Indo-European languages

3638: 3950:

verb system) have been interpreted alternately as archaic debris or as innovations due to prolonged isolation. Points proffered in favour of the Indo-Hittite hypothesis are the (non-universal) Indo-European agricultural terminology in Anatolia and the preservation of laryngeals. However, in general this hypothesis is considered to attribute too much weight to the Anatolian evidence. According to another view, the Anatolian subgroup left the Indo-European parent language comparatively late, approximately at the same time as Indo-Iranian and later than the Greek or Armenian divisions. A third view, especially prevalent in the so-called French school of Indo-European studies, holds that extant similarities in non-

10813: 258: 2809: 10788: 4260: 455: 3970: 4060: 3684:" is considered an appropriate representation of the genealogical history of a language family if communities do not remain in contact after their languages have started to diverge. In this case, subgroups defined by shared innovations form a nested pattern. The tree model is not appropriate in cases where languages remain in contact as they diversify; in such cases subgroups may overlap, and the " 2744:] language, whatever be its antiquity, is of a wonderful structure; more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either, yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the roots of verbs and the forms of grammar, than could possibly have been produced by accident; so strong indeed, that no 12817:, pp. 629–36. The result is a partly new chain of separation for the main Indo-European branches, which fits well to the grammatical facts, as well as to the geographical distribution of these branches. In particular it clearly demonstrates that the Anatolian languages did not part as first ones and thereby refutes the Indo-Hittite hypothesis. 3942:(a verb form denoting action without reference to duration or completion) having the perfect active particle -s fixed to the stem, link this group closer to Anatolian languages and Tocharian. Shared features with Balto-Slavic languages, on the other hand (especially present and preterit formations), might be due to later contacts. 10929:, each with 100 million speakers or more. Additionally, hundreds of millions of persons worldwide study Indo-European languages as secondary or tertiary languages, including in cultures which have completely different language families and historical backgrounds—there are around 600 million learners of English alone. 11040:, Indo-European peoples controlled almost the entirety of this area: the Celts western and central Europe, the Romans southern Europe, the Germanic peoples northern Europe, the Slavs eastern Europe, the Iranian peoples most of western and central Asia and parts of eastern Europe, and the Indo-Aryan peoples in the 12930: 11114:

Due to colonization and the modern dominance of Indo-European languages in the fields of politics, global science, technology, education, finance, and sports, even many modern countries whose populations largely speak non-Indo-European languages have Indo-European languages as official languages, and

11238:

The sentence goes on to say, equally correctly as it turned out: "...here is a similar reason, though not quite so forcible, for supposing that both the Gothic and the Celtic, though blended with a very different idiom, had the same origin with the Sanscrit; and the old Persian might be added to the

3949:

hypothesis proposes that the Indo-European language family consists of two main branches: one represented by the Anatolian languages and another branch encompassing all other Indo-European languages. Features that separate Anatolian from all other branches of Indo-European (such as the gender or the

3657:

among various languages, suggesting a common ancestor that split off from other Indo-European groups. For example, what makes the Germanic languages a branch of Indo-European is that much of their structure and phonology can be stated in rules that apply to all of them. Many of their common features

4024:

remained distinct and were fricativized, while the labiovelars merged with the 'plain velars'. In the centum languages, the palatovelars merged with the plain velars, while the labiovelars remained distinct. The results of these alternative developments are exemplified by the words for "hundred" in

3665:

In the 21st century, several attempts have been made to model the phylogeny of Indo-European languages using Bayesian methodologies similar to those applied to problems in biological phylogeny. Although there are differences in absolute timing between the various analyses, there is much commonality

11679:

So while linguists may debate about the ties between Albanian and older languages of the Balkans, and while most Albanians may take the genealogical connection to Illyrian as incontrovertible, the fact remains that there is simply insufficient evidence to connect Illyrian, Thracian, or Dacian with

11375:: Представимъ долготу времени, которою сіи языки раздѣлились. ... Польской и россійской языкъ коль давно раздѣлились! Подумай же, когда курляндской! Подумай же, когда латинской, греч., нѣм., росс. О глубокая древность! Kurlandic! Think when Latin, Greek, German, and Russian! Oh, great antiquity!] 4045:

intersects a number of other isoglosses that mark distinctions between features in the early IE branches. It may be that the centum branches in fact reflect the original state of affairs in PIE, and only the satem branches shared a set of innovations, which affected all but the peripheral areas of

3742:

suggests that early IE had featured limited contact between distinct lineages, with only the Germanic subfamily exhibiting a less treelike behaviour as it acquired some characteristics from neighbours early in its evolution. The internal diversification of especially West Germanic is cited to have

3954:

languages in general—including Anatolian—might be due to their peripheral location in the Indo-European language-area and to early separation, rather than indicating a special ancestral relationship. Hans J. Holm, based on lexical calculations, arrives at a picture roughly replicating the general

4112:

From the very beginning of Indo-European studies, there have been attempts to link the Indo-European languages genealogically to other languages and language families. However, these theories remain highly controversial, and most specialists in Indo-European linguistics are skeptical or agnostic

3937:

at the beginnings of words, as well as terms for "woman" and "sheep". Greek and Indo-Iranian share innovations mainly in verbal morphology and patterns of nominal derivation. Relations have also been proposed between Phrygian and Greek, and between Thracian and Armenian. Some fundamental shared

5040:

from the remainder. It possesses some highly archaic features found only fragmentarily, if at all, in other languages. At the same time, however, it appears to have undergone many early phonological and grammatical changes which, combined with the ambiguities of its writing system, hinder its

3707:

innovation (and cannot readily be regarded as "areal", either, because English and continental West Germanic were not a linguistic area). In a similar vein, there are many similar innovations in Germanic and Balto-Slavic that are far more likely areal features than traceable to a common

12958: 4852:

becomes fully extinct while Scythian languages are overwhelmingly replaced. Slavic languages spread over wide areas in central, eastern and southeastern Europe, largely replacing Romance in the Balkans (with the exception of Romanian) and whatever was left of the

4374:

The diversification of the parent language into the attested branches of daughter languages is historically unattested. The timeline of the evolution of the various daughter languages, on the other hand, is mostly undisputed, quite regardless of the question of

12772: 5982:—particularly in the existence of voiced aspirated stops without a corresponding series of voiceless aspirated stops. None of the various daughter-language families continue it unchanged, with numerous "solutions" to the apparently unstable PIE situation: 4920:, some languages have been of particular importance. These generally include the ancient Indo-European languages that are both well-attested and documented at an early date, although some languages from later periods are important if they are particularly 2493:. The analysis of the family relationships between the Indo-European languages, and the reconstruction of their common source, was central to the development of the methodology of historical linguistics as an academic discipline in the 19th century. 3615:: an ancient language spoken by the Sicels (Greek Sikeloi, Latin Siculi), one of the three indigenous (i.e. pre-Greek and pre-Punic) tribes of Sicily. Proposed relationship to Latin or proto-Illyrian (Pre-Indo-European) at an earlier stage. 3593:: not conclusively deciphered, often considered to be related to Albanian as the available fragmentary linguistic evidence shows common characteristic innovations and a number of significant lexical correspondences between the two languages 11035:

Despite being unaware of their common linguistic origin, diverse groups of Indo-European speakers continued to culturally dominate and often replace the indigenous languages of the western two-thirds of Eurasia. By the beginning of the

3688:" is a more accurate representation. Most approaches to Indo-European subgrouping to date have assumed that the tree model is by-and-large valid for Indo-European; however, there is also a long tradition of wave-model approaches. 2413:

and other related archaeological cultures during the 4th millennium BC to early 3rd millennium BC. By the time the first written records appeared, Indo-European had already evolved into numerous languages spoken across much of

5000:) is the oldest recorded form, but its value is lessened by the limited material, restricted subject matter, and highly ambiguous writing system. More important is Ancient Greek, documented extensively beginning with the two 11784:

Haber, Marc; Mezzavilla, Massimo; Xue, Yali; Comas, David; Gasparini, Paolo; Zalloua, Pierre; Tyler-Smith, Chris (2015). "Genetic evidence for an origin of the Armenians from Bronze Age mixing of multiple populations".

4040:

Rather than being a genealogical separation, the centum–satem division is commonly seen as resulting from innovative changes that spread across PIE dialect-branches over a particular geographical area; the centum–satem

10735:) "to bear" is still used but only in specific contexts and is most common in such compounds as αναφέρω, διαφέρω, εισφέρω, εκφέρω, καταφέρω, προφέρω, προαναφέρω, προσφέρω etc. The form that is (very) common today is 11607:

supports the thesis that the Illyrian language belongs to the Northwestern group, that the Albanian language is descended from Illyrian, and that Albanian is related to Messapic which is an earlier Illyrian dialect

2301:

in the modern period and are now spoken across several continents. The Indo-European family is divided into several branches or sub-families, of which there are eight groups with languages still alive today:

13761:

Revisiting Dispersions Celtic and Germanic ca. 400 BC – ca. 400 AD Proceedings of the International Interdisciplinary Conference held at Dolenjski muzej, Novo mesto, Slovenia; October 12th – 14th, 2018

4020:

did propose a similar type of division in 1886. In the satem languages, which include the Balto-Slavic and Indo-Iranian branches, as well as (in most respects) Albanian and Armenian, the reconstructed

13532:. Innsbrucker Beiträge zur Sprachwissenschaft. Vol. IV: Indo-European Languages other than Latin and Greek. Institut für Sprachwissenschaft der Universität Innsbruck. pp. 2145–2171. 12166:

Most scholars now believe that the Sicans and Sicels, as well as the inhabitants of southern Italy, were basically of Illyrian stock superimposed on an aboriginal 'Mediterranean' population.

5885:) reflect the plain velar stops differently from the other two series, and there is even a certain amount of dispute whether this series existed at all in PIE. The major distinction between 2730:, though his classification contained some inaccuracies and omissions. In one of the most famous quotations in linguistics, Jones made the following prescient statement in a lecture to the 2624:

noted the similarity among certain Asian and European languages and theorized that they were derived from a primitive common language that he called Scythian. He included in his hypothesis

2852: 10573:

While similarities are still visible between the modern descendants and relatives of these ancient languages, the differences have increased over time. Some IE languages have moved from

17513: 3858: 10631:, the continuation of the Sanskrit verb, can have a variety of meanings, but the most common is "to fill". The forms given in the table, although etymologically derived from the 9607:

and its reflexes in various early attested IE languages and their modern descendants or relatives, showing that all languages had in the early stage an inflectional verb system.

12765:

The supposed autochthony of Hittites, the Indo-Hittite hypothesis and migration of agricultural "Indo-European" societies became intrinsically linked together by Colin Renfrew (

3516:

of Southern Siberia. Extant in two dialects (Turfanian and Kuchean, or Tocharian A and B), attested from roughly the 6th to the 9th century AD. Marginalized by the Old Turkic

4046:

the PIE dialect continuum. Kortlandt proposes that the ancestors of Balts and Slavs took part in satemization before being drawn later into the western Indo-European sphere.

6143:

The following table shows the basic outcomes of PIE consonants in some of the most important daughter languages for the purposes of reconstruction. For a fuller table, see

10932:

The success of the language family, including the large number of speakers and the vast portions of the Earth that they inhabit, is due to several factors. The ancient

13319:. Proceedings of the 31st Annual Conference of the German Classification Society (GfKl), University of Freiburg, 7–9 March 2007. Heidelberg / Berlin: Springer-Verlag. 11763:

Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans: A Reconstruction and Historical Analysis of a Proto-Language and Proto-Culture. Part I: The Text. Part II: Bibliography, Indexes

3524:

In addition to the classical ten branches listed above, several extinct and little-known languages and language-groups have existed or are proposed to have existed:

13714:

Talking Neolithic: Proceedings of the Workshop on Indo-European Origins held at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, December 2–3, 2013

10604:. Apart from the first person, the forms given in the table above are dialectical or obsolete. The second and third person forms are typically instead conjugated 3557:, one of the three indigenous (i.e. pre-Greek and pre-Punic) tribes of Sicily. Indo-European affiliation widely accepted, possibly related to Italic or Anatolian. 10688:

is irregular, and not a good representative of a normal thematic verb. In most Romance languages such as Portuguese, other verbs now mean "to carry" (e.g. Pt.

12055:

Trumper, John (2018). "Some Celto-Albanian isoglosses and their implications". In Grimaldi, Mirko; Lai, Rosangela; Franco, Ludovico; Baldi, Benedetta (eds.).

2868:

may be considered the beginning of "modern" Indo-European studies. The generation of Indo-Europeanists active in the last third of the 20th century (such as

11510:

The Last Man Who Knew Everything: Thomas Young, the Anonymous Genius who Proved Newton Wrong and Deciphered the Rosetta Stone, among Other Surprising Feats

3883:

or Graeco-Armeno-Aryan, and Balto-Slavo-Germanic. However, unlike the ten traditional branches, these are all controversial to a greater or lesser degree.

3851: 11388:

Proceedings of the Eighteenth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society: General Session and Parasession on The Place of Morphology in a Grammar

11091:, as well as the continued replacement and assimilation of surrounding non-Indo-European languages and peoples due to increased state centralization and 3633:: shares several similarities with Latin and the Italic languages, but also has some affinities with other IE languages, especially Germanic and Celtic. 3666:

between them, including the result that the first known language groups to diverge were the Anatolian and Tocharian language families, in that order.

14211: 12911: 12743: 13449: 11554:Über das Conjugationssystem der Sanskritsprache : in Vergleichung mit jenem der griechischen, lateinischen, persischen und germanischen Sprache 3695:. It has been asserted, for example, that many of the more striking features shared by Italic languages (Latin, Oscan, Umbrian, etc.) might well be 12406:

Blažek, Václav (2007). "From August Schleicher to Sergei Starostin: on the development of the tree-diagram models of the Indo-European languages".

2699:), and others, noting that related languages (including Latin, Greek, German, and Russian) must have separated in antiquity from common ancestors. 12856:

Kallio, Petri; Koivulehto, Jorma (2018). "More remote relationships of Proto-Indo-European". In Jared Klein; Brian Joseph; Matthias Fritz (eds.).

5966:) reflect both "palatal" and "plain velar" stops as plain velars, while the labiovelars continue unchanged, often with later reduction into plain 5036:–1200 BC). This is the earliest-recorded of all Indo-European languages, and highly divergent from the others due to the early separation of the 4965:

schools) for c. 2,000 years before ever being written down. The oldest documents are all in poetic form; oldest and most important of all is the

3844: 11844: 16711: 2240: 11692: 13855:

Remys, Edmund (17 December 2007). "General distinguishing features of various Indo-European languages and their relationship to Lithuanian".

10882: 2204: 16846: 11418: 5978:

The three-way PIE distinction between voiceless, voiced and voiced aspirated stops is considered extremely unusual from the perspective of

17563: 14813: 1402: 3003:, believed by most Indo-Europeanists to form a phylogenetic unit, while a minority ascribes similarities to prolonged language-contact. 11368: 10662:

German is not directly descended from Gothic, but the Gothic forms are a close approximation of what the early West Germanic forms of

14037: 11723: 9624: 3653:. Membership in the various branches, groups, and subgroups of Indo-European is also genealogical, but here the defining factors are 3535:

cultural area. Speculated to be connected to Italic or Venetic, and to have certain phonological features in common with Lusitanian.

2900:, elements de Saussure reconstructed to account for vowel length alternations in Indo-European languages. This led to the so-called 17503: 12372: 4077: 5294:–800 ), underwent large phonetic shifts and mergers in the proto-language, and has an almost entirely reworked declension system. 2667:

visited Vienna in 1665–1666 as part of a diplomatic mission and noted a few similarities between words in German and in Persian.

4016:

The division of the Indo-European languages into satem and centum groups was put forward by Peter von Bradke in 1890, although

3637: 2748:

could examine them all three, without believing them to have sprung from some common source, which, perhaps, no longer exists.

2496:

The Indo-European language family is not considered by the current academic consensus in the field of linguistics to have any

14204: 14017: 13937: 13915: 13769: 13748: 13722: 13661: 13569: 13481: 13324: 13286: 13173: 13152: 12600: 12391: 12159: 11872: 11770: 11665: 11638: 11519: 11313: 11288: 5775:

also turned some of the voiceless fricatives resulting from the sound shift into voiced fricatives or stops. This is why the

2211: 2183: 3099:, attested from the 14th century AD; although attested relatively recently, they retain many archaic features attributed to 2364:—by far the highest of any language family. There are about 445 living Indo-European languages, according to an estimate by 16226: 15807: 10585:

of periphrastic forms are in parentheses when they appear. Some of these verbs have undergone a change in meaning as well.

4320:, in which the grammatical relationships between words were signaled through inflectional morphemes (usually endings). The 2918:

The various subgroups of the Indo-European language family include ten major branches, listed below in alphabetical order:

2474:

can be reconstructed from later evidence in the daughter cultures. The Indo-European family is significant to the field of

1062: 16336: 11626: 4309:. From the 1960s, knowledge of Anatolian became certain enough to establish its relationship to PIE. Using the method of 2734:

in 1786, conjecturing the existence of an earlier ancestor language, which he called "a common source" but did not name:

2168: 14099:, an online collection of introductory videos to Ancient Indo-European languages produced by the University of Göttingen 4021: 15308: 13438: 13235: 13223: 12722: 11146: 4011: Pink: languages with instrumental, dative and ablative plural endings (and some others) in *-m- rather than *-bh- 2497: 2341:

Today, the individual Indo-European languages with the most native speakers are English, Spanish, Portuguese, Russian,

2233: 2190: 1121: 12792: 4957:–500 BC). This language is unique in that its source documents were all composed orally, and were passed down through 16493: 13876: 13816: 13701: 13537: 13459: 13267: 12102: 12066: 11995: 5335:

As the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) language broke up, its sound system diverged as well, changing according to various

4099: 3295: 454: 11386: 2442:. The oldest records are isolated Hittite words and names—interspersed in texts that are otherwise in the unrelated 17708: 17586: 16839: 16469: 15708: 14197: 13977: 12479:"Perfect Phylogenetic Networks: A New Methodology for Reconstructing the Evolutionary History of Natural Languages" 12408: 12321: 11079:, a group to which the Proto-Indo-Europeans had once belonged, Indo-European expansion reached another peak in the 10878: 5267:

Other secondary sources, of lesser value due to extensive phonological changes and relatively limited attestation:

2197: 961: 4037:)—the initial palatovelar developed into a fricative in the former, but became an ordinary velar in the latter. 2671:

and others made observations of the same type. Coeurdoux made a thorough comparison of Sanskrit, Latin, and Greek

2550:

to his brother (not published until the 20th century) in which he noted similarities between Indian languages and

15627: 15563: 14806: 14224: 14130: 13953: 11758: 11208: 472: 17428: 17416: 13163: 11111:, leading to an explosion in the number of Indo-European speakers as well as the territories inhabited by them. 16240: 15482: 13967: 13845: 13195: 12575: 12024: 11116: 11115:

the majority of the global population speaks at least one Indo-European language. The overwhelming majority of

10976:, led to these peoples' branches of the language family already taking a dominant foothold in virtually all of 5409:.) All daughter languages have reduced the number of distinctions among these sounds, often in divergent ways. 4081: 3691:

In addition to genealogical changes, many of the early changes in Indo-European languages can be attributed to

2053: 1828: 1232: 24: 15991: 6009:

probably passed through the same stage, but reflects the voiced aspirates as voiceless fricatives, especially

17643: 17633: 17628: 17493: 17321: 17105: 17100: 16706: 16353: 15488: 15313: 15099: 15093: 15017: 14113:. Leiden, Netherlands: Department of Comparative Indo-European Linguistics, Leiden University. Archived from 14041: 13791: 11339: 5920: 5406: 4936:) that were either unwritten or corrupted in the process of transmission down to the earliest extant written 4201: 4137: 2824:

On the conjugational system of the Sanskrit language compared with that of Greek, Latin, Persian and Germanic

2471: 2226: 1798: 1067: 1004: 805: 691: 2569:

in 1540, who travelled to the Indian subcontinent. Writing in 1585, he noted some word similarities between

17648: 17618: 17473: 16716: 16701: 16400: 15701: 15688: 15459: 15420: 14646: 14416: 13145:

The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World

11218: 10777: 9617: 4917: 4254: 3650: 3100: 3014: 2994: 2390: 2378: 2374: 1486: 989: 800: 795: 790: 685: 72: 13368: 12915: 6080: 2785:), specifying the family's southeasternmost and northwesternmost branches. This first appeared in French ( 17596: 17498: 16937: 16832: 16696: 16690: 16475: 15748: 15666: 15639: 15343: 15333: 14727: 14674: 14110: 13987: 13190:. Translated by Vertalers, Uva; Gabriner, Paul (1st ed.). Amsterdam / Philadelphia: John Benjamins. 10993: 10949: 4903:

in North America, Sub-Saharan Africa, East Asia and Australia; to a lesser extent Dutch and German), and

3890:

to be even better established than Balto-Slavic. The main lines of evidence included the genitive suffix

3696: 3584: 3572: 3277: 2703: 2660:. However, Van Boxhorn's suggestions did not become widely known and did not stimulate further research. 2467: 1803: 1298: 999: 878: 864: 845: 17713: 17265: 16262: 15923: 15720: 15518: 15378: 15348: 15338: 15328: 15034: 14799: 11987: 11894: 11124: 9576: 9554: 9532: 5990:

preserve the three series unchanged but have evolved a fourth series of voiceless aspirated consonants.

5391: 4263:

Scheme of Indo-European language dispersals from c. 4000 to 1000 BCE according to the widely held

4205: 3964: 2621: 1141: 1099: 699: 14274: 10881:

across all inhabited continents, the largest number by far for any recognised language family. Of the

10754:

The dual forms are archaic in standard Lithuanian, and are only presently used in some dialects (e.g.

17663: 17658: 17653: 17521: 17443: 17438: 17094: 17080: 16855: 16674: 16481: 16457: 16432: 16405: 16388: 15398: 15353: 15323: 15296: 14867: 14822: 14734: 14504: 11057: 11009: 9674: 4159: 3801: 2731: 2513: 2398: 1843: 1808: 1481: 785: 11472: 10761:

Among modern Slavic languages, only Slovene continues to have a dual number in the standard variety.

5429:

languages, the "plain velar" and "palatal" stops merged, reducing the number of stops from 15 to 12.

2802: 257: 17488: 17433: 17204: 17034: 16923: 16721: 16528: 16165: 16153: 15985: 15047: 15040: 14856: 14766: 14660: 14447: 14422: 12500: 12282:"Phylogenetic and areal models of Indo-European relatedness: The role of contact in reconstruction" 12151: 11700: 11567:

Kurylowicz, Jerzy (1927). "ə indo-européen et ḫ hittite". In Taszycki, W.; Doroszewski, W. (eds.).

11213: 11158: 11069: 10933: 10771: 6144: 5330: 4768: 4642: 4578: 4448: 4369: 4224:

that encompasses almost all of the world's natural languages with the exception of those native to

3685: 3528: 2913: 2758: 2706:

first lectured on the striking similarities among three of the oldest languages known in his time:

2668: 2543: 2360:

In total, 46% of the world's population (3.2 billion people) speaks an Indo-European language as a

2103: 1993: 1813: 1344: 1176: 1127: 1023: 825: 780: 775: 695: 336: 13047: 11862: 5997:

probably passed through the same stage, subsequently changing the aspirated stops into fricatives.

2613:"nine"). However, neither Stephens' nor Sassetti's observations led to further scholarly inquiry. 17302: 17197: 17147: 17117: 16916: 15726: 15651: 15004: 14704: 14667: 14653: 14452: 14441: 13498:

A Compendium of the Comparative Grammar of the Indo-European, Sanskrit, Greek and Latin languages

13314: 12595:. Proceedings of the 23rd annual UCLA Indo-European Conference. Bremen: Hempen. pp. 151–73. 11140: 5436:

changed the realization of all stop consonants, with each consonant shifting to a different one:

4921: 4896: 4310: 4185: 4070: 3991: 3659: 2982: 2926: 2835: 2672: 1998: 1725: 835: 830: 820: 340: 13504: 13075: 12669:

Indoiranisch-griechische Gemeinsamkeiten der Nominalbildung und deren indogermanische Grundlagen

11429: 10812: 4716:. The Magadhan power and influence rises in ancient India, especially with the conquests of the 3724:, unique to these two groups among IE languages, which is in agreement with the wave model. The 2904:, a major step forward in Indo-European linguistics and a confirmation of de Saussure's theory. 17458: 17453: 17218: 17190: 17181: 17140: 16740: 16588: 16383: 16159: 16112: 15742: 15659: 15318: 15302: 15110: 15011: 14874: 14850: 14757: 14741: 14517: 14462: 14388: 14334: 13425:(2001). "The Anatolian origins of Proto-Indo-European and the autochthony of the Hittites". In 12495: 11385:

Poser, William J.; Campbell, Lyle (1992). "Indo-European Practice and Historical Methodology".

11168: 9792: 9767: 6024: 5908: 5904: 4854: 4817: 4654: 4638: 4531: 4467: 4414: 3771: 3487: 3266: 3000: 2938: 2930: 2475: 2357:

each with over 100 million native speakers; many others are small and in danger of extinction.

2327: 2311: 1988: 1960: 1744: 1646: 1412: 1258: 882: 720: 612: 551: 506: 446: 438: 148: 116: 19:"Indo-European" redirects here. For Eurasian people living in or connected with Indonesia, see 16378: 13972: 13496: 12972: 10657:

ma͠i bʰartā hū̃, tū bʰartā hai, vah bʰartā hai, ham bʰarte ha͠i, tum bʰarte ho, ve bʰarte ha͠i

2896:ḫ. Kuryłowicz's discovery supported Ferdinand de Saussure's 1879 proposal of the existence of 17610: 17483: 17463: 17211: 17006: 16944: 16786: 16684: 16373: 16176: 15966: 15955: 15917: 15524: 15498: 15403: 15393: 15076: 14992: 14843: 14750: 14697: 14688: 14681: 14393: 14383: 14364: 14358: 13676: 12976: 12968: 12952: 12948: 12944: 12940: 12570:

Watkins, Calvert (1966). "Italo-Celtic revisited". In Birnbaum, Henrik; Puhvel, Jaan (eds.).

