1743: 1742: 1741: 1739: 1738: 1731: 1728: 1727: 1724: 1721: 1720: 1716: 1713: 1711: 1708: 1706: 1703: 1701: 1698: 1697: 1694: 1693:Reconstructed 1691: 1690: 1684: 1683: 1676: 1673: 1672: 1671: 1670: 1664: 1661: 1660: 1659: 1658: 1652: 1649: 1647: 1643: 1640: 1638: 1635: 1633: 1630: 1628: 1625: 1624: 1623: 1621: 1615: 1612: 1611: 1610: 1608: 1602: 1599: 1598: 1595: 1592: 1587: 1583: 1580: 1576: 1573: 1569: 1566: 1562: 1559: 1555: 1554: 1553: 1549: 1546: 1544: 1541: 1539: 1536: 1534: 1531: 1529: 1526: 1521: 1520:Insular Celts 1517: 1514: 1510: 1507: 1503: 1502: 1501: 1498: 1497: 1496: 1494: 1488: 1485: 1483: 1480: 1479: 1478: 1476: 1470: 1467: 1466: 1465: 1463: 1457: 1454: 1453: 1452: 1450: 1444: 1441: 1440: 1437: 1436:Indo-Iranians 1434: 1432: 1429: 1427: 1424: 1419: 1414: 1411: 1410: 1407: 1404: 1403: 1397: 1396: 1389: 1386: 1384: 1381: 1380: 1379: 1378: 1372: 1369: 1368: 1367: 1365: 1359: 1356: 1354: 1351: 1349: 1346: 1345: 1344: 1342: 1336: 1333: 1332: 1331: 1329: 1323: 1320: 1319: 1315: 1312: 1310: 1307: 1305: 1302: 1301: 1300: 1298: 1292: 1289: 1287: 1284: 1282: 1279: 1277: 1274: 1272: 1269: 1267: 1264: 1262: 1259: 1257: 1254: 1252: 1249: 1247: 1244: 1243: 1242: 1240: 1234: 1231: 1229: 1226: 1224: 1221: 1220: 1219: 1217: 1211: 1208: 1206: 1203: 1201: 1198: 1196: 1193: 1191: 1188: 1186: 1183: 1182: 1181: 1179: 1178:Pontic Steppe 1172: 1169: 1168: 1161: 1157: 1154: 1150: 1149: 1148: 1145: 1144: 1143: 1141: 1135: 1132: 1130: 1127: 1124: 1120: 1119: 1118: 1116: 1110: 1107: 1106: 1105: 1103: 1097: 1094: 1093: 1092: 1090: 1079: 1075: 1072: 1068: 1067: 1065: 1061: 1058: 1054: 1051: 1047: 1044: 1040: 1037: 1033: 1030: 1026: 1025: 1024: 1021: 1019: 1016: 1012: 1011:Kurgan stelae 1009: 1008: 1007: 1004: 1002: 999: 998: 997: 995: 994:Pontic Steppe 988: 985: 984: 978: 977: 970: 967: 965: 962: 960: 957: 955: 952: 950: 947: 945: 942: 941: 936: 935: 931: 928: 926: 923: 921: 918: 917: 912: 911: 907: 904: 902: 899: 897: 894: 892: 889: 888: 882: 881: 874: 871: 869: 866: 864: 861: 859: 856: 854: 851: 849: 846: 844: 841: 839: 836: 834: 831: 829: 826: 824: 821: 819: 816: 814: 811: 809: 806: 804: 801: 800: 794: 793: 785: 784:Proto-Iranian 781: 778: 775: 771: 767: 764: 762: 759: 756: 752: 748: 745: 742: 738: 735: 733: 730: 728: 725: 723: 720: 719: 716: 713: 712: 708: 705: 703: 700: 698: 695: 693: 690: 688: 685: 683: 680: 678: 675: 674: 671: 668: 667: 663: 660: 658: 655: 653: 650: 648: 645: 643: 640: 638: 635: 633: 630: 628: 627:Daco-Thracian 625: 623: 620: 619: 616: 613: 612: 606: 602: 598: 594: 591: 590: 588: 585: 584: 581: 580:Reconstructed 578: 577: 570: 566: 563: 559: 556: 552: 549: 545: 542: 538: 535: 531: 528: 524: 521: 517: 516: 515: 512: 510: 507: 505: 502: 501: 498: 495: 494: 488: 484: 483: 482: 479: 474: 470: 467: 463: 460: 456: 455: 454: 451: 446: 442: 441: 440: 437: 435: 432: 430: 427: 422: 418: 415: 411: 410: 409: 406: 404: 401: 