Proto-Germanic language

9394:. For a single word, the grammatical stem could display different consonants depending on its grammatical case or its tense. As a result of the complexity of this system, significant levelling of these sounds occurred throughout the Germanic period as well as in the later daughter languages. Already in Proto-Germanic, most alternations in nouns were leveled to have only one sound or the other consistently throughout all forms of a word, although some alternations were preserved, only to be levelled later in the daughters (but differently in each one). Alternations in noun and verb endings were also levelled, usually in favour of the voiced alternants in nouns, but a split remained in verbs where unsuffixed (strong) verbs received the voiced alternants while suffixed (weak) verbs had the voiceless alternants. Alternation between the present and past of strong verbs remained common and was not levelled in Proto-Germanic, and survives up to the present day in some Germanic languages. 13240:, which caused alternation of suffixal -j- and -ij- depending on the length of the preceding part of the morpheme. If preceded within the same morpheme by only short vowel followed by a single consonant, -j- appeared. In all other cases, such as when preceded by a long vowel or diphthong, by two or more consonants, or by more than one syllable, -ij- appeared. The distinction between morphemes and words is important here, as the alternant -j- appeared also in words that contained a distinct suffix that in turn contained -j- in its second syllable. A notable example was the verb suffix *-atjaną, which retained -j- despite being preceded by two syllables in a fully formed word. 14475:'to be'. Similarly, the Latin imperfect and pluperfect stem from Italic innovations and are not cognate with the corresponding Greek or Sanskrit forms; and while the Greek and Sanskrit pluperfect tenses appear cognate, there are no parallels in any other Indo-European languages, leading to the conclusion that this tense is either a shared Greek-Sanskrit innovation or separate, coincidental developments in the two languages. In this respect, Proto-Germanic can be said to be characterized by the failure to innovate new synthetic tenses as much as the loss of existing tenses. Later Germanic languages did innovate new tenses, derived through 15821:, p. 85: "Early Jastorf, at the end of the seventh century BCE, is almost certainly too early for the last common ancestor of the attested languages; but later Jastorf culture and its successors occupy so much territory that their populations are most unlikely to have spoken a single dialect, even granting that the expansion of the culture was relatively rapid. It follows that our reconstructed PGmc was only one of the dialects spoken by peoples identified archeologically, or by the Romans, as 'Germans'; the remaining Germanic peoples spoke sister dialects of PGmc." 4064:

intelligibility might have still existed with other descendants of PIE, but it would have been strained, and the period marked the definitive break of Germanic from the other Indo-European languages and the beginning of Germanic proper, containing most of the sound changes that are now held to define this branch distinctively. This stage contained various consonant and vowel shifts, the loss of the contrastive accent inherited from PIE for a uniform accent on the first syllable of the word root, and the beginnings of the reduction of the resulting unstressed syllables.

13113:. Although this is true to some extent, it is probably due more to the late time of attestation of Germanic than to any inherent "simplicity" of the Germanic languages. As an example, there are less than 500 years between the Gothic Gospels of 360 and the Old High German Tatian of 830, yet Old High German, despite being the most archaic of the West Germanic languages, is missing a large number of archaic features present in Gothic, including dual and passive markings on verbs, reduplication in Class VII strong verb past tenses, the vocative case, and second-position ( 13277:

into them. The first two had variants in /ja/ and /wa/, and /jō/ and /wō/, respectively; originally, these were declined exactly like other nouns of the respective class, but later sound changes tended to distinguish these variants as their own subclasses. The /n/ nouns had various subclasses, including /ōn/ (masculine and feminine), /an/ (neuter), and /īn/ (feminine, mostly abstract nouns). There was also a smaller class of root nouns (ending in various consonants), nouns of relationship (ending in /er/), and neuter nouns in /z/ (this class was greatly expanded in

16960: 2383: 388: 2780: 2448: 440: 8049: 66: 25: 15826:, p. 51: "...if the Jastorf culture and, probably, the neighboring Harpstedt culture to the west constitute the Germanic homeland (Mallory 1989: 87), a spread of Proto-Germanic northwards and eastwards would have to be assumed, which might explain both the archaisms and the innovative features of North Germanic and East Germanic, and would fit nicely with recent views locating the homeland of the Goths in Poland." 350: 6091:

lost the PIE mobile pitch accent for a predictable stress accent, and had merged two of its vowels. The stress accent had already begun to cause the erosion of unstressed syllables, which would continue in its descendants. The final stage of the language included the remaining development until the breakup into dialects and, most notably, featured the development of nasal vowels and the start of

168: 13244:

alternation between -aV- and -aiC- from the loss of -j- between two vowels, which appeared in the present subjunctive of verbs: *-aų < *-ajų in the first person, *-ai- in the others. A combination of these two effects created an alternation between -ā- and -ai- found in class 3 weak verbs, with -ā- < -aja- < -əja- and -ai- < -əi- < -əji-.

9487:. Older accounts tended to suggest that the sounds were originally fricatives and later "hardened" into stops in some circumstances. However, Ringe notes that this belief was largely due to theory-internal considerations of older phonological theories, and in modern theories it is equally possible that the allophony was present from the beginning. 2740:, (which pertained mainly to consonants and were considered for many decades to have generated Proto-Germanic) as pre-Proto-Germanic and held that the "upper boundary" (that is, the earlier boundary) was the fixing of the accent, or stress, on the root syllable of a word, typically on the first syllable. Proto-Indo-European had featured a moveable 13166:

earlier locative and ablative cases are visible in a few pronominal and adverbial forms. Pronouns were declined similarly, although without a separate vocative form. The instrumental and vocative can be reconstructed only in the singular; the instrumental survives only in the West Germanic languages, and the vocative only in Gothic.

2329:(second to first millennia BC) to include "Pre-Germanic" (PreGmc), "Early Proto-Germanic" (EPGmc) and "Late Proto-Germanic" (LPGmc). While Proto-Germanic refers only to the reconstruction of the most recent common ancestor of Germanic languages, the Germanic parent language refers to the entire journey that the dialect of 10771:'to anoint'). However, the majority occurred in word-final syllables (inflectional endings) probably because in this position the vowel could not be resyllabified. Additionally, Germanic, like Balto-Slavic, lengthened bimoraic long vowels in absolute final position, perhaps to better conform to a word's 2681:, began with the development of a separate common way of speech among some geographically nearby speakers of a prior language and ended with the dispersion of the proto-language speakers into distinct populations with mostly independent speech habits. Between the two points, many sound changes occurred. 15689:

The first is a direct phonetic evolution of the PIE text. It does not take into account various idiomatic and grammatical shifts that occurred over the period. For example, the original text uses the imperfect tense, which disappeared in Proto-Germanic. The second version takes these differences into

13546:

Adjectives agree with the noun they qualify in case, number, and gender. Adjectives evolved into strong and weak declensions, originally with indefinite and definite meaning, respectively. As a result of its definite meaning, the weak form came to be used in the daughter languages in conjunction with

11529:

In many cases, the nasality was not contrastive and was merely present as an additional surface articulation. No Germanic language that preserves the word-final vowels has their nasality preserved. Word-final short nasal vowels do not show different reflexes compared to non-nasal vowels. However, the

8197:

with reference to Proto-Germanic refers to lexical items and phonological elements that do not appear to be descended from Proto-Indo-European. The substrate theory postulates that the elements came from an earlier population that stayed amongst the Indo-Europeans and was influential enough to bring

6090:

By this stage, Germanic had emerged as a distinctive branch and had undergone many of the sound changes that would make its later descendants recognisable as Germanic languages. It had shifted its consonant inventory from a system that was rich in plosives to one containing primarily fricatives, had

15714:

Awiz ehwōz-uh: awiz, sō wullǭ ne habdē, sahw ehwanz, ainanǭ kurjanǭ wagną teuhandų, ainanǭ-uh mikilǭ kuriþǭ, ainanǭ-uh gumanų sneumundô berandų. Awiz nu ehwamaz sagdē: hertô sairīþi mek, sehwandē ehwanz akandų gumanų. Ehwōz sagdēdun: gahauzī, awi! hertô sairīþi uns sehwandumiz: gumô, fadiz, uz awīz

9815:

Since its formulation, the validity of Kluge's Law has been contested. The development of geminate consonants has also been explained by the idea of "expressive gemination". Although this idea remains popular, it does not explain why many words containing geminated stops do not have "expressive" or

9470:

are reconstructed with the pronunciation of stops in some environments and fricatives in others. The pattern of allophony is not completely clear, but generally is similar to the patterns of voiced obstruent allophones in languages such as Spanish. The voiced fricatives of Verner's Law (see above),

8564:

The table below lists the consonantal phonemes of Proto-Germanic, ordered and classified by their reconstructed pronunciation. The slashes around the phonemes are omitted for clarity. When two phonemes appear in the same box, the first of each pair is voiceless, the second is voiced. Phones written

15727:

The Sheep and the Horses: A sheep that had no wool saw horses, one pulling a heavy wagon, one carrying a big load, and one carrying a man quickly. The sheep said to the horses: "My heart pains me, seeing a man driving horses." The horses said: "Listen, sheep, our hearts pain us when we see this: a

13276:

The system of nominal declensions was largely inherited from PIE. Primary nominal declensions were the stems in /a/, /ō/, /n/, /i/, and /u/. The first three were particularly important and served as the basis of adjectival declension; there was a tendency for nouns of all other classes to be drawn

10999:

By the end of the Proto-Germanic period, word-final long vowels were shortened to short vowels. Following that, overlong vowels were shortened to regular long vowels in all positions, merging with originally long vowels except word-finally (because of the earlier shortening), so that they remained

10970:

Trimoraic vowels are distinguished from bimoraic vowels by their outcomes in attested Germanic languages: word-final trimoraic vowels remained long vowels while bimoraic vowels developed into short vowels. Older theories about the phenomenon claimed that long and overlong vowels were both long but

7746:

Loans into Proto-Germanic from other (known) languages or from Proto-Germanic into other languages can be dated relative to each other by which Germanic sound laws have acted on them. Since the dates of borrowings and sound laws are not precisely known, it is not possible to use loans to establish

2859:

The following changes are known or presumed to have occurred in the history of Proto-Germanic in the wider sense from the end of Proto-Indo-European up to the point that Proto-Germanic began to break into mutually unintelligible dialects. The changes are listed roughly in chronological order, with

14566:

voice. The Proto-Germanic passive existed only in the present tense (an inherited feature, as the PIE perfect had no mediopassive). On the evidence of Gothic—the only Germanic language with a reflex of the Proto-Germanic passive—the passive voice had a significantly reduced inflectional system,

13165:

Nouns and adjectives were declined in (at least) six cases: vocative, nominative, accusative, dative, instrumental, genitive. The locative case had merged into the dative case, and the ablative may have merged with either the genitive, dative or instrumental cases. However, sparse remnants of the

10991:

had an "acute" (rising) tone, much like the tones of modern Scandinavian languages, Baltic, and Ancient Greek, and asserted that this distinction was inherited from PIE. However, this view was abandoned since languages in general do not combine distinctive intonations on unstressed syllables with

9389:

The loss of the Proto-Indo-European contrastive accent got rid of the conditioning environment for the consonant alternations created by Verner's law. Without this conditioning environment, the cause of the alternation was no longer obvious to native speakers. The alternations that had started as

15700:

Awiz ehwōz-uh: awiz, hwisi wullō ne est, spihi ehwanz, ainą kurų wagą wegandų, ainą-uh mekǭ burą, ainą-uh gumanų ahu berandų. Awiz nu ehwamaz wiuhi: hert agnutai mek, witandī ehwanz akandų gumanų. Ehwōz weuhą: hludi, awi! hert agnutai uns witundumaz: gumô, fadiz, wullǭ awją hwurniudi sibi warmą

14521:

originally 'put', in Germanic 'do'). Strong verbs were divided into seven main classes while weak verbs were divided into five main classes (although no attested language has more than four classes of weak verbs). Strong verbs generally have no suffix in the present tense, although some have a

13243:

Related to the above was the alternation between -j- and -i-, and likewise between -ij- and -ī-. This was caused by the earlier loss of -j- before -i-, and appeared whenever an ending was attached to a verb or noun with an -(i)j- suffix (which were numerous). Similar, but much more rare, was an

13247:

I-mutation was the most important source of vowel alternation, and continued well into the history of the individual daughter languages (although it was either absent or not apparent in Gothic). In Proto-Germanic, only -e- was affected, which was raised by -i- or -j- in the following syllable.

2718:

In the evolutionary history of a language family, philologists consider a genetic "tree model" appropriate only if communities do not remain in effective contact as their languages diverge. Early Indo-European had limited contact between distinct lineages, and, uniquely, the Germanic subfamily

2714:

at its root. Borrowing of lexical items from contact languages makes the relative position of the Germanic branch within Indo-European less clear than the positions of the other branches of Indo-European. In the course of the development of historical linguistics, various solutions have been

14449:

assumes for Proto-Germanic an early loss of the PIE imperfect aspect (something that also occurred in most other branches), followed by merging of the aspectual categories present-aorist and the mood categories indicative-subjunctive. (This assumption allows him to account for cases where

2872:

This stage began with the separation of a distinct speech, perhaps while it was still forming part of the Proto-Indo-European dialect continuum. It contained many innovations that were shared with other Indo-European branches to various degrees, probably through areal contacts, and mutual

4063:

that had lost its laryngeals and had five long and six short vowels as well as one or two overlong vowels. The consonant system was still that of PIE minus palatovelars and laryngeals, but the loss of syllabic resonants already made the language markedly different from PIE proper. Mutual

14538:

infix of PIE. Almost all weak verbs have a present-tense suffix, which varies from class to class. An additional small, but very important, group of verbs formed their present tense from the PIE perfect (and their past tense like weak verbs); for this reason, they are known as

16371:

The Germanic subfamily especially seemed to exhibit non-treelike behavior, evidently acquiring some of its characteristics from its neighbors rather than (only) from its direct ancestors. he internal diversification of West Germanic is known to have been radically non-treelike

3157:

The actual pronunciation of the "palatovelar" and "velar" series is not reconstructible; it may be that the "palatovelars" were actually plain velars, and the "velars" were pronounced even farther back (post-velar or uvular) so it may be more accurate to say that, for example,

14561:

mood. Indicative and subjunctive moods are fully conjugated throughout the present and past, while the imperative mood existed only in the present tense and lacked first-person forms. Proto-Germanic verbs have two voices, active and passive, the latter deriving from the PIE

2775:

Antonsen's own scheme divides Proto-Germanic into an early stage and a late stage. The early stage includes the stress fixation and resulting "spontaneous vowel-shifts" while the late stage is defined by ten complex rules governing changes of both vowels and consonants.

5030:: Voiceless fricatives are voiced when preceded by an unaccented vowel, including cases where the vowel and fricative are separated by a sonorant (/n, m, r, l, j, w). This allophonic voicing became phonemic only after the regularization of stress placement (see below). 12476:

Due to the emergence of a word-initial stress accent, vowels in unstressed syllables were gradually reduced over time, beginning at the very end of the Proto-Germanic period and continuing into the history of the various dialects. Already in Proto-Germanic, word-final

9316:"Grimm's and Verner's Laws ... together form the First Germanic Consonant Shift. A second, and chronologically later Second Germanic Consonant Shift ... affected only Proto-Germanic voiceless stops ... and split Germanic into two sets of dialects, 2719:

exhibited a less treelike behaviour, as some of its characteristics were acquired from neighbours early in its evolution rather than from its direct ancestors. The internal diversification of West Germanic developed in an especially non-treelike manner.

11970:

Proto-Germanic allowed any single consonant to occur in one of three positions: initial, medial and final. However, clusters could only consist of two consonants unless followed by a suffix, and only certain clusters were possible in certain positions.

13189:

Several sound changes occurred in the history of Proto-Germanic that were triggered only in some environments but not in others. Some of these were grammaticalised while others were still triggered by phonetic rules and were partially allophonic or

9816:"intensive" semantics. The idea has been described as "methodically unsound", because it attempts to explain the phonological phenomenon through psycholinguistic factors and other irregular behaviour instead of exploring regular sound laws. 8963:. Verner's Law explains a category of exceptions to Grimm's Law, where a voiced fricative appears where Grimm's Law predicts a voiceless fricative. The discrepancy is conditioned by the placement of the original Indo-European word accent. 9386:, a new phoneme. Sometime after Grimm's and Verner's law, Proto-Germanic lost its inherited contrastive accent, and all words became stressed on their root syllable. This was generally the first syllable unless a prefix was attached. 14453:

However, many of the tenses of the other languages (e.g. future, future perfect, pluperfect, Latin imperfect) are not cognate with each other and represent separate innovations in each language. For example, the Greek future uses a

13153:

Proto-Germanic had six cases, three genders, three numbers, three moods (indicative, subjunctive (PIE optative), imperative), and two voices (active and passive (PIE middle)). This is quite similar to the state of Latin, Greek, and

14483:

likely possessing the most elaborated tense system ("Yes, the house will still be being built a month from now"). On the other hand, even the past tense was later lost (or widely lost) in most High German dialects as well as in

9502:

had a slightly different pattern of allophony from the others, but in general stops occurred in "strong" positions (word-initial and in clusters) while fricatives occurred in "weak" positions (post-vocalic). More specifically:

2705:

of language evolution, best explains the paths of descent of all the members of a language family from a common language, or proto-language (at the root of the tree) to the attested languages (at the leaves of the tree). The

9788:

since the 19th century.) The Proto-Germanic consonant gradation is not directly attested in any of the Germanic dialects, but may nevertheless be reconstructed on the basis of certain dialectal discrepancies in root of the

13221:

Another form of alternation was triggered by the Germanic spirant law, which continued to operate into the separate history of the individual daughter languages. It is found in environments with suffixal -t, including:

9812:-verbs, it gave rise to an alternation of geminated and non-geminated consonants in the same paradigms. These were largely regularized by various ways of analogy in the Germanic daughter languages (e.g. Kroonen 2011). 11096:

began in West Germanic at a time when final vowels were still long, and spread to North Germanic through the late Germanic dialect continuum, but only reaching the latter after the vowels had already been shortened.

9450:"Then, Proto-Germanic already had long consonants … but they contrasted with short ones only word-medially. Moreover, they were not very frequent and occurred only intervocally almost exclusively after short vowels." 13177:. Although the pronominal dual survived into all the oldest languages, the verbal dual survived only into Gothic, and the (presumed) nominal and adjectival dual forms were lost before the oldest records. As in the 13567:, such terms have no relevance. The strong declension was based on a combination of the nominal /a/ and /ō/ stems with the PIE pronominal endings; the weak declension was based on the nominal /n/ declension. 14543:. All three of the previously mentioned groups of verbs—strong, weak and preterite-present—are derived from PIE thematic verbs; an additional very small group derives from PIE athematic verbs, and one verb 14470:

ending, from a different desiderative verb construction and often with a different ablaut grade from Greek; while the Latin future uses endings derived either from the PIE subjunctive or from the PIE verb

10390:. At the time of the merger, the vowels probably were and , or perhaps and . Their timbres then differentiated by raising (and perhaps rounding) the long vowel to . It is known that the raising of 2541:

The Proto-Germanic language developed in southern Scandinavia (Denmark, south Sweden and southern Norway) and the northern-most part of Germany in Schleswig Holstein and northern Lower Saxony, the

13281:). Present participles, and a few nouns, ended in /nd/. The neuter nouns of all classes differed from the masculines and feminines in their nominative and accusative endings, which were alike. 2747:

The fixation of the stress led to sound changes in unstressed syllables. For Lehmann, the "lower boundary" was the dropping of final -a or -e in unstressed syllables; for example, post-PIE

2643:, although the delineation of Late Common Germanic from Proto-Norse at about that time is largely a matter of convention. The first coherent text recorded in a Germanic language is the 9438:

Many of the consonants listed in the table could appear lengthened or prolonged under some circumstances, which is inferred from their appearing in some daughter languages as doubled

8473:. Most commonly in literature, they are denoted simply by a following n. However, this can cause confusion between a word-final nasal vowel and a word-final regular vowel followed by 16179: 15686:

in the PIE language he had just reconstructed, which, though it has been updated a few times by others, still bears his name. Below is a rendering of this fable into Proto-Germanic.

2559:('original homeland') of the Proto-Germanic language, the ancestral idiom of all attested Germanic dialects, was primarily situated in an area corresponding to the extent of the 13208:

Between different grades of strong verbs. The voiceless alternants appeared in the present and past singular indicative, the voiced alternants in the remaining past tense forms.

11114:

is uncertain as a phoneme and only reconstructed from a small number of words; it is posited by the comparative method because whereas all provable instances of inherited (PIE)

4237:: Chain shift of the three series of plosives. Voiced plosives had already been devoiced before a voiceless obstruent prior to this stage. Labiovelars were delabialised before 11088:

raising, points to an early difference in the articulation height of the two vowels that was not present in North Germanic. It could be seen as evidence that the lowering of

2443:

Some sources also give a date of 750 BC for the earliest expansion out of southern Scandinavia and northern Germany along the North Sea coast towards the mouth of the Rhine.

10045:

Proto-Germanic had four short vowels, five or six long vowels, and at least one "overlong" or "trimoraic" vowel. The exact phonetic quality of the vowels is uncertain.

14582:

Although most Proto-Germanic strong verbs are formed directly from a verbal root, weak verbs are generally derived from an existing noun, verb or adjective (so-called

17217: 15930:

While the details of the reconstructed pronunciation vary somewhat, this phonological system is generally agreed upon; for example, coronals are sometimes listed as

2860:

changes that operate on the outcome of earlier ones appearing later in the list. The stages distinguished and the changes associated with each stage rely heavily on

17216:

Hall, T.A. (2000), "The Distribution of Trimoraic Syllables in German and English as Evidence for the Phonological Word", in Hall, T. A.; Rochoń, Marzena (eds.),

11201:, and it may have been in the process of transition from a diphthong to a long simple vowel in the Proto-Germanic period. Lehmann lists the following origins for 8079:

Numerous loanwords believed to have been borrowed from Proto-Germanic are known in the non-Germanic languages spoken in areas adjacent to the Germanic languages.

17684: 14598:. These are formed in a way that reflects a direct inheritance from the PIE causative class of verbs. PIE causatives were formed by adding an accented suffix 4246:

Voiceless plosives become fricatives, unless preceded by another obstruent. In a sequence of two voiceless obstruents, the second obstruent remains a plosive.

2722:

Proto-Germanic is generally agreed to have begun about 500 BC. Its hypothetical ancestor between the end of Proto-Indo-European and 500 BC is termed

14579:) has an inflected mediopassive, it is not inherited from Proto-Germanic, but is an innovation formed by attaching the reflexive pronoun to the active voice. 10620:

was still underlyingly a consonant and therefore the conditioning environment for the loss was not met. This is also confirmed by the fact that later in the

3671:

In word-final position, the resulting long vowels remain distinct from (shorter than) the overlong vowels that were formed from PIE word-final long vowels —

11957: 2744:

consisting of "an alternation of high and low tones" as well as stress of position determined by a set of rules based on the lengths of a word's syllables.

18408: 15728:

man, the master, makes the wool of the sheep into a warm garment for himself. And the sheep has no wool." Having heard this, the sheep fled into the plain.

14081:

in the northern languages while being ousted itself in the southern languages (i.e. Old High German). This is the basis of the distinction between English

10489:

sequences. It was a rare phoneme, and occurred only in a handful of words, the most notable being the verbs of the third weak class. The agent noun suffix

8569:

and are not themselves independent phonemes. For descriptions of the sounds and definitions of the terms, follow the links on the column and row headings.

10605:

Diphthongs in Proto-Germanic can also be analysed as sequences of a vowel plus an approximant, as was the case in Proto-Indo-European. This explains why

13117:) clitics. Many more archaic features may have been lost between the Proto-Germanic of 200 BC or so and the attested Gothic language. Furthermore, 2624:

spanning about 1,200 km (700 mi). The period marks the breakup of Late Proto-Germanic and the beginning of the (historiographically recorded)

20001: 19963: 19950: 19942: 13098:

Reconstructions are tentative and multiple versions with varying degrees of difference exist. All reconstructed forms are marked with an asterisk (*).

8022: 11913: 19958: 9804:, by which geminates arose from stops followed by a nasal in a stressed syllable. Since this sound law only operated in part of the paradigms of the 214: 13232:

Nouns derived from verbs by means of the suffixes *-tiz, *-tuz, *-taz, which also possessed variants in -þ- and -d- when not following an obstruent.