12281: 11349: 11173: 11163: 11100: 10937: 9864: 5886: 5155:). Documentation is sparse, but nonetheless quite important due to its highly archaic nature. 4511: 4376: 4163: 4120: 3832: 3646: 3483: 3451: 3120: 2861: 2831: 2483: 2135: 1964: 872: 868: 853: 849: 295: 16487: 16212: 4891:

results in the spread of Indo-European languages to every habitable continent, most notably

17591: 17581: 17571: 17421: 17275: 17088: 16972: 16761: 16518: 16326: 16299: 16282: 16250: 16148: 15862: 15787: 15714: 15493: 15470: 15442: 15373: 15284: 15065: 14720: 14711: 14476: 12225: 12016: 11794: 11754: 11361: 11178: 11153: 10945: 9804: 6152: 5433: 4357: 4341: 4306: 4169: 4151: 3618: 3417: 3283: 3248: 3128: 3066: 2881: 2523: 2463: 2081: 2046: 1359: 1042: 994: 931: 901: 859: 839: 703: 557: 373: 16646: 14045: 13557: 13511: 12245: 11730: 5091:), along with the combined witness of the other old Germanic languages: most importantly, 3929:

Evidence for a relationship between Greek and Armenian includes the regular change of the

1227: 8: 17638: 17411: 17396: 17331: 17133: 17055: 16965: 16958: 16909: 16867: 16538: 16442: 16342: 16331: 16293: 16272: 16170: 16129: 15904: 15886: 15880: 15855: 15848: 15841: 15754: 15737: 15476: 15142: 15129: 15023: 14973: 14830: 14529: 14486: 14234: 13649: 13205: 13183: 12478: 12322:"Ancestry-constrained phylogenetic analysis supports the Indo-European steppe hypothesis" 12132: 11193: 11084: 11080: 11053: 11048:

inhabiting the Indo-European frontier in western China. By the medieval period, only the

11041: 10914: 10894: 10839: 10238: 10218: 10208: 9217: 9212: 8614: 7635: 6229: 6173: 6168: 6028: 5987: 5979: 5959: 5878: 5766: 5206: 5176: 5159: 5037: 4925: 4884: 4849: 4693: 4590: 4442: 4435: 4402: 4395: 4329: 4155: 4147: 3578: 3509: 3447: 3335: 3104: 3086: 3050: 3018: 2986: 2948: 2531: 2519: 2431: 2342: 2282: 2270: 2262: 1354: 1349: 1245: 1169: 1134: 1057: 1047: 906: 607: 602: 571: 382: 318: 200: 160: 103: 14096: 13624: 13597: 12675:] (in German). Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachwissenschaft der Universität Innsbruck. 12673:

Indo-Iranian-Greek similarities in nominal formation and their Indo-European foundations

12229: 12058:

Structuring Variation in Romance Linguistics and Beyond: In Honour of Leonardo M. Savoia

9884: 5919:) reflect both "plain velar" and labiovelar stops as plain velars, often with secondary 4681:

across the northern Indian subcontinent, as well as migration of Indo-Aryan speakers to

2885: 2393:, has been the object of many competing hypotheses; the academic consensus supports the 17372: 17326: 17241: 17236: 17231: 16452: 16447: 16437: 16420: 16415: 16410: 16394: 16363: 16358: 16311: 16305: 16256: 16201: 16124: 16008: 15972: 15933: 15875: 15682: 15677: 15388: 15147: 15116: 15082: 15070: 15029: 14904: 14432: 14062: 13890: 13822: 13784: 13637: 13401: 13311:"The Distribution of Data in Word Lists and its Impact on the Subgrouping of Languages" 13256: 13028: 13020: 12646: 12629: 12513: 12486: 12346: 12329: 12254: 12213: 11932: 11265: 11198: 11104: 10961: 10852: 10801: Countries where Indo-European language family is official but not majority native 10755: 10640: 10632: 10616: 10574: 9854: 9797: 9787: 9782: 9762: 9572: 9550: 9528: 6136: 6038: 5963: 5943: 5297: 5284: 4798: 4705: 4610: 4519: 4487: 4353: 4349: 4345: 4337: 4321: 4317: 4302: 4225: 4212:

Nostratic and Eurasiatic, in turn, have been included in even wider groupings, such as

4193: 3649:

relationships, meaning that all members are presumed descendants of a common ancestor,

3566: 3560: 3538: 3391: 3256: 3244: 3230: 3214: 3166: 3082: 3078: 3046: 3022: 2934: 2323: 2319: 2060: 2011: 1945: 1929: 1554: 1207: 946: 632: 537: 532: 350: 332: 322: 193: 135: 126: 16549: 16512: 12589:

Weiss, Michael (2012). Jamison, Stephanie W.; Melchert, H. Craig; Vine, Brent (eds.).

4724:. Germanic speakers start migrating southwards to occupy formerly Celtic territories. 248: 17576: 17553: 17548: 17526: 17468: 17246: 17169: 17062: 16463: 16368: 16348: 16287: 16267: 15978: 15939: 15910: 15898: 15835: 15781: 15759: 15732: 15672: 15645: 15464: 15425: 15415: 15383: 15256: 15182: 15164: 15158: 15060: 14978: 14892: 14626: 14619: 14612: 14591: 14566: 14561: 14509: 14481: 14312: 14137:(Fourth ed.). Internet Archive: Wayback Machine. 22 August 2008 . Archived from 13933: 13911: 13894: 13882: 13872: 13841: 13827: 13812: 13765: 13744: 13737: 13718: 13697: 13671: 13657: 13641: 13629: 13565: 13543: 13533: 13491: 13477: 13469: 13455: 13434: 13405: 13320: 13313:. In Preisach, Christine; Burkhardt, Hans; Schmidt-Thieme, Lars; et al. (eds.). 13282: 13263: 13231: 13219: 13191: 13169: 13148: 13032: 13012: 12718: 12596: 12387: 12350: 12259: 12155: 12098: 12062: 12020: 11991: 11936: 11868: 11806: 11766: 11661: 11634: 11515: 11508: 11488: 11450: 11446: 11309: 11284: 11188: 11096: 11049: 10997: 10821: 10248: 10228: 9869: 9809: 6042: 6032: 5916: 5912: 5622:. Examples, comparing English with Latin, where the sounds largely remain unshifted: 5417: 5363: 5355: 5340: 5310: 5081: 4932:

normally employed, which makes it possible to reconstruct a number of features (e.g.

4873: 4845: 4805: 4748: 4725: 4674: 4666: 4658: 4626: 4539: 4523: 4495: 4479: 4275:

3 (black) Yamnaya culture expansion (Pontic-Caspian steppe, Danube Valley) (late PIE)

4264: 4217: 4116:

Proposals linking the Indo-European languages with a single language family include:

3725: 3624: 3602: 3596: 3590: 3513: 3499: 3491: 3441: 3429: 3405: 3367: 3363: 3355: 3315: 3190: 3132: 3124: 3062: 3042: 2978: 2968: 2942: 2922: 2893: 2839: 2808: 2790: 2696: 2676: 2629: 2527: 2490: 2486: 2447: 2443: 2394: 2307: 2303: 2074: 2040: 2032: 1976: 1970: 1952: 1923: 1902: 1888: 1880: 1650: 1511: 1451: 1433: 1374: 1369: 1364: 1331: 1326: 1155: 1018: 667: 660: 653: 639: 625: 585: 564: 501: 493: 395: 364: 282: 272: 214: 207: 185: 139: 111: 94: 90: 16554: 16543: 16523: 14861: 13476:(in German). Weimar: Böhlau (reprinted by Minerva GmbH, Wissenschaftlicher Verlag). 4813: 17538: 17531: 17478: 17406: 17401: 17358: 17351: 17281: 17225: 17163: 17069: 17041: 17027: 17013: 16930: 16902: 16890: 16883: 16771: 16631: 16621: 16616: 16570: 16564: 16533: 16426: 16321: 16245: 16183: 16135: 16070: 16063: 16056: 16049: 16042: 16031: 16015: 15950: 15945: 15928: 15869: 15763: 15695: 15606: 15573: 15541: 15437: 15409: 15358: 15279: 15263: 15249: 15231: 15224: 15210: 15170: 15152: 15136: 15122: 14944: 14927: 14544: 14496: 14407: 14375: 14343: 14319: 14248: 13864: 13804: 13619: 13609: 13391: 13383: 13348: 13004: 12638: 12505: 12338: 12293: 12249: 12241: 12233: 12128: 12084: 11922: 11802: 11798: 11454: 11392: 11120: 11088: 11061: 11025: 10969: 10926: 10922: 10910: 10902: 10898: 10890: 10861: 10830: 10636: 10243: 10213: 9839: 9819: 9814: 9777: 9772: 8304: 6235: 6020: 6006: 5994: 5967: 5951: 5947: 5413: 5367: 5227: 5145: 5026: 4904: 4900: 4892: 4877: 4869: 4833: 4821: 4816:

spanning Scandinavia, the British Isles and Iceland. Phrygian becomes extinct. The

4794: 4764: 4760: 4646: 4570: 4562: 4555: 4551: 4503: 4221: 4213: 4181: 4177: 4173: 4129: 4124: 3930: 3692: 3630: 3550: 3517: 3479: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3433: 3421: 3409: 3383: 3371: 3359: 3347: 3303: 3287: 3252: 3238: 3210: 3186: 3144: 3116: 3108: 3096: 3074: 3070: 3058: 3026: 3006: 2901: 2873: 2865: 2727: 2723: 2692: 2688: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2641: 2562: 2539: 2479: 2435: 2350: 2346: 2335: 2331: 2315: 2294: 2286: 2274: 2068: 2018: 1835: 1641: 1529: 1469: 1446: 1389: 1384: 1321: 1308: 1303: 1293: 966: 579: 527: 519: 512: 391: 314: 305: 291: 178: 153: 121: 16611: 16559: 15551: 14021: 12781:, Houwink ten Cate, H.J.; Melchert, H. Craig & van den Hout, Theo P.J. p. 586 12592:

Italo-Celtica: linguistic and cultural points of contact between Italic and Celtic

12517: 9428: 9410: 3973:

Some significant isoglosses in Indo-European daughter languages at around 500 BC.

2664: 2426:. Written evidence of Indo-European appeared during the Bronze Age in the form of 17365: 17316: 17270: 17153: 17048: 17020: 16979: 16896: 16766: 16641: 16626: 16595: 16316: 16277: 16142: 16088: 15960: 15822: 15588: 15583: 15448: 15363: 15244: 15237: 15217: 15199: 15104: 15087: 14886: 14605: 14577: 14305: 14298: 14291: 14284: 14262: 14255: 14189: 14089: 13925: 13779: 13687: 13581:Über Methode und Ergebnisse der arischen (indogermanischen) Alterthumswissenshaft 13215: 13209: 12092: 12056: 11622: 11372: 11183: 11095:. These trends compounded throughout the modern period due to the general global 11076: 11065: 11029: 10953: 10918: 10906: 10848: 10648: 10644: 10233: 9859: 9279: 9237: 7958: 7088: 6193: 6139:(dissimilation of aspirates) independently in Proto-Greek and Proto-Indo-Iranian. 6126: 5971: 5882: 5827: 5772: 5566:

Each original consonant shifted one position to the right. For example, original

5375: 5202: 5198: 5194: 5103: 5077: 5053: 4990: 4916:

In reconstructing the history of the Indo-European languages and the form of the

4662: 4598: 4535: 4237: 4197: 3923: 3887: 3876: 3806: 3796: 3786: 3776: 3675: 3544: 3503: 3459: 3379: 3375: 3206: 3194: 3178: 3152: 3148: 3038: 3030: 2869: 2765:

in 1813, deriving it from the geographical extremes of the language family: from

2719: 2684: 2645: 2462:

dating to the 20th century BC. Although no older written records of the original

2439: 2427: 2410: 2406: 2354: 2278: 2266: 2258: 2149: 2118: 2113: 2108: 2089: 2025: 2004: 1982: 1567: 1456: 1379: 1288: 1221: 1162: 1028: 760: 745: 735: 730: 646: 618: 407: 171: 131: 56: 50: 13868: 13759: 13712: 13691: 11911:"Two IE phylogenies, three PIE migrations, and four kinds of steppe pastoralism" 11556:. Documenta Semiotica : Serie 1, Linguistik (2 ed.). Hildesheim: Olms. 11306:

The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World

2753:

Sir William Jones, Third Anniversary Discourse delivered 2 February 1786, ELIOHS

17543: 17311: 16824: 16776: 16636: 16605: 16576: 16207: 16093: 16076: 16026: 16021: 15892: 15829: 15599: 15593: 15513: 15508: 15454: 15431: 15176: 14998: 14955: 14938: 14932: 14910: 14898: 14782: 14637: 14571: 13502:. Part I and Part II. Translated by Bendall, Herbert. London: Trübner & Co. 13008: 12277: 10870: 10724: 10590: 10223: 9834: 9518: 9222: 6178: 6130: 6072: 6059: 6000: 5955: 5371: 5347: 5163: 4958: 4947: 4790: 4740: 4721: 4582: 4189: 4133: 3704: 3612: 3323: 3319: 3202: 3198: 3170: 3156: 3140: 3090: 3054: 3034: 2952: 2766: 2711: 2633: 2625: 2551: 2361: 2290: 1894: 1761: 1636: 1194: 1148: 1116: 1052: 543: 354: 13528:

Szemerényi, Oswald John Louis (1991). Considine, P.; Hooker, James T. (eds.).

12298: 5769:(or perhaps the sound shift directly generated fricatives in these positions). 3645:

Membership of languages in the Indo-European language family is determined by

2373:

All Indo-European languages are descended from a single prehistoric language,

17702: 16660: 16600: 16582: 16098: 16082: 16036: 15793: 15613: 15578: 15568: 15546: 15503: 15368: 14949: 14881: 14352: 14155: 13886: 13732: 13547: 13422: 13387: 13242: 13016: 12710: 12664: 11927: 11910: 11492: 10787: 9829: 9592: 6219: 5359: 5001: 4979: 4895:(North, Central and South America, North and Sub-Saharan Africa, West Asia), 4829: 4773: 4733: 4697: 4594: 4566: 4527: 4507: 4017: 3781: 3532: 3437: 3351: 3160: 2972: 2857: 2847: 2154: 1618: 1534: 1251: 1109: 971: 725: 14791: 13304:] (in Albanian). Akademia e Shkencave dhe e Arteve e Kosovës, Prishtinë. 12237: 5762:

Various further changes affected consonants in the middle or end of a word:

3871:

Specialists have postulated the existence of higher-order subgroups such as

941: 17448: 17256: 16990: 15557: 14073: 13633: 13426: 12820: 12474: 12263: 12119:

Friedman, Victor A. (2011). "The Balkan Languages and Balkan Linguistics".

12088: 11582: 11396: 11005: 10965: 10203: 9874: 8724: 6101: 5253: 4933: 4929: 4756: 4752: 4744: 4717: 4547: 4543: 4387: 4383: 4279:

4B-C (blue & dark blue): Bell Beaker; adopted by Indo-European speakers

4259: 3969: 3946: 3880: 3872: 3827: 3822: 3791: 3737: 3733: 3010: 2617: 2423: 2370:, with over two-thirds (313) of them belonging to the Indo-Iranian branch. 1773: 1611: 1085: 956: 755: 750: 740: 66: 14138: 13808: 13598:"Indo-European Loanwords and Exchange in Bronze Age Central and East Asia" 13103: 12509: 12342: 10270: 9895: 3886:

The Italo-Celtic subgroup was at one point uncontroversial, considered by

3728:

even features areal convergence among members of very different branches.

234: 13903: 11590: 11366:, published 1755). In: Complete Edition, Moscow, 1952, vol. 7, pp. 652–59 11203: 11092: 11001: 10605: 10578: 9589: 6116: 6046: 5935:(usually but not always distinct from the secondarily palatalized stops). 5924: 5240: 5134: 5092: 4888: 4837: 4825: 4709: 4483: 3703:

in the West Germanic languages greatly postdate any possible notion of a

3413: 3182: 2770: 2298: 1749: 1735: 1699: 1407: 20: 13614: 13024: 12214:"Mapping the Origins and Expansion of the Indo-European Language Family" 11889: 5765:

The voiced stops resulting from the sound shift were softened to voiced

3898:; the change of /p/ to /kʷ/ before another /kʷ/ in the same word (as in 3177:

inscriptions from around the 2nd century AD, earliest coherent texts in

936: 17623: 17342: 17292: 17158: 15204: 13108: 13080: 13052: 12991: 11045: 11037: 10985: 10747:(used for the subjunctive voice and also for the future tense) is also 5606:

in English). This is the original source of the English sounds written

4937: 4841: 4809: 4313:, an earlier stage, called Pre-Proto-Indo-European, has been proposed. 4229: 4084: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 3709: 3700: 3681: 3569:: evidence too scant and uncertain to determine anything with certainty 3331: 3226: 2877: 2819: 2812: 2419: 2386: 2366: 1712: 1626: 1504: 1269: 12731: 12650: 11953:, II, 1948 p. 43 sq. et III 1949, p. 45 sq., M.Almagro dans 11123:

continuing to lead the group; English in general has in many respects

10795: Countries where Indo-European language family is majority native 2455: 14174: 13474:

Compendium der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen

13396: 12383: 11604: 10989: 10981: 9849: 9232: 6188: 5351: 5336: 5271: 5114: 5064: 4786: 4778: 4729: 4713: 4682: 4634: 4618: 4233: 3720:

in the case of Baltic and Slavic) before the PIE syllabic resonants *

3699:. More certainly, very similar-looking alterations in the systems of 3606: 3455: 3387: 3234: 3218: 3136: 2745: 2382: 1915: 1692: 1684: 1677: 1670: 1656: 1524: 242: 228: 224: 14061:

Lewis, M. Paul, ed. (2009). "Language Family Trees: Indo-European".

13247:

Grundriss der Vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen

9603: 4832:

of significant areas where Indo-European languages were spoken, but

4059: 14001: 13801:

The Indo-European Language Family : A Phylogenetic Perspective

13334:

Kortlandt, Frederik (1988). "The Thraco-Armenian consonant shift".

12715:

Archaeology & Language. The Puzzle of the Indo-European Origins

12642: 12590: 12097:. Routledge Handbooks in Linguistics. Routledge. pp. 385–403. 11655: 11013: 10817: 10807: Countries where Indo-European language family is not official 9470: 9452: 9207: 6214: 6163: 5932: 4686: 4678: 4670: 4650: 4630: 4614: 4602: 4499: 4491: 4390:

propose the following evolutionary tree of Indo-European branches:

4325: 4042: 3554: 3395: 3327: 3291: 2964: 2956: 2715: 2680: 2675:

in the late 1760s to suggest a relationship among them. Meanwhile,

2570: 2566: 2459: 1858: 1849: 1740: 1541: 1516: 1420: 911: 487: 268: 86: 13530:

Scripta Minora: Selected Essays in Indo-European, Greek, and Latin

12914:. Linguistics Research Center, University of Texas. Archived from 11845:"Tablet Discovery Pushes Earliest European Writing Back 150 Years" 5190:

Other secondary sources, of lesser value due to poor attestation:

4382:

Using a mathematical analysis borrowed from evolutionary biology,

16859: 14470: 11487:. Vol. III. John Stockdale and John Walker. pp. 24–46. 11108: 10977: 10941: 10582: 9588:

The following table presents a comparison of conjugations of the

9549:) as well as before an aspirated consonant in the next syllable ( 5223: 5012: 4966: 4858: 4606: 4515: 3399: 3307: 3299: 3222: 2451: 2402: 1908: 1872: 1865: 1663: 1283: 916: 17300: 13711:

Kroonen, Guus; Mallory, James P.; Comrie, Bernard, eds. (2018).

13249:(in German). Vol. Erster Band. Strassburg: Karl J. Trübner. 13138:. Vol. 22 (15th ed.). Chicago: Helen Hemingway Benton. 12858:

Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics

11631:

Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics

5052:, attested in a huge amount of poetic and prose material in the 4928:). Early poetry is of special significance because of the rigid 4857:

with the exception of Albanian. Pannonian Basin is taken by the

2834:

as an academic discipline. The classical phase of Indo-European

262:

Present-day distribution of Indo-European languages in Eurasia:

16951: 16800:

Families with question marks (?) are disputed or controversial.

16781: 16679: 14598: 14175:"Lexicon of Early Indo-European Loanwords Preserved in Finnish" 14074:"Thesaurus Indogermanischer Text- und Sprachmaterialien: TITUS" 12373:"Trees, Waves and Linkages: Models of Language Diversification" 11017: 9571:

as well as before an aspirated consonant in the next syllable (

5426: 4962: 4782: 4622: 4597:

as the Indo-Aryan tongue reaches eastwards, giving rise to the

4574: 4333: 3939: 3425: 2960: 2793:; in most languages this term is now dated or less common than 2679:

compared different language groups, including Slavic, Baltic ("

2535: 2415: 1631: 1585: 1104: 921: 13514:(1957). "The Problem of Balto-Slav Unity: A Critical Survey". 11657:

Slavic–Albanian Language Contact, Convergence, and Coexistence

11428:. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. pp. 52–74. Archived from 11391:. Vol. 18. Berkeley Linguistics Society. pp. 227–8. 10948:

themselves, and that of their daughter cultures including the

5895:

languages corresponds to the outcome of the PIE plain velars:

4781:

in Central Asia leading to China, due to the proliferation of

4305:

common ancestor of the Indo-European languages, spoken by the

3581:: possibly related to (or part of) Celtic, Ligurian, or Italic 2981:, attested from the early 5th century AD. It evolved from the 14584: 14114: 11458: 11021: 10973: 10957: 10620: 9844: 9227: 6224: 6183: 6089: 6014: 5420:, the following are some of the major changes that happened: 5219: 5049: 5006: 4862: 4701: 4586: 4150:, comprising all or some of the Eurasiatic languages and the 3951: 3609:. Very likely, but not certainly, a sister group to Hellenic. 3495: 3339: 3311: 3298:

words. Epigraphically from the 3rd century BC in the form of

3260: 3185:

manuscript tradition from about the 8th century AD. Includes

3174: 2815:

was a pioneer in the field of comparative linguistic studies.

2707: 2637: 2555: 1730: 1604: 1598: 1580: 951: 926: 13690:(1997). Robbins Dexter, Miriam; Jones-Bley, Karlene (eds.). 13211:

Comparative Indo-European linguistics : An Introduction

12201:] (in German). Bern: Francke. pp. 708–709, 882–884. 11028:(such as Hungarian, Finnish, Estonian etc.) remain, as does 4880:. Modern dialects of Indo-European languages start emerging. 3955:

scholarly opinion and refuting the Indo-Hittite hypothesis.

12869: 12867: 11971:. Paris: Bibliothèques scientifiques Payot. pp. 84–85. 11585:(2005). "Theodor of Shkodra (1210) and Other Early Texts". 10743:) meaning "to bring". Additionally, the perfective form of 10624: 5931:). The "palatal" stops are palatalized and often appear as 4356:

system is complex and, like the noun, exhibits a system of

3343: 2122: 13218:(2nd ed.). Amsterdam / Philadelphia: John Benjamins. 11629:. In Klein, Jared; Joseph, Brian; Fritz, Matthias (eds.). 11087:

and European expansionism throughout the globe during the

6067:

Among the other notable changes affecting consonants are:

5346:

PIE is normally reconstructed with a complex system of 15

3486:), attested from the 7th century BC. Includes the ancient 410:

is common (more visible upon full enlargement of the map).

13786:

Esquisse d'une grammaire comparée de l'arménien classique

13693:

The Kurgan Culture and The Indo-Europeanization of Europe

11485:

The Works of Sir William Jones. With a Life of the Author

10877:

Today, Indo-European languages are spoken by billions of

10669:

would have looked like. The descendant of Proto-Germanic

10643:

in Hindustani is roughly compensated by the periphrastic

10610:

beireann tú, beireann sé/sí, beireann sibh, beireann siad

10600:

in the sense of bearing a child; its common meanings are

4911: 3139:

from the 7th century AD. Modern Celtic languages include

3135:

from the 4th or 5th century AD, earliest inscriptions in

2740: 2547: 14135:

The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language

13310: 12864: 11329: 11327: 11325: 10992:, replacing many (but not all) of the previously-spoken 6003:

converted the voiced aspirates into voiceless aspirates.

5877:

None of the daughter-language families (except possibly

3913: 3408:

or Iranic, attested from roughly 1000 BC in the form of

2880:) developed a better understanding of morphology and of 13930:

The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots

13133: 12826: 12798: 12778: 12749: 12737: 11482: 4763:

marginalize the Celtic languages to the British Isles.

4657:

besides Greek are spoken in Southern Europe, including

4301:

The proposed Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) is the

3641:

Indo-European family tree in order of first attestation

2507: 425:

indicates this branch of the language family is extinct

14067:(Sixteenth ed.). Dallas, Tex.: SIL International. 13188:

Comparative Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction

12891: 12625:

The linguistic relationship between Armenian and Greek

12551: 5830:, an archaic Germanic language). Similarly, the words 4470:(2200 BC); split between Iranian and Old Indic 1800 BC 13431:

Greater Anatolia and the Indo-Hittite language family

12832: 12691: 11322: 11283:(new ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 37. 10700:

was borrowed and nativized only in compounds such as

10651:(etymologically from the Sanskrit present participle 4573:

are spoken in a huge area from present-day Poland to

3708:

proto-language, such as the uniform development of a

3531:: hypothetical language associated with the proposed 3259:

Greek from between 1450 and 1350 BC have been found.

2389:. The geographical location where it was spoken, the 14097:

glottothèque – Ancient Indo-European Grammars online

14000:

Dyen, Isidore; Kruskal, Joseph; Black, Paul (1997).

13908:

Dictionary of Historical and Comparative Linguistics

13835: 13710: 13556: 13076:"Ethnologue list of languages by number of speakers" 12679: 12539: 12212:

Bouckaert, Remco; Lemey, Philippe (24 August 2012).

11957:, XVI, 1950, p. 42 sq, P.Laviosa Zambotti, l.c. 11539: 11083:

with the dramatic increase in the population of the

9746: 9733: 9720: 9707: 9694: 9681: 9664: 9651: 9638: 9622: 9596: 9565: 9543: 9527:

Before an aspirated consonant in the next syllable (

9511: 9497: 9489: 9475: 9457: 9439: 9421: 9403: 9389: 9369: 9349: 9341: 9327: 9319: 9305: 9291: 9158: 9148: 9138: 9129: 9120: 9111: 9102: 9093: 9084: 9040: 9031: 9022: 9012: 9002: 8992: 8982: 8973: 8964: 8955: 8946: 8902: 8893: 8849: 8839: 8831: 8822: 8775: 8766: 8756: 8747: 8738: 8691: 8681: 8671: 8661: 8651: 8641: 8631: 8581: 8569: 8560: 8551: 8501: 8492: 8483: 8438: 8428: 8418: 8408: 8396: 8386: 8376: 8365: 8355: 8346: 8336: 8327: 8318: 8234: 8224: 8215: 8206: 8197: 8187: 8178: 8169: 8160: 8150: 8141: 8132: 8123: 8114: 8105: 8096: 8087: 8078: 8067: 8058: 8049: 8040: 8031: 8022: 8013: 8004: 7995: 7939: 7929: 7920: 7910: 7900: 7888: 7879: 7870: 7861: 7852: 7843: 7834: 7825: 7816: 7807: 7763: 7754: 7742: 7730: 7721: 7712: 7703: 7694: 7685: 7676: 7667: 7658: 7649: 7600: 7590: 7581: 7569: 7560: 7551: 7542: 7533: 7524: 7515: 7506: 7497: 7446: 7437: 7425: 7416: 7407: 7398: 7389: 7380: 7371: 7327: 7318: 7309: 7300: 7291: 7282: 7273: 7264: 7255: 7206: 7197: 7188: 7176: 7167: 7158: 7149: 7140: 7131: 7122: 7070: 7058: 7049: 7040: 7032: 7023: 7012: 6997: 6988: 6979: 6971: 6962: 6881: 6871: 6861: 6851: 6842: 6833: 6824: 6815: 6806: 6797: 6743: 6734: 6725: 6716: 6707: 6698: 6690: 6681: 6636: 6626: 6616: 6606: 6596: 6586: 6576: 6567: 6558: 6549: 6540: 6531: 6522: 6478: 6469: 6459: 6450: 6441: 6431: 6421: 6411: 6402: 6393: 6385: 6376: 6327: 6317: 6307: 6297: 6288: 6279: 6270: 6261: 6253: 6244: 5597: 5591: 5585: 5579: 5573: 5567: 5557: 5551: 5545: 5539: 5533: 5527: 5519: 5513: 5507: 5501: 5495: 5489: 5482: 5476: 5470: 5464: 5457: 5451: 5445: 5439: 5124:–1300 AD, with limited earlier sources dating to AD 422: 217: 210: 203: 196: 189: 181: 174: 163: 142: 106: 97: 13279:

Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction

12879: 11569:

Symbolae grammaticae in honorem Ioannis Rozwadowski

6035:

merge the voiced aspirated into plain voiced stops.