396: 392: 391: 390: 387: 386: 383: 380: 379: 375: 372: 371: 367: 362: 361: 357: 353: 352: 349: 346: 345: 341: 337: 336: 321: 311: 302: 296: 291: 284: 279: 275: 271: 269: 265: 259: 257: 253: 249: 245: 243: 239: 235: 230: 225: 224:East Germanic 222: 220: 219:West Germanic 217: 215: 212: 211: 210: 206: 203: 200: 196: 191: 188: 187: 186: 185:Indo-European 183: 181: 177: 174: 170: 166: 162: 158: 154: 150: 149:Anglo-America 146: 142: 136: 131: 122: 119: 111: 100: 97: 93: 90: 86: 83: 79: 76: 72: 69: – 68: 64: 63:Find sources: 57: 53: 47: 46: 41:This article 39: 35: 30: 29: 26: 22: 13629:Anglo-Saxons 13619:Adrabaecampi 13602:Bucinobantes 13545: 13344:Architecture 13281: 13211: 13095:Verner's law 13040: 13035:Gotho-Nordic 13033: 13026: 12947: 12940: 12932: 12926: 12916: 12901:Fårö Gutnish 12863: 12856: 12762: 12755: 12746: 12739: 12720: 12713: 12641: 12636: 12631: 12624: 12617: 12557: 12459:Swiss German 12423:Upper German 12356:Amana German 12330:Volga German 12299:Hunsrückisch 12225: 12179:Unserdeutsch 12174:Berlinerisch 12107: 12100: 12093: 12086: 12046:Cover groups 12002:Mohawk Dutch 11997:Jersey Dutch 11975:East Flemish 11958:West Flemish 11902:Middle Dutch 11856:Low Prussian 11728: 11721: 11687:Terschelling 11671:Clay Frisian 11646:West Frisian 11634:Wiedingharde 11626: 11614: 11574:Heligolandic 11551: 11526: 11519: 11512: 11507: 11490:East Frisian 11477: 11470: 11443:Middle Scots 11441: 11434: 11420: 11413: 11406: 11401: 11390: 11383: 11376: 11369: 11307: 11263: 11250: 11241: 11236:Proto-Italic 11234: 11225: 11218: 11211: 11204: 11195: 11188: 11183:Proto-Celtic 11181: 11174:Proto-Slavic 11172: 11167:Proto-Baltic 11165: 11158: 11151: 11144: 11137: 11130: 11110: 11103: 11096: 11089: 11082: 11075: 11068: 11061: 11028: 11023: 11013: 11003:Osco-Umbrian 11001: 10948:Indo-Iranian 10925: 10917: 10900: 10874:South Slavic 10848: 10836: 10820:Balto-Slavic 10803: 10796: 10789: 10782: 10775: 10768: 10758: 10746: 10739: 10732: 10718: 10651: 10618: 10609: 10593: 10572: 10558: 10549: 10540: 10531: 10510: 10488: 10478: 10462: 10453: 10437: 10428: 10412: 10391: 10370: 10360: 10324: 10274: 10270: 10257: 10248: 10223: 10219: 10199: 10189: 10185: 10176:(1): 104–110 10173: 10169: 10157: 10137: 10118: 10110: 10106: 10101: 10092: 10084: 10079: 10067:. 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Retrieved 8771: 8762: 8739: 8734: 8722:. Retrieved 8715:the original 8708: 8700:Dovid Katz. 8683: 8675: 8661: 8605:. Retrieved 8591: 8566: 8554:. Retrieved 8543: 8519:. Retrieved 8505: 8486: 8480: 8445: 8436: 8427:(among them 8415: 8394: 8384: 8375: 8362: 8352: 8347: 8339: 8330: 7973:thank (noun) 7886:sitja, sitta 7674:høyra, høyre 7359:kunne, kunna 7331: 7256:West Frisian 7239:Continental 7201: 7185: 7179: 7154: 7119: 7115:Negau helmet 7108: 7102: 6954:East Frisian 6949:West Frisian 6928:its dialects 6893:(a separate 6886:its dialects 6869:Plautdietsch 