10398:

can not have occurred earlier than the earliest contact between Proto-Germanic speakers and the Romans. This can be verified by the fact that Latin

2631:

The earliest available complete sentences in a Germanic language are variably dated to the 2nd century AD, around 300 AD or the first century AD in

2530:, from the second century AD and later, is still quite close to reconstructed Proto-Germanic, but other common innovations separating Germanic from 19978: 17535: 14077:) and appears entirely absent in North Germanic. In the West Germanic languages, it evolved into a third-person pronoun, displacing the inherited 17022: 14591: 11882: 2225: 14124:. In the North-West Germanic languages (but not in Gothic), a new proximal demonstrative ('this' as opposed to 'that') evolved by appending 11000:

distinct in that position. This was a late dialectal development, because the result was not the same in all Germanic languages: word-final

2189: 19818: 18783: 17861: 9544:

When geminate, they were pronounced as stops , , . This rule continued to apply at least into the early West Germanic languages, since the

9348:

at the time of the change was the one inherited from Proto-Indo-European, which was free and could occur on any syllable. For example, PIE

11801:

Similar surface (possibly phonemic) nasal/non-nasal contrasts occurred in the West Germanic languages down through Proto-Anglo-Frisian of

18581: 16311:

Bandle, Oskar et al. (eds.) 2002. The Nordic Languages. An International Handbook of the History of the North Germanic Languages. P. XIV.

2873:

intelligibility with other dialects would have remained for some time. It was nevertheless on its own path, whether dialect or language.

1387: 9651:, showing that the language possessed a labial allophone as well. In this case the entire clusters , and are delabialized to , and . 19993: 19968: 16820: 11502:, in which the nasal consonant lost its occlusion and was converted into lengthening and nasalisation of the preceding vowel, becoming 9390:

mere phonetic variants of sounds became increasingly grammatical in nature, leading to the grammatical alternations of sounds known as

17785: 9261:) or after other plosives (which were shifted to fricatives by the Germanic spirant law); for example, where Latin (with the original 130: 9819:

The origin of the Germanic geminate consonants remains a disputed part of historical linguistics with no clear consensus at present.

11631:. When the vowels were shortened and denasalised, these two vowels no longer had the same place of articulation, and did not merge: 10992:

contrastive stress and vowel length. Modern theories have reinterpreted overlong vowels as having superheavy syllable weight (three

102: 17813: 14146:), with complex subsequent developments in the various daughter languages. The new demonstrative underlies the English determiners 8025:

in the Carpathian Basin (sixth to fifth centuries BC), or by later contact with Sarmatians, who followed the same route. Unsure is

83: 38: 2545:(original home) of the Germanic tribes. It is possible that Indo-European speakers first arrived in southern Scandinavia with the 14852:

that is permanently attached to the verb. At least in Gothic, preverbs could also be stacked one on top of the other (similar to

12601:

did not occur in nasalized vowels or before back vowels, this created a vowel alternation because the nasality of the back vowel

2845:

By 250 BC Proto-Germanic had branched into five groups of Germanic: two each in the West and the North and one in the East.

17310: 12493:

in unstressed syllables. Vowels in third syllables were also generally lost before dialect diversification began, such as final

2522:

points to a non-substratic development away from other branches of Indo-European. Proto-Germanic itself was likely spoken after

2310:

and its gradual divergence into a separate language. The end of the Common Germanic period is reached with the beginning of the

19927: 12564:, but later lost them in long-stemmed words and then Old High German lost them in many short-stemmed ones as well, by analogy. 11044:

The shortened overlong vowels in final position developed as regular long vowels from that point on, including the lowering of

2577:. A number of Celtic loanwords in Proto-Germanic have been identified. By the first century AD, Germanic expansion reached the 109: 20066: 20047: 20027: 17822: 17745: 17662: 17609: 17597: 17576: 17561: 16730: 2326: 2196: 2168: 392: 17225:, ZAS Papers in Linguistics 19, Berlin: ZAS, Zentrum für Allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft (ZAS), pp. 41–90, archived from 19935: 18398: 17471: 10723:

boundaries where a bimoraic long vowel and a short vowel in hiatus contracted, especially after the loss of an intervening

1047: 17226: 14557:

Proto-Germanic verbs have three moods: indicative, subjunctive and imperative. The subjunctive mood derives from the PIE

14059:'that') which could serve as both adjectives and pronouns. The proximal was already obsolescent in Gothic (e.g. Goth acc. 9600:

In other positions, fricatives occurred singly after vowels and diphthongs, and after non-nasal consonants in the case of

16789: 13133:, respectively, and overall probably no more archaic than Gothic. In addition, some parts of the inflectional systems of 8836: 8822: 2153: 371: 116: 19310: 14112:

Ultimately, only the distal survived in the function of demonstrative. In most languages, it developed a second role as

2783:

A proposed distribution of five primary Proto-Germanic dialect groups in Europe around the turn of the Common Era (CE):

15740: 14511:

perfect), while weak verbs use a dental suffix (now generally held to be a reflex of the reduplicated imperfect of PIE

11825:

as well). The contrast between nasal and non-nasal long vowels is reflected in the differing output of nasalized long

2218: 2175: 1106: 11768:. The inherited Proto-Germanic nasal vowels were joined in Old Norse by nasal vowels from other sources, e.g. loss of 17764: 17726: 17700: 17415: 16939: 16914: 16889: 16864: 16511: 16293:

Mallory, J.P. and D.Q. Adams. 2006. The Oxford introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Indo-European world. P.22.

16218: 16163: 16132: 16097: 16072: 16038: 16009: 15976: 15916: 11805:

400 or so. Proto-Germanic medial nasal vowels were inherited, but were joined by new nasal vowels resulting from the

2610: 439: 244: 149: 52: 14824:

that could be separated from the verb (as also in Gothic, as shown by the behavior of second-position clitics, e.g.

10659:'whereto, whither'). None of the documented languages still include such vowels. Their reconstruction is due to the 2701:

involves the evolutionary descent of languages. The phylogeny problem is the question of what specific tree, in the

98: 19811: 17854: 16334:"Perfect Phylogenetic Networks: A New Methodology for Reconstructing the Evolutionary History of Natural Languages" 9402:

Some of the consonants that developed from the sound shifts are thought to have been pronounced in different ways (

8086:, which have received hundreds of Proto-Germanic or pre-Proto-Germanic loanwords. Well-known examples include PGmc 3170:(see e.g. Ringe 2006, p. 87). Some also claim that the two series may not even have been distinct in PIE. See 2655: 2341: 2182: 946: 16154:. Vol. 1. Translated by Ernest A. Menze. Harald and Ruth Bukor (Maps). Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. p. 12629:

must necessarily have occurred very early in the history of the Anglo-Frisian languages, before the loss of final

19915: 11422:

Proto-Germanic developed nasal vowels from two sources. The earlier and much more frequent source was word-final

3359:

was inserted already in PIE after dental consonants when they were followed by a suffix beginning with a dental.

457: 16387:(January–March 1961). "A Definition of Proto-Germanic: A Study in the Chronological Delimitation of Languages". 2772:, 'I, Wakraz, … wrote (this)'. He says: "We must therefore search for a new lower boundary for Proto-Germanic." 17544:

Harðarson, Jón Axel (2018). "The Morphology of Germanic". In Jared Klein; Brian Joseph; Matthias Fritz (eds.).

15907:

Mees, Bernard (2003), "Stratum and Shadow: The Indo-European West: Sigmund Feist", in Andersen, Henning (ed.),

9757:'they saw' (subjunctive), which were reanalysed and regularised differently in the various daughter languages. 2038: 1813: 1217: 87: 15707:

Reconstructed Proto-Germanic, with more probable grammar and vocabulary derived from later Germanic languages

13101:

It is often asserted that the Germanic languages have a highly reduced system of inflections as compared with

10667:

in final syllables, which unexpectedly remained long in some morphemes but shows normal shortening in others.

8060: 5621:

Some words that could be unstressed as a whole were also affected, often creating stressed/unstressed pairs —

2864:, Chapter 3, "The development of Proto-Germanic". Ringe in turn summarizes standard concepts and terminology. 19677: 17463: 16181:

The Role of Migration in the History of the Eurasian Steppe: Sedentary Civilization Vs. 'Barbarian' and Nomad

9328:

Verner's law is usually reconstructed as following Grimm's law in time, and states that unvoiced fricatives:

8188: 2511: 2211: 1783: 1052: 989: 790: 676: 361: 16211:

The Role of Migration in the History of the Eurasian Steppe: Sedentary Civilization v. "Barbarian" and Nomad

13197:

Probably the most far-reaching alternation was between and , the voiceless and voiced fricatives, known as

19838: 19707: 18877: 18839: 18824: 17444: 14508: 11806: 8765: 8733: 8402: 8219:

in Germanic; however, his speculations, too, are generally rejected by specialists in the relevant fields.

4060: 2711: 2678: 2307: 1471: 974: 785: 780: 775: 670: 357: 44: 19952: 19944: 18151: 14472: 12598: 12594: 12490: 12486: 12482: 12478: 11652: 11648: 11640: 11636: 11624: 11620: 10633: 10606: 10599: 10595: 10591: 10587: 10583: 10579: 10575: 10571: 10563: 10559: 10555: 10551: 10545: 10541: 10537: 10533: 10529: 10525: 10521: 10482: 10355: 10351: 10347: 10343: 10339: 10335: 10331: 10327: 10323: 10316: 10312: 10308: 10290: 10285: 10269: 10264: 10244: 10239: 10234: 10229: 10174: 10169: 10151: 10146: 10139: 10134: 10129: 10115: 10110: 10103: 10098: 9969:

as generalizations of the original allomorphy. In the cases concerned, this would imply reconstructing an

9729: 9725: 9700: 9696: 9678: 9674: 9670: 9659: 9655: 9648: 9633:, it was immediately converted to a plain velar. This caused alternations in certain verb paradigms, e.g. 9630: 9605: 9601: 9590: 9567: 9563: 9559: 9555: 9551: 9519: 9512: 9508: 9499: 9495: 9491: 9484: 9480: 9476: 9472: 9467: 9463: 9459: 9455: 9431: 9427: 9423: 9419: 9411: 9407: 9383: 9379: 9341: 9337: 9333: 9329: 9302: 9298: 9294: 9238: 9234: 9230: 9226: 9221: 9217: 9213: 9208: 9204: 9200: 9195: 9191: 9186: 9182: 9177: 9173: 9169: 9165: 9161: 9157: 9145: 9141: 9137: 9132: 9128: 9124: 9119: 9115: 9110: 9106: 9092: 9088: 9084: 9079: 9075: 9071: 9066: 9062: 9057: 9053: 9039: 9035: 9031: 9026: 9022: 9018: 9013: 9009: 9004: 9000: 8933: 8909: 8898: 8894: 8890: 8883: 8876: 8802: 8796: 8720: 8715: 8656: 8547:

Long vowels followed by a non-high vowel were separate syllables and are written as such here, except for

8474: 8470: 8425: 8421: 8398: 8388: 8384: 8380: 8376: 8372: 8368: 8349: 8345: 8341: 8337: 8333: 8329: 8325: 8321: 8276: 8272: 8268: 8264: 8260: 8256: 8198:

over some elements of its own language. The theory of a non-Indo-European substrate was first proposed by

2710:

form a tree with Proto-Germanic at its root that is a branch of the Indo-European tree, which in turn has

2553:

cultures by the early second millennium BC. According to Mallory, Germanicists "generally agree" that the

20102: 20097: 19804: 19687: 19547: 18897: 18856: 18846: 17847: 13205:

In the person-and-number endings of verbs, which were voiceless in weak verbs and voiced in strong verbs.

13155: 13052:

Some Proto-Germanic endings have merged in all of the literary languages but are still distinct in runic

1788: 1283: 984: 863: 849: 830: 10420:). It is explained by Ringe that at the time of borrowing, the vowel matching closest in sound to Latin 8239:

The following conventions are used in this article for transcribing Proto-Germanic reconstructed forms:

18063: 17641:

The Evolution of Germanic Phonological Systems: Proto-Germanic, Gothic, West Germanic, and Scandinavian

16722: 11679: 8828: 8749: 8684: 8670: 8606: 3171: 1126: 1084: 684: 10432:). And since Proto-Germanic therefore lacked a mid(-high) back vowel, the closest equivalent of Latin 19404: 16284:

Beekes, Robert S. P. 2011. Comparative Indo-European Linguistics. An Introduction. 2nd edition. P.28.

13170: 12626: 10663:, particularly as a way of explaining an otherwise unpredictable two-way split of reconstructed long 8781: 8772: 8741: 5373:. The PIE contrastive accent is lost, phonemicising the voicing distinction created by Verner's law. 2337: 2250: 1828: 1793: 1466: 770: 123: 2616:

By the third century, Late Proto-Germanic speakers had expanded over significant distance, from the

20107: 19873: 19682: 19636: 19631: 19555: 19165: 19149: 19028: 18887: 18778: 18773: 13081: 12636:

The outcome of final vowels and combinations in the various daughters is shown in the table below:

12571:

was preserved into the separate history of the language. This can be seen in the infinitive ending

12523: 10621: 9545: 7711: 2854: 2813: 2789: 2723: 2503: 2318: 2280: 2268: 2088: 1978: 1798: 1329: 1161: 1112: 1008: 810: 765: 760: 680: 193: 16001: 13267:

Nouns and adjectives derived with a variety of suffixes including -il-, -iþō, -į̄, -iskaz, -ingaz.

9522:

was , subsequently developing to in a number of languages. This is clearest from developments in

2336:

The Proto-Germanic language is not directly attested by any complete surviving texts; it has been

19853: 19848: 19565: 19560: 19480: 19153: 19103: 18403: 18221: 17977: 17905: 17893: 17692: 15690:

account, and is therefore closer to the language the Germanic people would have actually spoken.

14463: 14442: 13255:

Noun endings beginning with -i- in u-stem nouns: dative singular, nominative and genitive plural.

9594: 9523: 8757: 8702: 8691: 8677: 8194: 7891:

cultures when the Celts dominated central Europe, although the period spanned several centuries.

2833: 2276: 2272: 2261: 1983: 1710: 815: 805: 449: 367: 76: 19743: 19463: 18861: 17804: 17672: 17629: 17460:

Sprache und Herkunft der Germanen. Abriss des Frühurgermanischen vor der Ersten Lautverschiebung

8202:, who estimated that about a third of all Proto-Germanic lexical items came from the substrate. 19626: 19108: 19074: 18692: 18508: 18368: 18208: 18103: 16064: 16058: 15774: 14540: 13252:

Verb endings beginning with -i-: present second and third person singular, third person plural.

13093: 11859: 9541:

nasal consonants: , , , . This was the only place where a voiced labiovelar could still occur.

8789: 2698: 2387: 1973: 1945: 1729: 1631: 1397: 1243: 867: 705: 597: 536: 491: 431: 423: 210: 16155: 13201:

and triggered by the earlier operation of Verner's law. It was found in various environments:

13178: 19885: 19784: 19748: 19016: 19009: 18961: 18731: 18702: 18671: 18634: 18559: 18316: 18229: 18090: 18052: 15683: 13198: 11850: 10772: 9391: 8856: 8810: 8634: 8623: 8021:

from the Ukraine plain, groups of whom entered Central Europe via the Danube and created the

2726:. Whether it is to be included under a wider meaning of Proto-Germanic is a matter of usage. 2666: 2120: 1949: 857: 853: 838: 834: 19249: 18124: 17591: 15993: 7594:). The two vowels that come to stand in hiatus then contract to long vowels or diphthongs — 20034: 19895: 19753: 19733: 19702: 19575: 19435: 19181: 18999: 18591: 18418: 18380: 18375: 18249: 18196: 17954: 17318: 15802: 14606:-grade of a non-derived verb. In Proto-Germanic, causatives are formed by adding a suffix 14492: 14416: 13560: 13114: 12553: 12537: 11259: 9527: 9471:

which only occurred in non-word-initial positions, merged with the fricative allophones of

8709: 4484: 3617: 2515: 2296: 2288: 2066: 2031: 1344: 1027: 979: 916: 886: 844: 824: 688: 542: 283: 19409: 17556:(Oxford Studies in Diachronic and Historical Linguistics), Oxford University Press, 2023. 14450:

Proto-Germanic has present indicative verb forms that look like PIE aorist subjunctives.)

8228: 1212: 8: 19863: 19692: 18928: 18882: 18816: 18569: 18216: 18129: 17927: 17826: 17773: 17680: 16333: 15874:

Feist was proposing the idea as early as 1913, but his classical paper on the subject is

15806: 11154:). Gothic makes no orthographic and therefore presumably no phonetic distinction between 9785: 8727: 2662:

in 348. Early West Germanic text is available from the fifth century, beginning with the

2625: 2546: 2531: 2349: 2330: 1339: 1334: 1230: 1154: 1119: 1042: 1032: 891: 592: 587: 556: 336: 325: 312: 19239: 19084: 18331: 17810: 16302:

Fortson, Benjamin W. 2010. Indo-European Language and Culture. 2nd edition. Pp. 349–350.

15879:(1932). "The Origin of the Germanic Languages and the Europeanization of North Europe". 15715:

wullō wurkīþi siz warmą wastijǭ. Awiz-uh wullǭ ne habaiþi. Þat hauzidaz awiz akrą flauh.

13563:, where the strong declensions have more distinct endings. In the proto-language, as in 2848: 19983: 19878: 19827: 19738: 19662: 19590: 19580: 19535: 19297: 19224: 19121: 18966: 18941: 18936: 18829: 18657: 18542: 18363: 18141: 18136: 18115: 18076: 17880: 17870: 17799: 17740:. Linguistic history of English, v. 1 (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 17676: 17016: 16591: 16482: 16447: 16439: 16404: 16384: 16356: 16026: 15935: 15896: 15745: 14576: 14496: 14420: 10993: 10972: 10724: 10660: 9776:. (This is distinct from the consonant mutation processes occurring in the neighboring 9769: 9647:'they sang'. Apparently, this delabialization also occurred with labiovelars following 9629:

in Proto-Germanic; in newly generated environments where a labiovelar occurred next to

9345: 8646: 8591: 8581: 3530: 3193: 2803: 2729: 2707: 2632: 2571: 2567: 2507: 2292: 2257: 2045: 1996: 1930: 1914: 1539: 1192: 931: 617: 522: 517: 412: 273: 219: 18892: 17648: 7888: 2677:

The evolution of Proto-Germanic from its ancestral forms, beginning with its ancestor

2574: 19973: 19712: 19511: 19427: 19420: 19375: 19319: 19079: 19069: 19052: 19047: 18951: 18713: 18513: 18474: 18454: 18292: 18184: 18166: 18018: 17760: 17741: 17722: 17696: 17658: 17605: 17572: 17557: 17510: 17494: 17478: 17467: 17411: 16935: 16910: 16885: 16860: 16814: 16726: 16507: 16465:

Antonsen, Elmer H. (January–March 1965). "On Defining Stages in Prehistoric German".

16451: 16214: 16159: 16149: 16128: 16120: 16093: 16068: 16034: 16005: 15994: 15972: 15912: 15693:

Reconstructed Proto-Germanic, phonetic evolution derived from reconstructed PIE only

15679: 13125:

of the fourth century AD—contemporaneous with Gothic—were significantly simpler than

11490:. Another source, developing only in late Proto-Germanic times, was in the sequences 8596: 8255:; this does not imply any particular analysis of the underlying phonemes as plosives 8213: 7884: 7883:'fortified enclosure'. These loans would likely have been borrowed during the Celtic 2761: 2694: 2663: 2651: 2602: 2550: 2535: 2484: 2345: 2344:. However, there is fragmentary direct attestation of (late) Proto-Germanic in early 2322: 2059: 2025: 2017: 1961: 1955: 1937: 1908: 1887: 1873: 1865: 1635: 1496: 1436: 1418: 1359: 1354: 1349: 1316: 1311: 1140: 1003: 652: 645: 638: 624: 610: 570: 549: 486: 478: 400: 17219:

Investigations in Prosodic Phonology: The Role of the Foot and the Phonological Word

16713: 14567:

with a single form used for all persons of the dual and plural. Note that although

11530:

comparative method does require a three-way phonemic distinction between word-final

11056:

in Northwest Germanic produced a phoneme which merged with this new word-final long

8524:. However, when immediately followed by the corresponding semivowel, they appear as 8168: 20039: 19667: 19458: 19392: 19348: 19343: 19303: 19292: 19284: 19089: 19057: 19004: 18993: 18906: 18615: 18554: 18344: 18326: 18161: 17922: 17914: 17601: 17282: 17277: 17265: 16583: 16474: 16431: 16396: 16348: 15939: 15931: 15888: 15799: 14572: 14113: 9781: 8586: 8176: 8172: 8083: 8033: 7915: 7756: 7109: 3698: 3512: 2590: 2586: 2495: 2311: 2302:

A defining feature of Proto-Germanic is the completion of the process described by

2284: 2053: 2003: 1820: 1626: 1514: 1454: 1431: 1374: 1369: 1306: 1293: 1288: 1278: 951: 564: 512: 504: 497: 19504: 16360: 14594:

verbs). For example, a significant subclass of Class I weak verbs are (deverbal)

12354:, with nasalisation and lengthening of the previous vowel, in late Proto-Germanic) 9622: 19868: 19697: 19657: 19490: 19397: 19380: 19365: 19360: 19353: 19062: 18971: 18956: 18911: 18763: 18726: 18718: 18697: 18684: 18664: 18650: 18413: 18390: 18321: 18311: 18303: 18083: 17817: 17652: 16609: 16501: 14619: 13564: 13556: 13278: 13237: 12549: 12541: 11542:, which each has a distinct pattern of reflexes in the later Germanic languages: 9777: 8950: 8844: 8615: 8601: 8284: 8209: 6700: 6092: 5026: 4177:

When the lost vowel was accented, the accent shifted to the preceding syllable —

2837: 2737: 2598: 2570:(fifth to first centuries BC) placed Proto-Germanic speakers in contact with the 2560: 2473: 2464: 2366: 2321:" may be used to include a larger scope of linguistic developments, spanning the 2295:), which arose from West Germanic dialects, and had remained in contact with the 2134: 2103: 2098: 2093: 2074: 2010: 1989: 1967: 1552: 1441: 1364: 1273: 1206: 1147: 1013: 745: 730: 720: 715: 631: 603: 408: 13211:

Between strong verbs (voiceless) and causative verbs derived from them (voiced).

13181:, it may have been lost before Proto-Germanic became a different branch at all. 12508:

Word-final short nasal vowels were however preserved longer, as is reflected in

10892:

But vowels that were lengthened by laryngeals did not become overlong. Compare:

9800:

Diachronically, the rise of consonant gradation in Germanic can be explained by

20019: 19900: 19890: 19778: 19672: 19652: 19604: 19496: 19370: 19040: 18807: 18746: 18525: 18482: 18439: 18356: 18351: 18240: 18190: 18041: 17992: 17947: 17940: 16697:

Kylstra, A.D.; Hahmo, Sirkka-Liisa; Hofstra, Tette; Nikkilä, Osmo (1991–2012).

15964: 14857: 14849: 14595: 14583: 14480: 13191: 13134: 13102: 10955: 10928: 10253: 9801: 9626: 8946: 8664: 8205: 7760: 4233: 2636: 2519: 2394: 2303: 2253: 1879: 1746: 1621: 1179: 1133: 1101: 1037: 528: 16796: 12276:

It allowed continuant + obstruent clusters in medial and final position only:

11080:. This split, combined with the asymmetric development in West Germanic, with 9308:(A similar shift on the consonant inventory of Proto-Germanic later generated 8912:) in Proto-Germanic. Evidence for this is the fact that in Gothic, word-final 8340:

in certain positions at a later stage of Proto-Germanic itself. Similarly for

2382: 2271:

into three Germanic branches during the fifth century BC to fifth century AD:

20091: 19728: 19570: 19326: 19277: 19094: 19033: 18946: 18851: 18789: 18736: 18620: 18547: 17455: 17377:

Einar Haugen, "First Grammatical Treatise. The Earliest Germanic Phonology",

15876: 14504: 14426: 14412: 13555:

are based on the later development of these declensions in languages such as

13118: 11171: 8295: 8289: 8199: 7906: 7437: 2823: 2779: 2452: 2447: 2353: 2139: 1603: 1519: 1236: 1094: 956: 710: 183: 16712:

Kallio, Petri (2012). "The Prehistoric Germanic Loanword Strata in Finnic".

16699:

Lexikon der älteren germanischen Lehnwörter in den ostseefinnischen Sprachen

14445:, featured by a loss of tenses present in Proto-Indo-European. For example, 11687:

sequences were preserved in Old Icelandic as shown by examples given in the

10338:

also occurred word-finally. Word-internal nasal vowels only occurred before

926: 19597: 19021: 18985: 18918: 18741: 18564: 18537: 18520: 18464: 18423: 18005: 17984: 16329: 16325: 16321: 14802:

As in other Indo-European languages, a verb in Proto-Germanic could have a

14563: 14476: 14459: 14446: 14434: 13122: 9917:

paradigms in Proto-Germanic explains root alternations such as Old English

9531: 7895: 7388:

A number of loanwords in the Finnic and Samic demonstrate earlier *e, e.g.