4836:still develops under Islamic rule and extends into 4498:cultures emerge in Central Europe, introducing the 3926:, while Michael Weiss has argued for the subgroup. 14219: 14064:Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Online version 13836:Ramat, Paolo; Giacalone Ramat, Anna, eds. (1998). 13783: 13736: 13682:. Paris: Klincksieck – via Internet Archive. 13675: 13495: 13433:. Washington, DC: Institute for the Study of Man. 13255: 13102: 13074: 13046: 12990: 12910:Vijay, John; Slocum, Jonathan (10 November 2008). 12472: 12454: 11507: 5862:, although not spelled differently (compare Latin 4565:spread over Central and Western Europe, including 4474:From 1500 BC the following sequence may be given: 4420:Pre-Germanic and Pre-Balto-Slavic; proto-Germanic 3563:: possibly related to Albanian, Messapian, or both 3127:inscriptions date as early as the 6th century BC; 2518:During the 16th century, European visitors to the 14076:(in German). TITUS, University of Frankfurt. 2003 13583:(in German). Giessen: J. Ricker'che Buchhandlung. 13415:Die Gliederung des indogermanischen Sprachgebiets 11984:Language and Linguistic Contact in Ancient Sicily 10883:20 languages with the largest numbers of speakers 3322:. Includes a wide range of modern languages from 17700: 16854: 14090:"Indo-European Lexical Cognacy Database (IELex)" 13999: 13316:Data analysis, machine learning and applications 12855: 12380:The Routledge Handbook of Historical Linguistics 11505: 10715: 10701: 2501: 13490: 12320:Chang, Will; Chundra, Cathcart (January 2015). 11819: 11457:in the Indo-European languages, while omitting 10816:Distribution of Indo-European languages in the 4430:David Anthony proposes the following sequence: 3999: Green: languages with PIE *-tt- > -ss- 3599:: extinct language once spoken north of Macedon 2500:with other language families, although several 14111:"Indo-European Etymological Dictionary (IEED)" 13757: 13678:Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue grecque 12912:"Indo-European Languages: Balto-Slavic Family" 12211: 12083:Friedman, Victor A. (2020). "The Balkans". In 11419:"Archaeology and Language: methods and issues" 4049: 3922:. This evidence was prominently challenged by 16840: 14821: 14807: 14205: 14020:. LLOW Languages of the World. Archived from 13417:. Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitätsverlag. 12851: 12849: 12847: 11969:Les Indo-Européens: Histoire, langues, mythes 11384: 9583: 6155:in selected Indo-European daughter languages 4704:throughout the Mediterranean and, during the 4026: 4005: Tan: languages with PIE *-tt- > -st- 3958: 3852: 2892:who in 1927 pointed out the existence of the 2234: 17684:Families with more than 30 languages are in 16810:Families with more than 30 languages are in 13988:Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture (1997) 13901: 13758:Markey, T. L.; Repanšek, Luka, eds. (2020). 12530: 12378:, in Bowern, Claire; Evans, Bethwyn (eds.), 12319: 11416: 10720:"to confer" (from Latin "con-" and "ferre"). 4344:, these form grammatically inflected words ( 4271:1 (black): Anatolian languages (archaic PIE) 3662:, the source of all the Germanic languages. 3658:are presumed innovations that took place in 3412:. Epigraphically from 520 BC in the form of 13648: 12992:"Aspect, Tense, and Mood in the Hindi Verb" 12909: 12752:, p. 667 George S. Lane, Douglas Q. Adams, 5374:) stops, and a three-way distinction among 4297:– : Armenian, expanding from western steppe 4216:, a language family separately proposed by 4032: 3907: 2971:texts from the 20th and 19th centuries BC, 2937:, or otherwise a totally unattested Balkan 16847: 16833: 14814: 14800: 14212: 14198: 14160:(in German) (5th ed.). Gerhard Köbler 13670: 13654:A Comparative Study of Santali and Bengali 13578: 13527: 13510: 13468: 13451:From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic 13134:AA.VV. (1981). "Indo-European languages". 12988: 12844: 12435:] (in French). Paris: Honoré Champion. 12195:Indogermanisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch 12094:The Routledge Handbook of Language Contact 11823: 11654:Curtis, Matthew Cowan (30 November 2011). 11566: 11551: 11464: 10677:) survives in German only in the compound 5263:–1600); even more archaic than Lithuanian. 4593:. The Vedic civilization gives way to the 4410:Pre-Armenian and Pre-Greek (after 2500 BC) 4407:Pre-Italic and Pre-Celtic (before 2500 BC) 3859: 3845: 2241: 2227: 2205:Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch 13826: 13623: 13613: 13562:Introduction to Indo-European Linguistics 13395: 13346: 13333: 13296:Hamp, Eric (2007). Rexhep Ismajli (ed.). 12838: 12697: 12499: 12297: 12253: 11981: 11926: 11633:. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 1732–1749. 10765: 9381:Before secondary (post-PIE) front-vowels. 9289:- Between vowels, or between a vowel and 6151:Proto-Indo-European consonants and their 4273:2 (black): Afanasievo culture (early PIE) 4100:Learn how and when to remove this message 3669: 3553:: Poorly-attested language spoken by the 3520:and probably extinct by the 10th century. 3131:from the 2nd century BC; Primitive Irish 2941:that was closely related to Illyrian and 2273:. Some European languages of this family— 13686: 13369:"The Old Phrygian Areyastis-inscription" 13366: 13253: 13241: 12685: 12445: 12118: 12082: 11867:. Allied Publishers. 1988. p. 114. 11827: 11575: 11355: 11308:. Oxford University Press. p. 442. 10811: 10786: 5432:As in the other Germanic languages, the 4283:5C (red): Sintashta (proto-Indo-Iranian) 4258: 3968: 3746: 3636: 3621:: proposed, pre-Celtic, Iberian language 2807: 2801:remains the standard scientific term. A 14172: 13924: 13799:Olander, Thomas, ed. (September 2022). 13798: 13778: 13731: 13421: 13276: 13142: 12897: 12873: 12766: 12709: 12622: 12569: 12557: 12426: 12192: 12177: 12054: 12013:Encyclopedia of the languages of Europe 11966: 11960: 11908: 11724:"The Hittite Computer Analysis Project" 11621: 11615: 11303: 10782: 4789:rule make the last Anatolian languages 4785:merchants there. Greek settlements and 3280:(dated to the late 3rd millennium BC). 2702:The hypothesis reappeared in 1786 when 17701: 14153: 13412: 13204: 13182: 13161: 13048:"Ethnologue list of language families" 12964: 12936: 12545: 12460: 12405: 12276: 12270: 12148:The ancient Greeks: a critical history 12033: 11831: 11653: 11483:Shore (Lord Teignmouth), John (1807). 11345: 11333: 4912:Important languages for reconstruction 4248: 3575:: possibly close to or part of Celtic. 3541:: possibly Iranic, Thracian, or Celtic 3310:is assumed to preserve intact records 3123:), attested since the 6th century BC; 2397:, which posits the homeland to be the 16828: 14795: 14193: 14060: 13854: 13595: 13560:; Jones, David; Jones, Irene (1999). 13447: 12885: 12783:The parent language, Laryngeal theory 12663: 12588: 12533:Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture 12531:Mallory, J. P.; Adams, D. Q. (1997). 12313: 12205: 12182:. Heidelberg: C. Winter. p. 341. 12061:. John Benjamins Publishing Company. 12039: 12010: 11721: 11581: 11470: 11278: 11266:"Ethnologue report for Indo-European" 7165: 4506:speakers into the Italian peninsula ( 3013:), attested from the 9th century AD ( 2925:, attested from the 13th century AD; 2856:, published in the 1880s. Brugmann's 2212:Indo-European Etymological Dictionary 2184:Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture 14092:. Uppsala University, Uppsala. 2021. 14038:"Indo-European Documentation Center" 13308: 13295: 13281:. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell. 12814: 12199:Indogermanic Etymological Dictionary 12145: 12133:10.1146/annurev-anthro-081309-145932 11975: 11887: 11609: 11587:Albanian Literature: A Short History 11477:Electronic Library of Historiography 10608:by adding a pronoun after the verb: 6013:(or sometimes plain voiced stops in 5802:sounds disappeared, while remaining 4082:adding citations to reliable sources 4053: 2514:Indo-European studies § History 2508:History of Indo-European linguistics 2334:; another nine subdivisions are now 406:Dotted/striped areas indicate where 13656:. Calcutta: K. P. Bagchi & Co. 4454:Pre-Italic and Pre-Celtic (3000 BC) 2826:and between 1833 and 1852 he wrote 2522:began to notice similarities among 2478:as it possesses the second-longest 2169:Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European 13: 13589: 13349:"The Spread of the Indo-Europeans" 12982: 12623:Greppin, James (1996). "Review of 11951:Revue Internationale d'Onomastique 11787:European Journal of Human Genetics 11693:"The peaks and troughs of Hittite" 11540:Szemerényi, Jones & Jones 1999 11471:Jones, William (2 February 1786). 11147:The Horse, the Wheel, and Language 5810:became voiced. For example, Latin 5080:(the most archaic well-documented 4637:. Separation of Proto-Italic into 4363: 4287:7A (purple): Indo-Aryans (Mittani) 3286:, attested from around 1400 BC in 2191:The Horse, the Wheel, and Language 14: 17725: 13947: 11982:Tribulato, Olga (December 2012). 11888:Mark, Joshua J. (28 April 2011). 11479:. Universita degli Studi Firenze, 11473:"The Third Anniversary Discourse" 10596:usually only carries the meaning 9278:- Following an unstressed vowel ( 5350:, including an unusual three-way 4514:followed by the redaction of the 4291:(dark yellow): proto-Balto-Slavic 4143:Other proposed families include: 4136:, which joins Indo-European with 3587:: proposed relationship to Greek. 3547:: possibly very close to Thracian 3263:texts date to the 8th century BC. 2907: 404: Non-Indo-European languages 168:Unclassified or poorly attested: 16:Language family native to Eurasia 14473:(unknown further classification) 13764:. JIES Monograph. Vol. 67. 13717:. JIES Monograph. Vol. 65. 13696:. JIES Monograph. Vol. 18. 13356:Journal of Indo-European Studies 13165:History of the Language Sciences 12473:Nakhleh, Luay; Ringe, Don & 12409:Journal of Indo-European Studies 12044:. Thames and Hudson. p. 54. 11915:Journal of Language Relationship 11680:any language, including Albanian 10996:of this extensive area. However 10936:and widespread dissemination of 5397:. (The correctness of the terms 5382:-type sounds) between "palatal" 5324: 4550:splits into ancestors of modern 4289:7B (purple): Indo-Aryans (India) 4058: 4022:Proto-Indo-European palatovelars 3918:); and the subjunctive morpheme 2959:, attested in isolated terms in 2803:number of other synonymous terms 2718:, to which he tentatively added 2198:Journal of Indo-European Studies 962:Bible translations into Armenian 453: 256: 14040:. Linguistics Research Center, 13739:In Search of the Indo-Europeans 13302:Comparative studies on Albanian 13095: 13067: 13039: 12903: 12808: 12759: 12703: 12657: 12616: 12582: 12563: 12524: 12466: 12439: 12420: 12399: 12364: 12186: 12171: 12139: 12112: 12076: 12048: 12011:Price, Glanville (April 2000). 12004: 11943: 11902: 11881: 11855: 11837: 11812: 11778: 11748: 11715: 11685: 11647: 11597: 11571:. Vol. 1. pp. 95–104. 11560: 11545: 11528: 11499: 11209:List of Indo-European languages 11032:, a pre-Indo-European isolate. 11000:remain dominant in much of the 4907:to Central Asia and North Asia. 4281:5A-B (red): Eastern Corded ware 4277:4A (black): Western Corded Ware 4069:needs additional citations for 2482:of any known family, after the 2263:overwhelming majority of Europe 473:List of Indo-European languages 13803:. Cambridge University Press. 13298:Studime krahasuese për shqipen 13147:. Princeton University Press. 12576:University of California Press 12572:Ancient Indo-European dialects 12246:11858/00-001M-0000-000F-EADF-A 11410: 11378: 11297: 11272: 11258: 11232: 11117:languages used on the Internet 11075:Despite medieval invasions by 11072:and the western half of Asia. 11070:indigenous languages of Europe 10739:φέρνω (modern transliteration 9339:Before or after an obstruent ( 4542:start migrating southwards to 4490:, and the (pre-) Proto-Celtic 2933:, traditionally thought to be 2860:reevaluation of the field and 2830:. This marks the beginning of 2464:Proto-Indo-European population 25:Indo-European (disambiguation) 1: 14042:University of Texas at Austin 13794:– via Internet Archive. 13753:– via Internet Archive. 13743:. London: Thames and Hudson. 13558:Szemerényi, Oswald John Louis 13512:Szemerényi, Oswald John Louis 13347:Kortlandt, Frederik (1990) . 13277:Fortson, Benjamin W. (2004). 13262:. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 13168:. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. 12370: 12121:Annual Review of Anthropology 11246: 11068:remained of the (relatively) 10731:φέρω (modern transliteration 10663: 9361:Before an original laryngeal. 9257:- At the beginning of a word. 6045:change all three series in a 5407:Proto-Indo-European phonology 5314: 5301: 5288: 5275: 5257: 5244: 5231: 5210: 5180: 5167: 5149: 5138: 5125: 5118: 5107: 5096: 5085: 5068: 5057: 5030: 5017: 4994: 4983: 4970: 4951: 4421: 4123:, joining Indo-European with 3990: Orange: languages with 3743:been radically non-treelike. 3512:, with proposed links to the 3270: 2381:, spoken sometime during the 1799:Proto-Indo-European mythology 1068:Paleolithic continuity theory 13993: 13978:Resources in other libraries 13505:Part II via Internet Archive 12827:Encyclopædia Britannica 1981 12799:Encyclopædia Britannica 1981 12779:Encyclopædia Britannica 1981 12750:Encyclopædia Britannica 1981 12738:Encyclopædia Britannica 1981 12429:Les dialectes indo-européens 12371:François, Alexandre (2014), 11699:. 2 May 2006. Archived from 11660:. ProQuest LLC. p. 18. 11589:. New York/Westport/London: 11445:Blench erroneously included 11251: 11219:Proto-Indo-European religion 10778:Proto-Indo-European numerals 9541:Before a (PIE) front vowel ( 9367:Before a (PIE) front vowel ( 9081: 8943: 8890: 8819: 8735: 8628: 8548: 8480: 8315: 8276: 8075: 7992: 7804: 7646: 7494: 7368: 7252: 7119: 7020: 6959: 6927: 6794: 6678: 6519: 6373: 6241: 6206: 4918:Proto-Indo-European language 4728:extend from Eastern Europe ( 4512:Migration of Aryans to India 4255:Proto-Indo-European language 4243: 3978: Blue: centum languages 3173:), earliest attestations in 2995:Proto-Indo-European language 2573:and Italian (these included 2561:Another account was made by 2534:languages. In 1583, English 2391:Proto-Indo-European homeland 2375:linguistically reconstructed 1487:Northern Black Polished Ware 686:Proto-Indo-European language 7: 14157:Indogermanisches Wörterbuch 14131:"Indo-European Roots Index" 14002:"Comparative Indo-European" 13869:10.1515/9783110192858.1.244 13857:Indogermanische Forschungen 13838:The Indo-European Languages 13602:Evolutionary Human Sciences 13564:. Oxford University Press. 13454:. Oxford University Press. 13214:. Revised and corrected by 12989:van Olphen, Herman (1975). 12535:. London: Fitzroy Dearborn. 12446:Bonfante, Giuliano (1931). 12286:Journal of Language Contact 11627:"The phonology of Albanian" 11362:M.V. Lomonosov (drafts for 11133: 11064:, and the language isolate 10994:pre-Indo-European languages 10681:, meaning "bear (a child)". 10229:Armenian (Eastern; Western) 4922:linguistically conservative 4712:), to Central Asia and the 4050:Proposed external relations 3740:model of language evolution 3627:: possibly including Dacian 3103:(PIE). Living examples are 3021:. Slavic languages include 1804:Proto-Indo-Iranian paganism 55:One of the world's primary 10: 17730: 17504:Chukotko-Kamchatkan–Amuric 13579:von Bradke, Peter (1890). 13522:. O. Harrassowitz: 97–123. 13143:Anthony, David W. (2007). 13126: 13009:10.1163/000000075791615397 12433:The Indo-European dialects 12180:Manuel de la langue vénète 11988:Cambridge University Press 11909:Anthony, David W. (2013). 11895:World History Encyclopedia 11426:A Companion To Archaeology 11424:. In John Bintliff (ed.). 10980:except for swathes of the 10775: 10769: 10635:, now have the meaning of 10581:systems. In addition, the 9747: 9734: 9721: 9708: 9695: 9682: 9665: 9652: 9639: 9623: 9597: 9584:Comparison of conjugations 9577:dissimilation of aspirates 9566: 9555:dissimilation of aspirates 9544: 9533:dissimilation of aspirates 9512: 9498: 9490: 9476: 9458: 9440: 9422: 9404: 9390: 9370: 9350: 9342: 9328: 9320: 9306: 9292: 9159: 9149: 9139: 9130: 9121: 9112: 9103: 9094: 9085: 9041: 9032: 9023: 9013: 9003: 8993: 8983: 8974: 8965: 8956: 8947: 8903: 8894: 8850: 8840: 8832: 8823: 8776: 8767: 8757: 8748: 8739: 8692: 8682: 8672: 8662: 8652: 8642: 8632: 8582: 8570: 8561: 8552: 8502: 8493: 8484: 8439: 8429: 8419: 8409: 8397: 8387: 8377: 8366: 8356: 8347: 8337: 8328: 8319: 8235: 8225: 8216: 8207: 8198: 8188: 8179: 8170: 8161: 8151: 8142: 8133: 8124: 8115: 8106: 8097: 8088: 8079: 8068: 8059: 8050: 8041: 8032: 8023: 8014: 8005: 7996: 7940: 7930: 7921: 7911: 7901: 7889: 7880: 7871: 7862: 7853: 7844: 7835: 7826: 7817: 7808: 7764: 7755: 7743: 7731: 7722: 7713: 7704: 7695: 7686: 7677: 7668: 7659: 7650: 7601: 7591: 7582: 7570: 7561: 7552: 7543: 7534: 7525: 7516: 7507: 7498: 7447: 7438: 7426: 7417: 7408: 7399: 7390: 7381: 7372: 7328: 7319: 7310: 7301: 7292: 7283: 7274: 7265: 7256: 7207: 7198: 7189: 7177: 7168: 7159: 7150: 7141: 7132: 7123: 7071: 7059: 7050: 7041: 7033: 7024: 7013: 6998: 6989: 6980: 6972: 6963: 6882: 6872: 6862: 6852: 6843: 6834: 6825: 6816: 6807: 6798: 6744: 6735: 6726: 6717: 6708: 6699: 6691: 6682: 6637: 6627: 6617: 6607: 6597: 6587: 6577: 6568: 6559: 6550: 6541: 6532: 6523: 6479: 6470: 6460: 6451: 6442: 6432: 6422: 6412: 6403: 6394: 6386: 6377: 6328: 6318: 6308: 6298: 6289: 6280: 6271: 6262: 6254: 6245: 6107:Development of prevocalic 5598: 5592: 5586: 5580: 5574: 5568: 5558: 5552: 5546: 5540: 5534: 5528: 5520: 5514: 5508: 5502: 5496: 5490: 5483: 5477: 5471: 5465: 5458: 5452: 5446: 5440: 5328: 5162:, with limited records in 4460:Pre-Balto-Slavic (2800 BC) 4367: 4252: 3984: Red: satem languages 3965:Centum and satem languages 3962: 3959:Satem and centum languages 3716:in the case of Germanic, * 3673: 3605:: language of the ancient 3314:dating from about the mid- 3255:); fragmentary records in 2911: 2890:Apophony in Indo-European, 2622:Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn 2511: 1100:Domestication of the horse 18: 17672: 17609: 17562: 17512: 17392: 17385: 17340: 17291: 17255: 17180: 17116: 17079: 16989: 16866: 16795: 16754: 16731: 16670: 16659: 16503: 16236: 16225: 16193: 16120: 16111: 16000: 15817: 15806: 15773: 15635: 15626: 15534: 15292: 15278: 15192: 14987: 14969: 14920: 14838: 14829: 14823:Primary language families 14776: 14636: 14554: 14527: 14495: 14461: 14431: 14406: 14374: 14342: 14333: 14272: 14243: 14232: 14103: 13973:Resources in your library 13910:(1 ed.). Routledge. 13596:Bjørn, Rasmus G. (2022). 13258:The Laws of Indo-European 12971:, Arm: 20, Alb: 25 & 12717:. London: Jonathan Cape. 12427:Meillet, Antoine (1908). 12299:10.1163/19552629-00602009 12040:Kruta, Venceslas (1991). 11967:Bernard, Sergent (1995). 11506:Robinson, Andrew (2007). 11130:of global communication. 9796: 9791: 9786: 9781: 9776: 9771: 9766: 9761: 9758: 9317:After a (PIE) obstruent ( 9156: 8962: 8900: 8847: 8773: 8688: 8658: 8579: 8558: 8426: 8406: 8394: 8374: 8334: 8325: 8316: 8213: 8176: 8139: 8085: 8076: 8065: 8038: 8002: 7927: 7898: 7886: 7868: 7850: 7674: 7522: 7423: 7325: 7298: 7262: 7195: 7186: 7174: 7068: 7047: 7010: 6986: 6869: 6849: 6831: 6804: 6795: 6741: 6714: 6688: 6614: 6594: 6574: 6565: 6556: 6400: 6268: 6200: 6197: 6192: 6187: 6182: 6177: 6172: 6167: 6162: 6159: 5791:rather than the expected 4585:in southern Scandinavia. 4502:. Migration of the Proto- 4269:– Center: Steppe cultures 4172:, a theory championed by 3894:; the superlative suffix 3498:and its descendants, the 2997:of the 3rd millennium BC. 2789:) in 1810 in the work of 2732:Asiatic Society of Bengal 2663:Ottoman Turkish traveler 1809:Historical Vedic religion 1086:Chalcolithic (Copper Age) 415: 255: 241: 223: 80: 62: 51:Linguistic classification 49: 39: 34: 15640:Arnhem/Macro-Gunwinyguan 14154:Köbler, Gerhard (2014). 13790:(2nd ed.). Vienna: 13388:10.1515/kadmos-1988-0103 13162:Auroux, Sylvain (2000). 12193:Pokorny, Julius (1959). 12178:Lejeune, Michel (1974). 12152:Harvard University Press 11928:10.31826/jlr-2013-090105 11801::10.1038/ejhg.2015.206. 