6770:Swiss German 6757:Upper German 6751:its dialects 6732: 6722: 6683: 6656: 6638: 6634: 6630:Middle Dutch 6625: 6621: 6617: 6613: 6609: 6605: 6601: 6597: 6591: 6586: 6582: 6578: 6574: 6570: 6566: 6562: 6558: 6554: 6550: 6546: 6540: 6535: 6531: 6527: 6523: 6519: 6515: 6511: 6507: 6504: 6483: 6479: 6475: 6471: 6467: 6464: 6454: 6450: 6446: 6442: 6438: 6436: 6391:fisc-un, -on 6376:fisk-um, -om 6319:fisk-ar, -a 6316:fisc-ōs, -ās 6217:fisc-as, -es 6128:Old Frisian 6094: 6090: 6082: 6078: 6076: 6067:pitch accent 6059: 6054: 6049: 6039: 6034: 6030: 6016: 5984: 5964: 5960: 5947: 5924: 5919:Old English 5902: 5898: 5894: 5890: 5886: 5882: 5881:cf. English 5878: 5854: 5850: 5825: 5800: 5775: 5771: 5767: 5763: 5759: 5755: 5751: 5747: 5742: 5729: 5716: 5676: 5672: 5668: 5664: 5660: 5656: 5652: 5648: 5644: 5640: 5636: 5632: 5628: 5592: 5566: 5562: 5558: 5554: 5546: 5489:Gothic Bible 5480: 5476: 5328:n, -∅(f,s,þ) 5031:öü, öː(h,T) 5017:ou, oː(h,T) 4918:u, ɔ(h,hʷ,r) 4853:i, ɛ(h,hʷ,r) 4805:i, ɛ(h,hʷ,r) 4695:(Pre-)Gothic 4679: 4675: 4668: 4664: 4657: 4653: 4647: 4643: 4639: 4635: 4631: 4620: 4616: 4610: 4604: 4599: 4579: 4570: 4543: 4531:Verner's Law 4524: 4508: 4504: 4494: 4490: 4486: 4482: 4472: 4468: 4464: 4460: 4450: 4446: 4432: 4422: 4418: 4417:of Germanic 4407: 4403: 4395: 4387: 4379: 4375: 4368: 4364: 4360: 4356: 4352: 4345: 4341: 4337: 4336:"to think", 4333: 4329: 4322: 4283: 4279: 4275: 4271: 4253: 4240: 4232: 4228: 4221: 4217: 4210: 4201:Sievers' law 4196: 4174: 4155: 4151: 4147: 4143: 4129: 4123: 4119: 4115: 4111: 4107: 4100:strong verbs 4069: 4062:, Icelandic 4059: 4038: 4029: 4026: 3994: 3951: 3917:definiteness 3910:strong verbs 3852: 3843: 3839: 3835: 3831: 3827: 3823: 3817: 3792: 3788: 3784: 3780: 3776: 3772: 3768: 3757:mark (e.g., 3705: 3694: 3683: 3672: 3636: 3626: 3613: 3602:Verner's Law 3587: 3584: 3571: 3550:Upper German 3543: 3524: 3505:Anglo-Saxons 3490: 3484:), and some 3470:Eggjum stone 3467: 3439:Old Frankish 3424: 3390: 3375: 3341:Verner's law 3330: 3317: 3279: 3268: 3257: 3246: 2987:Area of the 2922: 2908: 2898: 2864: 2851: 2842: 2819: 2799: 2791: 2780: 2770: 2766:Ulster Scots 2755: 2745: 2734: 2728: 2698:Sint Maarten 2687: 2675:Pennsylvania 2656: 2645: 2582:Saint Helena 2567: 2555:Upper German 2490: 2440: 2402: 2391: 2380:World War II 2360: 2355: 2328: 2290:The largest 2289: 2261:World War II 2237:South Africa 2210: 2193:, spoken in 2155: 2153: 2111: 2104: 2097: 2090: 2083: 2077:Publications 2076: 2062: 2043: 1997: 1880: 1874: 1868: 1862:Paleo-Balkan 1852: 1851: 1839: 1838: 1780: 1779: 1735: 1734: 1722: 1692: 1675:Greater Iran 1668: 1667: 1656: 1655: 1619: 1618: 1606: 1605: 1548:Paleo-Balkan 1513:Celtiberians 1492: 1491: 1474: 1473: 1461: 1460: 1448: 1447: 1376: 1375: 1363: 1362: 1340: 1339: 1327: 1326: 1296: 1295: 1238: 1237: 1215: 1214: 1177: 1176: 1139: 1138: 1114: 1113: 1101: 1100: 1088: 1087: 1029:Bug–Dniester 