7350: 2741: 2644: 2357: 1758: 1596: 1070: 941: 740: 735: 725: 387: 379: 203: 19244: 16352: 14425:

Proto-Germanic had only two tenses (past and present), compared to 5–7 in

11813:

in Proto-Germanic) to all environments before a fricative (thus including

2647:, written in the later fourth century in the East Germanic variety of the 2306:, a set of sound changes that occurred between its status as a dialect of 20059: 20054: 19858: 19414: 19387: 19205: 19113: 18795: 18756: 18339: 18034: 17998: 17933: 16932:

Quantity and Prosodic Asymmetries is Alemannic: Synchronic and Diachronic

16033:. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press. pp. 298–299. 14762:'to carry across', i.e. 'to cause to travel' (an archaic instance of the 13053: 12605:

in the infinitive ending prevented the fronting of the preceding vowel: *

12509: 11666: 10224: 10195: 10093: 10061: 9321: 9309: 8956: 8216: 6711: 2793: 2733: 2640: 2582: 2527: 2514:, it may have been influenced by non-Indo-European cultures, such as the 1734: 1720: 1684: 1392: 404: 330: 19259: 17721:. Linguistic history of English, v. 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 16614:

The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition

10731:-). One example, without a laryngeal, includes the class II weak verbs ( 9957: 8048: 921: 20011: 19254: 19234: 18599: 18269: 17970: 16555:

Aikio, Ante (2006). "On Germanic-Saami contacts and Saami prehistory".

16443: 15785: 13071: 10276: 10200: 10158: 10066: 9538: 9443: 9317: 8455:. In other literature they are often denoted by a doubled macron, e.g. 7219: 3182: 2702: 2534:

suggest a common history of pre-Proto-Germanic speakers throughout the

1697: 1611: 1489: 1254: 16595: 16486: 16408: 15900: 15674: 12505:

of the dative plural ending and first person plural present of verbs.

11780:

still includes nasal vowels that directly derive from Old Norse, e.g.

11024:(probably ) in early North and West Germanic, with a later raising to 10516:

The following diphthongs are known to have existed in Proto-Germanic:

5736:

The process creates diphthongs from originally disyllabic sequences —

19796: 19440: 19188: 18834: 18751: 18532: 18487: 18459: 18285: 17839: 14618:-grade) of a strong verb (the reflex of PIE non-derived verbs), with 14568: 14485: 11777: 11670: 11029: 10124: 9403: 8566: 8367:; this does not imply any particular analysis as single sounds (e.g. 5271:

Some small words that were generally unaccented were also affected —

4859:

Aspirated plosives become voiced plosives or fricatives (see below):

3517: 3196: 2849:

Phonological stages from Proto-Indo-European to end of Proto-Germanic

2648: 1900: 1677: 1669: 1662: 1655: 1641: 1509: 19264: 17794: 16655: 16435: 14499:", according to the way the past tense is formed. Strong verbs use 11371: 11322: 11279: 11219: 11213: 10508:) was likely borrowed from Latin around or shortly after this time. 65: 20006: 19229: 18577: 17337: 17335: 17082: 16587: 16478: 16400: 15892: 14853: 14587: 14558: 14551: 14491:

Verbs in Proto-Germanic were divided into two main groups, called "

14438: 13229:

The past tense of weak verbs with no vowel infix in the past tense.

13142: 13130: 13110: 11409:

in the root syllable after a certain period (older loans also show

10720: 9439: 8960: 8413:

does not imply any actual change in the pronunciation of the sound.

8280: 8018: 7541:

Finnic loanwords demonstrating earlier *e are again known: Finnish

6259:

after unstressed syllables, and the preceding vowel is nasalised —

3585:

Laryngeals are lost after vowels but lengthen the preceding vowel:

3429: 2555: 1843: 1834: 1725: 1526: 1501: 1405: 896: 472: 16127:. Chicago, IL, United States: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 1993. 11974:

It allowed the following clusters in initial and medial position:

2333:

that would become Proto-Germanic underwent through the millennia.

19270: 18866: 18768: 17088:. Presentation given at the 43rd Poznań Linguistic Meeting, 2012. 17053:

Germanische Lautgesetze in ihrem sprachgeschichtlichen Verhältnis

16422:

Bennett, William H. (May 1970). "The Stress Patterns of Gothic".

14803: 11052:

in North and West Germanic. The monophthongization of unstressed

8401:. Note that the normal convention for representing this sound in 7990: 2594: 2361: 1893: 1857: 1850: 1648: 1268: 901: 375: 17546:

Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics

17332: 16643: 15905:

A brief biography and presentation of his ideas can be found in

11930: 11893: 11868: 11662:) was more stable, and survived into the early dialects intact. 11365: 11328: 11316: 9918: 4456:

Since the second of two obstruents is unaffected, the sequences

18573: 17206:, 2nd edn. (Chichester/Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010), 342. 16696: 15779: 14821: 14500: 13174: 13145:

were innovations that were not present in Proto-Indo-European.

11179: 9617:

Labiovelars were affected by the following additional changes:

9406:) depending on the sounds around them. With regard to original 8463: 7741: 7083:

That followed the earliest contact with the Romans since Latin

2659: 2621: 2578: 1616: 1570: 1089: 906: 407:

is shown in red; magenta areas towards the south represent the

16521: 9736:

These various changes often led to complex alternations, e.g.

9518:

A good deal of evidence, however, indicates that word-initial

7361: 4046:

This rule continued to operate into the Proto-Germanic period.

2287:

with the others over a considerable time, especially with the

18491: 16984: 15750: 14430: 13138: 13126: 13106: 11434:) in unstressed syllables, which at first gave rise to short 11175: 9293:

from the voiced consonant; that is, most of the instances of

2765: 2764:

agreed with Lehmann about the upper boundary but later found

2617: 2606: 2391: 1715: 1589: 1583: 1565: 936: 911: 356:

This article contains characters used to write reconstructed

17266:"Proto-Indo-European Circumflex Intonation or Bisyllabicity" 15835:

Described in this and the linked articles, but see Kleinman.

11792:(presumably nasalized, although not so written); cf. German 8416:

Long vowels are denoted with a macron over the letter, e.g.

7800:

is typical not of Germanic but Celtic languages. Another is

7750: 4152:

Single-syllable words were not affected, but clitics were —

17548:. Vol. 2. Berlin/Boston: de Gruyter. pp. 913–954. 17389: 17387: 17084:

The use and misuse of evidence in linguistic reconstruction

15701:

westrą. Awją-uh wullō ne isti. Þat hehluwaz awiz akrą buki.

14766:-grade ablaut used despite the differing past-tense ablaut) 14017:

Proto-Germanic originally had two demonstratives (proximal

13226:

The second-person singular past ending *-t of strong verbs.

12119:

It allowed the following clusters in medial position only:

11809:, which extended the loss of nasal consonants (only before 9548:

produced geminated plosives from earlier voiced fricatives.

8916:(which medially represents a voiced fricative) devoices to 2107: 17253:. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. p. 140. 15938:

while velars and labiovelars are sometimes combined under

14614:) to the past-tense ablaut (mostly with the reflex of PIE 14466:(not the inflectional system); the Sanskrit future uses a 11033: 10996:) and therefore greater length than ordinary long vowels. 10342:, and derived from their earlier respective short vowels ( 8301: 2518:, but the sound change in the Germanic languages known as 17160: 14820:'to become'). In Proto-Germanic, the preverb was still a 11683:, which documents nasal vowels. The PG nasal vowels from 11677:

1125, the earliest possible time for the creation of the

10644:

Proto-Germanic had two overlong or trimoraic long vowels

8017:). The words could have been transmitted directly by the 3620:

because of that change contract into an overlong vowel —

17384: 17359: 17347: 16972: 16907:

The Dictionary of Historical and Comparative Linguistics

16686:. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 303–7, 352. 16574:

Lane, George S (1933). "The Germano-Celtic Vocabulary".

16533: 16063:. New York, New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 15909:

Language Contacts in Prehistory: Studies in Stratigraphy

11673:. They were preserved in Old Icelandic down to at least 11137:, all the Germanic languages agree on some occasions of 9344:

are voiced when preceded by an unaccented syllable. The

7778: 7771: 7468:'white (of animal, or hair)', from early Proto-Germanic 2352:, dated to the 2nd century CE, as well as the non-runic 17172: 17038:

Intensiva und Iterativa und ihr Verhältniss zu einander

16859:. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter. p. 123. 16341:

Language — Journal of the Linguistic Society of America

16268: 16266: 14141: 14135: 14129: 13258:

Causatives derived from strong verbs with a -j- suffix.

11752: 11746: 11716: 11695: 9257:

did not undergo Grimm's law after a fricative (such as

8182: 7909: 2377: 16934:. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter. p. 58. 16630:(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), 123. 16626:

Martin Schwartz, "Avestan Terms for the Sauma Plant",

16192: 16190: 16147: 16000:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 14128:

to the distal demonstrative (e.g. Runic Norse nom.sg.

11616:

are caused by the Northwest Germanic raising of final

10311:

could not occur in unstressed syllables except before

7957: 7931: 7918: 7106:

Finnic loanwords preceding the change are also known:

17527:

A Comparative Grammar of the Early Germanic Languages

17317:. Austin: Linguistics Research Center. Archived from 16227: 14643:'to bridle, yoke, restrain', i.e. 'to make bite down' 14622:

voicing applied (the reflex of the PIE accent on the

14093:

from the original proximal demonstrative) and German

8908:

was probably still realised as a bilabial fricative (

8012: 7999: 7993: 7970: 7944: 2736:'s "First Germanic Sound Shift", or Grimm's law, and 17148: 17136: 17124: 17112: 16948: 16757: 16745: 16263: 16239: 15911:, John Benjamin Publishing Company, pp. 19–21, 15711: 15697: 15417: 15404: 15391: 15378: 15370: 15357: 15349: 15336: 15328: 15314: 15305: 15292: 15283: 15270: 15262: 15249: 15241: 15224: 15217: 15206: 15190: 15182: 15174: 15161: 15153: 15145: 15129: 15121: 15108: 15099: 15090: 15074: 15066: 15058: 15049: 15036: 15028: 15020: 15012: 15004: 14991: 14983: 14975: 14967: 14959: 14940: 14932: 14926: 14918: 14870: 14861: 14843: 14837: 14831: 14825: 14814: 14807: 14792: 14785: 14776: 14769: 14756: 14749: 14742: 14733: 14726: 14717: 14710: 14701: 14694: 14685: 14678: 14669: 14662: 14653: 14646: 14637: 14630: 14550:'to want' forms its present indicative from the PIE 14544: 14512: 14395: 14387: 14379: 14364: 14356: 14348: 14333: 14325: 14317: 14302: 14294: 14286: 14271: 14263: 14255: 14247: 14239: 14231: 14053: 14046: 14039: 14032: 14025: 14018: 14001: 13993: 13985: 13977: 13969: 13961: 13953: 13938: 13930: 13922: 13914: 13906: 13898: 13890: 13875: 13867: 13859: 13851: 13843: 13835: 13827: 13812: 13804: 13796: 13788: 13780: 13772: 13757: 13746: 13738: 13727: 13719: 13711: 13703: 13695: 13687: 13679: 13530: 13522: 13514: 13499: 13491: 13483: 13475: 13460: 13452: 13444: 13436: 13421: 13413: 13405: 13397: 13382: 13374: 13359: 13351: 13343: 13335: 13217:

Between the singular and plural forms of some nouns.

12587: 12576: 12567:

Old English shows indirect evidence that word-final

12544:, which lost all final-syllable short vowels except 11949: 11758: 11729: 11722: 11708: 11701: 11392: 11384: 11377: 11355: 11347: 11340: 11300: 11285: 11246: 11238: 11231: 11166:-like phonemes is supported by the existence of two 11148: 11142: 11123: 11116: 10960: 10933: 10906: 10882: 10874: 10864: 10856: 10848: 10841: 10834: 10827: 10820: 10809: 10801: 10784: 10776: 10759: 10752: 10653: 10610: 10490: 10454: 10447: 10031: 10023: 10015: 10008: 9997: 9989: 9981: 9974: 9963: 9950: 9937: 9924: 9751: 9744: 9737: 9718: 9711: 9704: 9689: 9682: 9663: 9641: 9634: 9372: 9365: 9357: 9350: 8152: 8139: 8126: 8107: 8100: 8087: 8039: 8026: 8005: 7983: 7976: 7963: 7950: 7937: 7924: 7899: 7877: 7870: 7863: 7856: 7849: 7842: 7835: 7828: 7801: 7764: 7730: 7723: 7716: 7704: 7698: 7685: 7678: 7671: 7663: 7656: 7650: 7640: 7633: 7626: 7618: 7611: 7603: 7596: 7589: 7583: 7577: 7569: 7555: 7548: 7532: 7525: 7518: 7511: 7505: 7498: 7492: 7476: 7469: 7453: 7446: 7428: 7421: 7405: 7398: 7380: 7373: 7366: 7354: 7343: 7336: 7329: 7322: 7316: 7307: 7300: 7293: 7285: 7278: 7271: 7263: 7256: 7249: 7242: 7236: 7230: 7224: 7196: 7189: 7172: 7165: 7148: 7141: 7125: 7118: 7097: 7090: 7075: 7068: 7061: 7053: 7046: 7039: 7032: 7026: 7018: 7011: 7004: 6996: 6989: 6982: 6975: 6969: 6953: 6946: 6938: 6930: 6922: 6915: 6908: 6901: 6894: 6888: 6877: 6870: 6863: 6856: 6849: 6842: 6835: 6827: 6819: 6812: 6805: 6797: 6790: 6783: 6775: 6760: 6753: 6745: 6737: 6729: 6723: 6704: 6692: 6685: 6678: 6671: 6663: 6657: 6649: 6642: 6635: 6628: 6621: 6614: 6607: 6599: 6591: 6583: 6576: 6570: 6552: 6545: 6538: 6531: 6523: 6515: 6508: 6501: 6494: 6488: 6480: 6473: 6466: 6459: 6451: 6443: 6436: 6429: 6422: 6412: 6400: 6393: 6386: 6379: 6372: 6365: 6357: 6345: 6338: 6330: 6322: 6314: 6307: 6300: 6292: 6284: 6277: 6269: 6261: 6252: 6240: 6233: 6225: 6217: 6209: 6202: 6194: 6186: 6177: 6171: 6160: 6153: 6146: 6139: 6131: 6124: 6117: 6109: 6103: 6072: 6065: 6057: 6049: 6042: 6034: 6026: 6019: 6013: 6007: 5999: 5992: 5984: 5976: 5969: 5961: 5953: 5946: 5940: 5934: 5926: 5919: 5911: 5904: 5896: 5889: 5883: 5877: 5858: 5851: 5843: 5835: 5828: 5822: 5813: 5806: 5799: 5792: 5784: 5777: 5769: 5761: 5754: 5746: 5738: 5727: 5720: 5713: 5705: 5697: 5689: 5681: 5673: 5665: 5659: 5644: 5637: 5630: 5623: 5613: 5607: 5601: 5592: 5585: 5577: 5569: 5562: 5556: 5547: 5540: 5532: 5524: 5517: 5510: 5504: 5491: 5484: 5476: 5467: 5461: 5448: 5441: 5432: 5426: 5412: 5406: 5400: 5394: 5386: 5380: 5357: 5350: 5343: 5336: 5328: 5320: 5312: 5304: 5297: 5289: 5281: 5273: 5263: 5256: 5248: 5240: 5232: 5225: 5217: 5209: 5202: 5193: 5186: 5178: 5170: 5162: 5152: 5145: 5137: 5129: 5121: 5113: 5104: 5097: 5089: 5081: 5073: 5064: 5057: 5049: 5041: 5033: 5009: 5002: 4994: 4986: 4980: 4971: 4964: 4956: 4948: 4942: 4932: 4925: 4917: 4909: 4903: 4894: 4887: 4879: 4874: 4868: 4862: 4847: 4840: 4832: 4824: 4818: 4809: 4802: 4794: 4786: 4778: 4772: 4763: 4756: 4748: 4740: 4733: 4725: 4717: 4711: 4701: 4694: 4686: 4678: 4672: 4656: 4649: 4641: 4633: 4625: 4619: 4613: 4607: 4598: 4591: 4583: 4575: 4567: 4561: 4555: 4549: 4539: 4532: 4524: 4516: 4508: 4502: 4496: 4490: 4475: 4469: 4463: 4457: 4447: 4440: 4432: 4424: 4418: 4412: 4403: 4396: 4388: 4380: 4372: 4365: 4357: 4349: 4343: 4337: 4328: 4321: 4313: 4305: 4299: 4293: 4284: 4277: 4269: 4261: 4255: 4249: 4238: 4219: 4211: 4204: 4196: 4188: 4180: 4169: 4162: 4154: 4144: 4137: 4129: 4122: 4116: 4107: 4101: 4094: 4087: 4081: 4075: 4036: 4028: 4020: 4012: 4004: 3997: 3991: 3981: 3973: 3965: 3957: 3949: 3942: 3936: 3927: 3919: 3911: 3904: 3898: 3890: 3884: 3878: 3864: 3857: 3849: 3841: 3834: 3819: 3812: 3804: 3796: 3789: 3781: 3773: 3767: 3752: 3745: 3737: 3729: 3721: 3715: 3709: 3703: 3680: 3673: 3662: 3655: 3647: 3639: 3631: 3623: 3608: 3600: 3592: 3586: 3577: 3570: 3562: 3551: 3544: 3536: 3521: 3500: 3493: 3485: 3468: 3461: 3453: 3445: 3437: 3414: 3407: 3399: 3391: 3383: 3375: 3369: 3363: 3353: 3339: 3332: 3324: 3317: 3311: 3303: 3296: 3288: 3281: 3275: 3266: 3259: 3251: 3244: 3238: 3230: 3223: 3215: 3208: 3202: 3186: 3165: 3159: 3149: 3142: 3134: 3127: 3121: 3113: 3106: 3098: 3091: 3085: 3077: 3070: 3062: 3055: 3049: 3031: 3024: 3016: 3009: 3003: 2995: 2988: 2980: 2973: 2967: 2958: 2951: 2943: 2935: 2929: 2919: 2912: 2904: 2896: 2890: 2881: 2748: 2360:-era transcriptions of individual words (notably in 17439:. New York: Modern Language Association of America. 17204:

Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction

16251: 16187: 15675:

Schleicher's PIE fable rendered into Proto-Germanic

14462:construction that in PIE was part of the system of 14166:were dialectal variants of the masculine plural of 13184: 11862: 11745:The phonemicity is evident from minimal pairs like 9583:, with devoicing), but as a fricative in Old Norse 8932:was used to denote the bilabial realisation before 7463: 7440: 2356:inscription, dated to the 2nd century BCE), and in 90:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 17513:(1979). "Proto-Germanic */i/ and */e/ Revisited". 16909:. Chicago, London: Fitzroy Dearborn. p. 122. 16320: 15996:The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language 15963:Hawkins, John A. (1987). "Germanic languages". In 11924: 11853: 9570:is conflicting: it appears as a plosive in Gothic 8955:Grimm's law as applied to pre-proto-Germanic is a 5618:but not until after the application of i-mutation. 2605:), Germanic speakers came into contact with early 2549:in the mid-3rd millennium BC, developing into the 17040:. Leipzig: Publisher not cited by Kroonen (2009). 16612:(2000). "Appendix I: Indo-European Roots: reg-". 16518:That presentation also summarizes Lehmann's view. 13236:An alternation not triggered by sound change was 13148: 11936: 11899: 11833:in Old English and Old Frisian whereas non-nasal 11655:). This allowed their reflexes to stay distinct. 9931: 8032:'horse', which was either borrowed directly from 5371:All words become stressed on their first syllable 4225:, showing that loss occurred before Verner's law) 3044:Merging of PIE "palatovelar" and "velar" plosives 395:showing cultures associated with Proto-Germanic, 209:for phonetic transcriptions, with an appropriate 20089: 17671: 17536:Language and history in the early Germanic world 15865:, which is arranged in alphabetic order by root. 15798:It is open to debate whether the bearers of the 14806:attached to it, modifying its meaning (cf. e.g. 14526:suffix that is a direct continuation of the PIE 13547:demonstratives and definite articles. The terms 13169:Verbs and pronouns had three numbers: singular, 10791: 10632:- in parallel with the other consonants (except 10586:in the same or following syllable. This removed 5349:(the stressed variants, which would have become 2867: 2593:. At about the same time, extending east of the 17795:Proto-Germanic nominal and pronominal paradigms 17529:. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 2018. 16854: 16715:A Linguistic Map of Prehistoric Northern Europe 16649: 11787: 11781: 11162:, but the existence of two Proto-Germanic long 10983:had a "circumflex" (rise-fall-rise) tone while 10334:only occurred word-finally, and of these, only 9944: 9584: 9534:still preserves the sound of in this position. 8451:Overlong vowels appear with circumflexes, e.g. 4059:This stage began its evolution as a dialect of 2639:). The language of these sentences is known as 360:words (for an explanation of the notation, see 16661: 9658:knew at least three different outcomes: after 8279:. In other literature, they may be written as 8120: 7807:'foreigner; Celt' from the Celtic tribal name 7759:appear to have been made before or during the 6699:. This development postdated contact with the 19812: 17855: 17483:Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung 16208: 16092:, vol. I, London: Penguin, p. 108, 15725: 14791:(class 1, preterite-present) '(s)he knows' → 14116:, and underlies both the English determiners 13075: 13065: 12531: 12517: 11942: 11905: 11874: 11665:Phonemic nasal vowels definitely occurred in 11060:, while the monophthongization of unstressed 10819:contraction after loss of laryngeal: gen.pl. 10616:('new'); the second element of the diphthong 8159: 8146: 8133: 8114: 8094: 7542: 7415: 7392: 7203: 7182: 7158: 7135: 7112: 6714: 2219: 17068:Expressivität und Lautgesetz im Germanischen 17009:stems: a study in diachronic morphophonology 16667: 16121:"Languages of the World: Germanic languages" 14503:(i.e. a different vowel in the stem) and/or 14100: 14094: 14072: 14066: 14060: 12893:short ja-stem masculine nominative singular 11793: 11736: 11334: 11225: 10873:contraction of short vowels: a-stem nom.pl. 10766: 10461: 10408: 9677:in initial positions it was delabialized to 9577: 9571: 8477:, a distinction which was phonemic. Tildes ( 7742:Lexical evidence in other language varieties 2755: 17654:Recent Developments in Germanic Linguistics 17080: 16929: 16884:. Cambridge University Press. p. 227. 16721:. Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran Toimituksia. 16684:Europe Between the Oceans 9000 BC – AD 1000 15971:. Oxford University Press. pp. 68–76. 13264:Nouns derived from verbs with a -j- suffix. 13261:Verbs derived from nouns with a -j- suffix. 12930:long ja-stem masculine nominative singular 12593:). Since the early Old English fronting of 12497:of some present tense verb endings, and in 11658:The nasality of word-internal vowels (from 10441: 10415: 10400: 8940: 8540:. This convention is based on the usage in 7084: 6095:, another characteristic Germanic feature. 53:Learn how and when to remove these messages 19819: 19805: 17862: 17848: 17800:A dictionary of Proto-Germanic (in German) 17738:From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic 17719:From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic 17509: 17493: 17477: 17408:From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic 17297: 17263: 17106: 17021:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 16842: 16550: 16548: 16148:Kinder, Hermann; Werner Hilgemann (1988). 16025: 15844:The etymologies are to be found mainly in 12540:). Somewhat greater reduction is found in 12468:) could appear in any position in a word. 7714:and nasalisation of the preceding vowel — 7504:when followed by a syllable-final nasal — 2715:proposed, none certain and all debatable. 2226: 2212: 2190:Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch 17593:Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Germanic 17543: 17515:Journal of English and Germanic Philology 17393: 17381:, 26:4 (Oct–Dec, 1950), pp. 4–64 (p. 33). 17281: 17050: 16557:Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran Aikakauskirja 14755:'to lead, bring', i.e. 'to cause to go', 12870:short ja-stem neuter nominative singular 7751:Loans from adjoining Indo-European groups 2609:cultures, as reflected in early Germanic 2267:Proto-Germanic eventually developed from 245:Learn how and when to remove this message 150:Learn how and when to remove this message 19914: 17539:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 17497:(1973). "Indo-European eu in Germanic". 17466:, 271p., in German with English summary 17443: 17248: 16779:(Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2003), 251. 16681: 16527: 16499: 16464: 16052: 16050: 12941:long ja-stem neuter nominative singular 12582:) and the strong past participle ending 7792:. It is clearly not native because PIE * 7445:'thick meat', from early Proto-Germanic 6529:'to be silent' > (with added suffix) 6457:'to be silent' > (with added suffix) 4073:Loss of word-final non-high short vowels 2778: 2684: 2446: 2381: 386: 17836:stems compared across reference sources 17689:The Oxford Companion to World Mythology 17638: 17618: 17589: 17481:(1972). "Indo-European ē in Germanic". 17434: 17341: 17308: 17035: 17002: 16990: 16879: 16608: 16545: 16421: 16383: 16233: 15991: 15962: 15956: 15809:should also be considered Indo-European 14707:'to destroy', i.e. 'to cause to perish' 12833:3rd person singular past of weak verbs 10719:Trimoraic vowels generally occurred at 9765: 9724:'kidney'). Evidence for a sound change 8448:instead, but this is not followed here. 8082:The heaviest influence has been on the 4054: 399:500 BC. The area of the preceding 372:question marks, boxes, or other symbols 20090: 19826: 17869: 17754: 17647: 17437:An Introduction to the Gothic Language 16819:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 16711: 16642:, *paido-. That word gave Old English 16245: 16087: 16056: 15823: 12526:), while the dative plural appears as 9760: 8462:Nasal vowels are written here with an 6085: 19913: 19800: 19533: 19147: 17891: 17843: 17735: 17716: 17598:Indo-European Etymological Dictionary 17532: 17405: 17365: 17353: 17190: 17184: 17178: 17166: 17154: 17142: 17130: 17118: 16978: 16966: 16954: 16904: 16763: 16751: 16554: 16539: 16506:. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 26–30. 16272: 16257: 16196: 16047: 15875: 15849: 15845: 15818: 15232: 14881: 14739:'to lay', i.e. 'to cause to lie down' 14723:'to save', i.e. 'to cause to survive' 12958:3rd person singular past subjunctive 12793:ō-stem adjective accusative singular 12773:1st person singular present of verbs 12767: 12716:a-stem masculine nominative singular 12694:i-stem masculine accusative singular 12668:a-stem masculine accusative singular 12471: 11133:and the other Germanic languages as * 10319:already in late Proto-Germanic times. 9593:hardened to in all positions in the 8920:and also Old Norse spellings such as 8541: 7117:'to seek', from early Proto-Germanic 5473:before a consonant or word-finally — 3690:Laryngeals remain between consonants. 3481:Word-final long vowels are lengthened 2861: 2510:of Northern Europe. According to the 2455:expansion (1st and 2nd centuries AD): 2327:Pre-Roman Iron Age in Northern Europe 2197:Indo-European Etymological Dictionary 2169:Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture 393:pre-Roman Iron Age in Northern Europe 17805:Another dictionary of Proto-Germanic 17786:W.P. Lehmann & J. Slocum (eds.) 17627: 17571:, 2nd edn. London: Routledge, 2017. 17215: 17065: 16855:Van Kerckvoorde, Colette M. (1993). 16639: 16573: 16115: 16113: 16111: 16109: 15906: 15862: 15861:The preceding etymologies come from 14441:. Some of this difference is due to 11364:Certain pronominal forms, e.g. OEng 10739:- was lost between vowels, so that - 10652:, the latter mainly in adverbs (cf. 10473:was formed following the shift from 10315:, where it may have been lowered to 9695:'to grind'); in all other positions 8978:Grimm's law: Voiceless to fricative 8466:, following Don Ringe's usage, e.g. 8183:Non-Indo-European substrate elements 8043: 7827:. Other likely Celtic loans include 7669:'to stand' > (with suffix added) 7420:'goblin', from early Proto-Germanic 7397:'thwart', from early Proto-Germanic 7202:, as demonstrated by the later loan 3764:Vocalisation of remaining laryngeals 3560:Laryngeals are lost before vowels — 3434:after a consonant or a long vowel — 2378:Archaeology and early historiography 161: 88:adding citations to reliable sources 59: 18: 18424:Plautdietsch / Mennonite Low German 17651:(1992). Lippi-Green, Rosina (ed.). 17586:, 2 vols. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1969. 16213:. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 117. 16209:Bell-Fialkoll, Andrew, ed. (2000). 15777:", mythological characters such as 15769:This includes common nouns such as 14830:'and then he seized', with clitics 14798:'to teach', i.e. 'to cause to know' 14659:'to raise', i.e. 'to cause to rise' 14534:suffix or infix that continues the 9772:for Proto-Germanic, under the name 9382:according to Verner's Law produced 8489:...) are also used in some sources. 8420:. When a distinction is necessary, 7140:'money', from early Proto-Germanic 4127:preceding the vowel is also lost — 2424: New settlements by 250 2413: New settlements by 500 2402: Settlements before 750 2154:Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European 13: 19783:Languages between parentheses are 19148: 17451:. London: Oxford University Press. 17311:"The Origin of PGmc. Long Close e" 16151:The Penguin atlas of world history 15741:Pre-Indo-European (disambiguation) 14458:ending, apparently derived from a 11798:, showing the original consonant. 11068:which did not merge with original 10639: 9490:Each of the three voiced phonemes 7547:'ring', from early Proto-Germanic 7187:'tether', from Pre-Proto-Germanic 2887:adjacent to laryngeal consonants: 2283:. The latter of these remained in 2176:The Horse, the Wheel, and Language 199:for transliterated languages, and 179:of its non-English content, using 16:Ancestor of the Germanic languages 14: 20119: 17779: 17774:Summarizing Germanic sound shifts 17687:. In Leeming, David Adams (ed.). 17582:Krahe, Hans & Wolfgang Meid. 16106: 14876:'to take' (class 4 strong verb). 14174:Inflection of the distal deictic 12512:which still preserved word-final 11008:in East and West Germanic but to 8984:Grimm's law: Aspirated to voiced 8981:Grimm's law: Voiced to voiceless 8901:in certain positions (see below). 8855: 8835: 8821: 8788: 8780: 8771: 8764: 8756: 8748: 8740: 8732: 8708: 8701: 8690: 8683: 8676: 8669: 8645: 8633: 8622: 8040:Loans into non-Germanic languages 7770:'ruler' was borrowed from Celtic 7747:absolute or calendar chronology. 7602:'thematic optative 1sg sg.' > 3616:Two vowels that come to stand in 34:This article has multiple issues. 17811:"Germanic and the Ruki Dialects" 17631:A Handbook of Germanic Etymology 17458:& Konrad Badenheuer (2021). 17435:Bennett, William Holmes (1980). 16777:A Handbook of Germanic Etymology 15434:Proto-Germanic personal pronouns 13214:Between verbs and derived nouns. 13185:Consonant and vowel alternations 10428:-like vowel (which later became 8234: 8047: 7163:'hoof', from Pre-Proto-Germanic 6811:'(s)he would carry, subj.' > 2566:Early Germanic expansion in the 2502:Proto-Germanic developed out of 2494: Eastward expansion of the 2183:Journal of Indo-European Studies 947:Bible translations into Armenian 438: 348: 166: 64: 23: 17621:In Search of the Indo-Europeans 17399: 17371: 17302: 17290: 17257: 17242: 17209: 17196: 17091: 17074: 17059: 17044: 17029: 16996: 16923: 16905:Trask, Robert Lawrence (2000). 16898: 16873: 16857:An Introduction to Middle Dutch 16848: 16827: 16782: 16769: 16705: 16690: 16675: 16633: 16620: 16602: 16567: 16493: 16458: 16415: 16377: 16314: 16305: 16296: 16287: 16278: 16202: 16125:The New Encyclopædia Britannica 15924: 15868: 15855: 15838: 15829: 15812: 15792: 12556:initially preserved unstressed 11965: 11956: 11912: 11881: 11608:The distinct reflexes of nasal 11417: 11129:) are distributed in Gothic as 7588:(but it is lost after syllabic 7247:in the same or next syllable — 5872:Merging of non-high back vowels 458:List of Indo-European languages 75:needs additional citations for 42:or discuss these issues on the 19787:of the language on their left. 17584:Germanische Sprachwissenschaft 17283:10.1080/00437956.1993.11435894 16503:Runes and Germanic Linguistics 16172: 16141: 16090:Penguin Atlas of World History 16081: 16018: 15985: 15848:, pp. 149–164. One is in 15763: 14012: 13149:General morphological features 12456:+ voiceless plosive clusters ( 9612: 9378:'mother'. The voicing of some 9297:came from either the original 8959:of the original Indo-European 8308:Unvoiced fricatives appear as 7315:This eliminates the remaining 6703:, as is shown by the loanword 4838:'(s)he will step, subj.' > 4669:Voiced plosives are devoiced: 3533:are lost before a consonant — 215:multilingual support templates 1: 19678:Germanic substrate hypothesis 19534: 17759:. San Diego: Academic Press. 17657:. John Benjamins Publishing. 17533:Green, Dennis Howard (2000). 17462:, 2nd edn., Berlin – London: 17315:Proto-Indo-European phonology 16882:Understanding Language Change 16880:McMahon, April M. S. (1994). 16701:. Amsterdam; Atlanta: Rodopi. 16057:Comrie, Bernard, ed. (1987). 15949: 13541: 13159: 13087: 11482:, which later developed into 11012:in Old Norse, and word-final 10511: 9732:in initial positions is slim. 9397: 8886:before labiovelar obstruents. 8559: 8189:Germanic substrate hypothesis 8036:or through Celtic mediation. 7763:. For instance, one specimen 7208:'windfallen or decayed tree') 6781:after unstressed syllables — 6427:is lost between consonants — 5744:'thematic optative 3pl' > 3443:'act of calling' (pronounced 2868:Pre-Proto-Germanic (Pre-PGmc) 2768:that the -a was not dropped: 2523: 2512:Germanic substrate hypothesis 2371: 1784:Proto-Indo-European mythology 1053:Paleolithic continuity theory 396: 362:Proto-Indo-European phonology 293: 19708:Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law 18399:Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch 17309:Lehmann, Winfred P. (2007). 16930:Kraehenmann, Astrid (2003). 14862: 14844: 14838: 14832: 14826: 14748:(class 6) 'to travel, go' → 14507:(derived primarily from the 14142: 14136: 14130: 11807:Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law 11753: 11747: 11717: 11696: 11197:. It probably continues PIE 11143: 11100: 11034: 9442:. This phenomenon is termed 8440:is sometimes transcribed as 8243:Voiced obstruents appear as 8222: 7910: 7195:'to lie, be at rest' (later 5530:'abstract noun suffix' > 3963:'step, act of walking' > 3875:Labiovelars are delabialised 2689: 2672: 1472:Northern Black Polished Ware 671:Proto-Indo-European language 7: 19688:High German consonant shift 17788:A Grammar of Proto-Germanic 17569:The Indo-European Languages 17499:Indogermanische Forschungen 17410:. Oxford University Press. 17264:Purczinsky, Julius (1993). 17081:Gąsiorowski, Piotr (2012), 16500:Antonsen, Elmer H. (2002). 16178:Andrew Villen Bell (2000), 16060:The World's Major Languages 15969:The World's Major Languages 15734: 15428: 14848:'he seized') rather than a 12753:u-stem nominative singular 12733:i-stem nominative singular 12705:u-stem accusative singular 11076:, as it was not lowered to 10406:later emerges in Gothic as 8971:Labiovelar reduction (near 8928:rather than the more usual 8889:, and were allophones of 8093:'warlord' (compare Finnish 8013: 8000: 7994: 7971: 7958: 7945: 7932: 7919: 7649:This process creates a new 6936:'wheels (collective)' > 5841:'strangers, nom. pl.' > 5687:'they are lying down' > 5643:(remaining beside stressed 5399:"(s)he is asking for" > 5176:'wheels (collective)' > 2667:Bergakker runic inscription 1789:Proto-Indo-Iranian paganism 320:Lower-order reconstructions 10: 20124: 18226:Westlauwers–Terschellings 17879:According to contemporary 17755:Voyles, Joseph B. (1992). 17428: 17249:Liberman, Anatoly (1982). 16723:Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura 14813:'to perish', derived from 14732:(class 5) 'to lie down' → 14530:suffix, and a few have an 14513: 14410: 13091: 12810: 11689:First Grammatical Treatise 11680:First Grammatical Treatise 11401:Words borrowed from Latin 11393: 11356: 11247: 11117: 10961: 10934: 10907: 10883: 10865: 10857: 10842: 10835: 10810: 10785: 10032: 10024: 9998: 9990: 9625:continues to operate as a 9434:in word-initial position." 