11225: 11214:Proto-Indo-European root 11159:Indo-European sound laws 11119:are Indo-European, with 10944:, including that of the 10934:Indo-European migrations 10889:, 10 are Indo-European: 10772:Indo-European vocabulary 10706:"to suffer" (from Latin 10647:construction, using the 10577:verb systems to largely 9563:Before or after a (PIE) 9419:Before or after a (PIE) 9401:Before or after a (PIE) 6145:Indo-European sound laws 5822:in the middle (but note 5331:Indo-European sound laws 4943:Most noticeable of all: 4769:eastern Iranian language 4538:. Hittite goes extinct. 4370:Indo-European migrations 4332:meaning. By addition of 2985:which, according to the 2929:evolved from an ancient 2914:Indo-European migrations 2898:coefficients sonantiques 2838:leads from this work to 2504:propose such relations. 2466:remain, some aspects of 1814:Ancient Iranian religion 1177:Novotitarovskaya culture 1024:Indo-European migrations 17709:Indo-European languages 17681:have no living members. 17564:East and Southeast Asia 16807:have no living members. 14221:Indo-European languages 14173:Schalin, Johan (2009). 13959:Indo-European languages 13413:Porzig, Walter (1954). 13336:Linguistique Balkanique 13254:Collinge, N.E. (1985). 13136:Encyclopædia Britannica 12803:Indo-Hittite hypothesis 12238:10.1126/science.1219669 11536:London Quarterly Review 11304:Mallory, J. P. (2006). 11281:Kingdom of the Hittites 11141:Grammatical conjugation 9826:Ancient representative 5045:Other primary sources: 4601:cultural sphere, where 4311:internal reconstruction 3914: 2983:Proto-Armenian language 2836:comparative linguistics 2738:The Sanscrit [ 2450:—found in texts of the 2297:—have expanded through 2255:Indo-European languages 1315:Northern/Eastern Steppe 16787:Unclassified languages 16741:list of sign languages 15709:Northeastern Tasmanian 14044:. 2009. Archived from 13309:Holm, Hans J. (2008). 12448:I dialetti indoeuropei 11797: 10.1101/015396. 11397:10.3765/bls.v18i1.1574 11279:Bryce, Trevor (2005). 11169:Indo-Semitic languages 10874: 10809: 10766:Comparison of cognates 10716: 10702: 10485:berum enkʿ; g'perenkʿ 10348:(er/sie/es) {ge}biert 10200:Modern representative 5358:) distinction between 5063:– AD 100) and limited 4855:Paleo-Balkan languages 4732:) to Northwest China ( 4655:Paleo-Balkan languages 4532:Mycenaean civilization 4457:Pre-Armenian (2800 BC) 4298: 4285:6 (magenta): Andronovo 4113:about such proposals. 4033: 4027: 4013: 3908: 3670:Tree versus wave model 3642: 3488:Osco-Umbrian languages 2939:Indo-European language 2864:'s development of the 2816: 2756: 2476:historical linguistics 2409:, associated with the 1786:Religion and mythology 1745:Medieval Scandinavians 1036:Alternative and fringe 23:. For other uses, see 16762:Constructed languages 13840:. London: Routledge. 13809:10.1017/9781108758666 13792:Mekhitarist Monastery 13367:Lubotsky, A. (1988). 12860:. pp. 2280–2291. 12754:The Tocharian problem 12510:10.1353/lan.2005.0078 12343:10.1353/lan.2015.0005 12017:John Wiley & Sons 11765:. Walter de Gruyter. 11755:Gamkrelidze, Tamaz V. 11417:Roger Blench (2004). 11371:1 August 2020 at the 11174:Indo-Uralic languages 11164:Indo-European studies 11101:European colonization 11016:region. Similarly in 10938:Indo-European culture 10815: 10790: 9629:'to carry, to bear') 9303:Before a (PIE) stop ( 9271:At the end of a word. 6119:, with later loss of 4589:and the beginning of 4524:beginning of Iron Age 4377:Indo-European origins 4352:). The reconstructed 4340:, and by addition of 4262: 4208:) and possibly others 3972: 3747:Proposed subgroupings 3640: 3017:), earliest texts in 2967:mentioned in Semitic 2931:Paleo-Balkan language 2862:Ferdinand de Saussure 2832:Indo-European studies 2811: 2805:have also been used. 2797:, although in German 2736: 2620:linguist and scholar 2565:, a merchant born in 2498:genetic relationships 2399:Pontic–Caspian steppe 2136:Indo-European studies 1499:Peoples and societies 15309:Binanderean–Goilalan 13932:. Houghton Mifflin. 13650:Chakrabarti, Byomkes 13206:Beekes, Robert S. P. 13184:Beekes, Robert S. P. 12997:Indo-Iranian Journal 12829:, pp. 588, 594. 12627:by James Clackson". 11820:Schleicher 1874–1877 11603:In his latest book, 11552:Franz Bopp (2010) . 11179:Eurasiatic languages 11154:Indo-European copula 10946:Proto-Indo-Europeans 10783:Present distribution 10655:) and an auxiliary: 10520:berum ekʿ; g'perekʿ 10432:They two (3rd dual) 10327:He/She/It (3rd sg.) 10060:They two (3rd dual) 9955:He/She/It (3rd sg.) 9703:They two (3rd dual) 9660:He/She/It (3rd sg.) 9601:of the English verb 9595:of the verbal root * 5988:Indo-Aryan languages 5434:Germanic sound shift 5041:usefulness somewhat. 4307:Proto-Indo-Europeans 4078:improve this article 3731:An extension to the 3418:Behistun inscription 3316:second millennium BC 3296:traces of Indo-Aryan 2761:first used the term 2546:wrote a letter from 1043:Anatolian hypothesis 995:Proto-Indo-Europeans 902:Hittite inscriptions 447:Indo-European topics 17322:Chukotko-Kamchatkan 17106:Northwest Caucasian 17101:Northeast Caucasian 16591:(Maku-Auari/Jukude) 16494:Tequiraca–Canichana 16337:Harákmbut–Katukinan 15100:Northwest Caucasian 15094:Northeast Caucasian 15018:Chukotko-Kamchatkan 14647:Proto-Indo-European 14141:on 17 February 2009 14048:on 3 September 2009 13615:10.1017/ehs.2022.16 13448:Ringe, Don (2006). 12787:Anatolian languages 12450:. Brescia: Paideia. 12386:, pp. 161–89, 12230:2012Sci...337..957B 12146:Fine, John (1985). 11990:. pp. 95–114. 11722:Güterbock, Hans G. 11542:, p. 12 footnote 6. 11194:Languages of Europe 11099:and the results of 11085:Indian subcontinent 11081:early modern period 11042:Indian subcontinent 11010:Caucasian languages 10649:habitual participle 10645:habitual indicative 10397:You two (2nd dual) 10025:You two (2nd dual) 9690:You two (2nd dual) 9618:Proto-Indo-European 9611: 6516:thri (old Persian) 6156: 6096:Loss of prevocalic 5980:linguistic typology 5207:Anatolian languages 5177:Old Church Slavonic 5038:Anatolian languages 4885:Early Modern period 4812:forms an Old Norse 4761:Germanic migrations 4694:Classical Antiquity 4591:Classical Antiquity 4463:Pre-Greek (2500 BC) 4295:9 (yellow):Iranians 4249:Proto-Indo-European 4202:Chukotko-Kamchatkan 4138:Northwest Caucasian 3938:features, like the 3759:phylogenetic clades 3651:Proto-Indo-European 3101:Proto-Indo-European 3019:Old Church Slavonic 2987:Armenian hypothesis 2975:from about 1650 BC. 2828:Comparative Grammar 2520:Indian subcontinent 2502:disputed hypotheses 2432:Anatolian languages 2379:Proto-Indo-European 2271:Indian subcontinent 2269:, and the northern 1299:Multi-cordoned ware 1170:Mikhaylovka culture 1058:Indigenous Aryanism 1048:Armenian hypothesis 907:Hieroglyphic Luwian 73:Proto-Indo-European 17587:Austronesian–Ongan 17386:Proposed groupings 16213:Tarascan/Purépecha 15702:Northern Tasmanian 15460:South Bougainville 15421:North Bougainville 14728:Proto-Indo-Iranian 14675:Proto-Balto-Slavic 14417:Continental Celtic 14117:on 7 February 2006 14024:on 10 October 2017 13672:Chantraine, Pierre 13492:Schleicher, August 13470:Schleicher, August 12769:, pp. 36–73). 12280:(1 January 2013). 11759:Ivanov, Vyacheslav 11736:on 2 December 2013 11703:on 3 February 2017 11199:Languages of India 11105:Western Hemisphere 10875: 10810: 10659:(masculine forms). 10641:present indicative 10639:. The loss of the 10637:future subjunctive 10633:present indicative 10555:berum en; g'peren 10546:(ānān) {mi}barand 10482:beirimid; beiream 10362:We two (1st dual) 10310:berum es; g'peres 10275:berum em; g'perem 9990:We two (1st dual) 9855:Classical Armenian 9610: 9593:present indicative 9469:Before or after a 6150: 5418:Germanic languages 5412:As an example, in 5341:daughter languages 5298:Classical Armenian 4799:Scythian languages 4706:Hellenistic period 4692:500 BC – 1 BC/AD: 4677:). Development of 4611:Siddhartha Gautama 4579:Pre-Proto-Germanic 4520:Vedic civilization 4488:pre-Proto-Germanic 4478:1500–1000 BC: The 4354:Indo-European verb 4318:inflected language 4299: 4226:sub-Saharan Africa 4014: 3655:shared innovations 3643: 3585:Ancient Macedonian 3312:via oral tradition 3278:Proto-Indo-Iranian 3181:, 4th century AD. 3133:Ogham inscriptions 2817: 879:Proto-Indo-Iranian 865:Proto-Balto-Slavic 846:Proto-Italo-Celtic 17714:Language families 17696: 17695: 17605: 17604: 17597:Sino-Austronesian 17381: 17380: 16856:Language families 16822: 16821: 16772:Language isolates 16750: 16749: 16655: 16654: 16221: 16220: 16107: 16106: 15802: 15801: 15749:Western Tasmanian 15667:Eastern Tasmanian 15622: 15621: 15344:East Geelvink Bay 15274: 15273: 14965: 14964: 14789: 14788: 14783:extinct languages 14402: 14401: 14329: 14328: 13954:Library resources 13939:978-0-618-08250-6 13917:978-1-57958-218-0 13902:Strazny, Philip; 13863:(2007): 244–276. 13771:978-0-9845353-7-8 13750:978-0-500-27616-7 13724:978-0-9983669-2-0 13663:978-81-7074-128-2 13571:978-0-19-823870-6 13483:978-3-8102-1071-5 13326:978-3-540-78239-1 13288:978-1-4051-0315-2 13175:978-3-11-016735-1 13154:978-0-691-05887-0 13051:(22nd ed.). 12876:, pp. 56–58. 12602:978-3-934106-99-4 12578:. pp. 29–50. 12393:978-0-415-52789-7 12224:(6097): 957–960. 12161:978-0-674-03314-6 11874:978-81-8424-568-4 11772:978-3-11-081503-0 11697:www.leidenuniv.nl 11667:978-1-267-58033-7 11640:978-3-11-054243-1 11521:978-0-13-134304-7 11315:978-0-19-928791-8 11290:978-0-19-928132-9 11189:Languages of Asia 11097:population growth 10998:Semitic languages 10571: 10570: 10511:(šomā) {mi}barid 9754: 9753: 9297:(on either side). 9264:- Between vowels. 9246: 9245: 5995:Iranian languages 5938:The "peripheral" 5578:, while original 5405:is disputed; see 5339:evidenced in the 5082:Germanic language 5067:from as early as 4872:: Attestation of 4861:from the western 4846:Turkic migrations 4844:. Due to further 4818:Islamic conquests 4806:Early Middle Ages 4747:; attestation of 4726:Scythian cultures 4627:Achaemenid Empire 4561:1000–500 BC: The 4534:gives way to the 4480:Nordic Bronze Age 4324:of PIE are basic 4265:Kurgan hypothesis 4218:Harold C. Fleming 4176:, comprising the 4166:language families 4110: 4109: 4102: 3869: 3868: 3726:Balkan sprachbund 3514:Afanasevo culture 3500:Romance languages 3276:, descended from 2894:Hittite consonant 2840:August Schleicher 2791:Conrad Malte-Brun 2704:Sir William Jones 2677:Mikhail Lomonosov 2491:Semitic languages 2487:Egyptian language 2444:Akkadian language 2395:Kurgan hypothesis 2251: 2250: 1512:Anatolian peoples 1482:Painted Grey Ware 1370:Nordic Bronze Age 1019:Kurgan hypothesis 972:Old Irish glosses 937:Gaulish epigraphy 432: 431: 57:language families 17721: 17664:Proto-Euphratean 17390: 17389: 17298: 17297: 17266:Great Andamanese 16849: 16842: 16835: 16826: 16825: 16668: 16667: 16622:Huaorani/Waorani 16506:(extant in 2000) 16470:Esmeralda–Yaruro 16241:Andoque–Urequena 16234: 16233: 16118: 16117: 15924:Plateau Penutian 15815: 15814: 15790:(Northern Daly?) 15633: 15632: 15519:Northwest Papuan 15483:Trans–New Guinea 15349:East New Britain 15324:Central Solomons 15290: 15289: 15035:Great Andamanese 14985: 14984: 14836: 14835: 14816: 14809: 14802: 14793: 14792: 14735:Proto-Indo-Aryan 14340: 14339: 14241: 14240: 14214: 14207: 14200: 14191: 14190: 14186: 14184: 14182: 14169: 14167: 14165: 14150: 14148: 14146: 14126: 14124: 14122: 14093: 14085: 14083: 14081: 14068: 14057: 14055: 14053: 14033: 14031: 14029: 14013: 14011: 14009: 13943: 13926:Watkins, Calvert 13921: 13898: 13851: 13832: 13830: 13795: 13789: 13780:Meillet, Antoine 13775: 13754: 13742: 13728: 13707: 13688:Gimbutas, Marija 13683: 13681: 13667: 13645: 13627: 13617: 13584: 13575: 13551: 13523: 13503: 13501: 13487: 13465: 13444: 13418: 13409: 13399: 13373: 13363: 13353: 13343: 13330: 13305: 13292: 13273: 13261: 13250: 13229: 13201: 13179: 13158: 13139: 13120: 13119: 13117: 13115: 13106: 13099: 13093: 13092: 13090: 13088: 13083:. 3 October 2018 13078: 13071: 13065: 13064: 13062: 13060: 13050: 13043: 13037: 13036: 12994: 12986: 12980: 12962: 12956: 12934: 12928: 12927: 12925: 12923: 12907: 12901: 12895: 12889: 12883: 12877: 12871: 12862: 12861: 12853: 12842: 12836: 12830: 12824: 12818: 12812: 12806: 12796: 12790: 12776: 12770: 12763: 12757: 12747: 12741: 12735: 12729: 12728: 12707: 12701: 12695: 12689: 12683: 12677: 12676: 12661: 12655: 12654: 12620: 12614: 12613: 12611: 12609: 12586: 12580: 12579: 12567: 12561: 12555: 12549: 12543: 12537: 12536: 12528: 12522: 12521: 12503: 12483: 12470: 12464: 12458: 12452: 12451: 12443: 12437: 12436: 12424: 12418: 12417: 12403: 12397: 12396: 12377: 12368: 12362: 12361: 12359: 12357: 12326: 12317: 12311: 12310: 12308: 12306: 12301: 12274: 12268: 12267: 12257: 12209: 12203: 12202: 12190: 12184: 12183: 12175: 12169: 12168: 12143: 12137: 12136: 12116: 12110: 12108: 12085:Evangelia Adamou 12080: 12074: 12072: 12052: 12046: 12045: 12037: 12031: 12030: 12008: 12002: 12001: 11979: 11973: 11972: 11964: 11958: 11947: 11941: 11940: 11930: 11906: 11900: 11899: 11885: 11879: 11878: 11859: 11853: 11852: 11851:. 30 March 2011. 11841: 11835: 11816: 11810: 11782: 11776: 11752: 11746: 11745: 11743: 11741: 11735: 11729:. Archived from 11728: 11719: 11713: 11712: 11710: 11708: 11689: 11683: 11682: 11676: 11674: 11651: 11645: 11644: 11625:(11 June 2018). 11623:De Vaan, Michiel 11619: 11613: 11601: 11595: 11594: 11579: 11573: 11572: 11564: 11558: 11557: 11549: 11543: 11532: 11526: 11525: 11513: 11503: 11497: 11496: 11480: 11468: 11462: 11444: 11442: 11440: 11434: 11423: 11414: 11408: 11407: 11405: 11403: 11382: 11376: 11359: 11353: 11343: 11337: 11331: 11320: 11319: 11301: 11295: 11294: 11276: 11270: 11269: 11262: 11240: 11236: 11089:Age of Discovery 11062:Uralic languages 11026:Uralic languages 10970:Germanic peoples 10868: 10859: 10846: 10837: 10828: 10806: 10800: 10794: 10719: 10705: 10668: 10665: 10606:periphrastically 10558:(sie) {ge}bären 10543:(ye/vo) bʰarēm̥ 10488:(wir) {ge}bären 10345:berum ē; g'perē 10313:(du) {ge}bierst 10264:(man) {mi}baram 9756: 9755: 9750: 9749: 9737: 9736: 9724: 9723: 9711: 9710: 9698: 9697: 9685: 9684: 9668: 9667: 9655: 9654: 9642: 9641: 9628: 9627: 9612: 9609: 9600: 9599: 9575:, also known as 9569: 9568: 9553:, also known as 9547: 9546: 9531:, also known as 9515: 9514: 9501: 9500: 9493: 9492: 9479: 9478: 9461: 9460: 9443: 9442: 9425: 9424: 9407: 9406: 9393: 9392: 9373: 9372: 9353: 9352: 9345: 9344: 9331: 9330: 9323: 9322: 9309: 9308: 9295: 9294: 9162: 9161: 9152: 9151: 9142: 9141: 9133: 9132: 9124: 9123: 9115: 9114: 9106: 9105: 9097: 9096: 9088: 9087: 9044: 9043: 9035: 9034: 9026: 9025: 9016: 9015: 9006: 9005: 8996: 8995: 8986: 8985: 8977: 8976: 8968: 8967: 8959: 8958: 8950: 8949: 8906: 8905: 8897: 8896: 8853: 8852: 8843: 8842: 8835: 8834: 8826: 8825: 8779: 8778: 8770: 8769: 8760: 8759: 8751: 8750: 8742: 8741: 8695: 8694: 8685: 8684: 8675: 8674: 8665: 8664: 8655: 8654: 8645: 8644: 8635: 8634: 8585: 8584: 8573: 8572: 8564: 8563: 8555: 8554: 8505: 8504: 8496: 8495: 8487: 8486: 8442: 8441: 8432: 8431: 8422: 8421: 8412: 8411: 8400: 8399: 8390: 8389: 8380: 8379: 8369: 8368: 8359: 8358: 8350: 8349: 8340: 8339: 8331: 8330: 8322: 8321: 8238: 8237: 8228: 8227: 8219: 8218: 8210: 8209: 8201: 8200: 8191: 8190: 8182: 8181: 8173: 8172: 8164: 8163: 8154: 8153: 8145: 8144: 8136: 8135: 8127: 8126: 8118: 8117: 8109: 8108: 8100: 8099: 8091: 8090: 8082: 8081: 8071: 8070: 8062: 8061: 8053: 8052: 8044: 8043: 8035: 8034: 8026: 8025: 8017: 8016: 8008: 8007: 7999: 7998: 7943: 7942: 7933: 7932: 7924: 7923: 7914: 7913: 7904: 7903: 7892: 7891: 7883: 7882: 7874: 7873: 7865: 7864: 7856: 7855: 7847: 7846: 7838: 7837: 7829: 7828: 7820: 7819: 7811: 7810: 7767: 7766: 7758: 7757: 7746: 7745: 7734: 7733: 7725: 7724: 7716: 7715: 7707: 7706: 7698: 7697: 7689: 7688: 7680: 7679: 7671: 7670: 7662: 7661: 7653: 7652: 7604: 7603: 7594: 7593: 7585: 7584: 7573: 7572: 7564: 7563: 7555: 7554: 7546: 7545: 7537: 7536: 7528: 7527: 7519: 7518: 7510: 7509: 7501: 7500: 7450: 7449: 7441: 7440: 7429: 7428: 7420: 7419: 7411: 7410: 7402: 7401: 7393: 7392: 7384: 7383: 7375: 7374: 7331: 7330: 7322: 7321: 7313: 7312: 7304: 7303: 7295: 7294: 7286: 7285: 7277: 7276: 7268: 7267: 7259: 7258: 7210: 7209: 7201: 7200: 7192: 7191: 7180: 7179: 7171: 7170: 7162: 7161: 7153: 7152: 7144: 7143: 7135: 7134: 7126: 7125: 7074: 7073: 7062: 7061: 7053: 7052: 7044: 7043: 7036: 7035: 7027: 7026: 7016: 7015: 7001: 7000: 6992: 6991: 6983: 6982: 6975: 6974: 6966: 6965: 6885: 6884: 6875: 6874: 6865: 6864: 6855: 6854: 6846: 6845: 6837: 6836: 6828: 6827: 6819: 6818: 6810: 6809: 6801: 6800: 6747: 6746: 6738: 6737: 6729: 6728: 6720: 6719: 6711: 6710: 6702: 6701: 6694: 6693: 6685: 6684: 6640: 6639: 6630: 6629: 6620: 6619: 6610: 6609: 6600: 6599: 6590: 6589: 6580: 6579: 6571: 6570: 6562: 6561: 6553: 6552: 6544: 6543: 6535: 6534: 6526: 6525: 6482: 6481: 6473: 6472: 6463: 6462: 6454: 6453: 6445: 6444: 6435: 6434: 6425: 6424: 6415: 6414: 6406: 6405: 6397: 6396: 6389: 6388: 6380: 6379: 6331: 6330: 6321: 6320: 6311: 6310: 6301: 6300: 6292: 6291: 6283: 6282: 6274: 6273: 6265: 6264: 6257: 6256: 6248: 6247: 6157: 6149: 6082: 5972:velar consonants 5601: 5600: 5595: 5594: 5589: 5588: 5583: 5582: 5577: 5576: 5571: 5570: 5561: 5560: 5555: 5554: 5549: 5548: 5543: 5542: 5537: 5536: 5531: 5530: 5523: 5522: 5517: 5516: 5511: 5510: 5505: 5504: 5499: 5498: 5493: 5492: 5486: 5485: 5480: 5479: 5474: 5473: 5468: 5467: 5461: 5460: 5455: 5454: 5449: 5448: 5443: 5442: 5386:, "plain velar" 5376:velar consonants 5368:voiced aspirated 5319: 5316: 5306: 5303: 5293: 5290: 5280: 5277: 5262: 5259: 5249: 5246: 5236: 5233: 5215: 5212: 5185: 5182: 5172: 5169: 5154: 5151: 5143: 5140: 5130: 5127: 5123: 5120: 5112: 5109: 5101: 5098: 5090: 5087: 5073: 5070: 5062: 5059: 5035: 5032: 5022: 5019: 4999: 4996: 4988: 4985: 4975: 4972: 4956: 4953: 4870:Late Middle Ages 4822:Turkic expansion 4797:start replacing 4795:Turkic languages 4730:Pontic Scythians 4629:, replacing the 4571:Baltic languages 4563:Celtic languages 4540:Iranian speakers 4426: 4423: 4398:(before 3500 BC) 4222:Sergei Starostin 4174:Joseph Greenberg 4132:, postulated by 4105: 4098: 4094: 4091: 4085: 4062: 4054: 4036: 4030: 4010: 4004: 3998: 3989: 3983: 3977: 3931:second laryngeal 3917: 3911: 3861: 3854: 3847: 3751: 3750: 3693:language contact 3518:Uyghur Khaganate 3304:Edicts of Ashoka 3275: 3272: 3253:History of Greek 3015:possibly earlier 2902:laryngeal theory 2874:Jochem Schindler 2866:laryngeal theory 2754: 2669:Gaston Coeurdoux 2658:Baltic languages 2563:Filippo Sassetti 2480:recorded history 2448:Semitic language 2243: 2236: 2229: 2084: 2077: 2063: 2056: 2049: 2035: 2028: 2021: 2014: 2007: 1932: 1918: 1911: 1897: 1875: 1868: 1861: 1852: 1687: 1680: 1673: 1666: 1659: 1642:Germanic peoples 1632:Hellenic peoples 1621: 1614: 1607: 1530:Mycenaean Greeks 1519: 1447:Thraco-Cimmerian 1345:Globular Amphora 1322:Abashevo culture 1261: 1254: 1224: 1179: 1172: 1165: 1158: 1151: 1144: 1137: 1130: 967:Tocharian script 670: 663: 656: 649: 642: 635: 628: 621: 588: 574: 567: 560: 546: 522: 515: 496: 457: 434: 433: 424: 403: 389: 380: 371: 362: 348: 330: 312: 303: 289: 280: 266: 260: 251: 237: 219: 212: 205: 198: 191: 183: 176: 165: 144: 108: 99: 32: 31: 17729: 17728: 17724: 17723: 17722: 17720: 17719: 17718: 17699: 17698: 17697: 17692: 17691: 17668: 17659:Paleo-Laplandic 17654:Pre-Finno-Ugric 17601: 17558: 17522:Greater Siangic 17508: 17494:Uralic–Yukaghir 17444:Ibero-Caucasian 17439:Elamo-Dravidian 17377: 17336: 17287: 17251: 17176: 17112: 17095:North Caucasian 17075: 16985: 16924:Paleo-Sardinian 16862: 16853: 16823: 16818: 16817: 16791: 16777:Mixed languages 16746: 16727: 16662: 16651: 16505: 16499: 16354:Katembri–Taruma 16228: 16217: 16189: 16103: 15996: 15809: 15798: 15769: 15618: 15530: 15489:Turama–Kikorian 15399:Lower Mamberamo 15354:East Strickland 15282: 15270: 15188: 14976: 14971: 14961: 14916: 14825: 14820: 14790: 14785: 14772: 14767:Proto-Tocharian 14661:Proto-Anatolian 14638:Proto-languages 14632: 14550: 14523: 14505:Latino-Faliscan 14491: 14457: 14427: 14398: 14370: 14325: 14268: 14228: 14218: 14180: 14178: 14177:. Johan Schalin 14163: 14161: 14144: 14142: 14129: 14120: 14118: 14109: 14106: 14088: 14079: 14077: 14072: 14051: 14049: 14036: 14027: 14025: 14018:"Indo-European" 14016: 14007: 14005: 13996: 13984: 13983: 13982: 13962: 13961: 13957: 13950: 13940: 13918: 13906:, eds. (2000). 