993: 992: 858:Gothic Bible 774:Proto-Baltic 770:Proto-Slavic 755:Proto-Italic 751:Proto-Celtic 714: 669: 657:Italo-Celtic 652:Indo-Hittite 642:Graeco-Aryan 615:Hypothetical 614: 579: 514:Paleo-Balkan 496: 453:Indo-Iranian 433: 408:Balto-Slavic 381: 300: 256:Linguasphere 208:Subdivisions 189: 140:distribution 114: 105: 95: 88: 81: 74: 62: 50:Please help 45:verification 42: 25: 14069:Nahanarvali 13992:Hilleviones 13905:Frisiavones 13773:Cananefates 13763:Burgundians 13674:Banochaemae 13524:Anglo-Saxon 13475:Anglo-Saxon 13441:Anglo-Saxon 13424:Anglo-Saxon 13407:Anglo-Saxon 13110:Kluge's law 13090:Grimm's law 12873:Dalecarlian 12852:Perkerdansk 12825:East Danish 12643:Old Gutnish 12619:Proto-Norse 12559:Langobardic 12551:Vogtlandian 12379:Upper Saxon 12233:Lachoudisch 12194:Lotegorisch 12072:High German 11818:Westphalian 11813:Eastphalian 11777:Achterhooks 11654:Hindeloopen 11589:Bökingharde 11558:Föhr–Amrum 11472:Old Frisian 11436:Early Scots 11371:Old English 11197:Proto-Norse 11024:Tocharian A 10879:West Slavic 10869:East Slavic 10850:West Baltic 10844:East Baltic 10471:Old English 10017:Todd (1992) 9953:The use of 9857:Lass (1994) 9683:Ringe (2006 9229:29 November 9023:9 September 8906:hal.science 8724:20 December 8597:"Afrikaans" 8556:12 February 8521:29 December 8400:High German 8306:German name 7688:*χausjanan 7686:*χauzjanan, 7172:schwabacher 7161:blackletter 6594:Old English 6553:-stem, and 6460:determiners 6324:Accusative 6179:Accusative 6136:Nominative 6122:Old English 6093:-stem noun 6046:modal verbs 6001:triggering 5921:palatalizes 5875:Joos (1952) 5829:Before any 5359:∅-, -j-, -∅ 5263:ṣ-, --, -ṣ 5243:hw, -∅-, -h 5042:juː, joː(T) 4997:ei, æː(h,r) 4927:u, o(...a) 4814:e, i(...u) 4701:Old English 4646:means that 4625:Proto-Norse 4527:Grimm's Law 4392:Old Frisian 4340:"to have", 4229:*stān, stēn 4160:Proto-Norse 4122:instead of 3997:analyticity 3933:Old English 3921:noun phrase 3819:Verb second 3773:goose/geese 3629:with Latin 3598:Grimm's Law 3527:Burgundians 3459:Proto-Norse 3455:Old English 3411:stage. The 3363:Proto-Norse 3337:Grimm's law 3296:Old Frisian 3281:Old English 3270:Old Gutnish 2800:Limburgish 2692:, Belgium, 2421:Scandinavia 2413:Grimm's law 2198:Scandinavia 1955:Continental 1948:Anglo-Saxon 1651:Middle Ages 1601:Middle Ages 1456:Indo-Aryans 1449:Indo-Aryans 1256:Bell Beaker 1251:Corded ware 1147:Corded ware 1036:Sredny Stog 981:Archaeology 761:Proto-Greek 741:Proto-Norse 14364:Categories 14288:Vinoviloth 14076:Marcomanni 14059:Helveconae 14037:Heaðobards 14007:Istvaeones 13997:Ingaevones 13982:Hermunduri 13950:Ostrogoths 13940:Greuthungi 13818:Chattuarii 13644:Angrivarii 13639:Ampsivarii 13607:Lentienses 13436:Literature 13326:Viking Age 12942:Burgundian 12858:Old Danish 12847:Gøtudanskt 12830:Bornholmsk 12692:Vestlandsk 12672:Kebabnorsk 12409:Halcnovian 12374:Thuringian 12037:Limburgish 