9366: 9351: 9320:in the north ... and 9273:'eight', Middle Dutch has 8944: 8573:Proto-Germanic consonants 8226: 8186: 8113:) 'ring' (compare Finnish 7717: 7705: 7699: 7672: 7664: 7657: 7651: 7627: 7612: 7597: 7590: 7584: 7578: 7570: 7506: 7499: 7493: 7367: 7330: 7323: 7317: 7294: 7272: 7250: 7243: 7237: 7231: 7225: 7190: 7166: 7062: 7040: 7033: 7027: 7005: 6983: 6976: 6970: 6947: 6939: 6931: 6909: 6902: 6895: 6889: 6836: 6828: 6806: 6784: 6776: 6754: 6746: 6738: 6730: 6724: 6672: 6664: 6658: 6608: 6600: 6592: 6584: 6577: 6571: 6532: 6524: 6502: 6495: 6489: 6460: 6452: 6430: 6423: 6413: 6373: 6366: 6358: 6339: 6331: 6323: 6301: 6293: 6278: 6270: 6262: 6253: 6234: 6226: 6218: 6203: 6195: 6187: 6178: 6172: 6140: 6118: 6110: 6104: 6066: 6058: 6043: 6035: 6027: 6020: 6014: 6008: 5993: 5985: 5970: 5962: 5954: 5947: 5941: 5935: 5920: 5905: 5897: 5890: 5884: 5878: 5852: 5844: 5836: 5829: 5823: 5793: 5778: 5770: 5755: 5747: 5739: 5714: 5706: 5698: 5690: 5682: 5674: 5666: 5660: 5624: 5614: 5608: 5602: 5586: 5578: 5570: 5563: 5557: 5541: 5533: 5525: 5518: 5511: 5505: 5485: 5477: 5468: 5462: 5447:'thematic first du.' > 5442: 5433: 5427: 5413: 5407: 5401: 5395: 5387: 5381: 5337: 5329: 5321: 5313: 5298: 5290: 5282: 5274: 5257: 5249: 5241: 5226: 5218: 5210: 5203: 5187: 5179: 5171: 5163: 5146: 5138: 5130: 5122: 5114: 5098: 5090: 5082: 5074: 5058: 5050: 5042: 5034: 5003: 4995: 4987: 4981: 4965: 4957: 4949: 4943: 4926: 4918: 4910: 4904: 4888: 4880: 4875: 4869: 4863: 4841: 4833: 4825: 4819: 4803: 4795: 4787: 4779: 4773: 4757: 4749: 4734: 4726: 4718: 4712: 4695: 4687: 4679: 4673: 4650: 4642: 4634: 4626: 4620: 4614: 4608: 4592: 4584: 4576: 4568: 4562: 4556: 4550: 4533: 4525: 4517: 4509: 4503: 4497: 4491: 4476: 4470: 4464: 4458: 4441: 4433: 4425: 4419: 4413: 4397: 4389: 4381: 4366: 4358: 4350: 4344: 4338: 4322: 4314: 4306: 4300: 4294: 4278: 4270: 4262: 4256: 4250: 4239: 4205: 4197: 4189: 4181: 4163: 4155: 4138: 4130: 4123: 4117: 4102: 4095: 4088: 4082: 4076: 4029: 4021: 4013: 4005: 3998: 3992: 3974: 3966: 3958: 3950: 3943: 3937: 3920: 3912: 3905: 3899: 3891: 3885: 3879: 3858: 3850: 3842: 3835: 3813: 3805: 3790: 3782: 3774: 3768: 3746: 3738: 3730: 3722: 3716: 3710: 3704: 3674: 3656: 3648: 3640: 3632: 3624: 3601: 3593: 3587: 3571: 3563: 3545: 3537: 3522: 3494: 3486: 3462: 3454: 3446: 3438: 3408: 3400: 3392: 3384: 3376: 3370: 3364: 3362:This sequence now becomes 3354: 3333: 3325: 3318: 3312: 3297: 3289: 3282: 3276: 3260: 3252: 3245: 3239: 3224: 3216: 3209: 3203: 3187: 3172:centum and satem languages 3166: 3160: 3143: 3135: 3128: 3122: 3107: 3099: 3092: 3086: 3071: 3063: 3056: 3050: 3025: 3017: 3010: 3004: 2989: 2981: 2974: 2968: 2952: 2944: 2936: 2930: 2913: 2905: 2897: 2891: 2882: 2852: 2658:by moving from Scythia to 2435: New settlements by 2314:in the fourth century AD. 1085:Domestication of the horse 19992: 19926: 19922: 19909: 19834: 19770: 19721: 19645: 19614: 19546: 19542: 19529: 19478: 19451: 19405:Southern Schleswig Danish 19336: 19217: 19173: 19164: 19160: 19143: 18984: 18927: 18815: 18806: 18711: 18683: 18642: 18633: 18608: 18590: 18501: 18473: 18447: 18438: 18389: 18302: 18277: 18268: 18207: 18102: 18051: 18026: 18017: 17913: 17904: 17900: 17887: 17877: 17736:Ringe, Donald A. (2017). 17717:Ringe, Donald A. (2006). 17643:. Lewiston: Edwin Mellen. 17602:Brill Academic Publishers 17344:, pp. xxiii–iv, 225. 15783:and tribal names such as 15726: 15662: 15645: 15633: 15630: 15627: 15624: 15621: 15618: 15610: 15539: 15536: 15530: 15492: 15489: 15486: 15483: 15480: 15477: 15472: 15469: 15466: 15463: 15460: 15457: 15454: 15451: 15446: 15443: 15440: 15438: 15416: 15413: 15403: 15400: 15390: 15387: 15213: 15199: 15073: 15057: 14911: 14886: 14883: 14842:'then' interpolated into 14716:(class 5) 'to survive' → 14394: 14378: 14363: 14347: 14332: 14316: 14270: 14262: 14238: 14186: 14181: 14178: 13992: 13976: 13968: 13952: 13929: 13913: 13905: 13889: 13866: 13850: 13842: 13826: 13753: 13734: 13718: 13710: 13694: 13686: 13604: 13599: 13594: 13589: 13582: 13577: 13574: 13490: 13358: 13342: 13297: 13289: 13286: 13070:'three daughters' in the 13042: 13039: 13020:u-stem genitive singular 13014: 13011: 13003:ō-stem nominative plural 12989: 12986: 12983: 12980: 12977: 12974: 12952: 12946: 12924: 12921: 12915: 12910:i-stem nominative plural 12887: 12881: 12847: 12838: 12816:ō-stem accusative plural 12807: 12801: 12778: 12727: 12721: 12688: 12685: 12682: 12679: 12673: 12627:Anglo-Frisian brightening 11867:< Old English/Frisian 11581: 11573: 10709: 10698: 10199: 10194: 10191: 10065: 10060: 10057: 10040: 9784:languages, also known as 9750:'they saw' (indicative), 9662:, it was preserved (e.g. 8865: 8863: 8861: 8850: 8848: 8834: 8832: 8827: 8816: 8814: 8777: 8698: 8696: 8639: 8628: 8605: 8600: 8595: 8590: 8585: 8580: 8565:in parentheses represent 8536:when between a vowel and 8394:The yod sound appears as 7255:'(s)he is carrying' > 7067:'eh₂-stem nom. pl.' > 6565:Assimilation of sonorants 6063:'eh₂-stem nom. pl.' > 5417:"(s)he asks, (s)he prays" 4885:'(s)he is carrying' > 4483:The above also forms the 3653:'eh₂-stem nom. pl.' > 1794:Historical Vedic religion 1071:Chalcolithic (Copper Age) 378:combining characters and 319: 303: 289: 279: 269: 264: 259: 99:"Proto-Germanic language" 19951:Changes before historic 19943:Changes before historic 19683:West Germanic gemination 19637:Ancient Belgian language 19632:Germanic parent language 19576:Weser-Rhine (Istvaeonic) 18698:Austrian Standard German 17892: 17634:. Leiden; Boston: Brill. 17202:Benjamin W. Fortson IV, 17066:Lühr, Rosemarie (1988). 16682:Cunliffe, Barry (2008). 16088:Kinder, Hermann (1988), 15756: 14700:(class 3) 'to perish' → 14406: 13271: 11955:(the past participle of 10622:West Germanic gemination 10322:All nasal vowels except 9546:West Germanic gemination 9537:Plosives appeared after 9324:further south ...") 9289:merged with the shifted 8941:Grimm's and Verner's law 8879:before velar obstruents. 7969:'cottage' (compare Pers 7712:compensatory lengthening 6182:before dental consonants 6123:'that, acc. masc.' > 5679:'(s)he is lying down' ~ 4386:'axle' > (devoicing) 3679:'thematic 1st sg.' > 3432:consonants are shortened 2880:Allophonic colouring of 2855:Germanic Parent Language 2319:Germanic parent language 1799:Ancient Iranian religion 1162:Novotitarovskaya culture 1009:Indo-European migrations 19854:Anglo-Frisian languages 17693:Oxford University Press 17628:Orel, Vladimir (2003). 16668: 16662: 16656: 16650: 16644: 15992:Crystal, David (1995). 15713: 15699: 15419: 15406: 15393: 15380: 15372: 15359: 15351: 15338: 15330: 15316: 15307: 15294: 15285: 15272: 15264: 15251: 15243: 15226: 15219: 15208: 15192: 15184: 15176: 15163: 15155: 15147: 15131: 15123: 15110: 15101: 15092: 15076: 15068: 15060: 15051: 15038: 15030: 15022: 15014: 15006: 14993: 14985: 14977: 14969: 14961: 14942: 14934: 14928: 14920: 14872: 14816: 14809: 14794: 14787: 14778: 14771: 14758: 14751: 14744: 14735: 14728: 14719: 14712: 14703: 14696: 14687: 14680: 14671: 14664: 14655: 14648: 14639: 14632: 14546: 14541:preterite-present verbs 14464:derivational morphology 14397: 14389: 14381: 14366: 14358: 14350: 14335: 14327: 14319: 14304: 14296: 14288: 14273: 14265: 14257: 14249: 14241: 14233: 14073: 14067: 14061: 14055: 14048: 14041: 14034: 14027: 14020: 14003: 13995: 13987: 13979: 13971: 13963: 13955: 13940: 13932: 13924: 13916: 13908: 13900: 13892: 13877: 13869: 13861: 13853: 13845: 13837: 13829: 13814: 13806: 13798: 13790: 13782: 13774: 13759: 13748: 13740: 13729: 13721: 13713: 13705: 13697: 13689: 13681: 13532: 13524: 13516: 13501: 13493: 13485: 13477: 13462: 13454: 13446: 13438: 13423: 13415: 13407: 13399: 13384: 13376: 13361: 13353: 13345: 13337: 13248:Examples are numerous: 13076: 13066: 12853:a-stem dative singular 12589: 12578: 12532: 12518: 12280:Fricative + obstruent: 11951: 11944: 11937: 11931: 11907: 11900: 11894: 11876: 11869: 11863: 11788: 11786:'goose' < Old Norse 11782: 11764:, cognate with English 11760: 11737: 11731: 11724: 11710: 11703: 11627:, which did not affect 11386: 11379: 11372: 11366: 11349: 11342: 11335: 11329: 11323: 11317: 11302: 11287: 11280: 11240: 11233: 11226: 11220: 11214: 11150: 11125: 10876: 10850: 10829: 10822: 10803: 10778: 10767: 10761: 10754: 10655: 10612: 10492: 10462: 10456: 10449: 10409: 10017: 10010: 9983: 9976: 9965: 9958: 9956:vs. Middle High German 9952: 9939: 9932: 9926: 9919: 9753: 9746: 9739: 9720: 9713: 9706: 9691: 9684: 9665: 9654:(Early) Proto-Germanic 9643: 9636: 9595:West Germanic languages 9585: 9579: 9572: 9374: 9359: 8990:Labiovelar dissolution 8904:The phoneme written as 8154: 8141: 8128: 8109: 8102: 8089: 8028: 8007: 7985: 7978: 7965: 7952: 7939: 7926: 7901: 7879: 7872: 7865: 7858: 7851: 7844: 7837: 7830: 7803: 7780: 7773: 7766: 7732: 7725: 7687: 7680: 7642: 7635: 7620: 7605: 7557: 7550: 7534: 7527: 7520: 7513: 7478: 7471: 7455: 7448: 7430: 7423: 7407: 7400: 7382: 7375: 7356: 7345: 7338: 7309: 7302: 7287: 7280: 7265: 7258: 7198: 7174: 7150: 7147:'squirrel skin' (later 7143: 7127: 7120: 7099: 7092: 7077: 7070: 7055: 7048: 7020: 7013: 6998: 6991: 6955: 6924: 6917: 6879: 6872: 6865: 6858: 6851: 6844: 6821: 6814: 6799: 6792: 6762: 6716: 6706: 6694: 6687: 6680: 6651: 6644: 6637: 6630: 6623: 6616: 6554: 6547: 6540: 6537:'(s)he is silent' > 6517: 6510: 6482: 6475: 6468: 6465:'they are silent' > 6445: 6438: 6402: 6395: 6388: 6381: 6347: 6328:'genitive plural' > 6316: 6309: 6286: 6267:'a-stem acc. sg.' > 6242: 6211: 6162: 6155: 6148: 6145:'a-stem acc. sg.' > 6133: 6126: 6074: 6051: 6001: 5978: 5928: 5913: 5860: 5815: 5808: 5801: 5786: 5763: 5729: 5722: 5646: 5639: 5632: 5594: 5575:'i-stem gen. sg.' > 5549: 5493: 5482:'u-stem gen. sg.' > 5450: 5359: 5352: 5345: 5306: 5265: 5234: 5195: 5154: 5106: 5066: 5011: 4973: 4934: 4896: 4849: 4811: 4765: 4742: 4703: 4658: 4600: 4541: 4449: 4405: 4374: 4330: 4286: 4221: 4213: 4171: 4146: 4109: 4038: 3983: 3929: 3866: 3821: 3798: 3754: 3720:between a sonorant and 3682: 3664: 3629:'genitive plural' > 3610: 3579: 3553: 3502: 3483:to "overlong" vowels — 3470: 3416: 3341: 3305: 3268: 3232: 3151: 3115: 3079: 3033: 2997: 2960: 2921: 2756: 2750: 2390:into previously mostly 2262:Indo-European languages 1300:Northern/Eastern Steppe 19744:Preterite-present verb 19627:Proto-Germanic grammar 19581:North Sea (Ingvaeonic) 18693:German Standard German 18369:East Frisian Low Saxon 17757:Early Germanic Grammar 17639:Plotkin, Vulf (2008). 17619:Mallory, J.P. (1989), 17590:Kroonen, Guus (2013). 17406:Ringe, Donald (2006). 17051:Trautmann, R. (1906). 17003:Kroonen, Guus (2011). 16993:, pp. xxvii–xxix. 15775:Migration Period spear 14775:(class 7) 'to weep' → 14691:'to burn (transitive)' 14684:(class 3) 'to burn' → 14675:'to bend (transitive)' 14668:(class 2) 'to bend' → 14652:(class 1) 'to rise' → 14636:(class 1) 'to bite' → 14101: 14095: 13094:Proto-Germanic grammar 11925: 11854: 11829:, which was raised to 11794: 10792: 10442: 10416: 10401: 9945: 9943:and Norwegian (dial.) 9913:The reconstruction of 9452: 9436: 9326: 8355:Labiovelars appear as 8160: 8147: 8134: 8121: 8115: 8095: 7943:'sheep' (compare Pers 7930:'hops' (compare Osset 7632:'in the morning' > 7574:is lost between vowels 7543: 7464: 7441: 7416: 7393: 7204: 7183: 7159: 7136: 7113: 7085: 5775:'in the morning' > 5733:(with -þ- by analogy) 5419:(with -þ- by analogy) 2842: 2699:historical linguistics 2499: 2444: 2317:The alternative term " 1771:Religion and mythology 1730:Medieval Scandinavians 1021:Alternative and fringe 416: 270:Reconstruction of 19886:Anglo-Norman language 19749:Grammatischer Wechsel 18732:Namibian Black German 18703:Swiss Standard German 18672:Early New High German 18230:Mainland West Frisian 18091:Harlingerland Frisian 17673:Polomé, Edgar Charles 17055:. Zahn & Baendel. 17011:. Amsterdam/New York. 16530:, p. 28 table 9. 16353:10.1353/lan.2005.0078 13199:Grammatischer Wechsel 11274:plus a consonant, or 11230:'side, flank' ← PGmc 10775:template; e.g., PGmc 10424:was a Proto-Germanic 9448: 9416: 9392:grammatischer Wechsel 9314: 8492:Diphthongs appear as 8352:in some environments. 8344:, which later became 6378:'I was putting' > 3831:Velars are labialised 3714:) is strengthened to 2782: 2685:Theories of phylogeny 2611:loans in Proto-Slavic 2585:in the south and the 2450: 2388:early Germanic tribes 2385: 2121:Indo-European studies 1484:Peoples and societies 390: 265:PGmc, Common Germanic 19916:Phonological history 19896:Early Modern English 19754:Indo-European ablaut 19734:Germanic strong verb 19703:Germanic spirant law 18840:Southeast Limburgish 18336:Gelders-Overijssels 17965:Irish Middle English 17955:Early Modern English 17685:"Germanic mythology" 17681:Leeming, David Adams 17600:Series, 11. Leiden: 17552:Hartmann, Frederik: 17251:Germanic Accentology 17036:Gerland, G. (1869). 16184:, Palgrave Macmillan 15803:Funnelbeaker culture 15670:– Unstressed variant 14626:suffix). Examples: 14479:constructions, with 14417:Germanic strong verb 12538:Stentoften Runestone 12357:Liquid + obstruent: 11948:< Proto-Germanic 11911:< Proto-Germanic 11880:< Proto-Germanic 11837:appeared as fronted 11260:class 7 strong verbs 11193:) as identical with 11147:'here' ← late PGmc. 9768:posits a process of 9528:Ingvaeonic languages 9454:The voiced phonemes 8882:was an allophone of 8875:was an allophone of 8379:) or clusters (e.g. 7761:Germanic Sound Shift 7524:'(s)he chants' > 7096:and then shifted to 6743:'I am, unstr.' > 5598:(with -z by analogy) 5159:(with -z by analogy) 4708:(reformed as a-stem) 4485:Germanic spirant law 4055:Early Proto-Germanic 3516:, phonemicising the 3389:'known' (pronounced 2814:Weser–Rhine Germanic 2516:Funnelbeaker culture 2289:Ingvaeonic languages 1028:Anatolian hypothesis 980:Proto-Indo-Europeans 887:Hittite inscriptions 432:Indo-European topics 284:North-western Europe 177:specify the language 175:This article should 84:improve this article 19849:Proto-West-Germanic 19839:Proto-Indo-European 19722:Synchronic features 19693:Germanic a-mutation 19646:Diachronic features 18996:in the broad sense 18929:East Central German 18883:Lorraine Franconian 18857:Transylvanian Saxon 18817:West Central German 18592:East Low Franconian 18502:West Low Franconian 17677:Fee, Christopher R. 17623:, Thames and Hudson 17567:Kapović, Mate, ed. 17449:Old English Grammar 17169:, p. 152, 249. 17005:The Proto-Germanic 16981:, pp. 92, 215. 16628:Haoma and Harmaline 16027:Bloomfield, Leonard 15807:Pitted Ware culture 15435: 15401:Present Participle 14610:(the reflex of PIE 14509:Proto-Indo-European 14175: 13571: 12485:had been lost, and 12302:Nasal + obstruent: 12141:Liquid or labial + 11941:< Anglo-Frisian 11904:< Anglo-Frisian 11873:< Anglo-Frisian 11327:'reward' (vs. OEng 11258:: The preterite of 11041:in late Frankish). 11028:(the sixth century 10628:- is geminated to - 10436:was Proto-Germanic 10188: 10054: 9786:consonant gradation 9774:consonant gradation 9761:Consonant gradation 9446:. Kraehenmann says: 8924:, where the letter 8574: 8551:, which is written 8428:are transcribed as 8403:Proto-Indo-European 8229:Phonological stages 8208:has hypothesized a 8167:Loanwords into the 8011:'work' (compare Av 7956:'tunic' (cf. Osset 7722:'(s)he hangs' > 6774:Loss of word-final 6720:'hill(ock), mound'. 6086:Late Proto-Germanic 5215:'of darkness' > 4731:'tooth, acc.' > 4639:'night, acc.' > 4100:'(s)he knows' > 4061:Proto-Indo-European 3542:'tooth, acc.' > 3140:'to go, walk' > 3046:("centumization"): 2712:Proto-Indo-European 2679:Proto-Indo-European 2626:Germanic migrations 2547:Corded Ware culture 2532:Proto-Indo-European 2350:Vimose inscriptions 2331:Proto-Indo-European 2308:Proto-Indo-European 1284:Multi-cordoned ware 1155:Mikhaylovka culture 1043:Indigenous Aryanism 1033:Armenian hypothesis 892:Hieroglyphic Luwian 358:Proto-Indo-European 337:Proto-East Germanic 326:Proto-West Germanic 313:Proto-Indo-European 20103:Pre-Roman Iron Age 20098:Germanic languages 19984:Trisyllabic laxing 19964:Close front vowels 19828:History of English 19739:Germanic weak verb 19548:Language subgroups 18898:Pennsylvania Dutch 18847:Moselle Franconian 18825:Central Franconian 18658:Middle High German 18409:Central Pomeranian 18364:Northern Low Saxon 18077:Wangerooge Frisian 17871:Germanic languages 17816:2012-02-22 at the 17809:Charles Prescott. 17554:Germanic Phylogeny 17511:Cercignani, Fausto 17495:Cercignani, Fausto 17479:Cercignani, Fausto 17368:, p. 149-150. 17356:, p. 148-149. 17181:, pp. 243–44. 16654:, Old High German 16542:, p. 139-140. 15433: 14782:'to cause to weep' 14421:Germanic weak verb 14173: 13570: 12472:Later developments 12350:was simplified to 12092:Voiceless velar + 11526:in this article). 11514:(still written as 11212:: Old High German 11141:(e.g., Goth/OE/ON 11072:, but rather with 10847:; ō-stem gen.pl. * 10661:comparative method 10536:(from i-umlaut of 10481:when intervocalic 10186: 10052: 9770:consonant mutation 9363:'brother' but PIE 8572: 8526:ajj, aww, eww, iww 8158:'ransom' (Finnish 8059:. You can help by 7677:'they stand' > 2843: 2804:North Sea Germanic 2730:Winfred P. Lehmann 2724:Pre-Proto-Germanic 2708:Germanic languages 2654:, who had escaped 2633:runic inscriptions 2589:first entered the 2572:Continental Celtic 2568:Pre-Roman Iron Age 2508:Pre-Roman Iron Age 2504:pre-Proto-Germanic 2500: 2445: 2348:(specifically the 2346:runic inscriptions 2342:comparative method 2269:pre-Proto-Germanic 864:Proto-Indo-Iranian 850:Proto-Balto-Slavic 831:Proto-Italo-Celtic 417: 413:North German Plain 274:Germanic languages 20085: 20084: 20081: 20080: 20077: 20076: 19974:Great Vowel Shift 19959:Close back vowels 19794: 19793: 19779:extinct languages 19766: 19765: 19762: 19761: 19713:Great Vowel Shift 19525: 19524: 19521: 19520: 19474: 19473: 19320:Greenlandic Norse 19139: 19138: 19135: 19134: 19131: 19130: 19070:Southern Bavarian 19053:Northern Bavarian 19029:Highest Alemannic 18980: 18979: 18714:standard variants 18629: 18628: 18475:Standard variants 18434: 18433: 18293:Middle Low German 18264: 18263: 18260: 18259: 18064:Saterland Frisian 17825:: Germanic & 17747:978-0-19-955229-0 17664:978-90-272-3593-0 17611:978-90-04-18340-7 17577:978-0-415-73062-4 17562:978-0-198-87273-3 16732:978-952-5667-42-4 15680:August Schleicher 15671: 15667: 15666: 15426: 15425: 14869:An example verb: 14856:, different from 14404: 14403: 14010: 14009: 13579:Strong Declension 13539: 13538: 13115:Wackernagel's Law 13050: 13049: 12625:. Therefore, the 11929:< Old English 11892:< Old English 11612:versus non-nasal 11606: 11605: 11474:then merged into 11311:, after loss of - 11020:in Gothic but to 10735:-stems) where a - 10717: 10716: 10500:in words such as 10386:merged into PGmc 10374:merged into PGmc 10302: 10301: 10298: 10297: 10182: 10181: 9911: 9910: 9860: 9859: 9669:'song'); next to 9640:'to sing' versus 9515:were stops and . 9285:). This original 9244: 9243: 8869: 8868: 8077: 8076: 7949:'yearling kid'), 7739: 7738: 7321:, changing it to 7235:when followed by 6988:'thing put' > 6083: 6082: 5959:'thing put' > 4923:'thing put' > 4052: 4051: 3988:'coming, arrival' 2770:ékwakraz … wraita 2762:Elmer H. Antonsen 2652:Gothic Christians 2603:Przeworsk culture 2591:historical record 2551:Nordic Bronze Age 2536:Nordic Bronze Age 2526:500 BC, and 2485:Przeworsk culture 2323:Nordic Bronze Age 2236: 2235: 1497:Anatolian peoples 1467:Painted Grey Ware 1355:Nordic Bronze Age 1004:Kurgan hypothesis 957:Old Irish glosses 922:Gaulish epigraphy 401:Nordic Bronze Age 368:rendering support 344: 343: 255: 254: 247: 237: 236: 217:may also be used. 160: 159: 152: 134: 57: 20115: 19979:Open back vowels 19954: 19946: 19924: 19923: 19911: 19910: 19821: 19814: 19807: 19798: 19797: 19571:Elbe (Irminonic) 19544: 19543: 19531: 19530: 19459:Mainland Gutnish 19349:Swedish dialects 19311:Middle Icelandic 19285:Middle Norwegian 19174:Historical forms 19171: 19170: 19162: 19161: 19145: 19144: 19104:South Franconian 19090:Hutterite German 19058:Central Bavarian 18878:Rhine Franconian 18813: 18812: 18643:Historical forms 18640: 18639: 18555:Surinamese Dutch 18448:Historical forms 18445: 18444: 18278:Historical forms 18275: 18274: 18027:Historical forms 18024: 18023: 17911: 17910: 17902: 17901: 17889: 17888: 17864: 17857: 17850: 17841: 17840: 17790:(Online version) 17770: 17751: 17732: 17713: 17711: 17709: 17668: 17649:Polomé, Edgar C. 17644: 17635: 17624: 17615: 17549: 17540: 17522: 17506: 17490: 17472:978-3-945127-278 17452: 17440: 17422: 17421: 17403: 17397: 17391: 17382: 17375: 17369: 17363: 17357: 17351: 17345: 17339: 17330: 17329: 17327: 17326: 17306: 17300: 17294: 17288: 17287: 17285: 17261: 17255: 17254: 17246: 17240: 17239: 17238: 17237: 17231: 17224: 17213: 17207: 17200: 17194: 17188: 17182: 17176: 17170: 17164: 17158: 17152: 17146: 17140: 17134: 17128: 17122: 17116: 17110: 17095: 17089: 17087: 17078: 17072: 17071: 17063: 17057: 17056: 17048: 17042: 17041: 17033: 17027: 17026: 17020: 17012: 17000: 16994: 16988: 16982: 16976: 16970: 16964: 16958: 16952: 16946: 16945: 16927: 16921: 16920: 16902: 16896: 16895: 16877: 16871: 16870: 16852: 16846: 16831: 16825: 16824: 16818: 16810: 16808: 16807: 16801: 16795:. Archived from 16794: 16786: 16780: 16773: 16767: 16761: 16755: 16749: 16743: 16742: 16740: 16739: 16720: 16709: 16703: 16702: 16694: 16688: 16687: 16679: 16673: 16671: 16665: 16659: 16653: 16647: 16637: 16631: 16624: 16618: 16617: 16610:Watkins, Calvert 16606: 16600: 16599: 16571: 16565: 16564: 16552: 16543: 16537: 16531: 16525: 16519: 16517: 16497: 16491: 16490: 16462: 16456: 16455: 16419: 16413: 16412: 16381: 16375: 16374: 16368: 16367: 16338: 16318: 16312: 16309: 16303: 16300: 16294: 16291: 16285: 16282: 16276: 16270: 16261: 16255: 16249: 16243: 16237: 16231: 16225: 16224: 16206: 16200: 16194: 16185: 16176: 16170: 16169: 16145: 16139: 16138: 16117: 16104: 16102: 16085: 16079: 16078: 16054: 16045: 16044: 16022: 16016: 16015: 15999: 15989: 15983: 15982: 15960: 15943: 15928: 15922: 15921: 15904: 15872: 15866: 15859: 15853: 15842: 15836: 15833: 15827: 15816: 15810: 15796: 15790: 15767: 15730: 15729: 15717: 15703: 15669: 15436: 15432: 15422: 15414:Past Participle 15409: 15396: 15383: 15375: 15362: 15354: 15341: 15333: 15319: 15310: 15297: 15288: 15275: 15267: 15254: 15246: 15229: 15222: 15211: 15195: 15187: 15179: 15166: 15158: 15150: 15134: 15126: 15113: 15104: 15095: 15079: 15071: 15063: 15054: 15041: 15033: 15025: 15017: 15009: 14996: 14988: 14980: 14972: 14964: 14945: 14937: 14931: 14923: 14879: 14878: 14875: 14866:'to reconcile'. 