13879: 13848: 13819: 13772: 13751: 13725: 13704: 13664: 13592: 13590:Further reading 13587: 13572: 13540: 13484: 13462: 13441: 13371: 13351: 13327: 13289: 13270: 13226: 13216:Michiel de Vaan 13198: 13176: 13155: 13129: 13124: 13123: 13113: 13111: 13101: 13100: 13096: 13086: 13084: 13073: 13072: 13068: 13058: 13056: 13045: 13044: 13040: 12987: 12983: 12963: 12959: 12935: 12931: 12921: 12919: 12908: 12904: 12896: 12892: 12884: 12880: 12872: 12865: 12854: 12845: 12837: 12833: 12825: 12821: 12813: 12809: 12797: 12793: 12785:; pp. 589, 593 12777: 12773: 12764: 12760: 12748: 12744: 12736: 12732: 12725: 12708: 12704: 12696: 12692: 12684: 12680: 12662: 12658: 12621: 12617: 12607: 12605: 12603: 12587: 12583: 12568: 12564: 12556: 12552: 12544: 12540: 12529: 12525: 12481: 12471: 12467: 12459: 12455: 12444: 12440: 12425: 12421: 12404: 12400: 12394: 12375: 12369: 12365: 12355: 12353: 12324: 12318: 12314: 12304: 12302: 12278:Drinka, Bridget 12275: 12271: 12210: 12206: 12191: 12187: 12176: 12172: 12162: 12144: 12140: 12117: 12113: 12105: 12081: 12077: 12069: 12053: 12049: 12038: 12034: 12027: 12019:. p. 136. 12009: 12005: 11998: 11980: 11976: 11965: 11961: 11948: 11944: 11907: 11903: 11886: 11882: 11875: 11861: 11860: 11856: 11843: 11842: 11838: 11824:Szemerényi 1957 11817: 11813: 11809: 26486470. 11805: 4820045. 11783: 11779: 11773: 11753: 11749: 11739: 11737: 11733: 11726: 11720: 11716: 11706: 11704: 11691: 11690: 11686: 11672: 11670: 11668: 11652: 11648: 11641: 11620: 11616: 11602: 11598: 11580: 11576: 11565: 11561: 11550: 11546: 11538:X/2 1813.; cf. 11533: 11529: 11522: 11504: 11500: 11469: 11465: 11438: 11436: 11432: 11421: 11415: 11411: 11401: 11399: 11383: 11379: 11373:Wayback Machine 11364:Russian Grammar 11360: 11356: 11344: 11340: 11336:, p. 1156. 11332: 11323: 11316: 11302: 11298: 11291: 11277: 11273: 11264: 11263: 11259: 11254: 11249: 11244: 11243: 11237: 11233: 11228: 11223: 11184:Language family 11136: 11077:Eurasian nomads 11012:in much of the 10954:Iranian peoples 10879:native speakers 10873: 10866: 10864: 10857: 10851: 10844: 10842: 10835: 10833: 10826: 10820: 10808: 10804: 10802: 10798: 10796: 10792: 10785: 10780: 10774: 10768: 10684:The Latin verb 10666: 10567:(ata/ato) bien 10537:They (3rd pl.) 10523:(ihr) {ge}bärt 10476:(mā) {mi}barim 10336:(ān) {mi}barad 10278:(ich) {ge}bäre 10261:(ma͠i) bʰarūm̥ 10165:They (3rd pl.) 9759:Major subgroup 9742:They (3rd pl.) 9620: 9586: 9573:Grassmann's law 9551:Grassmann's law 9529:Grassmann's law 9145: 9009: 8989: 8980: 8763: 8576: 8512: 8435: 8415: 8403: 8383: 8372: 8362: 8353: 8343: 8231: 8222: 8204: 8194: 8185: 8167: 8157: 8148: 8130: 8121: 8112: 8103: 8094: 8056: 8047: 8029: 8020: 8011: 7957: 7936: 7917: 7907: 7895: 7877: 7859: 7823: 7751: 7749: 7737: 7719: 7710: 7692: 7665: 7597: 7578: 7576: 7558: 7540: 7513: 7475: 7462: 7432: 7414: 7396: 7387: 7316: 7307: 7289: 7280: 7271: 7223: 7204: 7183: 7138: 7087: 7065: 7004: 6878: 6858: 6840: 6822: 6813: 6762: 6754: 6732: 6723: 6705: 6633: 6623: 6603: 6583: 6476: 6466: 6448: 6438: 6418: 6324: 6304: 6286: 6137:Grassmann's law 6123:between vowels. 5881:, particularly 5875: 5842:(compare Latin 5798:Most remaining 5550:(Later initial 5512:(Later initial 5348:stop consonants 5333: 5327: 5320:–current time). 5317: 5304: 5291: 5278: 5260: 5247: 5234: 5213: 5183: 5170: 5152: 5146:Younger Avestan 5141: 5128: 5121: 5110: 5104:Old High German 5099: 5088: 5071: 5060: 5033: 5020: 4997: 4991:Mycenaean Greek 4986: 4973: 4954: 4924:(most notably, 4914: 4739:1 BC – AD 500: 4722:Mauryan empires 4653:. A variety of 4645:, and possibly 4599:Greater Magadha 4536:Greek Dark Ages 4424: 4372: 4366: 4364:Diversification 4296: 4294: 4293:8 (grey): Greek 4292: 4290: 4288: 4286: 4284: 4282: 4280: 4278: 4276: 4274: 4272: 4270: 4268: 4257: 4251: 4246: 4238:Andaman Islands 4160:Elamo-Dravidian 4106: 4095: 4089: 4086: 4075: 4063: 4052: 4012: 4008: 4006: 4002: 4000: 3996: 3994: 3987: 3985: 3981: 3979: 3975: 3967: 3961: 3924:Calvert Watkins 3888:Antoine Meillet 3877:Graeco-Armenian 3865: 3807:Thraco-Illyrian 3802:Armeno-Phrygian 3797:Graeco-Phrygian 3787:Graeco-Armenian 3777:Graeco-Albanian 3758: 3749: 3678: 3676:Language change 3672: 3529:Ancient Belgian 3318:in the form of 3273: 3153:Scottish Gaelic 2916: 2910: 2884:in the wake of 2870:Calvert Watkins 2787:indo-germanique 2773:. A synonym is 2755: 2752: 2695:, "Hottentot" ( 2648:, later adding 2544:Thomas Stephens 2538:missionary and 2516: 2510: 2428:Mycenaean Greek 2411:Yamnaya culture 2407:southern Russia 2401:in what is now 2267:Iranian plateau 2259:language family 2247: 2218: 2217: 2150:Marija Gimbutas 2138: 2128: 2127: 2119:Winter solstice 2109:Horse sacrifice 2080: 2073: 2059: 2052: 2045: 2031: 2024: 2017: 2010: 2003: 1956: 1941: 1928: 1914: 1907: 1893: 1884: 1871: 1864: 1857: 1848: 1839: 1818: 1787: 1779: 1778: 1721: 1708: 1683: 1676: 1669: 1662: 1655: 1617: 1610: 1603: 1594: 1576: 1563: 1550: 1521: 1515: 1500: 1492: 1491: 1465: 1442: 1429: 1417: 1398: 1340: 1317: 1279: 1272: 1266: 1257: 1250: 1241: 1239:Northern Europe 1220: 1216: 1203: 1190: 1175: 1168: 1161: 1154: 1147: 1140: 1133: 1126: 1122:Steppe cultures 1095: 1088: 1081: 1073: 1072: 1063:Baltic homeland 1037: 1033: 1029:Eurasian nomads 1013: 1009: 985: 977: 976: 947:Runic epigraphy 942:Latin epigraphy 897: 889: 888: 826:Proto-Anatolian 810: 765: 761:Thraco-Illyrian 746:Graeco-Phrygian 736:Graeco-Armenian 731:Graeco-Albanian 710: 688: 675: 666: 659: 652: 645: 638: 631: 624: 617: 584: 570: 563: 556: 542: 518: 511: 492: 477: 469: 467: 428: 411: 408:multilingualism 405: 401: 399: 387: 385: 378: 376: 369: 367: 360: 358: 346: 344: 328: 326: 310: 308: 301: 299: 287: 285: 278: 276: 264: 247: 233: 213: 206: 199: 192: 184: 177: 132:Graeco-Phrygian 41: 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 17727: 17717: 17716: 17711: 17694: 17693: 17690: 17689: 17682: 17674: 17673: 17670: 17669: 17667: 17666: 17661: 17656: 17651: 17646: 17641: 17636: 17631: 17626: 17621: 17615: 17613: 17607: 17606: 17603: 17602: 17600: 17599: 17594: 17589: 17584: 17579: 17574: 17568: 17566: 17560: 17559: 17557: 17556: 17551: 17546: 17541: 17536: 17535: 17534: 17529: 17518: 17516: 17510: 17509: 17507: 17506: 17501: 17496: 17491: 17489:Uralo-Siberian 17486: 17481: 17476: 17474:Serbi–Mongolic 17471: 17466: 17461: 17456: 17451: 17446: 17441: 17436: 17434:Dravido-Korean 17431: 17429:Dené–Yeniseian 17426: 17425: 17424: 17419: 17417:Dené–Caucasian 17414: 17404: 17399: 17393: 17387: 17383: 17382: 17379: 17378: 17376: 17375: 17370: 17362: 17355: 17347: 17345: 17338: 17337: 17335: 17334: 17329: 17324: 17319: 17314: 17308: 17306: 17295: 17289: 17288: 17286: 17285: 17278: 17273: 17268: 17262: 17260: 17253: 17252: 17250: 17249: 17244: 17239: 17234: 17229: 17222: 17215: 17208: 17201: 17194: 17186: 17184: 17178: 17177: 17175: 17174: 17166: 17161: 17156: 17151: 17144: 17137: 17130: 17122: 17120: 17114: 17113: 17111: 17110: 17109: 17108: 17103: 17091: 17085: 17083: 17077: 17076: 17074: 17073: 17066: 17059: 17052: 17045: 17038: 17035:Hurro-Urartian 17031: 17024: 17017: 17010: 17003: 16995: 16993: 16987: 16986: 16984: 16983: 16976: 16969: 16962: 16955: 16948: 16941: 16934: 16927: 16920: 16917:Paleo-Corsican 16913: 16906: 16899: 16894: 16887: 16880: 16872: 16870: 16864: 16863: 16852: 16851: 16844: 16837: 16829: 16820: 16819: 16816: 16815: 16808: 16801: 16797: 16796: 16793: 16792: 16790: 16789: 16784: 16779: 16774: 16769: 16764: 16758: 16756: 16752: 16751: 16748: 16747: 16745: 16744: 16735: 16733: 16729: 16728: 16726: 16725: 16719: 16714: 16709: 16704: 16702:Indo-Pakistani 16699: 16694: 16687: 16682: 16677: 16671: 16665: 16657: 16656: 16653: 16652: 16650: 16649: 16644: 16639: 16634: 16629: 16624: 16619: 16614: 16609: 16603: 16598: 16593: 16585: 16580: 16573: 16568: 16562: 16557: 16552: 16547: 16541: 16536: 16531: 16526: 16521: 16516: 16509: 16507: 16501: 16500: 16498: 16497: 16491: 16485: 16479: 16473: 16467: 16461: 16455: 16450: 16445: 16440: 16435: 16430: 16423: 16418: 16413: 16408: 16403: 16401:Piaroa–Saliban 16398: 16391: 16386: 16381: 16376: 16371: 16366: 16361: 16356: 16351: 16346: 16339: 16334: 16329: 16324: 16319: 16314: 16309: 16302: 16297: 16290: 16285: 16280: 16275: 16270: 16265: 16260: 16253: 16248: 16243: 16237: 16231: 16223: 16222: 16219: 16218: 16216: 16215: 16210: 16205: 16197: 16195: 16191: 16190: 16188: 16187: 16180: 16173: 16168: 16166:Tequistlatecan 16163: 16156: 16151: 16146: 16139: 16132: 16127: 16121: 16115: 16109: 16108: 16105: 16104: 16102: 16101: 16096: 16091: 16086: 16079: 16074: 16067: 16060: 16053: 16046: 16039: 16034: 16029: 16024: 16019: 16012: 16004: 16002: 15998: 15997: 15995: 15994: 15989: 15982: 15975: 15970: 15963: 15958: 15953: 15948: 15943: 15936: 15931: 15926: 15921: 15914: 15907: 15902: 15895: 15890: 15883: 15878: 15873: 15866: 15859: 15852: 15845: 15838: 15833: 15826: 15818: 15812: 15804: 15803: 15800: 15799: 15797: 15796: 15791: 15785: 15777: 15775: 15771: 15770: 15768: 15767: 15757: 15752: 15745: 15740: 15735: 15730: 15724: 15717: 15712: 15705: 15698: 15693: 15689:Marrku–Wurrugu 15685: 15680: 15675: 15670: 15663: 15656: 15648: 15643: 15636: 15630: 15624: 15623: 15620: 15619: 15617: 15616: 15611: 15603: 15597: 15591: 15586: 15581: 15576: 15571: 15566: 15561: 15555: 15549: 15544: 15538: 15536: 15532: 15531: 15529: 15528: 15522: 15516: 15511: 15506: 15501: 15496: 15491: 15486: 15479: 15474: 15467: 15462: 15457: 15452: 15445: 15440: 15435: 15428: 15423: 15418: 15413: 15406: 15401: 15396: 15391: 15386: 15381: 15376: 15371: 15366: 15361: 15356: 15351: 15346: 15341: 15336: 15331: 15326: 15321: 15316: 15311: 15306: 15299: 15293: 15287: 15276: 15275: 15272: 15271: 15269: 15268: 15260: 15253: 15247: 15242: 15234: 15229: 15221: 15214: 15207: 15202: 15196: 15194: 15190: 15189: 15187: 15186: 15180: 15174: 15168: 15162: 15156: 15150: 15145: 15140: 15133: 15126: 15119: 15114: 15107: 15102: 15097: 15090: 15085: 15080: 15073: 15068: 15063: 15058: 15051: 15048:Hurro-Urartian 15044: 15037: 15032: 15027: 15020: 15015: 15008: 15001: 14996: 14988: 14982: 14967: 14966: 14963: 14962: 14960: 14959: 14953: 14947: 14942: 14935: 14930: 14924: 14922: 14918: 14917: 14915: 14914: 14908: 14902: 14896: 14890: 14884: 14879: 14871: 14864: 14859: 14854: 14847: 14839: 14833: 14827: 14826: 14819: 14818: 14811: 14804: 14796: 14787: 14786: 14777: 14774: 14773: 14771: 14770: 14763: 14762: 14761: 14747: 14746: 14745: 14738: 14724: 14721:Proto-Hellenic 14717: 14716: 14715: 14705:Proto-Germanic 14701: 14694: 14693: 14692: 14685: 14671: 14668:Proto-Armenian 14664: 14657: 14654:Proto-Albanian 14650: 14642: 14640: 14634: 14633: 14631: 14630: 14623: 14616: 14609: 14602: 14595: 14588: 14581: 14574: 14569: 14564: 14558: 14556: 14552: 14551: 14549: 14548: 14541: 14535: 14533: 14525: 14524: 14522: 14521: 14514: 14513: 14512: 14501: 14499: 14493: 14492: 14490: 14489: 14484: 14479: 14474: 14467: 14465: 14459: 14458: 14456: 14455: 14450: 14448:North Germanic 14445: 14437: 14435: 14429: 14428: 14426: 14425: 14423:Insular Celtic 14420: 14412: 14410: 14404: 14403: 14400: 14399: 14397: 14396: 14391: 14386: 14380: 14378: 14372: 14371: 14369: 14368: 14361: 14356: 14353:Dnieper Baltic 14348: 14346: 14337: 14331: 14330: 14327: 14326: 14324: 14323: 14316: 14309: 14302: 14295: 14288: 14280: 14278: 14270: 14269: 14267: 14266: 14259: 14252: 14244: 14238: 14230: 14229: 14217: 14216: 14209: 14202: 14194: 14188: 14187: 14170: 14151: 14127: 14105: 14102: 14101: 14100: 14094: 14086: 14070: 14058: 14034: 14014: 13995: 13992: 13991: 13990: 13981: 13980: 13975: 13970: 13964: 13963: 13952: 13951: 13949: 13948:External links 13946: 13945: 13944: 13938: 13922: 13916: 13899: 13877: 13852: 13846: 13833: 13817: 13796: 13776: 13770: 13755: 13749: 13729: 13723: 13708: 13702: 13684: 13668: 13662: 13646: 13591: 13588: 13586: 13585: 13576: 13570: 13554: 13553: 13552: 13538: 13508: 13488: 13482: 13466: 13460: 13445: 13440:978-0941694773 13439: 13419: 13410: 13364: 13362:(1–2): 131–40. 13344: 13331: 13325: 13306: 13293: 13287: 13274: 13268: 13251: 13243:Brugmann, Karl 13239: 13236:978-9027211866 13225:978-9027285003 13224: 13202: 13196: 13180: 13174: 13159: 13153: 13140: 13130: 13128: 13125: 13122: 13121: 13094: 13066: 13038: 13003:(4): 284–301. 12981: 12957: 12929: 12918:on 4 June 2011 12902: 12900:, p. 100. 12890: 12878: 12863: 12843: 12839:Kortlandt 1990 12831: 12819: 12807: 12791: 12771: 12758: 12742: 12740:, p. 593. 12730: 12724:978-0224024952 12723: 12711:Renfrew, Colin 12702: 12698:Kortlandt 1988 12690: 12678: 12665:Euler, Wolfram 12656: 12643:10.2307/416105 12615: 12601: 12581: 12562: 12560:, p. 247. 12550: 12538: 12523: 12501:10.1.1.65.1791 12494:(2): 382–420. 12465: 12453: 12438: 12419: 12416:(1–2): 82–109. 12398: 12392: 12363: 12337:(1): 194–244. 12312: 12292:(2): 379–410. 12269: 12204: 12185: 12170: 12160: 12154:. p. 72. 12138: 12111: 12103: 12075: 12067: 12047: 12032: 12025: 12003: 11996: 11974: 11959: 11942: 11901: 11880: 11873: 11864:Indian History 11854: 11836: 11811: 11777: 11771: 11747: 11714: 11684: 11666: 11646: 11639: 11614: 11596: 11574: 11559: 11544: 11527: 11520: 11498: 11463: 11435:on 17 May 2006 11409: 11377: 11354: 11338: 11321: 11314: 11296: 11289: 11271: 11256: 11255: 11253: 11250: 11248: 11245: 11242: 11241: 11230: 11229: 11227: 11224: 11222: 11221: 11216: 11211: 11206: 11201: 11196: 11191: 11186: 11181: 11176: 11171: 11166: 11161: 11156: 11151: 11143: 11137: 11135: 11132: 10865: 10856: 10843: 10834: 10825: 10803: 10797: 10791: 10784: 10781: 10770:Main article: 10767: 10764: 10763: 10762: 10759: 10752: 10721: 10682: 10660: 10613: 10602:to catch, grab 10569: 10568: 10565: 10564:bérejo; berọ́ 10562: 10559: 10556: 10553: 10550: 10547: 10544: 10541: 10538: 10534: 10533: 10530: 10527: 10524: 10521: 10518: 10515: 10512: 10509: 10506: 10503: 10502:You (2nd pl.) 10499: 10498: 10495: 10492: 10489: 10486: 10483: 10480: 10477: 10474: 10473:(ham) bʰarēm̥ 10471: 10468: 10464: 10463: 10460: 10457: 10454: 10451: 10448: 10445: 10442: 10439: 10436: 10433: 10429: 10428: 10425: 10422: 10419: 10416: 10413: 10410: 10407: 10404: 10401: 10398: 10394: 10393: 10390: 10387: 10384: 10381: 10378: 10375: 10372: 10369: 10366: 10363: 10359: 10358: 10355: 10352: 10349: 10346: 10343: 10340: 10337: 10334: 10333:(ye/vo) bʰarē 10331: 10328: 10324: 10323: 10320: 10317: 10314: 10311: 10308: 10305: 10302: 10301:(tu) {mi}bari 10299: 10296: 10293: 10292:You (2nd sg.) 10289: 10288: 10285: 10282: 10279: 10276: 10273: 10268: 10265: 10262: 10259: 10256: 10252: 10251: 10246: 10241: 10236: 10231: 10226: 10221: 10216: 10211: 10206: 10201: 10197: 10196: 10193: 10190: 10187: 10184: 10181: 10178: 10175: 10172: 10169: 10166: 10162: 10161: 10158: 10155: 10152: 10149: 10146: 10143: 10140: 10137: 10134: 10131: 10130:You (2nd pl.) 10127: 10126: 10123: 10120: 10117: 10114: 10111: 10108: 10105: 10102: 10099: 10096: 10092: 10091: 10088: 10085: 10082: 10079: 10076: 10073: 10070: 10067: 10064: 10061: 10057: 10056: 10053: 10050: 10047: 10044: 10041: 10038: 10035: 10032: 10029: 10026: 10022: 10021: 10018: 10015: 10012: 10009: 10006: 10003: 10000: 9997: 9994: 9991: 9987: 9986: 9983: 9980: 9977: 9974: 9971: 9968: 9965: 9962: 9959: 9956: 9952: 9951: 9948: 9945: 9942: 9939: 9936: 9933: 9930: 9927: 9924: 9921: 9920:You (2nd sg.) 9917: 9916: 9913: 9910: 9907: 9904: 9901: 9898: 9893: 9890: 9887: 9882: 9878: 9877: 9872: 9870:Old Church Sl. 9867: 9862: 9857: 9852: 9847: 9842: 9837: 9835:Vedic Sanskrit 9832: 9827: 9823: 9822: 9817: 9812: 9807: 9801: 9800: 9795: 9790: 9785: 9780: 9775: 9770: 9765: 9760: 9752: 9751: 9743: 9739: 9738: 9730: 9729:You (2nd pl.) 9726: 9725: 9717: 9713: 9712: 9704: 9700: 9699: 9691: 9687: 9686: 9678: 9670: 9669: 9661: 9657: 9656: 9648: 9647:You (2nd sg.) 9644: 9643: 9635: 9631: 9630: 9615: 9585: 9582: 9581: 9580: 9558: 9536: 9522: 9519:Ruki sound law 9504: 9482: 9464: 9446: 9432: 9414: 9396: 9382: 9376: 9362: 9356: 9334: 9312: 9298: 9283: 9272: 9265: 9258: 9251: 9250: 9244: 9243: 9240: 9235: 9230: 9225: 9220: 9215: 9210: 9205: 9201: 9200: 9194: 9189: 9184: 9179: 9174: 9169: 9164: 9155: 9135: 9126: 9117: 9108: 9099: 9090: 9080: 9079: 9076: 9071: 9066: 9061: 9056: 9051: 9046: 9037: 9028: 9019: 8999: 8970: 8961: 8952: 8942: 8941: 8938: 8933: 8928: 8923: 8918: 8913: 8908: 8899: 8889: 8888: 8885: 8880: 8875: 8870: 8865: 8860: 8855: 8846: 8828: 8818: 8817: 8811: 8806: 8801: 8796: 8791: 8786: 8781: 8772: 8753: 8744: 8734: 8733: 8730: 8722: 8717: 8712: 8707: 8702: 8697: 8687: 8677: 8667: 8657: 8647: 8637: 8627: 8626: 8620: 8612: 8607: 8602: 8597: 8592: 8587: 8578: 8566: 8557: 8547: 8546: 8539: 8534: 8529: 8524: 8519: 8514: 8507: 8498: 8489: 8479: 8478: 8475: 8470: 8465: 8460: 8455: 8450: 8445: 8425: 8405: 8393: 8373: 8333: 8324: 8314: 8313: 8310: 8302: 8297: 8292: 8287: 8281: 8275: 8274: 8271: 8266: 8261: 8256: 8251: 8246: 8241: 8212: 8175: 8138: 8084: 8074: 8073: 8064: 8037: 8001: 7991: 7990: 7984: 7979: 7974: 7969: 7964: 7951: 7946: 7926: 7897: 7885: 7867: 7849: 7840: 7831: 7813: 7803: 7802: 7799: 7794: 7789: 7784: 7779: 7774: 7772:*dʰwer-, dʰur- 7769: 7760: 7739: 7727: 7700: 7682: 7673: 7655: 7645: 7644: 7641: 7633: 7628: 7623: 7618: 7612: 7607: 7587: 7566: 7548: 7530: 7521: 7503: 7493: 7492: 7489: 7484: 7479: 7469: 7464: 7457: 7452: 7443: 7434: 7422: 7404: 7377: 7367: 7366: 7363: 7358: 7353: 7348: 7343: 7338: 7333: 7324: 7297: 7261: 7251: 7250: 7244: 7242: 7237: 7232: 7227: 7217: 7212: 7194: 7185: 7173: 7164: 7155: 7146: 7128: 7118: 7117: 7114: 7109: 7104: 7099: 7094: 7081: 7076: 7067: 7055: 7046: 7029: 7019: 7018: 7009: 6994: 6985: 6968: 6958: 6957: 6954: 6949: 6947: 6942: 6937: 6932: 6926: 6925: 6922: 6913: 6908: 6903: 6898: 6893: 6888: 6868: 6848: 6830: 6803: 6793: 6792: 6786: 6781: 6776: 6771: 6766: 6756: 6749: 6740: 6713: 6687: 6677: 6676: 6673: 6668: 6663: 6658: 6653: 6648: 6643: 6613: 6593: 6573: 6564: 6555: 6546: 6537: 6528: 6518: 6517: 6514: 6509: 6504: 6499: 6494: 6489: 6484: 6456: 6428: 6408: 6399: 6382: 6372: 6371: 6364: 6359: 6354: 6349: 6344: 6339: 6334: 6314: 6294: 6276: 6267: 6250: 6240: 6239: 6233: 6227: 6222: 6217: 6212: 6209: 6205: 6204: 6202: 6199: 6196: 6191: 6186: 6181: 6176: 6171: 6166: 6161: 6141: 6140: 6134: 6131:Proto-Germanic 6124: 6105: 6094: 6073:Ruki sound law 6065: 6064: 6063:in Germanic)). 