12007:Stadsfries 11980:Brabantian 11707:Low German 11553:Eiderstedt 11408:Fingallian 10962:Indo-Aryan 10069:22 October 9569:wide/width 9355:Ethnologue 9325:Ethnologue 8997:11 October 8885:19 January 8798:"Germanic" 8676:Ethnologue 8666:Saxon, Low 8580:Low German 8446:Statistics 8408:Low German 8340:Statistics 7933:*sōkjanan 7898:*setjanan 7616:*ȝanȝanan 7610:gå (gange) 7336:*ap(u)laz 7266:Low German 7150:Viking Age 7051:Burgundian 6901:Limburgish 6854:Low German 6764:(includes 6745:(includes 6688:or to the 6530:-stem and 6488:determiner 6453:class and 6402:*fisk-amiz 6370:*fisk-amaz 6359:fisc-ō, -ā 6249:fisc-a, -e 6013:Morphology 5589:a-mutation 5260:s-, --, -s 5226:h, -∅-, -h 5152:d-, --, -þ 5141:b-, --, -f 5135:b-, --, -f 4924:u, o(...a) 4921:u, o(...a) 4856:i, y(...w) 4822:i, y(...w) 4729:e, ø(...u) 4715:a, ɔ(...u) 4546:diphthongs 4535:fricatives 4497:any vowel. 4479:Metathesis 4357:*-ō-/-ōja- 4332:"to say", 4284:Mund, Gans 4256:Ingvaeonic 3972:, such as 3925:adjectives 3882:weak verbs 3871:past tense 3789:foul/filth 3769:mouse/mice 3712:harubistaz 3512:Old French 3080:Low German 2916:Statistics 2747:Low German 2726:of Dutch. 2663:Luxembourg 2537:Low German 2393:Sprachraum 2362:Ethnologue 2339:Burgundian 2241:Low German 2233:Afrikaners 2063:Institutes 1983:Lithuanian 1737:Indo-Aryan 1723:Historical 1657:Indo-Aryan 1614:Tocharians 1528:Cimmerians 1406:Bronze Age 1297:South Asia 1171:Bronze Age 1109:Afanasievo 913:Mainstream 677:Vocabulary 597:Sound laws 459:Indo-Aryan 138:Geographic 78:newspapers 14283:Vidivarii 14278:Victohali 14268:Vangiones 14201:Thuringii 14106:Nuithones 14002:Irminones 13965:Visigoths 13955:Thervingi 13915:Gambrivii 13868:Dulgubnii 13863:Dauciones 13813:Chasuarii 13753:Brondings 13679:Bastarnae 13669:Baiuvarii 13649:Armalausi 13612:Raetovari 13546:Languages 13514:Symbology 13374:Folklore 13369:Festivals 13222:varieties 13214:indicate 13028:Northwest 12973:Philology 12878:Elfdalian 12813:Jutlandic 12735:Icelandic 12710:(written) 12704:(written) 12682:Trøndersk 12662:Norwegian 12626:Old Norse 12447:Coloniero 12431:Alemannic 12404:Wymysorys 12272:Colognian 12267:Ripuarian 12189:Rotwelsch 12019:Midslands 11970:Zeelandic 11951:Hollandic 11925:Afrikaans 11897:Old Dutch 11723:Old Saxon 11622:Karrharde 11604:Goesharde 11585:Mainland 11318:philology 11266:indicate 11015:Tocharian 10972:Nuristani 10720:Anatolian 10446:Old Norse 10396:. Brill. 10351:165765984 10301:0036-8075 9718:See also 9665:252534420 9561:hold/held 9424:"Faroese" 9351:"Frisian" 8839:4 October 8702:"YIDDISH" 8429:Elfdalian 8322:Footnotes 8055:zwei, zwo 8038:*trewwaz 7863:*χruȝjaz 7758:*liƀēnan 7283:(Nynorsk) 7281:Norwegian 7276:Icelandic 7187:Sütterlin 7164:typefaces 7002:Elfdalian 6992:Icelandic 6986:Norwegian 6891:Afrikaans 6821:Wymysorys 6659:varieties 6341:Genitive 6327:*fisk-anz 6243:Fisch-(e) 6193:Genitive 6168:Vocative 6133:Singular 6125:Old