14865: 14847: 14841: 14835: 14829: 14819: 14812: 14797: 14790: 14781: 14774: 14761: 14754: 14747: 14738: 14731: 14722: 14715: 14706: 14699: 14690: 14683: 14674: 14667: 14658: 14651: 14642: 14635: 14549: 14520: 14519: 14474: 14400: 14392: 14384: 14369: 14361: 14353: 14338: 14330: 14322: 14307: 14299: 14291: 14276: 14268: 14260: 14252: 14244: 14236: 14176: 14172: 14145: 14139: 14133: 14114:definite article 14104: 14098: 14076: 14070: 14064: 14058: 14051: 14044: 14037: 14030: 14023: 14006: 13998: 13990: 13982: 13974: 13966: 13958: 13943: 13935: 13927: 13919: 13911: 13903: 13895: 13880: 13872: 13864: 13856: 13848: 13840: 13832: 13817: 13809: 13801: 13793: 13785: 13777: 13762: 13751: 13743: 13732: 13724: 13716: 13708: 13700: 13692: 13684: 13572: 13569: 13535: 13527: 13519: 13504: 13496: 13488: 13480: 13465: 13457: 13449: 13441: 13426: 13418: 13410: 13402: 13387: 13379: 13364: 13356: 13348: 13340: 13284: 13283: 13179:Italic languages 13161: 13079: 13069: 12995:genitive plural 12639: 12638: 12600: 12596: 12592: 12581: 12535: 12521: 12492: 12489:had merged with 12488: 12484: 12480: 11954: 11947: 11940: 11934: 11928: 11910: 11903: 11897: 11879: 11872: 11866: 11857: 11804: 11797: 11791: 11785: 11763: 11756: 11750: 11740: 11734: 11727: 11720: 11713: 11706: 11699: 11676: 11654: 11650: 11642: 11638: 11626: 11622: 11557:Old High German 11545: 11544: 11396: 11395: 11390:- 'this' ← PIE * 11389: 11383:, derivative of 11382: 11375: 11369: 11359: 11358: 11352: 11345: 11338: 11332: 11326: 11320: 11305: 11290: 11283: 11250: 11249: 11243: 11236: 11229: 11223: 11217: 11153: 11146: 11128: 11120: 11119: 11040: 10964: 10963: 10942:ō-stem acc.pl. * 10937: 10936: 10915:ō-stem acc.sg. * 10910: 10909: 10896:ō-stem nom.sg. * 10886: 10885: 10880:'wolves' ← PIE * 10879: 10868: 10867: 10860: 10859: 10853: 10845: 10844: 10838: 10837: 10832: 10825: 10813: 10812: 10806: 10795: 10788: 10787: 10781: 10770: 10764: 10757: 10685:Old High German 10670: 10669: 10658: 10635: 10615: 10609:was not lost in 10608: 10601: 10597: 10593: 10589: 10585: 10581: 10577: 10573: 10570:Note the change 10565: 10561: 10557: 10553: 10547: 10543: 10539: 10535: 10531: 10527: 10523: 10496:(Modern English 10495: 10484: 10465: 10459: 10452: 10445: 10419: 10412: 10404: 10357: 10353: 10349: 10345: 10341: 10337: 10333: 10329: 10325: 10318: 10314: 10310: 10292: 10287: 10271: 10266: 10246: 10241: 10236: 10231: 10189: 10185: 10176: 10171: 10153: 10148: 10141: 10136: 10131: 10117: 10112: 10105: 10100: 10055: 10051: 10048: 10047: 10035: 10034: 10027: 10026: 10020: 10013: 10001: 10000: 9993: 9992: 9986: 9979: 9968: 9961: 9955: 9949:'to swing' < 9948: 9942: 9935: 9930:vs. Old Frisian 9929: 9922: 9862: 9861: 9822: 9821: 9756: 9749: 9742: 9731: 9727: 9723: 9716: 9709: 9702: 9698: 9694: 9687: 9680: 9676: 9672: 9668: 9661: 9657: 9650: 9646: 9639: 9632: 9607: 9603: 9592: 9588: 9582: 9575: 9569: 9565: 9561: 9557: 9553: 9521: 9514: 9510: 9501: 9497: 9493: 9486: 9482: 9478: 9474: 9469: 9465: 9461: 9457: 9433: 9429: 9426:were reduced to 9425: 9421: 9413: 9409: 9385: 9381: 9377: 9369: 9368: 9362: 9354: 9353: 9343: 9339: 9335: 9331: 9304: 9300: 9296: 9281:(with unshifted 9240: 9236: 9232: 9228: 9223: 9219: 9215: 9210: 9206: 9202: 9197: 9193: 9188: 9184: 9179: 9175: 9171: 9167: 9163: 9159: 9147: 9143: 9139: 9134: 9130: 9126: 9121: 9117: 9112: 9108: 9094: 9090: 9086: 9081: 9077: 9073: 9068: 9064: 9059: 9055: 9041: 9037: 9033: 9028: 9024: 9020: 9015: 9011: 9006: 9002: 8966: 8965: 8935: 8911: 8900: 8896: 8892: 8885: 8878: 8859: 8839: 8825: 8804: 8798: 8792: 8784: 8775: 8768: 8760: 8752: 8744: 8736: 8722: 8717: 8712: 8705: 8694: 8687: 8680: 8673: 8658: 8649: 8637: 8626: 8575: 8571: 8476: 8472: 8427: 8423: 8400: 8390: 8386: 8382: 8378: 8374: 8370: 8351: 8347: 8343: 8339: 8336:may have become 8335: 8331: 8327: 8323: 8278: 8274: 8270: 8266: 8262: 8258: 8212:substrate and a 8179:are also known. 8177:Slavic languages 8173:Baltic languages 8163: 8157: 8150: 8145:'lamb' (Finnish 8144: 8137: 8132:'king' (Finnish 8131: 8124: 8118: 8112: 8105: 8098: 8092: 8084:Finnic languages 8072: 8069: 8051: 8044: 8034:Scytho-Sarmatian 8031: 8023:Vekerzug Culture 8016: 8010: 8003: 7997: 7989:'path' (compare 7988: 7981: 7974: 7968: 7961: 7955: 7948: 7942: 7935: 7929: 7922: 7913: 7905:'hemp' (compare 7904: 7882: 7875: 7868: 7861: 7854: 7847: 7840: 7833: 7806: 7783: 7776: 7769: 7755:Most loans from 7734: 7728: 7720: 7719: 7708: 7707: 7702: 7701: 7690: 7683: 7675: 7674: 7667: 7666: 7660: 7659: 7654: 7653: 7645: 7638: 7630: 7629: 7623: 7615: 7614: 7608: 7600: 7599: 7593: 7592: 7587: 7586: 7581: 7580: 7573: 7572: 7560: 7553: 7546: 7537: 7530: 7523: 7516: 7509: 7508: 7502: 7501: 7496: 7495: 7481: 7474: 7467: 7458: 7451: 7444: 7433: 7426: 7419: 7410: 7403: 7396: 7385: 7378: 7370: 7369: 7359: 7348: 7341: 7333: 7332: 7326: 7325: 7320: 7319: 7312: 7305: 7297: 7296: 7290: 7283: 7275: 7274: 7268: 7261: 7253: 7252: 7246: 7245: 7240: 7239: 7234: 7233: 7228: 7227: 7207: 7201: 7193: 7192: 7186: 7177: 7169: 7168: 7162: 7153: 7146: 7139: 7130: 7123: 7116: 7102: 7095: 7089:was borrowed as 7088: 7080: 7073: 7065: 7064: 7058: 7051: 7043: 7042: 7036: 7035: 7030: 7029: 7023: 7016: 7008: 7007: 7001: 6994: 6986: 6985: 6979: 6978: 6973: 6972: 6964:Long a is raised 6958: 6950: 6949: 6942: 6941: 6934: 6933: 6927: 6920: 6912: 6911: 6905: 6904: 6898: 6897: 6892: 6891: 6882: 6875: 6868: 6861: 6854: 6847: 6839: 6838: 6831: 6830: 6824: 6817: 6809: 6808: 6802: 6795: 6787: 6786: 6779: 6778: 6766: 6765: 6757: 6756: 6749: 6748: 6741: 6740: 6733: 6732: 6727: 6726: 6719: 6709: 6698: 6697: 6690: 6683: 6675: 6674: 6667: 6666: 6661: 6660: 6654: 6647: 6640: 6633: 6626: 6619: 6611: 6610: 6603: 6602: 6595: 6594: 6587: 6586: 6580: 6579: 6574: 6573: 6557: 6550: 6543: 6535: 6534: 6527: 6526: 6520: 6513: 6505: 6504: 6498: 6497: 6492: 6491: 6485: 6478: 6471: 6463: 6462: 6455: 6454: 6448: 6441: 6433: 6432: 6426: 6425: 6416: 6415: 6405: 6398: 6391: 6384: 6376: 6375: 6369: 6368: 6361: 6360: 6350: 6342: 6341: 6334: 6333: 6326: 6325: 6319: 6312: 6304: 6303: 6296: 6295: 6289: 6281: 6280: 6273: 6272: 6265: 6264: 6256: 6255: 6245: 6237: 6236: 6229: 6228: 6221: 6220: 6214: 6206: 6205: 6198: 6197: 6190: 6189: 6181: 6180: 6175: 6174: 6165: 6158: 6151: 6143: 6142: 6136: 6129: 6121: 6120: 6113: 6112: 6107: 6106: 6098: 6097: 6077: 6069: 6068: 6061: 6060: 6054: 6046: 6045: 6038: 6037: 6030: 6029: 6023: 6022: 6017: 6016: 6011: 6010: 6004: 5996: 5995: 5988: 5987: 5981: 5973: 5972: 5965: 5964: 5957: 5956: 5950: 5949: 5944: 5943: 5938: 5937: 5931: 5923: 5922: 5916: 5908: 5907: 5902:'stranger' > 5900: 5899: 5893: 5892: 5887: 5886: 5881: 5880: 5863: 5855: 5854: 5847: 5846: 5839: 5838: 5832: 5831: 5826: 5825: 5818: 5811: 5804: 5796: 5795: 5789: 5781: 5780: 5773: 5772: 5766: 5758: 5757: 5750: 5749: 5742: 5741: 5732: 5725: 5717: 5716: 5709: 5708: 5701: 5700: 5693: 5692: 5685: 5684: 5677: 5676: 5669: 5668: 5663: 5662: 5649: 5642: 5636:> unstressed 5635: 5627: 5626: 5617: 5616: 5611: 5610: 5605: 5604: 5597: 5589: 5588: 5581: 5580: 5573: 5572: 5566: 5565: 5560: 5559: 5552: 5544: 5543: 5536: 5535: 5528: 5527: 5521: 5520: 5514: 5513: 5508: 5507: 5497: 5496: 5488: 5487: 5480: 5479: 5471: 5470: 5465: 5464: 5454: 5453: 5445: 5444: 5436: 5435: 5430: 5429: 5418: 5416: 5415: 5410: 5409: 5404: 5403: 5398: 5397: 5390: 5389: 5384: 5383: 5362: 5355: 5348: 5340: 5339: 5332: 5331: 5326:'they are' > 5324: 5323: 5316: 5315: 5309: 5301: 5300: 5293: 5292: 5285: 5284: 5277: 5276: 5268: 5260: 5259: 5252: 5251: 5244: 5243: 5237: 5229: 5228: 5221: 5220: 5213: 5212: 5206: 5205: 5199: 5198: 5190: 5189: 5182: 5181: 5174: 5173: 5166: 5165: 5158: 5157: 5149: 5148: 5141: 5140: 5133: 5132: 5125: 5124: 5117: 5116: 5110: 5109: 5101: 5100: 5093: 5092: 5085: 5084: 5077: 5076: 5070: 5069: 5061: 5060: 5053: 5052: 5045: 5044: 5037: 5036: 5016: 5014: 5006: 5005: 4998: 4997: 4990: 4989: 4984: 4983: 4977: 4976: 4968: 4967: 4960: 4959: 4952: 4951: 4946: 4945: 4939: 4937: 4929: 4928: 4921: 4920: 4913: 4912: 4907: 4906: 4900: 4899: 4891: 4890: 4883: 4882: 4872: 4871: 4866: 4865: 4854: 4852: 4844: 4843: 4836: 4835: 4828: 4827: 4822: 4821: 4815: 4814: 4806: 4805: 4798: 4797: 4790: 4789: 4782: 4781: 4776: 4775: 4769: 4768: 4760: 4759: 4752: 4751: 4745: 4737: 4736: 4729: 4728: 4721: 4720: 4715: 4714: 4707: 4706: 4698: 4697: 4690: 4689: 4682: 4681: 4676: 4675: 4662: 4661: 4653: 4652: 4645: 4644: 4637: 4636: 4629: 4628: 4623: 4622: 4617: 4616: 4611: 4610: 4604: 4603: 4595: 4594: 4587: 4586: 4579: 4578: 4571: 4570: 4565: 4564: 4559: 4558: 4553: 4552: 4545: 4544: 4536: 4535: 4528: 4527: 4520: 4519: 4512: 4511: 4506: 4505: 4500: 4499: 4494: 4493: 4479: 4478: 4473: 4472: 4467: 4466: 4461: 4460: 4453: 4452: 4444: 4443: 4436: 4435: 4428: 4427: 4422: 4421: 4416: 4415: 4409: 4408: 4400: 4399: 4392: 4391: 4384: 4383: 4377: 4369: 4368: 4361: 4360: 4353: 4352: 4347: 4346: 4341: 4340: 4334: 4333: 4325: 4324: 4317: 4316: 4309: 4308: 4303: 4302: 4297: 4296: 4290: 4289: 4281: 4280: 4273: 4272: 4265: 4264: 4259: 4258: 4253: 4252: 4242: 4241: 4224: 4217: 4216: 4208: 4207: 4200: 4199: 4192: 4191: 4184: 4183: 4174: 4166: 4165: 4158: 4157: 4149: 4141: 4140: 4133: 4132: 4126: 4125: 4120: 4119: 4112: 4105: 4104: 4098: 4097: 4091: 4090: 4085: 4084: 4079: 4078: 4069: 4068: 4041: 4032: 4031: 4024: 4023: 4016: 4015: 4008: 4007: 4001: 4000: 3995: 3994: 3986: 3977: 3976: 3969: 3968: 3961: 3960: 3953: 3952: 3946: 3945: 3940: 3939: 3932: 3923: 3922: 3915: 3914: 3908: 3907: 3902: 3901: 3894: 3893: 3888: 3887: 3882: 3881: 3869: 3861: 3860: 3853: 3852: 3845: 3844: 3838: 3837: 3825: 3824: 3816: 3815: 3808: 3807: 3801: 3793: 3792: 3785: 3784: 3777: 3776: 3771: 3770: 3758: 3757: 3749: 3748: 3741: 3740: 3733: 3732: 3725: 3724: 3719: 3718: 3713: 3712: 3707: 3706: 3685: 3677: 3676: 3668: 3667: 3659: 3658: 3651: 3650: 3643: 3642: 3635: 3634: 3627: 3626: 3613: 3606: 3604: 3603: 3596: 3595: 3590: 3589: 3582: 3574: 3573: 3566: 3565: 3557: 3556: 3548: 3547: 3540: 3539: 3525: 3524: 3505: 3497: 3496: 3489: 3488: 3475: 3473: 3465: 3464: 3457: 3456: 3449: 3448: 3441: 3440: 3421: 3419: 3411: 3410: 3403: 3402: 3395: 3394: 3387: 3386: 3379: 3378: 3373: 3372: 3367: 3366: 3357: 3356: 3344: 3336: 3335: 3328: 3327: 3321: 3320: 3315: 3314: 3308: 3300: 3299: 3292: 3291: 3285: 3284: 3279: 3278: 3271: 3263: 3262: 3255: 3254: 3248: 3247: 3242: 3241: 3235: 3227: 3226: 3219: 3218: 3212: 3211: 3206: 3205: 3190: 3189: 3169: 3168: 3163: 3162: 3154: 3146: 3145: 3138: 3137: 3131: 3130: 3125: 3124: 3118: 3110: 3109: 3102: 3101: 3095: 3094: 3089: 3088: 3082: 3074: 3073: 3066: 3065: 3059: 3058: 3053: 3052: 3036: 3028: 3027: 3020: 3019: 3013: 3012: 3007: 3006: 3000: 2992: 2991: 2984: 2983: 2977: 2976: 2971: 2970: 2964: 2963: 2955: 2954: 2947: 2946: 2939: 2938: 2933: 2932: 2926: 2924: 2916: 2915: 2910:'in front' > 2908: 2907: 2900: 2899: 2894: 2893: 2885: 2884: 2876: 2875: 2831: 2821: 2811: 2801: 2787: 2759: 2753: 2587:Germanic peoples 2525: 2496:Wielbark culture 2493: 2492: 2482: 2481: 2471: 2462: 2461: 2440: 2439: 2434: 2429: 2428: 2423: 2418: 2417: 2412: 2407: 2406: 2401: 2373: 2312:Migration Period 2228: 2221: 2214: 2069: 2062: 2048: 2041: 2034: 2020: 2013: 2006: 1999: 1992: 1917: 1903: 1896: 1882: 1860: 1853: 1846: 1837: 1672: 1665: 1658: 1651: 1644: 1627:Germanic peoples 1617:Hellenic peoples 1606: 1599: 1592: 1515:Mycenaean Greeks 1504: 1432:Thraco-Cimmerian 1330:Globular Amphora 1307:Abashevo culture 1246: 1239: 1209: 1164: 1157: 1150: 1143: 1136: 1129: 1122: 1115: 952:Tocharian script 655: 648: 641: 634: 627: 620: 613: 606: 573: 559: 552: 545: 531: 507: 500: 481: 442: 419: 418: 398: 374: instead of 352: 351: 298: 295: 257: 256: 250: 243: 232: 229: 223: 208: 202: 198: 192: 188: 182: 170: 169: 162: 155: 148: 144: 141: 135: 133: 92: 68: 60: 49: 27: 26: 19: 20123: 20122: 20118: 20117: 20116: 20114: 20113: 20112: 20108:Proto-languages 20088: 20087: 20086: 20073: 20043:-glottalization 19988: 19918: 19905: 19830: 19825: 19795: 19790: 19758: 19717: 19698:Germanic umlaut 19663:Holtzmann's law 19641: 19610: 19538: 19517: 19470: 19447: 19381:South Jutlandic 19366:Danish dialects 19332: 19213: 19156: 19127: 19109:East Franconian 19063:Viennese German 18976: 18957:Silesian German 18923: 18912:Central Hessian 18802: 18727:Namibian German 18716: 18707: 18685:Standard German 18679: 18665:New High German 18651:Old High German 18625: 18604: 18586: 18497: 18469: 18430: 18414:East Pomeranian 18404:Brandenburgisch 18391:East Low German 18385: 18312:Dutch Low Saxon 18304:West Low German 18298: 18256: 18222:Schiermonnikoog 18203: 18098: 18084:Wursten Frisian 18047: 18013: 17896: 17883: 17873: 17868: 17818:Wayback Machine 17782: 17767: 17748: 17729: 17707: 17705: 17703: 17665: 17612: 17431: 17426: 17425: 17418: 17404: 17400: 17392: 17385: 17376: 17372: 17364: 17360: 17352: 17348: 17340: 17333: 17324: 17322: 17307: 17303: 17298:Cercignani 1972 17295: 17291: 17262: 17258: 17247: 17243: 17235: 17233: 17229: 17222: 17214: 17210: 17201: 17197: 17189: 17185: 17177: 17173: 17165: 17161: 17153: 17149: 17141: 17137: 17129: 17125: 17117: 17113: 17107:Cercignani 1979 17096: 17092: 17079: 17075: 17064: 17060: 17049: 17045: 17034: 17030: 17014: 17013: 17001: 16997: 16989: 16985: 16977: 16973: 16965: 16961: 16953: 16949: 16942: 16928: 16924: 16917: 16903: 16899: 16892: 16878: 16874: 16867: 16853: 16849: 16843:Cercignani 1973 16832: 16828: 16812: 16811: 16805: 16803: 16799: 16792: 16790:"Archived copy" 16788: 16787: 16783: 16775:Vladimir Orel, 16774: 16770: 16762: 16758: 16750: 16746: 16737: 16735: 16733: 16718: 16710: 16706: 16695: 16691: 16680: 16676: 16638: 16634: 16625: 16621: 16607: 16603: 16572: 16568: 16553: 16546: 16538: 16534: 16526: 16522: 16514: 16498: 16494: 16463: 16459: 16436:10.2307/1261448 16420: 16416: 16382: 16378: 16365: 16363: 16336: 16319: 16315: 16310: 16306: 16301: 16297: 16292: 16288: 16283: 16279: 16271: 16264: 16256: 16252: 16244: 16240: 16232: 16228: 16221: 16207: 16203: 16195: 16188: 16177: 16173: 16166: 16146: 16142: 16135: 16119: 16118: 16107: 16100: 16086: 16082: 16075: 16055: 16048: 16041: 16023: 16019: 16012: 15990: 15986: 15979: 15961: 15957: 15952: 15947: 15946: 15929: 15925: 15919: 15873: 15869: 15860: 15856: 15843: 15839: 15834: 15830: 15822: 15817: 15813: 15797: 15793: 15768: 15764: 15759: 15746:Holtzmann's law 15737: 15677: 15560: 15549: 15512: 15507: 15502: 15431: 14596:causative verbs 14517: 14423: 14409: 14158:. (Originally, 14038:'this', distal 14015: 13584:Weak Declension 13544: 13274: 13192:surface filters 13187: 13151: 13096: 13090: 12550:Old High German 12474: 12016:Non-alveolar + 11968: 11802: 11721:'younger' < 11691:. For example: 11674: 11548:Proto-Germanic 11458:, and overlong 11420: 11109: 11064:produced a new 10782:'eagle' ← PIE * 10673:Proto-Germanic 10642: 10640:Overlong vowels 10514: 10043: 10033:*gʱubʱ-nh₂-énti 9903: 9888: 9869: 9793:-stems and the 9763: 9699:usually became 9615: 9562:. Evidence for 9418:"The resulting 9400: 9312:. McMahon says: 9301:or the shifted 9172: 9164: 8953: 8945:Main articles: 8943: 8608: 8562: 8237: 8232: 8225: 8191: 8185: 8169:Samic languages 8073: 8067: 8064: 8057:needs expansion 8042: 7927:humalaz, humalǭ 7753: 7744: 7703:is lost before 7452:'thick' (later 6735: 6701:Samic languages 6669: 6411:Elimination of 6192:'hundred' > 6088: 5925:'he-goat' > 5474: 5439: 5393: 5168: 5119: 5079: 5039: 4992: 4954: 4915: 4877: 4830: 4784: 4723: 4684: 4631: 4573: 4522:'grabbed' > 4514: 4430: 4355: 4311: 4267: 4178: 4135:'of that' > 4057: 4018:'killing' > 3779: 3727: 3621: 3598: 3534: 3435: 3381: 3221:'hundred' > 3068:'hundred' > 2941: 2902: 2870: 2857: 2851: 2841: 2840:by 300 CE) 2829: 2827: 2819: 2817: 2809: 2807: 2799: 2797: 2796:by 300 CE) 2785: 2692: 2687: 2675: 2599:Oksywie culture 2575:La Tène horizon 2561:Jastorf culture 2498: 2490: 2489: 2487: 2479: 2478: 2476: 2474:Oksywie culture 2469: 2467: 2465:Jastorf culture 2459: 2458: 2456: 2442: 2437: 2436: 2432: 2430: 2426: 2425: 2421: 2419: 2415: 2414: 2410: 2408: 2404: 2403: 2399: 2380: 2258:Germanic branch 2247:Common Germanic 2232: 2203: 2202: 2135:Marija Gimbutas 2123: 2113: 2112: 2104:Winter solstice 2094:Horse sacrifice 2065: 2058: 2044: 2037: 2030: 2016: 2009: 2002: 1995: 1988: 1941: 1926: 1913: 1899: 1892: 1878: 1869: 1856: 1849: 1842: 1833: 1824: 1803: 1772: 1764: 1763: 1706: 1693: 1668: 1661: 1654: 1647: 1640: 1602: 1595: 1588: 1579: 1561: 1548: 1535: 1506: 1500: 1485: 1477: 1476: 1450: 1427: 1414: 1402: 1383: 1325: 1302: 1264: 1257: 1251: 1242: 1235: 1226: 1224:Northern Europe 1205: 1201: 1188: 1175: 1160: 1153: 1146: 1139: 1132: 1125: 1118: 1111: 1107:Steppe cultures 1080: 1073: 1066: 1058: 1057: 1048:Baltic homeland 1022: 1018: 1014:Eurasian nomads 998: 994: 970: 962: 961: 932:Runic epigraphy 927:Latin epigraphy 882: 874: 873: 811:Proto-Anatolian 795: 750: 746:Thraco-Illyrian 731:Graeco-Phrygian 721:Graeco-Armenian 716:Graeco-Albanian 695: 673: 660: 651: 644: 637: 630: 623: 616: 609: 602: 569: 555: 548: 541: 527: 503: 496: 477: 462: 454: 452: 409:Jastorf culture 385: 384: 383: 366:Without proper 353: 349: 315: 308: 306: 296: 251: 240: 239: 238: 233: 227: 224: 218: 206: 200: 196: 194:transliteration 190: 186: 180: 171: 167: 156: 145: 139: 136: 93: 91: 81: 69: 28: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 20121: 20111: 20110: 20105: 20100: 20083: 20082: 20079: 20078: 20075: 20074: 20072: 20071: 20064: 20063: 20062: 20057: 20045: 20037: 20032: 20025: 20017: 20009: 20004: 19998: 19996: 19990: 19989: 19987: 19986: 19981: 19976: 19971: 19966: 19961: 19956: 19948: 19940: 19932: 19930: 19920: 19919: 19907: 19906: 19904: 19903: 19901:Modern English 19898: 19893: 19891:Middle English 19888: 19883: 19882: 19881: 19876: 19871: 19866: 19856: 19851: 19846: 19844:Proto-Germanic 19841: 19835: 19832: 19831: 19824: 19823: 19816: 19809: 19801: 19792: 19791: 19789: 19788: 19781: 19771: 19768: 19767: 19764: 19763: 19760: 19759: 19757: 19756: 19751: 19746: 19741: 19736: 19731: 19725: 19723: 19719: 19718: 19716: 19715: 19710: 19705: 19700: 19695: 19690: 19685: 19680: 19675: 19670: 19665: 19660: 19655: 19649: 19647: 19643: 19642: 19640: 19639: 19634: 19629: 19624: 19622:Proto-Germanic 19618: 19616: 19612: 19611: 19609: 19608: 19601: 19594: 19586: 19585: 19584: 19583: 19578: 19573: 19563: 19558: 19552: 19550: 19540: 19539: 19527: 19526: 19523: 19522: 19519: 19518: 19516: 19515: 19508: 19501: 19497:Crimean Gothic 19486: 19484: 19476: 19475: 19472: 19471: 19469: 19468: 19467: 19466: 19461: 19452: 19449: 19448: 19446: 19445: 19444: 19443: 19433: 19432: 19431: 19424: 19417: 19412: 19407: 19402: 19401: 19400: 19395: 19385: 19384: 19383: 19373: 19371:Insular Danish 19368: 19358: 19357: 19356: 19354:Rinkebysvenska 19351: 19340: 19338: 19334: 19333: 19331: 19330: 19323: 19316: 19315: 19314: 19307: 19295: 19290: 19289: 19288: 19281: 19274: 19268: 19262: 19257: 19252: 19247: 19242: 19237: 19232: 19221: 19219: 19215: 