6036: 6018: 6004: 5998: 5991: 5976: 5975: 5936: 5921:palatalization 5899:The "central" 5874: 5873: 5872: 5871: 5858:have a voiced 5838:have a voiced 5796: 5770: 5760: 5759: 5758: 5736: 5732:"to take" vs. 5714: 5684: 5662: 5564: 5563: 5525: 5487: 5462: 5430: 5422: 5372:breathy voiced 5329:Main article: 5326: 5323: 5322: 5321: 5308: 5295: 5282: 5265: 5264: 5251: 5238: 5217: 5188: 5187: 5174: 5164:Old Lithuanian 5156: 5144:–1200 BC) and 5132: 5075: 5065:older material 5043: 5042: 5024: 4998: 1450 BC 4977: 4974: 1500 BC 4959:oral tradition 4948:Vedic Sanskrit 4913: 4910: 4909: 4908: 4881: 4866: 4824:result in the 4802: 4771:, becomes the 4741:Late Antiquity 4737: 4690: 4643:Latin-Faliscan 4625:, rise of the 4583:Proto-Germanic 4581:gives rise to 4559: 4518:; rise of the 4472: 4471: 4464: 4461: 4458: 4455: 4452: 4446: 4439: 4428: 4427: 4418: 4411: 4408: 4405: 4399: 4365: 4362: 4253:Main article: 4250: 4247: 4245: 4242: 4210: 4209: 4167: 4141: 4140: 4134:John Colarusso 4127: 4108: 4107: 4066: 4064: 4057: 4051: 4048: 4007: 4001: 3995: 3986: 3980: 3974: 3963:Main article: 3960: 3957: 3867: 3866: 3864: 3863: 3856: 3849: 3841: 3838: 3837: 3836: 3835: 3830: 3825: 3817: 3816: 3812: 3811: 3810: 3809: 3804: 3799: 3794: 3789: 3784: 3779: 3774: 3766: 3765: 3761: 3760: 3748: 3745: 3705:proto-language 3697:areal features 3671: 3668: 3660:Proto-Germanic 3635: 3634: 3628: 3622: 3616: 3610: 3600: 3594: 3588: 3582: 3576: 3570: 3564: 3558: 3548: 3542: 3536: 3522: 3521: 3507: 3477: 3476: 3475: 3445: 3403: 3324:Northern India 3320:Vedic Sanskrit 3274: 1400 BC 3264: 3242: 3171:Proto-Germanic 3164: 3114: 3113: 3112: 3094: 3055:Serbo-Croatian 2998: 2976: 2953:Late Antiquity 2946: 2927:Proto-Albanian 2909: 2908:Classification 2906: 2822:wrote in 1816 2799:indogermanisch 2767:Western Europe 2750: 2683:"), Iranian (" 2509: 2506: 2472:their religion 2422:, and part of 2362:first language 2261:native to the 2249: 2248: 2246: 2245: 2238: 2231: 2223: 2220: 2219: 2216: 2215: 2208: 2201: 2194: 2187: 2179: 2178: 2172: 2171: 2165: 2164: 2158: 2157: 2152: 2146: 2145: 2139: 2134: 2133: 2130: 2129: 2126: 2125: 2116: 2111: 2106: 2104:Fire sacrifice 2100: 2099: 2093: 2092: 2087: 2086: 2085: 2078: 2066: 2065: 2064: 2057: 2050: 2038: 2037: 2036: 2029: 2022: 2015: 2008: 1996: 1991: 1986: 1949: 1948: 1936: 1935: 1934: 1933: 1921: 1920: 1919: 1912: 1900: 1899: 1898: 1895:Zoroastrianism 1877: 1876: 1869: 1862: 1855: 1854: 1853: 1832: 1831: 1825: 1824: 1817: 1816: 1811: 1806: 1801: 1795: 1794: 1788: 1785: 1784: 1781: 1780: 1777: 1776: 1765: 1764: 1762:Medieval India 1753: 1752: 1747: 1738: 1733: 1728: 1716: 1715: 1703: 1702: 1696: 1695: 1690: 1689: 1688: 1681: 1674: 1667: 1660: 1644: 1639: 1637:Italic peoples 1634: 1629: 1624: 1623: 1622: 1615: 1608: 1589: 1588: 1583: 1571: 1570: 1558: 1557: 1545: 1544: 1538: 1537: 1532: 1527: 1522: 1508: 1507: 1501: 1498: 1497: 1494: 1493: 1490: 1489: 1484: 1473: 1472: 1460: 1459: 1454: 1449: 1437: 1436: 1424: 1423: 1416: 1415: 1413:Gandhara grave 1410: 1405: 1393: 1392: 1387: 1382: 1377: 1372: 1367: 1362: 1357: 1352: 1347: 1335: 1334: 1329: 1324: 1312: 1311: 1306: 1301: 1296: 1291: 1286: 1274: 1273: 1265: 1264: 1263: 1262: 1259:Middle Dnieper 1255: 1236: 1235: 1230: 1225: 1214:Eastern Europe 1211: 1210: 1198: 1197: 1185: 1184: 1183: 1182: 1181: 1180: 1173: 1159: 1152: 1145: 1142:Dnieper–Donets 1138: 1131: 1119: 1117:Kurgan culture 1114: 1113: 1112: 1102: 1090: 1089: 1082: 1079: 1078: 1075: 1074: 1071: 1070: 1065: 1060: 1055: 1053:Beech argument 1050: 1045: 1039: 1038: 1032: 1031: 1026: 1021: 1015: 1014: 1008: 1007: 1002: 997: 992: 986: 983: 982: 979: 978: 975: 974: 969: 964: 959: 954: 949: 944: 939: 934: 929: 924: 919: 914: 909: 904: 898: 895: 894: 891: 890: 887: 886: 876: 862: 857: 843: 836:Proto-Germanic 833: 831:Proto-Armenian 828: 823: 821:Proto-Albanian 817: 816: 809: 808: 803: 798: 793: 788: 783: 778: 772: 771: 764: 763: 758: 753: 748: 743: 738: 733: 728: 723: 717: 716: 709: 708: 707: 706: 682: 681: 674: 673: 672: 671: 664: 657: 650: 643: 636: 629: 622: 610: 605: 599: 598: 592: 591: 590: 589: 577: 576: 575: 568: 561: 549: 548: 547: 535: 530: 525: 524: 523: 516: 504: 499: 498: 497: 484: 483: 476: 475: 468: 463: 462: 459: 458: 450: 449: 443: 442: 430: 429: 427: 426: 419: 417: 413: 412: 400: 386: 377: 368: 359: 345: 327: 309: 300: 286: 277: 263: 261: 253: 252: 245: 239: 238: 231: 221: 220: 170: 169: 166: 157: 156: 151: 146: 129: 124: 119: 114: 109: 101: 82: 78: 77: 76: 75: 64: 63:Proto-language 60: 59: 53: 47: 46: 43: 37: 36: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 17726: 17715: 17712: 17710: 17707: 17706: 17704: 17687: 17683: 17680: 17676: 17675: 17671: 17665: 17662: 17660: 17657: 17655: 17652: 17650: 17647: 17645: 17642: 17640: 17637: 17635: 17632: 17630: 17627: 17625: 17622: 17620: 17617: 17616: 17614: 17612: 17608: 17598: 17595: 17593: 17590: 17588: 17585: 17583: 17580: 17578: 17575: 17573: 17570: 17569: 17567: 17565: 17561: 17555: 17552: 17550: 17547: 17545: 17542: 17540: 17537: 17533: 17530: 17528: 17525: 17524: 17523: 17520: 17519: 17517: 17515: 17511: 17505: 17502: 17500: 17499:Eskimo–Uralic 17497: 17495: 17492: 17490: 17487: 17485: 17482: 17480: 17477: 17475: 17472: 17470: 17467: 17465: 17462: 17460: 17457: 17455: 17452: 17450: 17447: 17445: 17442: 17440: 17437: 17435: 17432: 17430: 17427: 17423: 17420: 17418: 17415: 17413: 17410: 17409: 17408: 17405: 17403: 17400: 17398: 17395: 17394: 17391: 17388: 17384: 17374: 17371: 17368: 17367: 17363: 17361: 17360: 17356: 17354: 17353: 17349: 17348: 17346: 17344: 17339: 17333: 17330: 17328: 17325: 17323: 17320: 17318: 17315: 17313: 17310: 17309: 17307: 17304: 17303:Paleosiberian 17299: 17296: 17294: 17290: 17284: 17283: 17279: 17277: 17274: 17272: 17269: 17267: 17264: 17263: 17261: 17258: 17254: 17248: 17245: 17243: 17240: 17238: 17235: 17233: 17230: 17228: 17227: 17223: 17221: 17220: 17216: 17214: 17213: 17209: 17207: 17206: 17202: 17200: 17199: 17198:Austroasiatic 17195: 17193: 17192: 17188: 17187: 17185: 17183: 17179: 17172: 17171: 17167: 17165: 17162: 17160: 17157: 17155: 17152: 17150: 17149: 17148:Austroasiatic 17145: 17143: 17142: 17138: 17136: 17135: 17131: 17129: 17128: 17127:Indo-European 17124: 17123: 17121: 17119: 17115: 17107: 17104: 17102: 17099: 17098: 17097: 17096: 17092: 17090: 17087: 17086: 17084: 17082: 17078: 17072: 17071: 17067: 17065: 17064: 17060: 17058: 17057: 17053: 17051: 17050: 17046: 17044: 17043: 17039: 17037: 17036: 17032: 17030: 17029: 17025: 17023: 17022: 17018: 17016: 17015: 17011: 17009: 17008: 17004: 17002: 17001: 17000:Indo-European 16997: 16996: 16994: 16992: 16988: 16982: 16981: 16977: 16975: 16974: 16970: 16968: 16967: 16963: 16961: 16960: 16956: 16954: 16953: 16949: 16947: 16946: 16942: 16940: 16939: 16935: 16933: 16932: 16928: 16926: 16925: 16921: 16919: 16918: 16914: 16912: 16911: 16907: 16905: 16904: 16900: 16898: 16895: 16893: 16892: 16888: 16886: 16885: 16881: 16879: 16878: 16877:Indo-European 16874: 16873: 16871: 16869: 16865: 16861: 16857: 16850: 16845: 16843: 16838: 16836: 16831: 16830: 16827: 16813: 16809: 16806: 16802: 16799: 16798: 16794: 16788: 16785: 16783: 16780: 16778: 16775: 16773: 16770: 16768: 16765: 16763: 16760: 16759: 16757: 16753: 16743: 16742: 16737: 16736: 16734: 16730: 16723: 16720: 16718: 16715: 16713: 16712:Original Thai 16710: 16708: 16705: 16703: 16700: 16698: 16695: 16693: 16692: 16688: 16686: 16683: 16681: 16678: 16676: 16673: 16672: 16669: 16666: 16664: 16658: 16648: 16645: 16643: 16640: 16638: 16635: 16633: 16630: 16628: 16625: 16623: 16620: 16618: 16615: 16613: 16610: 16607: 16604: 16602: 16599: 16597: 16594: 16592: 16590: 16586: 16584: 16581: 16579: 16578: 16574: 16572: 16569: 16566: 16563: 16561: 16558: 16556: 16553: 16551: 16548: 16545: 16542: 16540: 16537: 16535: 16532: 16530: 16527: 16525: 16522: 16520: 16517: 16514: 16511: 16510: 16508: 16502: 16495: 16492: 16489: 16486: 16483: 16480: 16477: 16476:Hibito–Cholón 16474: 16471: 16468: 16465: 16462: 16459: 16456: 16454: 16451: 16449: 16446: 16444: 16441: 16439: 16436: 16434: 16431: 16429: 16428: 16424: 16422: 16419: 16417: 16414: 16412: 16409: 16407: 16404: 16402: 16399: 16397: 16396: 16392: 16390: 16387: 16385: 16382: 16380: 16377: 16375: 16372: 16370: 16367: 16365: 16362: 16360: 16357: 16355: 16352: 16350: 16347: 16345: 16344: 16340: 16338: 16335: 16333: 16330: 16328: 16325: 16323: 16320: 16318: 16315: 16313: 16310: 16308: 16307: 16303: 16301: 16298: 16296: 16295: 16291: 16289: 16286: 16284: 16281: 16279: 16276: 16274: 16271: 16269: 16266: 16264: 16261: 16259: 16258: 16254: 16252: 16249: 16247: 16244: 16242: 16239: 16238: 16235: 16232: 16230: 16224: 16214: 16211: 16209: 16206: 16204: 16203: 16199: 16198: 16196: 16192: 16186: 16185: 16181: 16179: 16178: 16174: 16172: 16169: 16167: 16164: 16162: 16161: 16157: 16155: 16152: 16150: 16147: 16145: 16144: 16140: 16138: 16137: 16133: 16131: 16128: 16126: 16123: 16122: 16119: 16116: 16114: 16110: 16100: 16097: 16095: 16092: 16090: 16087: 16085: 16084: 16080: 16078: 16075: 16073: 16072: 16068: 16066: 16065: 16061: 16059: 16058: 16054: 16052: 16051: 16047: 16045: 16044: 16040: 16038: 16035: 16033: 16030: 16028: 16025: 16023: 16020: 16018: 16017: 16013: 16011: 16010: 16006: 16005: 16003: 15999: 15993: 15992:Yuman–Cochimí 15990: 15988: 15987: 15983: 15981: 15980: 15976: 15974: 15971: 15969: 15968: 15964: 15962: 15959: 15957: 15954: 15952: 15949: 15947: 15944: 15942: 15941: 15937: 15935: 15932: 15930: 15927: 15925: 15922: 15920: 15919: 15915: 15913: 15912: 15908: 15906: 15903: 15901: 15900: 15896: 15894: 15891: 15889: 15888: 15884: 15882: 15879: 15877: 15874: 15872: 15871: 15867: 15865: 15864: 15860: 15858: 15857: 15853: 15851: 15850: 15846: 15844: 15843: 15839: 15837: 15834: 15832: 15831: 15827: 15825: 15824: 15820: 15819: 15816: 15813: 15811: 15805: 15795: 15792: 15789: 15786: 15784: 15783: 15779: 15778: 15776: 15772: 15765: 15761: 15758: 15756: 15753: 15751: 15750: 15746: 15744: 15741: 15739: 15736: 15734: 15731: 15728: 15727:Southern Daly 15725: 15723: 15722: 15718: 15716: 15713: 15711: 15710: 15706: 15704: 15703: 15699: 15697: 15694: 15691: 15690: 15686: 15684: 15681: 15679: 15676: 15674: 15671: 15669: 15668: 15664: 15662: 15661: 15657: 15654: 15653: 15652:Darwin Region 15649: 15647: 15644: 15641: 15638: 15637: 15634: 15631: 15629: 15625: 15615: 15612: 15610: 15608: 15604: 15601: 15598: 15595: 15592: 15590: 15587: 15585: 15582: 15580: 15577: 15575: 15572: 15570: 15567: 15565: 15562: 15559: 15556: 15553: 15550: 15548: 15545: 15543: 15540: 15539: 15537: 15533: 15526: 15523: 15520: 15517: 15515: 15512: 15510: 15507: 15505: 15502: 15500: 15497: 15495: 15492: 15490: 15487: 15485: 15484: 15480: 15478: 15475: 15473: 15472: 15468: 15466: 15463: 15461: 15458: 15456: 15453: 15451: 15450: 15446: 15444: 15441: 15439: 15436: 15434: 15433: 15429: 15427: 15424: 15422: 15419: 15417: 15414: 15412: 15411: 15407: 15405: 15402: 15400: 15397: 15395: 15392: 15390: 15387: 15385: 15382: 15380: 15377: 15375: 15372: 15370: 15367: 15365: 15362: 15360: 15357: 15355: 15352: 15350: 15347: 15345: 15342: 15340: 15337: 15335: 15334:Demta–Sentani 15332: 15330: 15327: 15325: 15322: 15320: 15317: 15315: 15312: 15310: 15307: 15305: 15304: 15300: 15298: 15295: 15294: 15291: 15288: 15286: 15281: 15277: 15267: 15265: 15261: 15259: 15258: 15254: 15251: 15248: 15246: 15243: 15241: 15239: 15235: 15233: 15230: 15228: 15226: 15222: 15220: 15219: 15215: 15213: 15212: 15208: 15206: 15203: 15201: 15198: 15197: 15195: 15191: 15184: 15181: 15178: 15175: 15172: 15169: 15166: 15163: 15160: 15157: 15154: 15151: 15149: 15146: 15144: 15141: 15139: 15138: 15134: 15132: 15131: 15127: 15125: 15124: 15120: 15118: 15115: 15113: 15112: 15108: 15106: 15103: 15101: 15098: 15096: 15095: 15091: 15089: 15086: 15084: 15081: 15079: 15078: 15074: 15072: 15069: 15067: 15064: 15062: 15059: 15057: 15056: 15055:Indo-European 15052: 15050: 15049: 15045: 15043: 15042: 15038: 15036: 15033: 15031: 15028: 15026: 15025: 15021: 15019: 15016: 15014: 15013: 15009: 15007: 15006: 15005:Austroasiatic 15002: 15000: 14997: 14995: 14994: 14990: 14989: 14986: 14983: 14980: 14975: 14968: 14957: 14954: 14951: 14948: 14946: 14943: 14941: 14940: 14936: 14934: 14931: 14929: 14926: 14925: 14923: 14919: 14912: 14909: 14906: 14903: 14900: 14897: 14894: 14891: 14888: 14885: 14883: 14880: 14877: 14876: 14872: 14870: 14869: 14865: 14863: 14860: 14858: 14855: 14853: 14852: 14848: 14846: 14845: 14841: 14840: 14837: 14834: 14832: 14828: 14824: 14817: 14812: 14810: 14805: 14803: 14798: 14797: 14794: 14784: 14780: 14775: 14769: 14768: 14764: 14760: 14759: 14758:Proto-Romance 14755: 14754: 14753: 14752: 14748: 14744: 14743: 14742:Proto-Iranian 14739: 14737: 14736: 14732: 14731: 14730: 14729: 14725: 14723: 14722: 14718: 14714: 14713: 14709: 14708: 14707: 14706: 14702: 14700: 14699: 14695: 14691: 14690: 14686: 14684: 14683: 14679: 14678: 14677: 14676: 14672: 14670: 14669: 14665: 14663: 14662: 14658: 14656: 14655: 14651: 14649: 14648: 14644: 14643: 14641: 14639: 14635: 14629: 14628: 14624: 14622: 14621: 14617: 14615: 14614: 14610: 14608: 14607: 14603: 14601: 14600: 14596: 14594: 14593: 14589: 14587: 14586: 14582: 14580: 14579: 14575: 14573: 14570: 14568: 14565: 14563: 14560: 14559: 14557: 14553: 14547: 14546: 14542: 14540: 14537: 14536: 14534: 14532: 14531: 14526: 14520: 14519: 14515: 14511: 14508: 14507: 14506: 14503: 14502: 14500: 14498: 14494: 14488: 14485: 14483: 14480: 14478: 14475: 14472: 14469: 14468: 14466: 14464: 14460: 14454: 14453:West Germanic 14451: 14449: 14446: 14444: 14443: 14442:East Germanic 14439: 14438: 14436: 14434: 14430: 14424: 14421: 14419: 14418: 14414: 14413: 14411: 14409: 14405: 14395: 14392: 14390: 14387: 14385: 14382: 14381: 14379: 14377: 14373: 14367: 14366: 14362: 14360: 14357: 14355: 14354: 14350: 14349: 14347: 14345: 14341: 14338: 14336: 14332: 14322: 14321: 14317: 14315: 14314: 14310: 14308: 14307: 14303: 14301: 14300: 14296: 14294: 14293: 14289: 14287: 14286: 14282: 14281: 14279: 14277: 14276: 14271: 14265: 14264: 14260: 14258: 14257: 14253: 14251: 14250: 14246: 14245: 14242: 14239: 14237: 14236: 14231: 14226: 14222: 14215: 14210: 14208: 14203: 14201: 14196: 14195: 14192: 14176: 14171: 14159: 14158: 14152: 14140: 14136: 14132: 14128: 14116: 14112: 14108: 14107: 14098: 14095: 14091: 14087: 14075: 14071: 14066: 14065: 14059: 14047: 14043: 14039: 14035: 14023: 14019: 14015: 14003: 13998: 13997: 13989: 13986: 13985: 13979: 13976: 13974: 13971: 13969: 13966: 13965: 13960: 13955: 13941: 13935: 13931: 13927: 13923: 13919: 13913: 13909: 13905: 13900: 13896: 13892: 13888: 13884: 13880: 13878:9783110192858 13874: 13870: 13866: 13862: 13858: 13853: 13849: 13843: 13839: 13834: 13829: 13824: 13820: 13818:9781108758666 13814: 13810: 13806: 13802: 13797: 13793: 13788: 13787: 13781: 13777: 13773: 13767: 13763: 13762: 13756: 13752: 13746: 13741: 13740: 13734: 13733:Mallory, J.P. 13730: 13726: 13720: 13716: 13715: 13709: 13705: 13703:0-941694-56-9 13699: 13695: 13694: 13689: 13685: 13680: 13679: 13673: 13669: 13665: 13659: 13655: 13651: 13647: 13643: 13639: 13635: 13631: 13626: 13621: 13616: 13611: 13607: 13603: 13599: 13594: 13593: 13582: 13577: 13573: 13567: 13563: 13559: 13555: 13549: 13545: 13541: 13539:9783851246117 13535: 13531: 13526:Reprinted in 13525: 13524: 13521: 13517: 13513: 13509: 13506: 13500: 13499: 13494:(1874–1877). 13493: 13489: 13485: 13479: 13475: 13471: 13467: 13463: 13461:0-19-928413-X 13457: 13453: 13452: 13446: 13442: 13436: 13432: 13428: 13424: 13420: 13416: 13411: 13407: 13403: 13398: 13393: 13389: 13385: 13381: 13377: 13370: 13365: 13361: 13357: 13350: 13345: 13341: 13337: 13332: 13328: 13322: 13318: 13317: 13312: 13307: 13303: 13299: 13294: 13290: 13284: 13280: 13275: 13271: 13269:9789027235305 13265: 13260: 13259: 13252: 13248: 13244: 13240: 13237: 13233: 13227: 13221: 13217: 13213: 13212: 13207: 13203: 13199: 13193: 13189: 13185: 13181: 13177: 13171: 13167: 13166: 13160: 13156: 13150: 13146: 13141: 13137: 13132: 13131: 13110: 13105: 13098: 13082: 13077: 13070: 13055:. 25 May 2019 13054: 13049: 13042: 13034: 13030: 13026: 13022: 13018: 13014: 13010: 13006: 13002: 12998: 12993: 12985: 12978: 12974: 12970: 12966: 12961: 12954: 12950: 12946: 12942: 12938: 12933: 12917: 12913: 12906: 12899: 12894: 12888:, p. 67. 12887: 12882: 12875: 12870: 12868: 12859: 12852: 12850: 12848: 12840: 12835: 12828: 12823: 12816: 12811: 12804: 12800: 12795: 12788: 12784: 12780: 12775: 12768: 12762: 12755: 12751: 12746: 12739: 12734: 12726: 12720: 12716: 12712: 12706: 12699: 12694: 12687: 12686:Lubotsky 1988 12682: 12674: 12670: 12666: 12660: 12652: 12648: 12644: 12640: 12637:(4): 804–07. 12636: 12632: 12631: 12626: 12619: 12604: 12598: 12594: 12593: 12585: 12577: 12573: 12566: 12559: 12554: 12548:, p. 39. 12547: 12542: 12534: 12527: 12519: 12515: 12511: 12507: 12502: 12497: 12493: 12489: 12488: 12480: 12476: 12475:Warnow, Tandy 12469: 12462: 12457: 12449: 12442: 12434: 12430: 12423: 12415: 12411: 12410: 12402: 12395: 12389: 12385: 12381: 12374: 12367: 12352: 12348: 12344: 12340: 12336: 12332: 12331: 12323: 12316: 12300: 12295: 12291: 12287: 12283: 12279: 12273: 12265: 12261: 12256: 12251: 12247: 12243: 12239: 12235: 12231: 12227: 12223: 12219: 12215: 12208: 12200: 12196: 12189: 12181: 12174: 12167: 12163: 12157: 12153: 12149: 12142: 12134: 12130: 12126: 12122: 12115: 12106: 12104:9781351109147 12100: 12096: 12095: 12090: 12086: 12079: 12070: 12068:9789027263179 12064: 12060: 12059: 12051: 12043: 12036: 12028: 12022: 12018: 12014: 12007: 11999: 11997:9781139248938 11993: 11989: 11986:. Cambridge: 11985: 11978: 11970: 11963: 11956: 11952: 11946: 11938: 11934: 11929: 11924: 11920: 11916: 11912: 11905: 11897: 11896: 11891: 11884: 11876: 11870: 11866: 11865: 11858: 11850: 11846: 11840: 11834:, p. 22. 11833: 11829: 11828:Collinge 1985 11825: 11822:, p. 8, 11821: 11815: 11808: 11804: 11800: 11796: 11792: 11788: 11781: 11774: 11768: 11764: 11760: 11756: 11751: 11732: 11725: 11718: 11702: 11698: 11694: 11688: 11681: 11669: 11663: 11659: 11658: 11650: 11642: 11636: 11632: 11628: 11624: 11618: 11611: 11606: 11600: 11592: 11588: 11584: 11583:Elsie, Robert 11578: 11570: 11563: 11555: 11548: 11541: 11537: 11531: 11523: 11517: 11512: 11511: 11502: 11494: 11490: 11486: 11478: 11474: 11467: 11460: 11456: 11452: 11448: 11431: 11427: 11420: 11413: 11398: 11394: 11390: 11389: 11381: 11374: 11370: 11367: 11365: 11358: 11351: 11347: 11342: 11335: 11330: 11328: 11326: 11317: 11311: 11307: 11300: 11292: 11286: 11282: 11275: 11268:. Ethnologue. 11267: 11261: 11257: 11239:same family." 11235: 11231: 11220: 11217: 11215: 11212: 11210: 11207: 11205: 11202: 11200: 11197: 11195: 11192: 11190: 11187: 11185: 11182: 11180: 11177: 11175: 11172: 11170: 11167: 11165: 11162: 11160: 11157: 11155: 11152: 11149: 11148: 11144: 11142: 11139: 11138: 11131: 11129: 11128: 11127:lingua franca 11122: 11118: 11112: 11110: 11106: 11102: 11098: 11094: 11090: 11086: 11082: 11078: 11073: 11071: 11067: 11063: 11059: 11055: 11051: 11047: 11043: 11039: 11033: 11031: 11027: 11023: 11019: 11015: 11011: 11007: 11003: 10999: 10995: 10991: 10987: 10983: 10979: 10975: 10971: 10967: 10963: 10959: 10955: 10951: 10947: 10943: 10939: 10935: 10930: 10928: 10924: 10920: 10916: 10912: 10908: 10904: 10900: 10896: 10892: 10888: 10885:according to 10884: 10880: 10872: 10863: 10854: 10850: 10841: 10832: 10823: 10819: 10814: 10789: 10779: 10773: 10760: 10757: 10753: 10750: 10746: 10742: 10738: 10734: 10730: 10726: 10722: 10718: 10713: 10709: 10704: 10699: 10695: 10691: 10687: 10683: 10680: 10676: 10672: 10667: 400 AD 10661: 10658: 10654: 10650: 10646: 10642: 10638: 10634: 10630: 10626: 10622: 10618: 10614: 10611: 10607: 10603: 10599: 10595: 10592: 10588: 10587: 10586: 10584: 10580: 10576: 10566: 10563: 10560: 10557: 10554: 10551: 10548: 10545: 10542: 10539: 10536: 10535: 10531: 10528: 10525: 10522: 10519: 10516: 10513: 10510: 10507: 10504: 10501: 10500: 10496: 10493: 10490: 10487: 10484: 10481: 10479:{con}ferimos 10478: 10475: 10472: 10469: 10467:We (1st pl.) 10466: 10465: 10461: 10458: 10455: 10452: 10449: 10446: 10443: 10440: 10437: 10434: 10431: 10430: 10426: 10423: 10420: 10417: 10414: 10411: 10408: 10405: 10402: 10399: 10396: 10395: 10391: 10388: 10385: 10382: 10379: 10376: 10373: 10370: 10367: 10364: 10361: 10360: 10357:(ai/ajo) bie 10356: 10353: 10350: 10347: 10344: 10341: 10338: 10335: 10332: 10329: 10326: 10325: 10321: 10318: 10315: 10312: 10309: 10306: 10303: 10300: 10297: 10294: 10291: 10290: 10286: 10283: 10280: 10277: 10274: 10272: 10269: 10266: 10263: 10260: 10257: 10254: 10253: 10250: 10247: 10245: 10242: 10240: 10237: 10235: 10232: 10230: 10227: 10225: 10222: 10220: 10217: 10215: 10212: 10210: 10207: 10205: 10202: 10199: 10198: 10194: 10191: 10188: 10185: 10182: 10179: 10176: 10173: 10170: 10167: 10164: 10163: 10159: 10156: 10153: 10150: 10147: 10144: 10141: 10138: 10135: 10132: 10129: 10128: 10124: 10121: 10118: 10115: 10112: 10109: 10106: 10103: 10100: 10097: 10095:We (1st pl.) 10094: 10093: 10089: 10086: 10083: 10080: 10077: 10074: 10071: 10068: 10065: 10062: 10059: 10058: 10054: 10051: 10048: 10045: 10042: 10039: 10036: 10033: 10030: 10027: 10024: 10023: 10019: 10016: 10013: 10010: 10007: 10004: 10001: 9998: 9995: 9992: 9989: 9988: 9984: 9981: 9978: 9975: 9972: 9969: 9966: 9963: 9960: 9957: 9954: 9953: 9949: 9946: 9943: 9940: 9937: 9934: 9931: 9928: 9925: 9922: 9919: 9918: 9914: 9911: 9908: 9906:baíra /bɛra/ 9905: 9902: 9899: 9897: 9894: 9891: 9888: 9886: 9883: 9880: 9879: 9876: 9873: 9871: 9868: 9866: 9863: 9861: 9858: 9856: 9853: 9851: 9848: 9846: 9843: 9841: 9838: 9836: 9833: 9831: 9830:Ancient Greek 9828: 9825: 9824: 9821: 9818: 9816: 9813: 9811: 9808: 9806: 9803: 9802: 9799: 9794: 9789: 9784: 9779: 9774: 9769: 9764: 9757: 9744: 9741: 9740: 9731: 9728: 9727: 9718: 9716:We (1st pl.) 9715: 9714: 9705: 9702: 9701: 9692: 9689: 9688: 9679: 9676: 9672: 9671: 9662: 9659: 9658: 9649: 9646: 9645: 9636: 9633: 9632: 9626: 9619: 9616: 9614: 9613: 9608: 9606: 9605: 9594: 9591: 9578: 9574: 9570: 9562: 9559: 9556: 9552: 9548: 9540: 9537: 9534: 9530: 9526: 9523: 9520: 9516: 9508: 9505: 9502: 9494: 9486: 9483: 9480: 9472: 9468: 9465: 9462: 9454: 9450: 9447: 9444: 9436: 9433: 9430: 9429:boukólos rule 9426: 9418: 9415: 9412: 9411:boukólos rule 9408: 9400: 9397: 9394: 9386: 9383: 9380: 