Saxon 6110:Old Norse 6071:Icelandic 5953:velarized 5722:diaeresis 5209:þ, --, -þ 5192:f, --, -f 5169:g-, --, - 5053:eu(...i) 5025:ey, øː(h) 5022:au(...i) 5011:au, oː(h) 4994:ai(...i) 4963:uː(...i) 4949:uː, ɔː(V) 4901:oː(...i) 4887:oː, ɔː(V) 4876:iː, iu(h) 4836:eː, ɛː(V) 4788:æː(...i) 4780:æː, æa(h) 4774:eː, ɛː(V) 4757:ãː(...i) 4698:Old Norse 4521:Phonology 4239:also has 4233:*gān, gēn 4110:; ON, OE 4017:Afrikaans 4001:Icelandic 3875:preterite 3793:gold/gild 3785:old/elder 3781:tell/told 3728:→ German 3725:hagatusjō 3715:→ German 3701:hauzijaną 3679:aimaitijō 3668:strangiþō 3596:known as 3575:Icelandic 3554:Low Saxon 3503:with the 3474:Rök stone 3463:Old Norse 3443:Old Dutch 3304:Old Dutch 3300:Old Saxon 3160:est. 515 3130:Icelandic 3070:Norwegian 3050:Afrikaans 2900:Icelandic 2882:Jan Mayen 2866:Norwegian 2856:Greenland 2810:Rhineland 2802:varieties 2776:North Sea 2733:and is a 2717:Afrikaans 2709:Indonesia 2706:colonized 2652:Nicaragua 2610:St. Lucia 2559:language. 2469:Norwegian 2451:Icelandic 2409:consonant 2376:Lombardic 2333:included 2324:Elfdalian 2320:Icelandic 2304:Norwegian 2229:Afrikaans 2206:North Sea 1998:Practices 1817:Yarsanism 1627:Albanians 1607:East Asia 1594:Scythians 1586:Phrygians 1579:Paeonians 1572:Illyrians 1558:Thracians 1475:East Asia 1426:Armenians 1353:Hallstatt 1335:Chernoles 1276:Terramare 1266:Trzciniec 1233:Sintashta 1228:Andronovo 1129:Cernavodă 1102:East Asia 1057:Khvalynsk 797:Philology 707:Particles 593:Phonology 534:Liburnian 509:Tocharian 504:Anatolian 473:Nuristani 366:Languages 268:Glottolog 238:ISO 639-2 108:July 2019 14349:Category 14256:Hasdingi 14241:Usipetes 14221:Tubantes 14206:Toxandri 14186:Tencteri 14161:Suarines 14146:Sicambri 14141:Semnones 14121:Reudigni 14091:Mattiaci 14081:Marsacii 14032:Lombards 14022:Lacringi 14017:Juthungi 13848:Corconti 13833:Cherusci 13808:Charudes 13788:Chaedini 13758:Bructeri 13743:Bateinoi 13714:Eburones 13709:Condrusi 13704:Caeroesi 13699:Atuatuci 13634:Ambrones 13597:Brisgavi 13592:Alemanni 13470:Paganism 13359:Clothing 13354:Calendar 13301:Germania 12949:Vandalic 12892:Gutnish 12697:Vikværsk 12677:Sognamål 12667:Bergensk 12517:Cimbrian 12485:Bavarian 12442:Alsatian 12389:Lusatian 12325:Palatine 12015:Amelands 11892:Frankish 11782:Sallaans 11764:Gronings 11615:Southern 11608:Northern 11599:Halligen 11548:Insular 11365:dialects 11112:Thracian 11105:Phrygian 11098:Paeonian 11077:Illyrian 11052:Armenian 11047:Albanian 10918:Germanic 10798:Pisidian 10641:Archived 10569:(1992). 10388:(2003). 10309:22323803 10220:Language 10063:Archived 10001:Archived 9959:zu Hause 9706:But see 9616:(1996). 