19214: 19212: 19211: 19210: 19209: 19202: 19200:Old East Norse 19197: 19195:Old West Norse 19185: 19177: 19175: 19168: 19158: 19157: 19141: 19140: 19137: 19136: 19133: 19132: 19129: 19128: 19126: 19125: 19118: 19117: 19116: 19106: 19101: 19100: 19099: 19098: 19097: 19092: 19087: 19082: 19077: 19075:South Tyrolean 19067: 19066: 19065: 19055: 19045: 19044: 19043: 19038: 19037: 19036: 19026: 19025: 19024: 19017:High Alemannic 19014: 19013: 19012: 19007: 18990: 18988: 18982: 18981: 18978: 18977: 18975: 18974: 18969: 18964: 18959: 18954: 18949: 18944: 18939: 18933: 18931: 18925: 18924: 18922: 18921: 18916: 18915: 18914: 18904: 18903: 18902: 18901: 18900: 18895: 18885: 18875: 18874: 18873: 18872: 18871: 18870: 18869: 18859: 18854: 18844: 18843: 18842: 18837: 18821: 18819: 18810: 18808:Central German 18804: 18803: 18801: 18800: 18799: 18798: 18793: 18786: 18781: 18776: 18766: 18761: 18760: 18759: 18749: 18747:Barossa German 18744: 18739: 18734: 18729: 18723: 18721: 18709: 18708: 18706: 18705: 18700: 18695: 18689: 18687: 18681: 18680: 18678: 18677: 18676: 18675: 18661: 18654: 18646: 18644: 18637: 18631: 18630: 18627: 18626: 18624: 18623: 18618: 18612: 18610: 18606: 18605: 18603: 18602: 18596: 18594: 18588: 18587: 18585: 18584: 18567: 18562: 18557: 18551: 18550: 18545: 18540: 18535: 18530: 18529: 18528: 18526:French Flemish 18518: 18517: 18516: 18505: 18503: 18499: 18498: 18496: 18495: 18485: 18479: 18477: 18471: 18470: 18468: 18467: 18462: 18457: 18451: 18449: 18442: 18440:Low Franconian 18436: 18435: 18432: 18431: 18429: 18428: 18427: 18426: 18416: 18411: 18406: 18401: 18395: 18393: 18387: 18386: 18384: 18383: 18378: 18373: 18372: 18371: 18361: 18360: 18359: 18354: 18349: 18348: 18347: 18342: 18334: 18329: 18324: 18319: 18308: 18306: 18300: 18299: 18297: 18296: 18289: 18281: 18279: 18272: 18266: 18265: 18262: 18261: 18258: 18257: 18255: 18254: 18253: 18252: 18247: 18246: 18245: 18244: 18243: 18241:Westereendersk 18235: 18224: 18219: 18213: 18211: 18205: 18204: 18202: 18201: 18200: 18199: 18194: 18187: 18182: 18181: 18180: 18175: 18172: 18164: 18159: 18158: 18157: 18146: 18145: 18144: 18139: 18134: 18133: 18132: 18127: 18119: 18108: 18106: 18100: 18099: 18097: 18096: 18095: 18094: 18087: 18080: 18068: 18067: 18066: 18057: 18055: 18049: 18048: 18046: 18045: 18042:Middle Frisian 18038: 18030: 18028: 18021: 18015: 18014: 18012: 18011: 18010: 18009: 18002: 17990: 17989: 17988: 17981: 17974: 17962: 17961: 17960: 17959: 17958: 17948:Modern English 17944: 17941:Middle English 17937: 17930: 17919: 17917: 17908: 17898: 17897: 17885: 17884: 17878: 17875: 17874: 17867: 17866: 17859: 17852: 17844: 17838: 17837: 17820: 17807: 17802: 17797: 17792: 17781: 17780:External links 17778: 17777: 17776: 17771: 17765: 17752: 17746: 17733: 17727: 17714: 17701: 17669: 17663: 17645: 17636: 17625: 17616: 17610: 17587: 17580: 17565: 17550: 17541: 17530: 17523: 17507: 17491: 17475: 17464:Inspiration Un 17456:Euler, Wolfram 17453: 17441: 17430: 17427: 17424: 17423: 17416: 17398: 17396:, p. 927. 17394:Harðarson 2018 17383: 17370: 17358: 17346: 17331: 17301: 17289: 17256: 17241: 17208: 17195: 17183: 17171: 17159: 17157:, p. 244. 17147: 17145:, p. 243. 17135: 17133:, p. 135. 17123: 17121:, p. 146. 17111: 17090: 17073: 17058: 17043: 17028: 16995: 16983: 16971: 16959: 16957:, p. 100. 16947: 16940: 16922: 16915: 16897: 16890: 16872: 16865: 16847: 16826: 16781: 16768: 16766:, p. 278. 16756: 16754:, p. 149. 16744: 16731: 16704: 16689: 16674: 16632: 16619: 16601: 16588:10.2307/409353 16582:(3): 244–264. 16566: 16544: 16532: 16520: 16512: 16492: 16479:10.2307/411849 16457: 16430:(3): 463–472. 16414: 16401:10.2307/411250 16385:Lehmann, W. P. 16376: 16347:(2): 382–420. 16313: 16304: 16295: 16286: 16277: 16275:, p. 296. 16262: 16250: 16238: 16226: 16219: 16201: 16186: 16171: 16164: 16140: 16133: 16105: 16098: 16080: 16073: 16046: 16039: 16017: 16010: 15984: 15977: 15965:Bernard Comrie 15954: 15953: 15951: 15948: 15945: 15944: 15923: 15917: 15893:10.2307/408831 15877:Feist, Sigmund 15867: 15854: 15852:, p. 296. 15837: 15828: 15811: 15791: 15761: 15760: 15758: 15755: 15754: 15753: 15748: 15743: 15736: 15733: 15732: 15731: 15719: 15718: 15705: 15704: 15676: 15673: 15665: 15664: 15661: 15658: 15655: 15652: 15648: 15647: 15644: 15641: 15638: 15635: 15632: 15629: 15626: 15623: 15620: 15617: 15613: 15612: 15609: 15606: 15603: 15600: 15597: 15594: 15591: 15588: 15585: 15582: 15578: 15577: 15574: 15571: 15568: 15565: 15562: 15557: 15554: 15551: 15546: 15542: 15541: 15538: 15535: 15532: 15529: 15526: 15523: 15520: 15517: 15514: 15509: 15504: 15499: 15495: 15494: 15491: 15488: 15485: 15482: 15479: 15475: 15474: 15471: 15468: 15465: 15462: 15459: 15456: 15453: 15449: 15448: 15445: 15442: 15439: 15430: 15427: 15424: 15423: 15415: 15411: 15410: 15402: 15398: 15397: 15389: 15385: 15384: 15376: 15368: 15364: 15363: 15355: 15347: 15343: 15342: 15334: 15326: 15322: 15321: 15312: 15303: 15299: 15298: 15290: 15281: 15277: 15276: 15268: 15260: 15256: 15255: 15247: 15239: 15235: 15234: 15231: 15215: 15212: 15204: 15201: 15197: 15196: 15188: 15180: 15172: 15168: 15167: 15159: 15151: 15143: 15139: 15138: 15135: 15127: 15119: 15115: 15114: 15106: 15097: 15088: 15084: 15083: 15080: 15072: 15064: 15056: 15047: 15043: 15042: 15034: 15026: 15018: 15010: 15002: 14998: 14997: 14989: 14981: 14973: 14965: 14957: 14953: 14952: 14949: 14946: 14938: 14924: 14916: 14913: 14909: 14908: 14905: 14902: 14899: 14896: 14892: 14891: 14888: 14885: 14882: 14863:ga-ga-waírþjan 14850:bound morpheme 14827:diz-uh-þan-sat 14800: 14799: 14783: 14767: 14740: 14724: 14708: 14692: 14676: 14660: 14644: 14515: 14481:Modern English 14408: 14405: 14402: 14401: 14393: 14385: 14377: 14371: 14370: 14362: 14354: 14346: 14340: 14339: 14331: 14323: 14315: 14309: 14308: 14300: 14292: 14284: 14278: 14277: 14269: 14261: 14253: 14245: 14237: 14229: 14223: 14222: 14217: 14212: 14207: 14202: 14197: 14191: 14190: 14185: 14180: 14014: 14011: 14008: 14007: 13999: 13991: 13983: 13975: 13967: 13959: 13951: 13945: 13944: 13936: 13928: 13920: 13912: 13904: 13896: 13888: 13882: 13881: 13873: 13865: 13857: 13849: 13841: 13833: 13825: 13819: 13818: 13810: 13802: 13794: 13786: 13778: 13770: 13764: 13763: 13755: 13752: 13744: 13736: 13733: 13725: 13717: 13709: 13701: 13693: 13685: 13677: 13671: 13670: 13665: 13660: 13655: 13650: 13645: 13640: 13635: 13630: 13625: 13620: 13615: 13609: 13608: 13603: 13598: 13593: 13587: 13586: 13581: 13576: 13543: 13540: 13537: 13536: 13528: 13520: 13512: 13506: 13505: 13497: 13489: 13481: 13473: 13467: 13466: 13458: 13450: 13442: 13434: 13428: 13427: 13419: 13411: 13403: 13395: 13389: 13388: 13380: 13372: 13366: 13365: 13357: 13349: 13341: 13333: 13327: 13326: 13321: 13316: 13311: 13305: 13304: 13296: 13288: 13273: 13270: 13269: 13268: 13265: 13262: 13259: 13256: 13253: 13234: 13233: 13230: 13227: 13219: 13218: 13215: 13212: 13209: 13206: 13186: 13183: 13150: 13147: 13092:Main article: 13089: 13086: 13082:Gallehus horns 13067:þrijōz dohtrīz 13048: 13047: 13044: 13041: 13038: 13035: 13032: 13031:adverb suffix 13028: 13027: 13024: 13021: 13017: 13016: 13013: 13010: 13007: 13004: 13000: 12999: 12996: 12992: 12991: 12988: 12985: 12982: 12979: 12976: 12973: 12970: 12969:adverb suffix 12966: 12965: 12962: 12959: 12955: 12954: 12951: 12948: 12945: 12942: 12938: 12937: 12934: 12931: 12927: 12926: 12923: 12920: 12917: 12914: 12911: 12907: 12906: 12903: 12900: 12897: 12894: 12890: 12889: 12886: 12883: 12880: 12877: 12874: 12871: 12867: 12866: 12863: 12860: 12857: 12854: 12850: 12849: 12846: 12843: 12840: 12837: 12834: 12830: 12829: 12826: 12823: 12820: 12817: 12813: 12812: 12809: 12806: 12803: 12800: 12797: 12794: 12790: 12789: 12786: 12783: 12780: 12777: 12774: 12770: 12769: 12766: 12763: 12760: 12757: 12754: 12750: 12749: 12746: 12743: 12740: 12737: 12734: 12730: 12729: 12726: 12723: 12720: 12717: 12713: 12712: 12709: 12706: 12702: 12701: 12698: 12695: 12691: 12690: 12687: 12684: 12681: 12678: 12675: 12672: 12669: 12665: 12664: 12661: 12658: 12655: 12652: 12649: 12646: 12643: 12524:Gallehus horns 12473: 12470: 12450: 12449: 12355: 12300: 12274: 12273: 12207: 12153: 12139: 12117: 12116: 12090: 12060: 12014: 11967: 11964: 11963: 11962: 11935:, Old Frisian 11917: 11898:, Old Frisian 11886: 11751:'younger' vs. 11743: 11742: 11714: 11604: 11603: 11600: 11597: 11594: 11591: 11587: 11586: 11583: 11580: 11576: 11575: 11572: 11569: 11566: 11562: 11561: 11558: 11555: 11552: 11549: 11419: 11416: 11415: 11414: 11399: 11376:'here' ← PGmc 11362: 11306: 11291:vs. preterite 11253: 11108: 11099: 10968: 10967: 10940: 10913: 10890: 10889: 10871: 10715: 10714: 10711: 10708: 10705: 10701: 10700: 10697: 10694: 10691: 10687: 10686: 10683: 10680: 10677: 10674: 10641: 10638: 10594:) but created 10590:(which became 10568: 10567: 10548: 10513: 10510: 10360: 10359: 10354:) followed by 10320: 10300: 10299: 10296: 10295: 10293: 10288: 10283: 10281: 10279: 10273: 10272: 10267: 10262: 10260: 10258: 10256: 10250: 10249: 10247: 10242: 10237: 10232: 10227: 10221: 10220: 10217: 10214: 10211: 10208: 10204: 10203: 10198: 10193: 10183: 10180: 10179: 10177: 10172: 10167: 10165: 10163: 10161: 10155: 10154: 10149: 10144: 10142: 10137: 10132: 10127: 10121: 10120: 10118: 10113: 10108: 10106: 10101: 10096: 10090: 10089: 10086: 10083: 10080: 10077: 10074: 10070: 10069: 10064: 10059: 10042: 10039: 10025:*gʱubʱ-néh₂-ti 9909: 9908: 9905: 9901: 9898: 9894: 9893: 9890: 9886: 9883: 9879: 9878: 9875: 9872: 9867: 9858: 9857: 9854: 9851: 9847: 9846: 9843: 9840: 9836: 9835: 9832: 9829: 9766:Kroonen (2011) 9762: 9759: 9734: 9733: 9652: 9627:surface filter 9614: 9611: 9610: 9609: 9598: 9549: 9542: 9535: 9516: 9399: 9396: 9242: 9241: 9224: 9211: 9198: 9189: 9180: 9155: 9151: 9150: 9148: 9135: 9122: 9113: 9104: 9102: 9098: 9097: 9095: 9082: 9069: 9060: 9051: 9049: 9045: 9044: 9042: 9029: 9016: 9007: 8998: 8996: 8992: 8991: 8988: 8985: 8982: 8979: 8976: 8969: 8942: 8939: 8938: 8937: 8902: 8887: 8880: 8867: 8866: 8864: 8862: 8860: 8853: 8851: 8849: 8847: 8841: 8840: 8833: 8831: 8826: 8819: 8817: 8815: 8813: 8807: 8806: 8799: 8794: 8785: 8778: 8776: 8769: 8762: 8753: 8746: 8737: 8730: 8724: 8723: 8718: 8713: 8706: 8699: 8697: 8695: 8688: 8681: 8674: 8667: 8661: 8660: 8653: 8651: 8642: 8640: 8638: 8631: 8629: 8627: 8620: 8618: 8612: 8611: 8604: 8599: 8594: 8589: 8584: 8579: 8561: 8558: 8557: 8556: 8545: 8532:is written as 8490: 8460: 8449: 8436:respectively. 8414: 8392: 8353: 8306: 8267:or fricatives 8236: 8233: 8231:section above. 8224: 8221: 8206:Theo Vennemann 8187:Main article: 8184: 8181: 8075: 8074: 8054: 8052: 8041: 8038: 7752: 7749: 7743: 7740: 7737: 7736: 7729:(phonetically 7694: 7693: 7692: 7691: 7565: 7564: 7563: 7562: 7538:'(s)he sings' 7488: 7487: 7486: 7485: 7484: 7483: 7462:Northern Sami 7460: 7435: 7412: 7386: 7277:'middle' > 7214: 7213: 7212: 7211: 7210: 7209: 7179: 7171:'hoof' (later 7155: 7132: 7104: 7081: 7024: 6960: 6959: 6884: 6883: 6770: 6769: 6768: 6767: 6721: 6655: 6589:'thin' ~ fem. 6561: 6560: 6559: 6558: 6507:'father' > 6486: 6407: 6406: 6352: 6351: 6247: 6246: 6167: 6166: 6087: 6084: 6081: 6080: 6079: 6078: 6005: 5932: 5868: 5867: 5866: 5865: 5819: 5654: 5653: 5652: 5651: 5619: 5612:later becomes 5599: 5516:except before 5499: 5498: 5456: 5455: 5421: 5420: 5375: 5374: 5367: 5366: 5365: 5364: 5269: 5200: 5160: 5111: 5071: 5022: 5021: 5020: 5019: 5018: 5017: 4978: 4940: 4901: 4857: 4856: 4855: 4816: 4770: 4709: 4667: 4666: 4665: 4664: 4663: 4605: 4547: 4481: 4454: 4410: 4335: 4291: 4275:'father' > 4229: 4228: 4227: 4226: 4175: 4150: 4056: 4053: 4050: 4049: 4048: 4047: 4044: 3989: 3934: 3871: 3870: 3827: 3826: 3787:'father' > 3760: 3759: 3735:'us two' > 3708:(and possibly 3694: 3693: 3692: 3691: 3688: 3687: 3686: 3669: 3583: 3558: 3507: 3506: 3477: 3476: 3425: 3424: 3423: 3422: 3352:An epenthetic 3348: 3347: 3346: 3345: 3309: 3273: 3257:'inside' > 3236: 3178: 3177: 3176: 3175: 3155: 3119: 3083: 3040: 3039: 3038: 3037: 3022:'flower' > 3001: 2965: 2949:'mother' > 2927: 2869: 2866: 2850: 2847: 2828: 2818: 2808: 2798: 2790:North Germanic 2784: 2766:runic evidence 2697:as applied to 2691: 2688: 2686: 2683: 2674: 2671: 2637:Tune Runestone 2488: 2477: 2468: 2457: 2431: 2420: 2409: 2398: 2395:Central Europe 2379: 2376: 2281:North Germanic 2254:proto-language 2245:; also called 2239:Proto-Germanic 2234: 2233: 2231: 2230: 2223: 2216: 2208: 2205: 2204: 2201: 2200: 2193: 2186: 2179: 2172: 2164: 2163: 2157: 2156: 2150: 2149: 2143: 2142: 2137: 2131: 2130: 2124: 2119: 2118: 2115: 2114: 2111: 2110: 2101: 2096: 2091: 2089:Fire sacrifice 2085: 2084: 2078: 2077: 2072: 2071: 2070: 2063: 2051: 2050: 2049: 2042: 2035: 2023: 2022: 2021: 2014: 2007: 2000: 1993: 1981: 1976: 1971: 1934: 1933: 1921: 1920: 1919: 1918: 1906: 1905: 1904: 1897: 1885: 1884: 1883: 1880:Zoroastrianism 1862: 1861: 1854: 1847: 1840: 1839: 1838: 1817: 1816: 1810: 1809: 1802: 1801: 1796: 1791: 1786: 1780: 1779: 1773: 1770: 1769: 1766: 1765: 1762: 1761: 1750: 1749: 1747:Medieval India 1738: 1737: 1732: 1723: 1718: 1713: 1701: 1700: 1688: 1687: 1681: 1680: 1675: 1674: 1673: 1666: 1659: 1652: 1645: 1629: 1624: 1622:Italic peoples 1619: 1614: 1609: 1608: 1607: 1600: 1593: 1574: 1573: 1568: 1556: 1555: 1543: 1542: 1530: 1529: 1523: 1522: 1517: 1512: 1507: 1493: 1492: 1486: 1483: 1482: 1479: 1478: 1475: 1474: 1469: 1458: 1457: 1445: 1444: 1439: 1434: 1422: 1421: 1409: 1408: 1401: 1400: 1398:Gandhara grave 1395: 1390: 1378: 1377: 1372: 1367: 1362: 1357: 1352: 1347: 1342: 1337: 1332: 1320: 1319: 1314: 1309: 1297: 1296: 1291: 1286: 1281: 1276: 1271: 1259: 1258: 1250: 1249: 1248: 1247: 1244:Middle Dnieper 1240: 1221: 1220: 1215: 1210: 1199:Eastern Europe 1196: 1195: 1183: 1182: 1170: 1169: 1168: 1167: 1166: 1165: 1158: 1144: 1137: 1130: 1127:Dnieper–Donets 1123: 1116: 1104: 1102:Kurgan culture 1099: 1098: 1097: 1087: 1075: 1074: 1067: 1064: 1063: 1060: 1059: 1056: 1055: 1050: 1045: 1040: 1038:Beech argument 1035: 1030: 1024: 1023: 1017: 1016: 1011: 1006: 1000: 999: 993: 992: 987: 982: 977: 971: 968: 967: 964: 963: 960: 959: 954: 949: 944: 939: 934: 929: 924: 919: 914: 909: 904: 899: 894: 889: 883: 880: 879: 876: 875: 872: 871: 861: 847: 842: 828: 821:Proto-Germanic 818: 816:Proto-Armenian 813: 808: 806:Proto-Albanian 802: 801: 794: 793: 788: 783: 778: 773: 768: 763: 757: 756: 749: 748: 743: 738: 733: 728: 723: 718: 713: 708: 702: 701: 694: 693: 692: 691: 667: 666: 659: 658: 657: 656: 649: 642: 635: 628: 621: 614: 607: 595: 590: 584: 583: 577: 576: 575: 574: 562: 561: 560: 553: 546: 534: 533: 532: 520: 515: 510: 509: 508: 501: 489: 484: 483: 482: 469: 468: 461: 460: 453: 448: 447: 444: 443: 435: 434: 428: 427: 370:, you may see 354: 347: 346: 345: 342: 341: 340: 339: 334: 328: 321: 317: 316: 311: 309: 304: 301: 300: 291: 287: 286: 281: 277: 276: 271: 267: 266: 262: 261: 260:Proto-Germanic 253: 252: 235: 234: 213:. Knowledge's 174: 172: 165: 158: 157: 72: 70: 63: 58: 32: 31: 29: 22: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 20120: 20109: 20106: 20104: 20101: 20099: 20096: 20095: 20093: 20070: 20069: 20065: 20061: 20058: 20056: 20053: 20052: 20051: 20050: 20046: 20044: 20042: 20038: 20036: 20033: 20031: 20030: 20026: 20024: 20023:-vocalization 20022: 20018: 20016: 20014: 20010: 20008: 20005: 20003: 20000: 19999: 19997: 19995: 19991: 19985: 19982: 19980: 19977: 19975: 19972: 19970: 19967: 19965: 19962: 19960: 19957: 19955: 19949: 19947: 19941: 19939: 19938: 19934: 19933: 19931: 19929: 19925: 19921: 19917: 19912: 19908: 19902: 19899: 19897: 19894: 19892: 19889: 19887: 19884: 19880: 19877: 19875: 19872: 19870: 19867: 19865: 19862: 19861: 19860: 19857: 19855: 19852: 19850: 19847: 19845: 19842: 19840: 19837: 19836: 19833: 19829: 19822: 19817: 19815: 19810: 19808: 19803: 19802: 19799: 19786: 19782: 19780: 19776: 19773: 19772: 19769: 19755: 19752: 19750: 19747: 19745: 19742: 19740: 19737: 19735: 19732: 19730: 19729:Germanic verb 19727: 19726: 19724: 19720: 19714: 19711: 19709: 19706: 19704: 19701: 19699: 19696: 19694: 19691: 19689: 19686: 19684: 19681: 19679: 19676: 19674: 19671: 19669: 19668:Sievers's law 19666: 19664: 19661: 19659: 19656: 19654: 19651: 19650: 19648: 19644: 19638: 19635: 19633: 19630: 19628: 19625: 19623: 19620: 19619: 19617: 19615:Reconstructed 19613: 19607: 19606: 19602: 19600: 19599: 19595: 19593: 19592: 19588: 19587: 19582: 19579: 19577: 19574: 19572: 19569: 19568: 19567: 19564: 19562: 19559: 19557: 19554: 19553: 19551: 19549: 19545: 19541: 19537: 19532: 19528: 19514: 19513: 19509: 19507: 19506: 19502: 19499: 19498: 19493: 19492: 19488: 19487: 19485: 19483: 19482: 19477: 19465: 19462: 19460: 19457: 19456: 19454: 19453: 19450: 19442: 19439: 19438: 19437: 19434: 19430: 19429: 19428:Middle Danish 19425: 19423: 19422: 19418: 19416: 19413: 19411: 19408: 19406: 19403: 19399: 19396: 19394: 19391: 19390: 19389: 19386: 19382: 19379: 19378: 19377: 19374: 19372: 19369: 19367: 19364: 19363: 19362: 19359: 19355: 19352: 19350: 19347: 19346: 19345: 19342: 19341: 19339: 19335: 19329: 19328: 19324: 19322: 19321: 19317: 19313: 19312: 19308: 19306: 19305: 19304:Old Icelandic 19301: 19300: 19299: 19296: 19294: 19291: 19287: 19286: 19282: 19280: 19279: 19278:Old Norwegian 19275: 19272: 19269: 19266: 19263: 19261: 19258: 19256: 19253: 19251: 19248: 19246: 19243: 19241: 19238: 19236: 19233: 19231: 19228: 19227: 19226: 19223: 19222: 19220: 19216: 19208: 19207: 19203: 19201: 19198: 19196: 19193: 19192: 19191: 19190: 19186: 19184: 19183: 19179: 19178: 19176: 19172: 19169: 19167: 19163: 19159: 19155: 19151: 19146: 19142: 19124: 19123: 19119: 19115: 19112: 19111: 19110: 19107: 19105: 19102: 19096: 19095:Gottscheerish 19093: 19091: 19088: 19086: 19083: 19081: 19078: 19076: 19073: 19072: 19071: 19068: 19064: 19061: 19060: 19059: 19056: 19054: 19051: 19050: 19049: 19046: 19042: 19039: 19035: 19034:Walser German 19032: 19031: 19030: 19027: 19023: 19020: 19019: 19018: 19015: 19011: 19008: 19006: 19003: 19002: 19001: 19000:Low Alemannic 18998: 18997: 18995: 18992: 18991: 18989: 18987: 18983: 18973: 18970: 18968: 18965: 18963: 18962:High Prussian 18960: 18958: 18955: 18953: 18950: 18948: 18947:Erzgebirgisch 18945: 18943: 18940: 18938: 18935: 18934: 18932: 18930: 18926: 18920: 18917: 18913: 18910: 18909: 18908: 18905: 18899: 18896: 18894: 18891: 18890: 18889: 18886: 18884: 18881: 18880: 18879: 18876: 18868: 18865: 18864: 18863: 18860: 18858: 18855: 18853: 18852:Luxembourgish 18850: 18849: 18848: 18845: 18841: 18838: 18836: 18833: 18832: 18831: 18828: 18827: 18826: 18823: 18822: 18820: 18818: 18814: 18811: 18809: 18805: 18797: 18794: 18792: 18791: 18790:Klezmer-loshn 18787: 18785: 18784:Scots Yiddish 18782: 18780: 18777: 18775: 18772: 18771: 18770: 18767: 18765: 18762: 18758: 18755: 18754: 18753: 18750: 18748: 18745: 18743: 18740: 18738: 18735: 18733: 18730: 18728: 18725: 18724: 18722: 18720: 18715: 18710: 18704: 18701: 18699: 18696: 18694: 18691: 18690: 18688: 18686: 18682: 18674: 18673: 18669: 18668: 18667: 18666: 18662: 18660: 18659: 18655: 18653: 18652: 18648: 18647: 18645: 18641: 18638: 18636: 18632: 18622: 18621:Meuse-Rhenish 18619: 18617: 18614: 18613: 18611: 18607: 18601: 18598: 18597: 18595: 18593: 18589: 18583: 18579: 18575: 18571: 18568: 18566: 18563: 18561: 18558: 18556: 18553: 18552: 18549: 18548:Kleverlandish 18546: 18544: 18541: 18539: 18536: 18534: 18531: 18527: 18524: 18523: 18522: 18519: 18515: 18512: 18511: 18510: 18509:Central Dutch 18507: 18506: 18504: 18500: 18493: 18489: 18486: 18484: 18481: 18480: 18478: 18476: 18472: 18466: 18463: 18461: 18458: 18456: 18453: 18452: 18450: 18446: 18443: 18441: 18437: 18425: 18422: 18421: 18420: 18417: 18415: 18412: 18410: 18407: 18405: 18402: 18400: 18397: 18396: 18394: 18392: 18388: 18382: 18379: 18377: 18374: 18370: 18367: 18366: 18365: 18362: 18358: 18355: 18353: 18350: 18346: 18343: 18341: 18338: 18337: 18335: 18333: 18330: 18328: 18325: 18323: 18320: 18318: 18317:Stellingwarfs 18315: 18314: 18313: 18310: 18309: 18307: 18305: 18301: 18295: 18294: 18290: 18288: 18287: 18283: 18282: 18280: 18276: 18273: 18271: 18267: 18251: 18248: 18242: 18239: 18238: 18237:Wood Frisian 18236: 18233: 18232: 18231: 18228: 18227: 18225: 18223: 18220: 18218: 18215: 18214: 18212: 18210: 18206: 18198: 18195: 18193: 18192: 18188: 18186: 18183: 18179: 18176: 18173: 18170: 18169: 18168: 18165: 18163: 18160: 18155: 18154: 18153: 18150: 18149: 18147: 18143: 18140: 18138: 18135: 18131: 18128: 18126: 18123: 18122: 18120: 18118: 18117: 18113: 18112: 18110: 18109: 18107: 18105: 18104:North Frisian 18101: 18093: 18092: 18088: 18086: 18085: 18081: 18079: 18078: 18074: 18073: 18072: 18069: 18065: 18062: 18061: 18059: 18058: 18056: 18054: 18050: 18044: 18043: 18039: 18037: 18036: 18032: 18031: 18029: 18025: 18022: 18020: 18016: 18008: 18007: 18003: 18001: 18000: 17996: 17995: 17994: 17991: 17987: 17986: 17982: 17980: 17979: 17975: 17973: 17972: 17968: 17967: 17966: 17963: 17957: 17956: 17952: 17951: 17950: 17949: 17945: 17943: 17942: 17938: 17936: 17935: 17931: 17929: 17926: 17925: 17924: 17921: 17920: 17918: 17916: 17912: 17909: 17907: 17906:Anglo-Frisian 17903: 17899: 17895: 17890: 17886: 17882: 17876: 17872: 17865: 17860: 17858: 17853: 17851: 17846: 17845: 17842: 17835: 17831: 17828: 17824: 17821: 17819: 17815: 17812: 17808: 17806: 17803: 17801: 17798: 17796: 17793: 17791: 17789: 17784: 17783: 17775: 17772: 17768: 17766:0-12-728270-X 17762: 17758: 17753: 17749: 17743: 17739: 17734: 17730: 17728:0-19-955229-0 17724: 17720: 17715: 17704: 17702:9780199916481 17698: 17694: 17690: 17686: 17682: 17678: 17674: 17670: 17666: 17660: 17656: 17655: 17650: 17646: 17642: 17637: 17633: 17632: 17626: 17622: 17617: 17613: 17607: 17603: 17599: 17595: 17594: 17588: 17585: 17581: 17578: 17574: 17570: 17566: 17563: 17559: 17555: 17551: 17547: 17542: 17538: 17537: 17531: 17528: 17524: 17520: 17516: 17512: 17508: 17504: 17500: 17496: 17492: 17489:(1): 104–110. 