9377: 9374: 9366: 9363: 9360: 9357: 9354: 9346: 9338: 9335: 9332: 9324: 9316: 9313: 9310: 9302: 9299: 9296: 9288: 9284: 9281: 9277: 9273: 9270: 9266: 9263: 9259: 9256: 9253: 9252: 9248: 9247: 9241: 9239: 9236: 9234: 9231: 9229: 9226: 9224: 9221: 9219: 9216: 9214: 9211: 9209: 9206: 9203: 9202: 9199: 9195: 9193: 9190: 9188: 9185: 9183: 9180: 9178: 9175: 9173: 9170: 9168: 9165: 9163: 9153: 9143: 9136: 9134: 9127: 9125: 9118: 9116: 9109: 9107: 9100: 9098: 9091: 9089: 9082: 9077: 9075: 9072: 9070: 9067: 9065: 9062: 9060: 9057: 9055: 9052: 9050: 9047: 9045: 9038: 9036: 9029: 9027: 9020: 9017: 9007: 9000: 8997: 8987: 8978: 8971: 8969: 8960: 8953: 8951: 8944: 8939: 8937: 8934: 8932: 8929: 8927: 8924: 8922: 8919: 8917: 8914: 8912: 8909: 8907: 8898: 8891: 8886: 8884: 8881: 8879: 8876: 8874: 8871: 8869: 8866: 8864: 8861: 8859: 8856: 8854: 8844: 8836: 8829: 8827: 8820: 8816: 8812: 8810: 8807: 8805: 8802: 8800: 8797: 8795: 8792: 8790: 8787: 8785: 8782: 8780: 8771: 8761: 8754: 8752: 8745: 8743: 8736: 8731: 8729: 8726: 8723: 8721: 8718: 8716: 8713: 8711: 8708: 8706: 8703: 8701: 8698: 8696: 8686: 8678: 8676: 8668: 8666: 8656: 8648: 8646: 8638: 8636: 8629: 8625: 8621: 8619: 8616: 8613: 8611: 8608: 8606: 8603: 8601: 8598: 8596: 8593: 8591: 8588: 8586: 8574: 8567: 8565: 8556: 8549: 8544: 8540: 8538: 8535: 8533: 8530: 8528: 8525: 8523: 8520: 8518: 8515: 8511: 8508: 8506: 8499: 8497: 8490: 8488: 8481: 8476: 8474: 8471: 8469: 8466: 8464: 8461: 8459: 8456: 8454: 8451: 8449: 8446: 8443: 8433: 8423: 8413: 8401: 8391: 8381: 8370: 8360: 8351: 8341: 8332: 8323: 8311: 8309: 8306: 8303: 8301: 8298: 8296: 8293: 8291: 8288: 8286: 8282: 8280: 8277: 8272: 8270: 8267: 8265: 8262: 8260: 8257: 8255: 8252: 8250: 8247: 8245: 8242: 8239: 8229: 8220: 8211: 8202: 8192: 8183: 8174: 8165: 8155: 8146: 8137: 8128: 8119: 8110: 8101: 8092: 8083: 8072: 8063: 8054: 8045: 8036: 8027: 8018: 8009: 8000: 7993: 7989: 7985: 7983: 7980: 7978: 7975: 7973: 7970: 7968: 7965: 7963: 7960: 7955: 7952: 7950: 7947: 7944: 7934: 7925: 7915: 7905: 7893: 7884: 7875: 7866: 7857: 7848: 7841: 7839: 7832: 7830: 7821: 7814: 7812: 7805: 7800: 7798: 7795: 7793: 7790: 7788: 7785: 7783: 7780: 7778: 7775: 7773: 7770: 7768: 7761: 7759: 7747: 7740: 7735: 7728: 7726: 7717: 7708: 7701: 7699: 7690: 7683: 7681: 7672: 7663: 7656: 7654: 7647: 7642: 7640: 7637: 7634: 7632: 7629: 7627: 7624: 7622: 7619: 7616: 7613: 7611: 7608: 7605: 7595: 7588: 7586: 7574: 7567: 7565: 7556: 7549: 7547: 7538: 7531: 7529: 7520: 7511: 7504: 7502: 7495: 7490: 7488: 7485: 7483: 7480: 7478: 7473: 7470: 7468: 7465: 7461: 7458: 7456: 7453: 7451: 7444: 7442: 7435: 7430: 7421: 7412: 7405: 7403: 7394: 7385: 7378: 7376: 7369: 7364: 7362: 7359: 7357: 7354: 7352: 7349: 7347: 7344: 7342: 7339: 7337: 7334: 7332: 7323: 7314: 7305: 7296: 7287: 7278: 7269: 7260: 7253: 7249: 7245: 7243: 7241: 7238: 7236: 7233: 7231: 7228: 7226: 7222: 7218: 7216: 7215:*ǵénu, *ǵnéu- 7213: 7211: 7202: 7193: 7181: 7172: 7163: 7156: 7154: 7147: 7145: 7136: 7129: 7127: 7120: 7115: 7113: 7110: 7108: 7105: 7103: 7100: 7098: 7095: 7093: 7090: 7085: 7082: 7080: 7077: 7075: 7063: 7056: 7054: 7045: 7037: 7030: 7028: 7021: 7017: 7007: 7002: 6995: 6993: 6984: 6976: 6969: 6967: 6960: 6955: 6953: 6950: 6948: 6946: 6943: 6941: 6938: 6936: 6933: 6931: 6928: 6923: 6921: 6917: 6914: 6912: 6909: 6907: 6904: 6902: 6899: 6897: 6894: 6892: 6889: 6886: 6876: 6866: 6856: 6847: 6838: 6829: 6820: 6811: 6802: 6791: 6787: 6785: 6782: 6780: 6777: 6775: 6772: 6770: 6767: 6765: 6761: 6757: 6753: 6750: 6748: 6739: 6730: 6721: 6712: 6703: 6695: 6686: 6679: 6674: 6672: 6669: 6667: 6664: 6662: 6659: 6657: 6654: 6652: 6649: 6647: 6644: 6641: 6631: 6621: 6611: 6601: 6591: 6581: 6572: 6563: 6554: 6547: 6545: 6538: 6536: 6529: 6527: 6520: 6515: 6513: 6510: 6508: 6505: 6503: 6500: 6498: 6495: 6493: 6490: 6488: 6485: 6483: 6474: 6464: 6457: 6455: 6446: 6436: 6429: 6426: 6416: 6409: 6407: 6398: 6390: 6383: 6381: 6374: 6369: 6365: 6363: 6360: 6358: 6355: 6353: 6350: 6348: 6345: 6343: 6340: 6338: 6337:*pṓds ~ *ped- 6335: 6332: 6322: 6315: 6312: 6302: 6295: 6293: 6284: 6277: 6275: 6266: 6258: 6251: 6249: 6242: 6237: 6234: 6231: 6228: 6226: 6223: 6221: 6218: 6216: 6213: 6210: 6207: 6203: 6195: 6190: 6185: 6180: 6175: 6170: 6165: 6158: 6154: 6148: 6146: 6138: 6135: 6132: 6128: 6125: 6122: 6118: 6114: 6110: 6106: 6103: 6099: 6095: 6092: 6091: 6086: 6078: 6074: 6070: 6069: 6068: 6062: 6061: 6056: 6052: 6048: 6044: 6040: 6037: 6034: 6030: 6026: 6022: 6019: 6016: 6012: 6008: 6005: 6002: 5999: 5996: 5992: 5989: 5985: 5984: 5983: 5981: 5973: 5969: 5965: 5961: 5957: 5953: 5949: 5945: 5941: 5937: 5934: 5930: 5926: 5922: 5918: 5914: 5910: 5906: 5902: 5898: 5897: 5896: 5894: 5893: 5889: 5884: 5880: 5869: 5865: 5861: 5857: 5853: 5849: 5845: 5841: 5837: 5833: 5829: 5825: 5821: 5817: 5813: 5809: 5805: 5801: 5797: 5794: 5790: 5786: 5782: 5778: 5774: 5771: 5768: 5764: 5763: 5761: 5757: 5753: 5749: 5745: 5741: 5737: 5735: 5731: 5727: 5723: 5719: 5715: 5713: 5709: 5705: 5701: 5697: 5693: 5689: 5685: 5683: 5679: 5675: 5671: 5667: 5663: 5661: 5657: 5653: 5649: 5645: 5641: 5637: 5633: 5629: 5625: 5624: 5623: 5621: 5617: 5613: 5609: 5605: 5590:and original 5526: 5488: 5463: 5438: 5437: 5435: 5431: 5428: 5424: 5423: 5421: 5419: 5416:, one of the 5415: 5410: 5408: 5404: 5400: 5396: 5393: 5389: 5385: 5381: 5377: 5373: 5369: 5365: 5361: 5357: 5353: 5349: 5344: 5342: 5338: 5332: 5325:Sound changes 5312: 5309: 5299: 5296: 5286: 5283: 5273: 5270: 5269: 5268: 5255: 5252: 5248: 500 BC 5242: 5239: 5229: 5225: 5221: 5218: 5208: 5204: 5200: 5196: 5193: 5192: 5191: 5178: 5175: 5165: 5161: 5157: 5153: 900 BC 5147: 5136: 5133: 5116: 5105: 5094: 5083: 5079: 5076: 5072: 600 BC 5066: 5061: 200 BC 5055: 5051: 5048: 5047: 5046: 5039: 5028: 5025: 5021: 750 BC 5015: 5014: 5009: 5008: 5003: 5002:Homeric poems 4992: 4981: 4980:Ancient Greek 4978: 4968: 4964: 4960: 4949: 4946: 4945: 4944: 4941: 4939: 4935: 4931: 4927: 4923: 4919: 4906: 4902: 4898: 4897:West Germanic 4894: 4890: 4886: 4882: 4879: 4875: 4871: 4867: 4864: 4860: 4856: 4851: 4847: 4843: 4839: 4835: 4831: 4830:Turkification 4827: 4823: 4819: 4815: 4811: 4807: 4803: 4800: 4796: 4792: 4788: 4784: 4780: 4776: 4775: 4774:lingua franca 4770: 4766: 4762: 4759:and then the 4758: 4754: 4750: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4735: 4734:Ordos culture 4731: 4727: 4723: 4719: 4715: 4711: 4707: 4703: 4699: 4695: 4691: 4688: 4684: 4680: 4676: 4672: 4668: 4664: 4660: 4656: 4652: 4648: 4644: 4640: 4636: 4632: 4628: 4624: 4621:composes the 4620: 4616: 4612: 4608: 4604: 4600: 4596: 4595:Mahajanapadas 4592: 4588: 4584: 4580: 4576: 4572: 4568: 4564: 4560: 4557: 4553: 4549: 4545: 4541: 4537: 4533: 4529: 4525: 4521: 4517: 4513: 4509: 4508:Bagnolo stele 4505: 4501: 4497: 4493: 4489: 4485: 4481: 4477: 4476: 4475: 4469: 4465: 4462: 4459: 4456: 4453: 4450: 4447: 4444: 4440: 4437: 4433: 4432: 4431: 4425: 500 BC 4419: 4416: 4412: 4409: 4406: 4404: 4400: 4397: 4393: 4392: 4391: 4389: 4385: 4380: 4378: 4371: 4361: 4359: 4355: 4351: 4347: 4343: 4339: 4335: 4331: 4327: 4323: 4319: 4314: 4312: 4308: 4304: 4303:reconstructed 4266: 4261: 4256: 4241: 4239: 4235: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4219: 4215: 4207: 4203: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4186:Paleosiberian 4184:and various ' 4183: 4179: 4175: 4171: 4168: 4165: 4161: 4157: 4153: 4149: 4146: 4145: 4144: 4139: 4135: 4131: 4128: 4126: 4122: 4119: 4118: 4117: 4114: 4104: 4101: 4093: 4083: 4079: 4073: 4072: 4067:This section 4065: 4061: 4056: 4055: 4047: 4044: 4038: 4035: 4031:) and Latin ( 4029: 4023: 4019: 4018:Karl Brugmann 3993: 3971: 3966: 3956: 3953: 3948: 3943: 3941: 3936: 3932: 3927: 3925: 3921: 3916: 3910: 3905: 3901: 3897: 3893: 3889: 3884: 3882: 3878: 3874: 3862: 3857: 3855: 3850: 3848: 3843: 3842: 3840: 3839: 3834: 3831: 3829: 3826: 3824: 3821: 3820: 3819: 3818: 3814: 3813: 3808: 3805: 3803: 3800: 3798: 3795: 3793: 3790: 3788: 3785: 3783: 3782:Daco-Thracian 3780: 3778: 3775: 3773: 3770: 3769: 3768: 3767: 3763: 3762: 3757: 3756:Indo-European 3754:Hypothetical 3753: 3752: 3744: 3741: 3739: 3735: 3729: 3727: 3723: 3722:ṛ, *ḷ, *ṃ, *ṇ 3719: 3715: 3711: 3706: 3702: 3698: 3694: 3689: 3687: 3683: 3677: 3667: 3663: 3661: 3656: 3652: 3648: 3639: 3632: 3629: 3626: 3623: 3620: 3617: 3614: 3611: 3608: 3604: 3601: 3598: 3595: 3592: 3589: 3586: 3583: 3580: 3577: 3574: 3571: 3568: 3565: 3562: 3559: 3556: 3552: 3549: 3546: 3543: 3540: 3537: 3534: 3533:Nordwestblock 3530: 3527: 3526: 3525: 3519: 3515: 3511: 3508: 3505: 3501: 3497: 3494:, as well as 3493: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3478: 3473: 3469: 3465: 3461: 3457: 3453: 3449: 3446: 3443: 3439: 3435: 3431: 3427: 3423: 3419: 3415: 3411: 3407: 3404: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3389: 3385: 3382:, as well as 3381: 3377: 3373: 3369: 3365: 3361: 3357: 3353: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3333: 3329: 3325: 3321: 3317: 3313: 3309: 3305: 3301: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3282: 3281: 3279: 3268: 3265: 3262: 3258: 3254: 3250: 3246: 3243: 3240: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3224: 3220: 3216: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3165: 3162: 3158: 3154: 3150: 3146: 3142: 3138: 3134: 3130: 3126: 3122: 3118: 3115: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3095: 3092: 3088: 3084: 3080: 3076: 3072: 3068: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3016: 3012: 3008: 3005: 3004: 3002: 2999: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2977: 2974: 2973:Hittite texts 2970: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2954: 2951:, extinct by 2950: 2947: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2921: 2920: 2919: 2915: 2905: 2903: 2899: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2863: 2859: 2858:neogrammarian 2855: 2854: 2849: 2848:Karl Brugmann 2845: 2841: 2837: 2833: 2829: 2825: 2821: 2814: 2810: 2806: 2804: 2800: 2796: 2795:Indo-European 2792: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2776: 2775:Indo-Germanic 2772: 2768: 2764: 2763:Indo-European 2760: 2749: 2747: 2743: 2742: 2735: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2700: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2666: 2665:Evliya Çelebi 2661: 2659: 2655: 2651: 2647: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2631: 2627: 2623: 2619: 2614: 2612: 2608: 2605:"eight", and 2604: 2600: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2580: 2576: 2572: 2568: 2564: 2559: 2557: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2541: 2537: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2521: 2515: 2505: 2503: 2499: 2494: 2492: 2488: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2473: 2469: 2468:their culture 2465: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2441: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2421: 2417: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2384: 2380: 2376: 2371: 2369: 2368: 2363: 2358: 2356: 2353:, French and 2352: 2348: 2344: 2339: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2300: 2296: 2292: 2288: 2284: 2280: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2244: 2239: 2237: 2232: 2230: 2225: 2224: 2222: 2221: 2214: 2213: 2209: 2207: 2206: 2202: 2200: 2199: 2195: 2193: 2192: 2188: 2186: 2185: 2181: 2180: 2177: 2174: 2173: 2170: 2167: 2166: 2163: 2160: 2159: 2156: 2155:J. P. Mallory 2153: 2151: 2148: 2147: 2144: 2141: 2140: 2137: 2132: 2131: 2124: 2120: 2117: 2115: 2112: 2110: 2107: 2105: 2102: 2101: 2098: 2095: 2094: 2091: 2088: 2083: 2079: 2076: 2072: 2071: 2070: 2067: 2062: 2058: 2055: 2051: 2048: 2044: 2043: 2042: 2039: 2034: 2030: 2027: 2023: 2020: 2016: 2013: 2009: 2006: 2002: 2001: 2000: 1997: 1995: 1992: 1990: 1987: 1984: 1981: 1978: 1975: 1972: 1969: 1966: 1962: 1959: 1958: 1957: 1955: 1954: 1947: 1944: 1943: 1942: 1940: 1931: 1927: 1926: 1925: 1922: 1917: 1913: 1910: 1906: 1905: 1904: 1901: 1896: 1892: 1891: 1890: 1887: 1886: 1885: 1883: 1882: 1874: 1870: 1867: 1863: 1860: 1856: 1851: 1847: 1846: 1845: 1842: 1841: 1840: 1838: 1837: 1830: 1827: 1826: 1823: 1820: 1819: 1815: 1812: 1810: 1807: 1805: 1802: 1800: 1797: 1796: 1793: 1792:Reconstructed 1790: 1789: 1783: 1782: 1775: 1772: 1771: 1770: 1769: 1763: 1760: 1759: 1758: 1757: 1751: 1748: 1746: 1742: 1739: 1737: 1734: 1732: 1729: 1727: 1724: 1723: 1722: 1720: 1714: 1711: 1710: 1709: 1707: 1701: 1698: 1697: 1694: 1691: 1686: 1682: 1679: 1675: 1672: 1668: 1665: 1661: 1658: 1654: 1653: 1652: 1648: 1645: 1643: 1640: 1638: 1635: 1633: 1630: 1628: 1625: 1620: 1619:Insular Celts 1616: 1613: 1609: 1606: 1602: 1601: 1600: 1597: 1596: 1595: 1593: 1587: 1584: 1582: 1579: 1578: 1577: 1575: 1569: 1566: 1565: 1564: 1562: 1556: 1553: 1552: 1551: 1549: 1543: 1540: 1539: 1536: 1535:Indo-Iranians 1533: 1531: 1528: 1526: 1523: 1518: 1513: 1510: 1509: 1506: 1503: 1502: 1496: 1495: 1488: 1485: 1483: 1480: 1479: 1478: 1477: 1471: 1468: 1467: 1466: 1464: 1458: 1455: 1453: 1450: 1448: 1445: 1444: 1443: 1441: 1435: 1432: 1431: 1430: 1428: 1422: 1419: 1418: 1414: 1411: 1409: 1406: 1404: 1401: 1400: 1399: 1397: 1391: 1388: 1386: 1383: 1381: 1378: 1376: 1373: 1371: 1368: 1366: 1363: 1361: 1358: 1356: 1353: 1351: 1348: 1346: 1343: 1342: 1341: 1339: 1333: 1330: 1328: 1325: 1323: 1320: 1319: 1318: 1316: 1310: 1307: 1305: 1302: 1300: 1297: 1295: 1292: 1290: 1287: 1285: 1282: 1281: 1280: 1278: 1277:Pontic Steppe 1271: 1268: 1267: 1260: 1256: 1253: 1249: 1248: 1247: 1244: 1243: 1242: 1240: 1234: 1231: 1229: 1226: 1223: 1219: 1218: 1217: 1215: 1209: 1206: 1205: 1204: 1202: 1196: 1193: 1192: 1191: 1189: 1178: 1174: 1171: 1167: 1166: 1164: 1160: 1157: 1153: 1150: 1146: 1143: 1139: 1136: 1132: 1129: 1125: 1124: 1123: 1120: 1118: 1115: 1111: 1110:Kurgan stelae 1108: 1107: 1106: 1103: 1101: 1098: 1097: 1096: 1094: 1093:Pontic Steppe 1087: 1084: 1083: 1077: 1076: 1069: 1066: 1064: 1061: 1059: 1056: 1054: 1051: 1049: 1046: 1044: 1041: 1040: 1035: 1034: 1030: 1027: 1025: 1022: 1020: 1017: 1016: 1011: 1010: 1006: 1003: 1001: 998: 996: 993: 991: 988: 987: 981: 980: 973: 970: 968: 965: 963: 960: 958: 955: 953: 950: 948: 945: 943: 940: 938: 935: 933: 930: 928: 925: 923: 920: 918: 915: 913: 910: 908: 905: 903: 900: 899: 893: 892: 884: 883:Proto-Iranian 880: 877: 874: 870: 866: 863: 861: 858: 855: 851: 847: 844: 841: 837: 834: 832: 829: 827: 824: 822: 819: 818: 815: 812: 811: 807: 804: 802: 799: 797: 794: 792: 789: 787: 784: 782: 779: 777: 774: 773: 770: 767: 766: 762: 759: 757: 754: 752: 749: 747: 744: 742: 739: 737: 734: 732: 729: 727: 726:Daco-Thracian 724: 722: 719: 718: 715: 712: 711: 705: 701: 697: 693: 690: 689: 687: 684: 683: 680: 679:Reconstructed 677: 676: 669: 665: 662: 658: 655: 651: 648: 644: 641: 637: 634: 630: 627: 623: 620: 616: 615: 614: 611: 609: 606: 604: 601: 600: 597: 594: 593: 587: 583: 582: 581: 578: 573: 569: 566: 562: 559: 555: 554: 553: 550: 545: 541: 540: 539: 536: 534: 531: 529: 526: 521: 517: 514: 510: 509: 508: 505: 503: 500: 495: 491: 490: 489: 486: 485: 482: 479: 478: 474: 471: 470: 466: 461: 460: 456: 452: 451: 448: 445: 444: 440: 436: 435: 421: 420: 418: 414: 409: 397: 393: 384: 375: 366: 356: 352: 342: 338: 334: 324: 320: 316: 307: 297: 293: 284: 274: 270: 259: 254: 250: 246: 244: 240: 236: 232: 230: 226: 222: 216: 209: 202: 195: 187: 180: 173: 167: 162: 159: 158: 155: 152: 150: 147: 141: 137: 133: 130: 128: 125: 123: 120: 118: 115: 113: 110: 105: 102: 96: 92: 88: 85: 84: 83: 79: 74: 71: 70: 68: 65: 61: 58: 54: 52: 48: 44: 38: 35:Indo-European 33: 30: 26: 22: 17685: 17678: 17677:Families in 17634:Pre-Goidelic 17629:Pre-Germanic 17459:Indo-Semitic 17454:Indo-Pacific 17449:Indo-Hittite 17364: 17357: 17350: 17280: 17257:Indian Ocean 17224: 17219:Austronesian 17217: 17210: 17203: 17196: 17191:Sino-Tibetan 17189: 17168: 17146: 17141:Sino-Tibetan 17139: 17132: 17126: 17125: 17093: 17068: 17061: 17054: 17047: 17040: 17033: 17026: 17019: 17012: 17005: 16999: 16998: 16978: 16971: 16964: 16957: 16950: 16945:North Picene 16943: 16936: 16929: 16922: 16915: 16908: 16901: 16889: 16882: 16876: 16875: 16811: 16804: 16803:Families in 16738: 16689: 16587: 16575: 16425: 16393: 16384:Pano-Tacanan 16341: 16304: 16292: 16263:Arutani–Sape 16255: 16200: 16182: 16175: 16160:Oto-Manguean 16158: 16141: 16134: 16081: 16069: 16062: 16055: 16048: 16041: 16014: 16007: 15984: 15977: 15965: 15938: 15916: 15909: 15897: 15885: 15868: 15861: 15854: 15847: 15840: 15828: 15821: 15780: 15747: 15743:Western Daly 15721:Pama–Nyungan 15719: 15707: 15700: 15687: 15665: 15660:Eastern Daly 15658: 15650: 15605: 15481: 15469: 15447: 15430: 15408: 15379:Kaure–Kosare 15339:Doso–Turumsa 15329:Chimbu–Wahgi 15319:Bulaka River 15303:Austronesian 15301: 15262: 15255: 15236: 15223: 15216: 15209: 15135: 15128: 15121: 15111:Sino-Tibetan 15109: 15092: 15075: 15054: 15053: 15046: 15039: 15022: 15012:Austronesian 15010: 15003: 14991: 14937: 14875:Nilo-Saharan 14873: 14866: 14851:Austronesian 14849: 14842: 14778: 14765: 14756: 14751:Proto-Italic 14749: 14740: 14733: 14726: 14719: 14710: 14703: 14698:Proto-Celtic 14696: 14689:Proto-Slavic 14687: 14682:Proto-Baltic 14680: 14673: 14666: 14659: 14652: 14645: 14625: 14618: 14611: 14604: 14597: 14590: 14583: 14576: 14543: 14538: 14528: 14518:Osco-Umbrian 14516: 14463:Indo-Iranian 14440: 14415: 14389:South Slavic 14363: 14351: 14335:Balto-Slavic 14318: 14311: 14304: 14297: 14290: 14283: 14273: 14261: 14254: 14247: 14233: 14220: 14179:. Retrieved 14162:. Retrieved 14156: 14143:. Retrieved 14139:the original 14134: 14119:. Retrieved 14115:the original 14078:. Retrieved 14063: 14050:. Retrieved 14046:the original 14026:. Retrieved 14022:the original 14006:. Retrieved 13968:Online books 13958: 13929: 13907: 13904:Trask, R. L. 13860: 13856: 13837: 13800: 13785: 13760: 13738: 13713: 13692: 13677: 13653: 13605: 13601: 13580: 13561: 13529: 13519: 13515: 13497: 13473: 13450: 13430: 13414: 13379: 13375: 13359: 13355: 13339: 13335: 13315: 13301: 13297: 13278: 13257: 13246: 13210: 13187: 13164: 13144: 13135: 13112:. Retrieved 13097: 13085:. Retrieved 13069: 13057:. Retrieved 13041: 13000: 12996: 12984: 12960: 12932: 12920:. Retrieved 12916:the original 12905: 12898:Anthony 2007 12893: 12881: 12874:Anthony 2007 12857: 12834: 12822: 12810: 12802: 12794: 12786: 12782: 12774: 12767:Renfrew 2001 12761: 12753: 12745: 12733: 12714: 12705: 12693: 12681: 12672: 12668: 12659: 12634: 12628: 12624: 12618: 12606:. Retrieved 12591: 12584: 12574:. Berkeley: 12571: 12565: 12558:Fortson 2004 12553: 12541: 12532: 12526: 12491: 12485: 12468: 12456: 12447: 12441: 12432: 12428: 12422: 12413: 12407: 12401: 12379: 12366: 12356:30 September 12354:. Retrieved 12334: 12328: 12315: 12305:30 September 12303:. Retrieved 12289: 12285: 12272: 12221: 12217: 12207: 12198: 12194: 12188: 12179: 12173: 12165: 12147: 12141: 12124: 12120: 12114: 12093: 12089:Yaron Matras 12078: 12073:pp. 283–286. 12057: 12050: 12041: 12035: 12012: 12006: 11983: 11977: 11968: 11962: 11954: 11950: 11949:F. Ribezzo, 11945: 11918: 11914: 11904: 11893: 11883: 11863: 11857: 11848: 11839: 11814: 11793:(6): 931–6. 11790: 11786: 11780: 11762: 11750: 11738:. Retrieved 11731:the original 11717: 11705:. Retrieved 11701:the original 11696: 11687: 11678: 11671:. Retrieved 11656: 11649: 11630: 11617: 11599: 11593:. p. 5. 