9573:lead/led 9567:, as in 9551:, as in 9515:Archived 9432:Archived 9402:Archived 9359:Archived 9335:12 March 9329:Archived 9293:13 March 9284:Archived 9265:13 March 9223:Archived 9193:Archived 9185:"Danish" 9163:Archived 9121:Archived 9103:Archived 9074:Archived 9049:18 April 9043:Archived 9017:Archived 8965:Archived 8946:11 April 8940:Archived 8910:Archived 8879:Archived 8833:Archived 8829:Die Welt 8808:3 August 8802:Archived 8782:3 August 8776:Archived 8751:Archived 8669:Archived 8650:Archived 8628:Archived 8607:3 August 8601:Archived 8550:Archived 8515:Archived 8448:section. 8311:Isogloss 8259:See also 8217:*wurđan 8182:*χwītaz 8073:*twō(u) 8003:*þankaz 7842:Rügg(en) 7581:*fiskaz 7519:aei, aai 7476:*đeupaz 7441:*đauđaz 7406:*đuχtēr 7376:daughter 7298:Gothic † 7221:Germanic 7110:Germania 7059:Vandalic 6786:Cimbrian 6776:Bavarian 6766:Alsatian 6733:Germanic 6718:dialects 6710:dialects 6702:variants 6643:period. 6385:Fisch-en 6382:visch-en 6344:*fisk-ǫ̂ 6330:fisk-ans 6228:*fisk-ai 6211:Fisch-es 6208:visch-es 6139:*fisk-az 6003:i-umlaut 5789:Archived 5717:i-umlaut 5709:i-umlaut 5643:, where 5593:a-umlaut 5555:U-umlaut 5551:i-umlaut 5547:w-umlaut 5543:u-umlaut 5280:-r-, -∅ 5246:hw, -h- 4932:u(...i) 4819:e(...i) 4726:a(...i) 4566:i-umlaut 4489:, where 4280:mūþ, gōs 4070:Brechung 3869:and the 3673:strength 3641:Sanskrit 3014:360–400 3001:Language 2878:Svalbard 2702:Suriname 2679:Alsatian 2647:de facto 2618:Barbados 2590:Dominica 2388:suffered 2343:Vandalic 2195:Iron Age 2044:Scholars 1942:Germanic 1913:Scottish 1878:Thracian 1872:Illyrian 1866:Albanian 1854:European 1847:Armenian 1831:Ossetian 1825:Scythian 1810:Yazidism 1760:Buddhism 1751:Hinduism 1642:Norsemen 1552:Anatolia 1469:Iranians 1462:Iranians 1443:Iron Age 1418:Hittites 1371:Colchian 1364:Caucasus 1322:Iron Age 1291:Lusatian 1286:Urnfield 1210:Srubnaya 1205:Poltavka 1195:Catacomb 1134:Cucuteni 1089:Caucasus 906:Religion 891:Homeland 833:Behistun 813:Linear B 702:Numerals 697:Pronouns 622:Balkanic 569:Thracian 562:Phrygian 555:Paeonian 541:Messapic 527:Illyrian 439:Hellenic 434:Germanic 403:Armenian 395:Albanian 389:Albanoid 340:a series 338:Part of 274:germ1287 190:Germanic 157:Suriname 145:Americas 133:Germanic 14273:Varisci 14261:Silingi 14251:Vandals 14226:Tulingi 14216:Triboci 14211:Treveri 14191:Teutons 14181:Taifals 14156:Sitones 14096:Nemetes 14054:Helisii 14027:Lemovii 13945:Gutones 13878:Firaesi 13873:Favonae 13853:Cugerni 13843:Cobandi 13798:Chamavi 13793:Chaemae 13783:Casuari 13778:Caritni 13748:Betasii 13719:Paemani 13654:Auiones 13519:Warfare 13497:Scripts 13465:Numbers 13289:History 13212:Italics 12835:Scanian 12781:Swedish 12730:Faroese 12708:Nynorsk 12687:Valdris 12522:Mòcheno 12478:Swabian 12344:Hessian 12304:Hunsrik 12216:Western 12211:Eastern 12206:Yiddish 12156:creoles 12053:Bergish 11769:Drèents 11759:Tweants 11611:Central 11593:Mooring 11456:Frisian 11415:Kildare 11360:English 11264:Italics 11084:Moesian 11070:Getaean 11030:Kuchean 10995:Romance 10967:Iranian 10956:Badeshi 10805:Sidetic 10734:Hittite 10279:Bibcode 10271:Science 10129:Sources 9521:11 June 9438:18 June 9408:18 June 9365:18 June 9321:"Scots" 