11586: 11577: 11568: 11562: 11553: 11547: 11535: 11530: 11509: 11501: 11484: 11481:taken from: 11476: 11466: 11437:. Retrieved 11430:the original 11425: 11412: 11400:. Retrieved 11387: 11380: 11363: 11357: 11341: 11305: 11299: 11280: 11274: 11260: 11234: 11145: 11126: 11113: 11074: 11034: 11006:North Africa 10931: 10886: 10876: 10748: 10744: 10740: 10736: 10732: 10728: 10711: 10707: 10697: 10693: 10689: 10685: 10678: 10674: 10670: 10656: 10652: 10628: 10609: 10601: 10597: 10593: 10591:Modern Irish 10579:periphrastic 10572: 10508:(tum) bʰaro 10255:I (1st sg.) 10204:Modern Greek 9935:biri; berir 9900:biru; berim 9881:I (1st sg.) 9875:Old Albanian 9865:Old Prussian 9793:Balto-Slavic 9768:Indo-Iranian 9673:We two (1st 9634:I (1st sg.) 9602: 9587: 9564: 9560: 9542: 9538: 9524: 9510: 9506: 9496: 9488: 9484: 9474: 9466: 9456: 9448: 9438: 9434: 9420: 9416: 9402: 9398: 9388: 9384: 9378: 9368: 9364: 9358: 9348: 9340: 9336: 9326: 9318: 9314: 9304: 9300: 9290: 9286: 9280:Verner's law 9275: 9268: 9261: 9254: 9197: 9191: 9186: 9181: 9176: 9171: 9167:*h₂weh₁n̥to- 9166: 9157: 9147: 9137: 9128: 9122:w > h / Ø 9119: 9110: 9101: 9092: 9083: 9073: 9068: 9063: 9058: 9053: 9048: 9039: 9030: 9021: 9011: 9001: 8991: 8981: 8972: 8963: 8954: 8945: 8935: 8930: 8925: 8920: 8915: 8910: 8901: 8892: 8882: 8877: 8872: 8867: 8862: 8857: 8848: 8838: 8830: 8821: 8814: 8808: 8803: 8798: 8793: 8788: 8783: 8774: 8765: 8755: 8746: 8737: 8727: 8719: 8714: 8709: 8704: 8699: 8690: 8680: 8670: 8660: 8650: 8640: 8630: 8623: 8617: 8609: 8604: 8599: 8594: 8589: 8580: 8568: 8559: 8550: 8542: 8536: 8531: 8526: 8521: 8516: 8509: 8500: 8491: 8482: 8472: 8467: 8462: 8457: 8452: 8447: 8437: 8427: 8417: 8407: 8395: 8385: 8375: 8364: 8354: 8345: 8335: 8326: 8317: 8307: 8299: 8294: 8289: 8284: 8278: 8268: 8263: 8258: 8253: 8248: 8243: 8233: 8223: 8214: 8205: 8196: 8186: 8177: 8168: 8159: 8149: 8140: 8131: 8122: 8113: 8104: 8095: 8086: 8077: 8066: 8057: 8048: 8039: 8030: 8021: 8012: 8003: 7994: 7987: 7981: 7976: 7971: 7966: 7961: 7953: 7948: 7938: 7928: 7919: 7909: 7899: 7887: 7878: 7869: 7860: 7851: 7842: 7833: 7824: 7815: 7806: 7796: 7791: 7786: 7781: 7776: 7771: 7762: 7753: 7741: 7729: 7720: 7711: 7702: 7693: 7684: 7675: 7666: 7657: 7648: 7638: 7630: 7625: 7620: 7614: 7609: 7599: 7589: 7580: 7568: 7559: 7550: 7541: 7532: 7523: 7514: 7505: 7496: 7486: 7481: 7476: 7471: 7466: 7459: 7454: 7445: 7436: 7424: 7415: 7406: 7397: 7388: 7379: 7370: 7360: 7355: 7350: 7345: 7340: 7335: 7326: 7317: 7308: 7299: 7290: 7281: 7272: 7263: 7254: 7247: 7239: 7234: 7229: 7224: 7220: 7214: 7205: 7196: 7187: 7175: 7166: 7157: 7148: 7139: 7130: 7121: 7111: 7106: 7101: 7096: 7091: 7083: 7078: 7069: 7057: 7048: 7039: 7031: 7022: 7011: 7006: 6996: 6987: 6978: 6970: 6961: 6951: 6944: 6939: 6934: 6929: 6919: 6915: 6910: 6905: 6900: 6895: 6890: 6880: 6870: 6860: 6850: 6841: 6832: 6823: 6814: 6805: 6796: 6789: 6783: 6778: 6773: 6768: 6763: 6759: 6751: 6742: 6733: 6724: 6715: 6706: 6697: 6689: 6680: 6670: 6665: 6660: 6655: 6650: 6645: 6635: 6625: 6615: 6605: 6595: 6585: 6575: 6566: 6557: 6548: 6539: 6530: 6521: 6511: 6506: 6501: 6496: 6491: 6486: 6477: 6468: 6458: 6449: 6440: 6430: 6420: 6410: 6401: 6392: 6384: 6375: 6367: 6361: 6356: 6352:poús (podós) 6351: 6346: 6341: 6336: 6326: 6316: 6306: 6296: 6287: 6278: 6269: 6260: 6252: 6243: 6142: 6127:Verner's law 6120: 6112: 6108: 6102:Proto-Celtic 6097: 6088: 6084: 6076: 6066: 6058: 6054: 6050: 6025:Balto-Slavic 6010: 5977: 5939: 5928: 5909:Balto-Slavic 5905:Indo-Iranian 5900: 5891: 5887: 5876: 5867: 5863: 5859: 5855: 5851: 5847: 5843: 5839: 5835: 5831: 5823: 5819: 5815: 5811: 5807: 5803: 5799: 5792: 5788: 5784: 5780: 5776: 5773:Verner's law 5755: 5751: 5747: 5743: 5739: 5733: 5729: 5725: 5721: 5717: 5711: 5707: 5703: 5699: 5695: 5691: 5687: 5681: 5677: 5673: 5669: 5665: 5659: 5655: 5651: 5647: 5643: 5639: 5635: 5631: 5627: 5619: 5615: 5611: 5607: 5603: 5565: 5425:As in other 5411: 5402: 5398: 5394: 5387: 5383: 5379: 5345: 5334: 5266: 5254:Old Prussian 5189: 5044: 5011: 5005: 4942: 4934:vowel length 4930:poetic meter 4915: 4887:to present: 4772: 4757:Roman Empire 4753:Proto-Slavic 4745:Gupta period 4696:: spread of 4639:Osco-Umbrian 4548:Balto-Slavic 4544:Greater Iran 4473: 4468:Indo-Iranian 4449:Pre-Germanic 4429: 4415:Indo-Iranian 4388:Tandy Warnow 4384:Donald Ringe 4381: 4373: 4336:, they form 4315: 4300: 4211: 4206:Eskimo–Aleut 4188:' families ( 4142: 4115: 4111: 4096: 4087: 4076:Please help 4071:verification 4068: 4039: 4015: 3947:Indo-Hittite 3944: 3934: 3928: 3919: 3912:, Old Irish 3903: 3899: 3895: 3891: 3885: 3881:Graeco-Aryan 3873:Italo-Celtic 3870: 3828:Indo-Hittite 3823:Italo-Celtic 3792:Graeco-Aryan 3772:Paleo-Balkan 3755: 3732: 3730: 3721: 3717: 3713: 3690: 3679: 3664: 3654: 3647:genealogical 3644: 3523: 3484:Proto-Italic 3452:Kamkata-vari 3420:). Includes 3334:, including 3267:Indo-Iranian 3121:Proto-Celtic 3011:Proto-Slavic 3001:Balto-Slavic 2990: 2989:, developed 2969:Old Assyrian 2955:, spoken in 2917: 2897: 2889: 2851: 2843: 2827: 2823: 2818: 2798: 2794: 2786: 2782: 2778: 2774: 2762: 2759:Thomas Young 2757: 2739: 2737: 2701: 2673:conjugations 2662: 2615: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2574: 2560: 2517: 2495: 2424:Western Asia 2372: 2365: 2359: 2340: 2328:Indo-Iranian 2312:Balto-Slavic 2254: 2252: 2210: 2203: 2196: 2189: 2182: 2176:Publications 2175: 2161: 2142: 2096: 1979: 1973: 1967: 1961:Paleo-Balkan 1951: 1950: 1938: 1937: 1879: 1878: 1834: 1833: 1821: 1791: 1774:Greater Iran 1767: 1766: 1755: 1754: 1718: 1717: 1705: 1704: 1647:Paleo-Balkan 1612:Celtiberians 1591: 1590: 1573: 1572: 1560: 1559: 1547: 1546: 1475: 1474: 1462: 1461: 1439: 1438: 1426: 1425: 1395: 1394: 1337: 1336: 1314: 1313: 1276: 1275: 1238: 1237: 1213: 1212: 1200: 1199: 1187: 1186: 1128:Bug–Dniester 1092: 1091: 957:Gothic Bible 873:Proto-Baltic 869:Proto-Slavic 854:Proto-Italic 850:Proto-Celtic 813: 768: 756:Italo-Celtic 751:Indo-Hittite 741:Graeco-Aryan 714:Hypothetical 713: 678: 613:Paleo-Balkan 595: 552:Indo-Iranian 507:Balto-Slavic 480: 464: 188:(Albanoid?) 149:Indo-Iranian 117:Balto-Slavic 81:Subdivisions 67:Indo-Hittite 42:distribution 29: 17484:Ural-Altaic 17464:Indo-Uralic 17276:Sentinelese 17007:Afroasiatic 16973:Eteocypriot 16697:Germanosign 16601:Mura-Pirahã 16482:Lule–Vilela 16458:Bora-Witoto 16433:Uru–Chipaya 16406:Ticuna–Yuri 16389:Peba–Yaguan 16374:Nambikwaran 16177:Uto-Aztecan 16113:Mesoamerica 15967:Uto-Aztecan 15956:Tsimshianic 15918:Palaihnihan 15788:Malak-Malak 15525:Papuan Gulf 15499:West Papuan 15404:Lower Sepik 15394:Lakes Plain 15297:Arai–Samaia 15285:the Pacific 14993:Afroasiatic 14868:Niger–Congo 14844:Afroasiatic 14712:Proto-Norse 14539:Tocharian A 14394:West Slavic 14384:East Slavic 14365:West Baltic 14359:East Baltic 14121:14 December 14080:13 December 14052:14 December 14028:14 December 14008:13 December 14004:. wordgumbo 13423:Renfrew, C. 13230:Paperback: 12965:Beekes 2011 12937:Beekes 2011 12608:19 February 12546:Porzig 1954 12461:Porzig 1954 12127:: 275–291. 11849:Science 2.0 11832:Beekes 1995 11740:25 November 11707:25 November 11591:I.B. Tauris 11514:. Penguin. 11346:Beekes 2011 11334:Auroux 2000 11204:Linguistics 11125:become the 11093:nationalism 11044:, with the 11002:Middle East 10950:Indo-Aryans 10940:throughout 10549:{con}ferem 10514:{con}feris 10304:{con}feres 10298:(tū) bʰarē 6891:*kʷid, kʷod 6357:pēs (pedis) 6117:Proto-Greek 6060:Grimm's law 6049:(e.g. with 6047:chain shift 5942:languages ( 5925:front vowel 5903:languages ( 5814:ends up as 5783:ends up as 5650:"rain" vs. 5403:plain velar 5318: 1450 5261: 1350 5241:Old Persian 5230:languages ( 5214: 1400 5171: 1500 5142: 1700 5135:Old Avestan 5122: 1100 5113:–1000) and 5093:Old English 5034: 1700 4955: 1500 4938:manuscripts 4889:Colonialism 4883:1500–2000: 4868:1000–1500: 4838:Afghanistan 4826:Arabization 4710:Indo-Greeks 4484:Scandinavia 4328:carrying a 4164:Afroasiatic 4158:(or wider, 4121:Indo-Uralic 3906:> Latin 3833:Indo-Uralic 3701:long vowels 3619:Sorothaptic 3502:, such as 3414:Old Persian 3290:texts from 3269:, attested 3251:, see also 3249:Proto-Greek 3183:Old English 3129:Celtiberian 3067:Montenegrin 2771:North India 2589:"serpent", 2484:Afroasiatic 2458:in eastern 2299:colonialism 2054:Continental 2047:Anglo-Saxon 1750:Middle Ages 1700:Middle Ages 1555:Indo-Aryans 1548:Indo-Aryans 1355:Bell Beaker 1350:Corded ware 1246:Corded ware 1135:Sredny Stog 1080:Archaeology 860:Proto-Greek 840:Proto-Norse 21:Indo people 17703:Categories 17624:Pre-Celtic 17592:East Asian 17582:Austro-Tai 17572:Andamanese 17422:Eurasiatic 17343:North Asia 17293:North Asia 17205:Hmong–Mien 17159:Burushaski 17118:South Asia 17089:Kartvelian 17056:Philistine 16966:Eteocretan 16910:Tartessian 16691:Francosign 16539:Chiquitano 16519:Alacalufan 16327:Guaicuruan 16300:Chapacuran 16283:Cahuapanan 16251:Araucanian 16154:Mixe–Zoque 16149:Misumalpan 15863:Comecrudan 15715:Nyulnyulan 15494:Upper Yuat 15471:Torricelli 15443:Senu River 15374:Foja Range 15280:New Guinea 15205:Burushaski 15066:Kartvelian 15041:Hmong–Mien 14857:Khoe–Kwadi 14477:Indo-Aryan 14181:9 December 14145:9 December 13847:041506449X 13197:9027221510 13114:17 January 13109:Ethnologue 13081:Ethnologue 13053:Ethnologue 12886:Ringe 2006 12801:, p. 594, 12382:, London: 12026:0631220399 11402:7 December 11247:References 11046:Tocharians 11038:Common Era 10915:Portuguese 10895:Hindustani 10887:Ethnologue 10840:Portuguese 10776:See also: 10756:Samogitian 10723:In Modern 10692:< Lat. 10617:Hindustani 10532:(ju) bini 10517:beirthidh 10497:(ne) biem 10339:{con}fere 10287:(unë) bie 10267:{con}firo 10239:Lithuanian 10219:Portuguese 10209:Hindustani 10195:*berjanti 10031:bʰárathas 9805:Indo-Aryan 9696:bʰéreth₁es 9513:r, u, k, i 9477:r, l, m, n 9459:r, l, m, n 6911:quid, quod 6755:"raw meat" 6093:languages. 6085:r, u, k, i 6057:(known as 5767:fricatives 5640:pēs, pēdis 5392:labiovelar 5337:sound laws 5305: 400 5292: 500 5279: 700 5235: 600 5228:Old Italic 5226:and other 5205:and other 5184: 900 5160:Lithuanian 5129: 200 5111: 750 5100: 800 5089: 350 4989:–400 BC). 4987: 750 4926:Lithuanian 4842:Tajikistan 4810:Viking Age 4804:500–1000: 4368:See also: 4316:PIE is an 4236:, and the 4230:New Guinea 4170:Eurasiatic 4152:Kartvelian 3710:high vowel 3686:wave model 3682:tree model 3674:See also: 3579:Lusitanian 3450:(includes 3336:Hindustani 3332:Bangladesh 3326:, Eastern 3294:, showing 3284:Indo-Aryan 3227:Low German 3105:Lithuanian 3087:Belarusian 3051:Macedonian 2912:See also: 2886:Kuryłowicz 2878:Helmut Rix 2846:and up to 2844:Compendium 2820:Franz Bopp 2813:Franz Bopp 2746:philologer 2524:Indo-Aryan 2512:See also: 2454:colony of 2420:South Asia 2387:Bronze Age 2367:Ethnologue 2343:Hindustani 2283:Portuguese 2162:Institutes 2082:Lithuanian 1836:Indo-Aryan 1822:Historical 1756:Indo-Aryan 1713:Tocharians 1627:Cimmerians 1505:Bronze Age 1396:South Asia 1270:Bronze Age 1208:Afanasievo 1012:Mainstream 776:Vocabulary 696:Sound laws 558:Indo-Aryan 374:Indo-Aryan 201:Lusitanian 40:Geographic 17649:Pre-Vedic 17639:Pre-Greek 17611:Substrata 17514:Arunachal 17412:Nostratic 17397:Alarodian 17332:Yeniseian 17182:East Asia 17134:Dravidian 16991:West Asia 16959:Tyrsenian 16722:Tanzanian 16663:languages 16560:Hodï/Joti 16504:Isolates 16443:Yanomaman 16379:Otomákoan 16343:Jirajaran 16332:Guajiboan 16294:Catacaoan 16273:Barbacoan 16202:Cuitlatec 16171:Totonacan 16130:Jicaquean 16009:Chimariko 15905:Muskogean 15887:Kalapuyan 15881:Iroquoian 15856:Chumashan 15849:Chinookan 15842:Chimakuan 15760:Yangmanic 15755:Worrorran 15738:Wagaydyic 15628:Australia 15477:Trans-Fly 15143:Yeniseian 15130:Tyrsenian 15024:Dravidian 14781:indicate 14530:Tocharian 14487:Nuristani 14235:Anatolian 13994:Databases 13895:169996117 13887:0019-7262 13828:161016819 13642:248358873 13548:1816-3920 13427:Drews, R. 13406:162944161 13397:1887/2660 13104:"English" 13033:161530848 13017:0019-7246 12967:, p. 30, 12815:Holm 2008 12496:CiteSeerX 12384:Routledge 12351:143978664 12042:The Celts 11937:132712913 11890:"Mitanni" 11610:Hamp 2007 11605:Eric Hamp 11493:899731310 11252:Citations 11058:Caucasian 11054:Dravidian 10990:East Asia 10982:Near East 10673:(English 10575:synthetic 10322:(ti) bie 10171:bʰáranti 10168:phérousi 10160:*berjeju 10154:*beratei 10136:bʰáratha 10125:*berjame 10119:*beramai 10104:barāmahi 10101:bʰárāmas 10098:phéromen 10066:bʰáratas 10063:phéreton 10028:phéreton 9999:barāvahi 9996:bʰárāvas 9850:Old Irish 9495:or after 9451:Before a 9233:Old Irish 8911:*h₁reudʰ- 8715:(he)katón 8705:hund(red) 8244:*sneigʷʰ- 7079:*déḱm̥(t) 6930:*kʷekʷlom 6651:hund(red) 6201:Examples 6189:Old Irish 6087:) in the 6053:becoming 6029:Anatolian 5964:Tocharian 5960:Anatolian 5933:sibilants 5923:before a 5879:Anatolian 5850:), while 5826:"ten" in 5789:hund(red) 5779:in Latin 5726:hund(red) 5602:(written 5395:kʷ gʷ gʷh 5360:voiceless 5352:phonation 5285:Tocharian 5272:Old Irish 5237:–200 BC). 5216:–400 BC). 5115:Old Norse 5054:Classical 4850:Tocharian 4787:Byzantine 4779:Silk Road 4714:Hindukush 4683:Sri Lanka 4669:, and in 4635:Babylonia 4619:Zoroaster 4613:preaches 4605:preaches 4496:Hallstatt 4486:develops 4451:(3300 BC) 4445:(3700 BC) 4443:Tocharian 4438:(4200 BC) 4436:Anatolian 4417:(2000 BC) 4403:Tocharian 4396:Anatolian 4326:morphemes 4244:Evolution 4234:Australia 4156:Dravidian 4148:Nostratic 4090:June 2021 4025:Avestan ( 3607:Phrygians 3567:Liburnian 3539:Cimmerian 3510:Tocharian 3456:Vasi-vari 3448:Nuristani 3388:Sri Lanka 3257:Mycenaean 3235:Elfdalian 3231:Icelandic 3219:Afrikaans 3215:Norwegian 3137:Old Welsh 3083:Ukrainian 3079:Slovenian 3047:Kashubian 3023:Bulgarian 2993:from the 2949:Anatolian 2853:Grundriss 2681:Kurlandic 2616:In 1647, 2597:"seven", 2385:or early 2383:Neolithic 2097:Practices 1916:Yarsanism 1726:Albanians 1706:East Asia 1693:Scythians 1685:Phrygians 1678:Paeonians 1671:Illyrians 1657:Thracians 1574:East Asia 1525:Armenians 1452:Hallstatt 1434:Chernoles 1375:Terramare 1365:Trzciniec 1332:Sintashta 1327:Andronovo 1228:Cernavodă 1201:East Asia 1156:Khvalynsk 896:Philology 806:Particles 692:Phonology 633:Liburnian 608:Tocharian 603:Anatolian 572:Nuristani 465:Languages 383:Nuristani 319:Brittonic 243:Glottolog 225:ISO 639-2 194:Liburnian 161:Tocharian 104:Anatolian 45:Worldwide 17644:Vasconic 17619:Atlantic 17373:Eskaleut 17327:Yukaghir 17242:Koreanic 17237:Tungusic 17232:Mongolic 17170:Harappan 17081:Caucasus 17063:Sumerian 16938:Ligurian 16755:See also 16732:Isolates 16707:Japanese 16647:Yuracaré 16529:Candoshi 16488:Macro-Jê 16453:Zaparoan 16448:Zamucoan 16438:Witotoan 16421:Tucanoan 16416:Tiniguan 16411:Timotean 16395:Quechuan 16364:Matacoan 16359:Mascoian 16349:Jivaroan 16312:Chibchan 16306:Charruan 16257:Arawakan 16194:Isolates 16125:Chibchan 16001:Isolates 15973:Wakashan 15934:Salishan 15876:Eskaleut 15782:Giimbiyu 15774:Isolates 15683:Jarrakan 15678:Iwaidjan 15535:Isolates 15389:Kutubuan 15257:Sumerian 15193:Isolates 15148:Yukaghir 15117:Tungusic 15083:Mongolic 15071:Koreanic 15030:Eskaleut 14921:Isolates 14905:Ubangian 14627:Thracian 14620:Phrygian 14613:Paeonian 14592:Illyrian 14567:Armenian 14562:Albanian 14433:Germanic 14313:Pisidian 14164:29 March 13928:(2000). 13782:(1936). 13735:(1989). 13674:(1968). 13652:(1994). 13634:37599704 13625:10432883 13516:Kratylos 13472:(1861). 13382:: 9–26. 13245:(1886). 13208:(2011). 13186:(1995). 13025:24651488 12969:Toch: 19 12949:Hitt: 20 12922:7 August 12713:(1987). 12667:(1979). 12630:Language 12487:Language 12477:(2005). 12330:Language 12264:22923579 12109:p. 388}} 11921:: 1–22. 11818:Such as 11761:(1995). 11673:31 March 11451:Japanese 11447:Egyptian 11369:Archived 11134:See also 11020:and the 11014:Caucasus 10853:Germanic 10818:Americas 10717:conferir 10653:bʰarant- 10583:pronouns 10526:beriate 10505:férnete 10491:beriame 10470:férnume 10421:beriata 10386:beriava 10342:beiridh 10249:Albanian 10186:baírand 10174:barəṇti 10145:beirthe 10133:phérete 10113:beremkʿ 10107:ferimus 10046:baírats 9985:*berjet 9964:baraiti 9961:bʰárati 9926:bʰárasi 9923:phéreis 9889:bʰárāmi 9798:Albanian 9788:Germanic 9783:Armenian 9763:Hellenic 9748:bʰéronti 9722:bʰéromos 9709:bʰéretes 9683:bʰérowos 9590:thematic 9471:sonorant 9453:sonorant 9347:, etc.; 9325:, etc.; 9242:English 8926:eruthrós 8921:rudhirá- 8510:*h₂eusōs 8279:*gʷʰerm- 7977:(h)ānser 7610:*bʰéroh₂ 6661:he-katón 6153:reflexes 6079:becomes 6043:Armenian 6039:Germanic 6033:Albanian 5944:Germanic 5917:Armenian 5913:Albanian 5818:with no 5738:For PIE 5716:For PIE 5686:For PIE 5664:For PIE 5626:For PIE 5370:" (i.e. 5311:Albanian 5102:–1000), 5056:period ( 5010:and the 4874:Albanian 4820:and the 4749:Armenian 4687:Maldives 4685:and the 4679:Prakrits 4675:Phrygian 4671:Anatolia 4667:Illyrian 4659:Thracian 4651:Siculian 4631:Elamites 4615:Buddhism 4603:Mahavira 4500:Iron Age 4492:Urnfield 4334:suffixes 4194:Yukaghir 4043:isogloss 3904:*kʷenkʷe 3625:Thracian 3603:Phrygian 3597:Paionian 3591:Messapic 3573:Ligurian 3561:Illyrian 3555:Elymians 3492:Faliscan 3442:Ossetian 3396:Maldives 3368:Gujarati 3364:Kashmiri 3356:Assamese 3328:Pakistan 3292:Anatolia 3245:Hellenic 3167:Germanic 3125:Lepontic 3063:Croatian 3043:Silesian 2979:Armenian 2957:Anatolia 2943:Messapic 2935:Illyrian 2923:Albanian 2888:'s 1956 2842:'s 1861 2751:— 2716:Sanskrit 2697:Khoekhoe 2630:Albanian 2571:Sanskrit 2567:Florence 2542:scholar 2532:European 2460:Anatolia 2452:Assyrian 2430:and the 2324:Hellenic 2320:Germanic 2308:Armenian 2304:Albanian 2143:Scholars 2041:Germanic 2012:Scottish 1977:Thracian 1971:Illyrian 1965:Albanian 1953:European 1946:Armenian 1930:Ossetian 1924:Scythian 1909:Yazidism 1859:Buddhism 1850:Hinduism 1741:Norsemen 1651:Anatolia 1568:Iranians 1561:Iranians 1542:Iron Age 1517:Hittites 1470:Colchian 1463:Caucasus 1421:Iron Age 1390:Lusatian 1385:Urnfield 1309:Srubnaya 1304:Poltavka 1294:Catacomb 1233:Cucuteni 1188:Caucasus 1005:Religion 990:Homeland 932:Behistun 912:Linear B 801:Numerals 796:Pronouns 721:Balkanic 668:Thracian 661:Phrygian 654:Paeonian 640:Messapic 626:Illyrian 538:Hellenic 533:Germanic 502:Armenian 494:Albanian 488:Albanoid 439:a series 437:Part of 351:Hellenic 333:Germanic 323:Goidelic 283:Armenian 273:Albanian 269:Albanoid 249:indo1319 215:Thracian 208:Paeonian 186:Illyrian 140:Phrygian 136:Hellenic 127:Germanic 112:Armenian 95:Messapic 91:Albanian 87:Albanoid 17679:italics 17577:Austric 17554:Kho-Bwa 17549:Hrusish 17527:Siangic 17469:Karasuk 17369: ? 17282:Kenaboi 17247:Japonic 17212:Kra–Dai 17173: ? 17164:Kusunda 17070:Elamite 17042:Kassite 17028:Kaskian 16931:Camunic 16903:Iberian 16860:Eurasia 16805:italics 16782:Pidgins 16767:Creoles 16717:Swedish 16685:Chinese 16632:Urarina 16617:Puinave 16571:Itonama 16565:Irantxe 16534:Chimane 16464:Chimuan 16369:Nadahup 16288:Cariban 16268:Aymaran 16229:America 16071:Waikuri 16064:Tonkawa 16057:Timucua 16050:Takelma 16043:Siuslaw 16032:Kutenai 16016:Esselen 15979:Wintuan 15940:Shastan 15911:Na-Dene 15899:Maiduan 15836:Caddoan 15810:America 15764:Wagiman 15762:(incl. 15733:Tangkic 15673:Garawan 15646:Bunuban 15607:Tambora 15574:Maybrat 15542:Abinomn 15465:Teberan 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922:Avesta 704:Ablaut 700:Accent 647:Mysian 619:Dacian 580:Italic 528:Celtic 520:Slavic 513:Baltic 481:Extant 402: 392:Italic 390: 388: 381: 379: 372: 370: 363: 361: 349: 347: 331: 329: 315:Celtic 313: 311: 306:Slavic 304: 302: 292:Baltic 290: 288: 281: 279: 267: 265: 172:Dacian 154:Italic 122:Celtic 17317:Nivkh 17271:Ongan 16637:Warao 16606:Nukak 16577:Kunza 16555:Guató 16544:Cofán 16524:Camsá 16317:Choco 16278:Boran 16227:South 16208:Huave 16143:Mayan 16094:Yuchi 16077:Washo 16027:Karuk 16022:Haida 15961:Utian 15893:Keres 15830:Alsea 15823:Algic 15808:North 15600:Taiap 15594:Sulka 15449:Sepik 15364:Engan 15105:Ongan 15088:Nivkh 14956:Shabo 14939:Jalaa 14933:Hadza 14887:Mande 14572:Greek 14275:Luwic 13891:S2CID 13823:S2CID 13638:S2CID 13402:S2CID 13372:(PDF) 13352:(PDF) 13300:[ 13029:S2CID 13021:JSTOR 12941:p. 30 12671:[ 12647:JSTOR 12514:S2CID 12482:(PDF) 12431:[ 12376:(PDF) 12347:S2CID 12325:(PDF) 12197:[ 11955:RSLig 11933:S2CID 11734:(PDF) 11727:(PDF) 11459:Hindi 11433:(PDF) 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11404:2022 11310:ISBN 11285:ISBN 11107:and 11024:the 11004:and 10988:and 10925:and 10733:fero 10710:and 10708:sub- 10675:bear 10625:Urdu 10623:and 10615:The 10594:beir 9896:ferō 9675:dual 9545:i, e 9499:r, u 9491:r, l 9423:o, u 9371:i, e 9293:r, l 9208:Skr. 9172:wind 9054:yoke 8887:ruz 8868:ruc- 8815:áštá 8732:sad 8618:myšĭ 8590:*mūs 8517:east 8285:warm 8249:snow 8080:*gʷʰ 7972:khḗn 7962:gans 7801:dar 7777:door 7639:berǫ 7631:ferō 7615:bear 7491:ze- 7472:bíos 7341:yoke 7240:genu 7235:gónu 7225:knee 7221:cnēo 7116:dah 7102:déka 7097:dáśa 6896:what 6863:gw/w 6788:xore 6675:sad 6512:trỹs 6507:trēs 6347:pád- 6342:foot 6225:Lat. 6215:Skr. 6211:Eng. 6164:Skr. 6071:The 6041:and 5993:The 5986:The 5962:and 5890:and 5854:and 5836:have 5834:and 5806:and 5756:when 5754:vs. 5748:what 5746:vs. 5744:quid 5734:have 5724:vs. 5712:what 5710:vs. 5708:quid 5704:foot 5702:vs. 5694:vs. 5680:vs. 5672:vs. 5670:trēs 5658:vs. 5652:flow 5644:foot 5642:vs. 5636:fish 5634:vs. 5618:and 5401:and 5390:and 5300:(AD 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