9199:18 June 9169:3 April 9127:7 April 9080:11 June 8916:14 July 8584:Yiddish 8421:Gutnish 8252:*jēran 8064:två, tu 8035:triggws 8023:tryggur 7848:hryggur 7828:*ainaz 7807:ein, en 7793:*naχtz 7683:hausjan 7651:*ȝōđaz 7648:gōþ(is) 7636:góð(ur) 7607:gå(nga) 7546:*ajjaz 7403:dauhtar 7388:Tochter 7385:Dochter 7382:dochter 7379:dochter 7371:*kanna 7288:Swedish 7251:English 7181:Kurrent 7168:fraktur 7166:(e.g., 7138:Ulfilas 7105:Tacitus 7081:Writing 7031:Gutnish 7017:Swedish 6997:Faroese 6944:Frisian 6924:English 6843:Hunsrik 6800:Yiddish 6549:-stem, 6388:fisc-um 6379:visk-um 6373:fisk-am 6367:Dative 6362:fisk-a 6336:visk-ā 6313:fisc-as 6310:Fisch-e 6307:visch-e 6301:fisk-ar 6298:fisk-ōs 6289:Plural 6260:*fisk-ō 6240:visch-e 6225:Dative 6205:visk-es 6199:fisk-is 6182:*fisk-ą 6095:*fiskaz 6083:*fiskaz 5879:schlimm 5778:.) Cf. 5485:Wulfila 5277:-r-, -∅ 5271:-z-, -s 5240:xv, -∅- 5149:d-, -- 5132:b-, -- 4678:means " 4667:means " 4656:means " 4600:Notes: 4537:; late 4342:*libjan 4338:*habjan 4334:*hugjan 4330:*sagjan 4116:*haitan 4108:haihait 4030:only if 4013:Swedish 3989:clitics 3802:has 17 3690:haubudą 3535:Vandals 3509:Romance 3501:Danelaw 3435:Ulfilas 3401:Gotland 3397:variety 3230: 1 3167:History 3140:Faroese 3090:Yiddish 3040:Swedish 3010:English 2910:Faroese 2904:Iceland 2874:Nynorsk 2834:Finnish 2822:Swedish 2806:Limburg 2772:Frisian 2758:Lowland 2694:Curaçao 2638:Vanuatu 2634:Namibia 2614:Grenada 2519:Frisian 2510:English 2487:Swedish 2460:Faroese 2316:Faroese 2296:Swedish 2277:Belgian 2259:in pre- 2253:Yiddish 2249:Germany 2217:English 2183:English 2175:Oceania 1976:Latvian 1934:Cornish 1804:Kurdish 1790:Persian 1782:Iranian 1774:Sikhism 1767:Jainism 1730:Hittite 1669:Iranian 1565:Dacians 1358:Jastorf 1281:Tumulus 1261:Únětice 1190:Yamnaya 1185:Chariot 1123:Usatovo 1064:Yamnaya 901:Society 885:Origins 818:Rigveda 670:Grammar 497:Extinct 487:Romance 466:Iranian 173:Oceania 92:scholar 14293:Warini 14246:Vagoth 14231:Tungri 14196:Thelir 14176:Swedes 14171:Sunici 14136:Saxons 14131:Rugini 14064:Manimi 14049:Diduni 13987:Heruli 13925:Gepids 13910:Frisii 13888:Franks 13838:Cimbri 13828:Chauci 13823:Chatti 13736:Nervii 13731:Morini 13689:Belgae 13684:Batavi 13659:Avarpi 13624:Angles 13584:Groups 13534:Viking 13480:Gothic 13458:Gothic 13364:Family 12928:Gothic 12798:Danish 12702:Bokmål 12201:Yenish 12011:Bildts 11794:Veluws 11789:Urkers 11628:Strand 11352:Anglic 11091:Mysian 11063:Dacian 11040:Others 10982:Italic 10893:Celtic 10861:Slavic 10829:Baltic 10791:Milyan 10784:Lycian 10777:Luwian 10770:Carian 10748:Palaic 10741:Lydian 10581: 10519: 10496: 10421:Gothic 10400: 10349: 10339: 10307: 10299: 10240:410515 10238: 10207: 10145: 9993: 9681:, cf. 9663: 9653: 9626: 9489: 9461: 9219:ssb.no 8493: 8163:hvítur 8143:weȝaz 8108:*uns- 7930:sōkjan 7915:suchen 7912:säuken 7909:zoeken 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