17488: 17484: 17480: 17476: 17473: 17469: 17465: 17461: 17457: 17454: 17450: 17446: 17442: 17438: 17433: 17432: 17419: 17417:0-19-928413-X 17413: 17409: 17402: 17395: 17390: 17388: 17380: 17374: 17367: 17362: 17355: 17350: 17343: 17338: 17336: 17321:on 2012-08-05 17320: 17316: 17312: 17305: 17299: 17293: 17284: 17279: 17275: 17271: 17267: 17260: 17252: 17245: 17232:on 2017-10-20 17228: 17221: 17220: 17212: 17205: 17199: 17193:, p. 295 17192: 17187: 17180: 17175: 17168: 17163: 17156: 17151: 17144: 17139: 17132: 17127: 17120: 17115: 17108: 17104: 17100: 17094: 17086: 17085: 17077: 17069: 17062: 17054: 17047: 17039: 17032: 17024: 17018: 17010: 17006: 16999: 16992: 16987: 16980: 16975: 16968: 16963: 16956: 16951: 16943: 16941:3-11-017680-7 16937: 16933: 16926: 16918: 16916:1-57958-218-4 16912: 16908: 16901: 16893: 16891:0-521-44665-1 16887: 16883: 16876: 16868: 16866:3-11-013535-3 16862: 16858: 16851: 16844: 16840: 16836: 16830: 16822: 16816: 16802:on 2014-04-11 16798: 16791: 16785: 16778: 16772: 16765: 16760: 16753: 16748: 16734: 16728: 16724: 16717: 16716: 16708: 16700: 16693: 16685: 16678: 16670: 16664: 16658: 16652: 16646: 16641: 16636: 16629: 16623: 16615: 16611: 16605: 16597: 16593: 16589: 16585: 16581: 16577: 16570: 16562: 16558: 16551: 16549: 16541: 16536: 16529: 16528:Antonsen 2002 16524: 16515: 16513:3-11-017462-6 16509: 16505: 16504: 16496: 16488: 16484: 16480: 16476: 16472: 16468: 16461: 16453: 16449: 16445: 16441: 16437: 16433: 16429: 16425: 16418: 16410: 16406: 16402: 16398: 16394: 16390: 16386: 16380: 16373: 16362: 16358: 16354: 16350: 16346: 16342: 16335: 16332:(June 2005). 16331: 16330:Warnow, Tandy 16327: 16323: 16322:Nakhleh, Luay 16317: 16308: 16299: 16290: 16281: 16274: 16269: 16267: 16260:, p. 85. 16259: 16254: 16248:, p. 51. 16247: 16242: 16236:, p. 89. 16235: 16230: 16222: 16220:0-312-21207-0 16216: 16212: 16205: 16199:, p. 67. 16198: 16193: 16191: 16183: 16182: 16175: 16167: 16165:0-14-051054-0 16161: 16157: 16153: 16152: 16144: 16136: 16134:0-85229-571-5 16130: 16126: 16122: 16116: 16114: 16112: 16110: 16101: 16099:0-14-051054-0 16095: 16091: 16084: 16076: 16074:0-19-506511-5 16070: 16066: 16062: 16061: 16053: 16051: 16042: 16040:0-226-06067-5 16036: 16032: 16028: 16021: 16013: 16011:9780521401791 16007: 16003: 15998: 15997: 15988: 15980: 15978:0-19-520521-9 15974: 15970: 15966: 15959: 15955: 15941: 15937: 15933: 15927: 15920: 15918:1-58811-379-5 15914: 15910: 15902: 15898: 15894: 15890: 15886: 15882: 15878: 15871: 15864: 15858: 15851: 15847: 15841: 15832: 15825: 15824:Polomé (1992) 15820: 15815: 15808: 15804: 15801: 15795: 15788: 15787: 15782: 15781: 15776: 15772: 15766: 15762: 15752: 15749: 15747: 15744: 15742: 15739: 15738: 15724: 15723: 15722: 15716: 15710: 15709: 15708: 15702: 15696: 15695: 15694: 15691: 15687: 15685: 15681: 15672: 15659: 15656: 15653: 15651:Instrumental 15650: 15649: 15642: 15639: 15636: 15615: 15614: 15607: 15604: 15601: 15598: 15595: 15592: 15589: 15586: 15583: 15580: 15579: 15575: 15572: 15569: 15566: 15563: 15558: 15555: 15552: 15547: 15544: 15543: 15533: 15527: 15524: 15521: 15518: 15515: 15510: 15505: 15500: 15497: 15496: 15476: 15450: 15447:Third person 15444:Second person 15437: 15421: 15412: 15408: 15399: 15395: 15386: 15382: 15377: 15374: 15369: 15366: 15365: 15361: 15356: 15353: 15348: 15345: 15344: 15340: 15335: 15332: 15327: 15324: 15323: 15318: 15313: 15309: 15304: 15301: 15300: 15296: 15291: 15287: 15282: 15279: 15278: 15274: 15269: 15266: 15261: 15258: 15257: 15253: 15248: 15245: 15240: 15237: 15236: 15228: 15221: 15216: 15210: 15205: 15202: 15198: 15194: 15189: 15186: 15181: 15178: 15173: 15170: 15169: 15165: 15160: 15157: 15152: 15149: 15144: 15141: 15140: 15136: 15133: 15128: 15125: 15120: 15117: 15116: 15112: 15107: 15103: 15098: 15094: 15089: 15086: 15085: 15081: 15078: 15070: 15065: 15062: 15053: 15048: 15045: 15044: 15040: 15035: 15032: 15027: 15024: 15019: 15016: 15011: 15008: 15003: 15000: 14999: 14995: 14990: 14987: 14982: 14979: 14974: 14971: 14966: 14963: 14958: 14955: 14954: 14950: 14947: 14944: 14939: 14936: 14930: 14925: 14922: 14917: 14914: 14910: 14906: 14903: 14900: 14897: 14894: 14893: 14889: 14880: 14877: 14874: 14867: 14864: 14859: 14855: 14851: 14846: 14840: 14834: 14828: 14823: 14818: 14811: 14805: 14796: 14789: 14784: 14780: 14773: 14768: 14765: 14760: 14753: 14746: 14741: 14737: 14730: 14725: 14721: 14714: 14709: 14705: 14698: 14693: 14689: 14682: 14677: 14673: 14666: 14661: 14657: 14650: 14645: 14641: 14634: 14629: 14628: 14627: 14625: 14621: 14617: 14613: 14609: 14605: 14601: 14597: 14593: 14589: 14585: 14580: 14578: 14574: 14571:(like modern 14570: 14565: 14560: 14555: 14553: 14548: 14542: 14537: 14533: 14529: 14525: 14510: 14506: 14505:reduplication 14502: 14498: 14494: 14489: 14487: 14482: 14478: 14469: 14465: 14461: 14457: 14451: 14448: 14444: 14440: 14436: 14432: 14428: 14422: 14418: 14414: 14413:Germanic verb 14399: 14391: 14386: 14383: 14376: 14373: 14372: 14368: 14360: 14355: 14352: 14345: 14342: 14341: 14337: 14329: 14324: 14321: 14314: 14311: 14310: 14306: 14301: 14298: 14293: 14290: 14285: 14283: 14280: 14279: 14275: 14267: 14259: 14254: 14251: 14246: 14243: 14235: 14230: 14228: 14225: 14224: 14221: 14218: 14216: 14213: 14211: 14208: 14206: 14203: 14201: 14198: 14196: 14193: 14192: 14189: 14184: 14177: 14171: 14169: 14165: 14161: 14157: 14153: 14149: 14144: 14138: 14132: 14127: 14123: 14119: 14115: 14110: 14108: 14103: 14097: 14092: 14088: 14084: 14080: 14075: 14069: 14063: 14057: 14050: 14043: 14036: 14029: 14022: 14005: 14000: 13997: 13989: 13984: 13981: 13973: 13965: 13960: 13957: 13950: 13947: 13946: 13942: 13937: 13934: 13926: 13921: 13918: 13910: 13902: 13897: 13894: 13887: 13884: 13883: 13879: 13874: 13871: 13863: 13858: 13855: 13847: 13839: 13834: 13831: 13824: 13821: 13820: 13816: 13811: 13808: 13803: 13800: 13795: 13792: 13787: 13784: 13779: 13776: 13771: 13769: 13766: 13765: 13761: 13756: 13750: 13745: 13742: 13737: 13731: 13726: 13723: 13715: 13707: 13702: 13699: 13691: 13683: 13678: 13676: 13673: 13672: 13669: 13666: 13664: 13661: 13659: 13656: 13654: 13651: 13649: 13646: 13644: 13641: 13639: 13636: 13634: 13631: 13629: 13626: 13624: 13621: 13619: 13616: 13614: 13611: 13610: 13607: 13602: 13597: 13592: 13588: 13585: 13580: 13573: 13568: 13566: 13562: 13558: 13554: 13550: 13534: 13529: 13526: 13521: 13518: 13513: 13511: 13508: 13507: 13503: 13498: 13495: 13487: 13482: 13479: 13474: 13472: 13469: 13468: 13464: 13459: 13456: 13451: 13448: 13443: 13440: 13435: 13433: 13430: 13429: 13425: 13420: 13417: 13412: 13409: 13404: 13401: 13396: 13394: 13391: 13390: 13386: 13381: 13378: 13373: 13371: 13368: 13367: 13363: 13355: 13350: 13347: 13339: 13334: 13332: 13329: 13328: 13325: 13322: 13320: 13317: 13315: 13312: 13310: 13307: 13306: 13303: 13302: 13295: 13294: 13285: 13282: 13280: 13266: 13263: 13260: 13257: 13254: 13251: 13250: 13249: 13245: 13241: 13239: 13231: 13228: 13225: 13224: 13223: 13216: 13213: 13210: 13207: 13204: 13203: 13202: 13200: 13195: 13193: 13182: 13180: 13176: 13172: 13167: 13163: 13162:AD 200. 13157: 13146: 13144: 13140: 13136: 13132: 13128: 13124: 13120: 13119:Proto-Romance 13116: 13112: 13108: 13104: 13099: 13095: 13085: 13083: 13078: 13074:vs. the name 13073: 13068: 13063: 13059: 13055: 13045: 13036: 13033: 13030: 13029: 13025: 13022: 13019: 13018: 13008: 13005: 13002: 13001: 12997: 12994: 12993: 12971: 12968: 12967: 12963: 12960: 12957: 12956: 12949: 12943: 12940: 12939: 12935: 12932: 12929: 12928: 12918: 12912: 12909: 12908: 12904: 12901: 12898: 12895: 12892: 12891: 12884: 12878: 12875: 12872: 12869: 12868: 12864: 12861: 12858: 12855: 12852: 12851: 12844: 12841: 12835: 12832: 12831: 12827: 12824: 12821: 12818: 12815: 12814: 12804: 12798: 12795: 12792: 12791: 12787: 12784: 12781: 12775: 12772: 12771: 12764: 12761: 12758: 12755: 12752: 12751: 12747: 12744: 12741: 12738: 12735: 12732: 12731: 12724: 12718: 12715: 12714: 12710: 12707: 12704: 12703: 12699: 12696: 12693: 12692: 12676: 12670: 12667: 12666: 12662: 12659: 12656: 12653: 12650: 12647: 12644: 12641: 12640: 12637: 12634: 12632: 12628: 12624: 12620: 12616: 12612: 12608: 12604: 12591: 12585: 12580: 12574: 12570: 12565: 12563: 12559: 12555: 12551: 12547: 12543: 12539: 12534: 12529: 12525: 12520: 12515: 12511: 12506: 12504: 12500: 12496: 12469: 12467: 12463: 12459: 12455: 12448: 12444: 12440: 12436: 12432: 12428: 12424: 12420: 12416: 12412: 12408: 12404: 12400: 12396: 12392: 12388: 12384: 12380: 12376: 12372: 12368: 12364: 12360: 12356: 12353: 12349: 12345: 12341: 12337: 12333: 12329: 12325: 12321: 12317: 12313: 12309: 12305: 12301: 12299: 12295: 12291: 12287: 12283: 12279: 12278: 12277: 12272: 12268: 12264: 12260: 12256: 12252: 12248: 12244: 12240: 12236: 12232: 12228: 12224: 12220: 12216: 12212: 12208: 12206: 12202: 12198: 12194: 12190: 12186: 12182: 12178: 12174: 12170: 12166: 12162: 12158: 12154: 12152: 12148: 12144: 12140: 12138: 12134: 12130: 12126: 12122: 12121: 12120: 12115: 12111: 12107: 12103: 12099: 12095: 12091: 12089: 12085: 12081: 12077: 12073: 12069: 12065: 12062:Non-labial + 12061: 12059: 12055: 12051: 12047: 12043: 12039: 12035: 12031: 12027: 12023: 12019: 12015: 12013: 12009: 12005: 12001: 11997: 11993: 11989: 11985: 11981: 11978:Non-dental + 11977: 11976: 11975: 11972: 11960: 11959: 11953: 11946: 11939: 11933: 11927: 11922: 11918: 11916: 11915: 11909: 11902: 11896: 11891: 11887: 11885: 11884: 11878: 11871: 11865: 11861: 11860:North Frisian 11856: 11852: 11848: 11844: 11843: 11842: 11840: 11836: 11832: 11828: 11824: 11820: 11816: 11812: 11808: 11799: 11796: 11790: 11784: 11779: 11775: 11771: 11767: 11762: 11755: 11749: 11739: 11733: 11726: 11719: 11715: 11712: 11705: 11700:'shark' < 11698: 11694: 11693: 11692: 11690: 11686: 11682: 11681: 11672: 11668: 11663: 11661: 11656: 11646: 11634: 11630: 11619: 11615: 11611: 11601: 11598: 11595: 11592: 11589: 11588: 11584: 11578: 11577: 11570: 11567: 11564: 11563: 11559: 11556: 11553: 11550: 11547: 11546: 11543: 11541: 11537: 11533: 11527: 11525: 11521: 11517: 11513: 11509: 11505: 11501: 11497: 11493: 11489: 11485: 11481: 11477: 11473: 11469: 11465: 11461: 11457: 11453: 11449: 11445: 11441: 11437: 11433: 11429: 11425: 11412: 11408: 11404: 11400: 11397: 11388: 11381: 11374: 11368: 11363: 11360: 11351: 11344: 11337: 11331: 11325: 11319: 11314: 11310: 11307: 11304: 11298: 11294: 11289: 11282: 11277: 11273: 11269: 11265: 11261: 11257: 11254: 11251: 11242: 11235: 11228: 11222: 11216: 11211: 11208: 11207: 11206: 11204: 11200: 11196: 11192: 11188: 11185:Krahe treats 11183: 11181: 11177: 11173: 11172:Elder Futhark 11169: 11165: 11161: 11157: 11152: 11145: 11140: 11136: 11132: 11127: 11121: 11113: 11107: 11103: 11098: 11095: 11091: 11087: 11084:lowering but 11083: 11079: 11075: 11071: 11067: 11063: 11059: 11055: 11051: 11047: 11042: 11039: 11038: 11031: 11027: 11023: 11019: 11016:shortened to 11015: 11011: 11007: 11004:shortened to 11003: 10997: 10995: 10990: 10986: 10982: 10978: 10974: 10965: 10957: 10953: 10949: 10945: 10941: 10938: 10930: 10926: 10922: 10918: 10914: 10911: 10903: 10899: 10895: 10894: 10893: 10887: 10878: 10872: 10869: 10861: 10852: 10846: 10831: 10824: 10818: 10817: 10816: 10814: 10805: 10799: 10796:'stone', OSl 10794: 10790:just as Lith 10789: 10780: 10774: 10769: 10763: 10756: 10750: 10746: 10742: 10738: 10734: 10730: 10726: 10722: 10712: 10706: 10703: 10702: 10695: 10692: 10689: 10688: 10684: 10681: 10678: 10675: 10672: 10671: 10668: 10666: 10662: 10657: 10651: 10647: 10637: 10631: 10627: 10623: 10619: 10614: 10603: 10598:from earlier 10549: 10519: 10518: 10517: 10509: 10507: 10503: 10499: 10494: 10488: 10480: 10476: 10472: 10467: 10464: 10458: 10451: 10444: 10439: 10435: 10431: 10427: 10423: 10418: 10413: 10411: 10405: 10403: 10397: 10393: 10389: 10385: 10381: 10377: 10373: 10369: 10365: 10321: 10307: 10306: 10305: 10294: 10289: 10284: 10282: 10280: 10278: 10275: 10274: 10268: 10263: 10261: 10259: 10257: 10255: 10252: 10251: 10248: 10243: 10238: 10233: 10228: 10226: 10223: 10222: 10218: 10215: 10212: 10209: 10206: 10205: 10202: 10197: 10190: 10187:Nasal vowels 10184: 10178: 10173: 10168: 10166: 10164: 10162: 10160: 10157: 10156: 10150: 10145: 10143: 10138: 10133: 10128: 10126: 10123: 10122: 10119: 10114: 10109: 10107: 10102: 10097: 10095: 10092: 10091: 10087: 10084: 10081: 10078: 10075: 10072: 10071: 10068: 10063: 10056: 10050: 10049: 10046: 10038: 10036: 10028: 10019: 10012: 10006: 10002: 9994: 9985: 9978: 9972: 9967: 9960: 9954: 9947: 9941: 9934: 9928: 9921: 9916: 9906: 9899: 9896: 9895: 9891: 9884: 9881: 9880: 9876: 9873: 9870: 9864: 9863: 9855: 9852: 9849: 9848: 9844: 9841: 9838: 9837: 9833: 9830: 9827: 9824: 9823: 9820: 9817: 9813: 9811: 9807: 9803: 9798: 9796: 9792: 9787: 9783: 9779: 9775: 9771: 9767: 9758: 9755: 9748: 9741: 9722: 9715: 9708: 9693: 9686: 9667: 9653: 9645: 9638: 9628: 9624: 9623:boukólos rule 9620: 9619: 9618: 9599: 9596: 9587: 9581: 9574: 9550: 9547: 9543: 9540: 9536: 9533: 9529: 9525: 9524:Anglo-Frisian 9517: 9507:Word-initial 9506: 9505: 9504: 9488: 9451: 9447: 9445: 9441: 9435: 9415: 9405: 9395: 9393: 9387: 9376: 9370: 9361: 9355: 9347: 9325: 9323: 9319: 9313: 9311: 9306: 9292: 9288: 9284: 9280: 9276: 9272: 9268: 9264: 9260: 9256: 9252: 9248: 9225: 9212: 9199: 9190: 9181: 9156: 9153: 9152: 9149: 9136: 9123: 9114: 9105: 9103: 9100: 9099: 9096: 9083: 9070: 9061: 9052: 9050: 9047: 9046: 9043: 9030: 9017: 9008: 8999: 8997: 8994: 8993: 8989: 8987:Verner's law 8986: 8983: 8980: 8977: 8974: 8970: 8968: 8967: 8964: 8962: 8958: 8952: 8948: 8931: 8927: 8923: 8919: 8915: 8907: 8903: 8888: 8881: 8874: 8873: 8872: 8858: 8854: 8852: 8846: 8843: 8842: 8838: 8830: 8824: 8820: 8818: 8812: 8809: 8808: 8800: 8795: 8791: 8786: 8783: 8779: 8774: 8770: 8767: 8763: 8759: 8754: 8751: 8747: 8743: 8738: 8735: 8731: 8729: 8726: 8725: 8719: 8714: 8711: 8707: 8704: 8700: 8693: 8689: 8686: 8682: 8679: 8675: 8672: 8668: 8666: 8663: 8662: 8654: 8652: 8648: 8643: 8641: 8636: 8632: 8630: 8625: 8621: 8619: 8617: 8614: 8613: 8610: 8603: 8598: 8593: 8588: 8583: 8577: 8576: 8570: 8568: 8555:in that case. 8554: 8550: 8546: 8543: 8539: 8535: 8531: 8527: 8523: 8519: 8515: 8511: 8507: 8503: 8499: 8495: 8491: 8488: 8484: 8480: 8469: 8465: 8461: 8458: 8454: 8450: 8447: 8443: 8439: 8435: 8431: 8419: 8415: 8412: 8409:; the use of 8408: 8404: 8397: 8393: 8366: 8362: 8358: 8354: 8319: 8315: 8311: 8307: 8304: 8303: 8298: 8297: 8292: 8291: 8286: 8282: 8254: 8250: 8246: 8242: 8241: 8240: 8235:Transcription 8230: 8227:See also the 8220: 8218: 8215: 8211: 8207: 8203: 8201: 8200:Sigmund Feist 8196: 8190: 8180: 8178: 8174: 8170: 8165: 8162: 8156: 8149: 8143: 8136: 8130: 8123: 8117: 8111: 8104: 8097: 8091: 8085: 8080: 8071: 8062: 8058: 8055:This section 8053: 8050: 8046: 8045: 8037: 8035: 8030: 8024: 8020: 8015: 8009: 8002: 7996: 7992: 7987: 7980: 7973: 7967: 7960: 7954: 7947: 7941: 7940:keppǭ ~ skēpą 7934: 7928: 7921: 7917: 7912: 7908: 7903: 7897: 7892: 7890: 7886: 7881: 7876:'Rhine', and 7874: 7867: 7860: 7853: 7846: 7841:'mailshirt', 7839: 7832: 7826: 7822: 7818: 7814: 7810: 7805: 7799: 7795: 7791: 7787: 7782: 7777:'king' (stem 7775: 7768: 7762: 7758: 7748: 7733: 7727: 7721: 7713: 7709: 7696: 7695: 7689: 7682: 7676: 7668: 7655:from earlier 7648: 7647: 7644: 7637: 7631: 7622: 7616: 7607: 7601: 7576:except after 7575: 7567: 7566: 7559: 7552: 7545: 7540: 7539: 7536: 7529: 7522: 7515: 7503: 7490: 7489: 7480: 7473: 7466: 7461: 7457: 7450: 7443: 7439: 7438:Northern Sami 7436: 7432: 7425: 7418: 7413: 7409: 7402: 7395: 7390: 7389: 7387: 7384: 7377: 7372:'three' > 7371: 7363: 7358: 7352: 7347: 7342:(attested as 7340: 7334: 7314: 7313: 7311: 7304: 7298: 7289: 7282: 7276: 7267: 7260: 7254: 7222: 7221: 7216: 7215: 7206: 7200: 7194: 7185: 7180: 7176: 7170: 7161: 7156: 7152: 7145: 7138: 7133: 7129: 7122: 7115: 7111: 7108: 7107: 7105: 7101: 7094: 7087: 7082: 7079: 7072: 7066: 7057: 7050: 7045:'seeds' > 7044: 7025: 7022: 7015: 7010:'sweet' > 7009: 7002:'judgement'; 7000: 6993: 6987: 6968: 6967: 6965: 6962: 6961: 6957: 6951: 6943: 6935: 6926: 6919: 6913: 6899: 6886: 6885: 6881: 6874: 6867: 6860: 6853: 6846: 6841:'honey' > 6840: 6832: 6823: 6816: 6810: 6801: 6794: 6788: 6780: 6772: 6771: 6764: 6758: 6750: 6742: 6722: 6718: 6713: 6708: 6702: 6696: 6689: 6682: 6676: 6656: 6653: 6646: 6639: 6632: 6625: 6618: 6612: 6604: 6596: 6588: 6569: 6568: 6566: 6563: 6562: 6556: 6549: 6542: 6536: 6528: 6519: 6512: 6506: 6487: 6484: 6477: 6470: 6464: 6456: 6447: 6440: 6434: 6420: 6419: 6417: 6409: 6408: 6404: 6397: 6390: 6383: 6377: 6363: 6354: 6353: 6349: 6343: 6335: 6327: 6318: 6311: 6305: 6297: 6288: 6282: 6274: 6266: 6258: 6249: 6248: 6244: 6238: 6230: 6222: 6213: 6207: 6199: 6191: 6183: 6169: 6168: 6164: 6157: 6150: 6144: 6135: 6128: 6122: 6114: 6100: 6099: 6096: 6094: 6076: 6070: 6062: 6053: 6047: 6039: 6032:'seeds' > 6031: 6006: 6003: 5997: 5990:'sweet' > 5989: 5982:'judgement'; 5980: 5974: 5966: 5958: 5933: 5930: 5924: 5915: 5909: 5901: 5876: 5875: 5873: 5870: 5869: 5862: 5856: 5848: 5840: 5821:The sequence 5820: 5817: 5810: 5803: 5798:'three' > 5797: 5788: 5782: 5774: 5765: 5759: 5751: 5743: 5735: 5734: 5731: 5724: 5718: 5710: 5702: 5694: 5686: 5678: 5670: 5656: 5655: 5648: 5641: 5634: 5628: 5620: 5600: 5596: 5590: 5582: 5574: 5561:contracts to 5554: 5553: 5551: 5545: 5537: 5529: 5515: 5501: 5500: 5495: 5489: 5481: 5472: 5458: 5457: 5452: 5446: 5437: 5423: 5422: 5391: 5379:Word-initial 5377: 5376: 5372: 5369: 5368: 5361: 5354: 5347: 5341: 5333: 5325: 5318:, unstressed 5317: 5308: 5302: 5294: 5286: 5279:, unstressed 5278: 5270: 5267: 5261: 5253: 5246:'wheel' > 5245: 5236: 5230: 5222: 5214: 5201: 5197: 5191: 5183: 5175: 5161: 5156: 5150: 5142: 5134: 5127:'young' > 5126: 5112: 5108: 5102: 5094: 5087:'tribe' > 5086: 5072: 5068: 5062: 5054: 5046: 5032: 5031: 5029: 5028: 5024: 5023: 5013: 5007: 5000:'chant' > 4999: 4979: 4975: 4969: 4962:'goose' > 4961: 4941: 4936: 4930: 4922: 4902: 4898: 4892: 4884: 4861: 4860: 4858: 4853:'(s)he comes' 4851: 4845: 4837: 4817: 4813: 4807: 4799: 4791: 4771: 4767: 4761: 4753: 4744: 4738: 4730: 4710: 4705: 4699: 4692:'apple' > 4691: 4671: 4670: 4668: 4660: 4654: 4646: 4638: 4606: 4602: 4596: 4588: 4581:'eight' > 4580: 4548: 4543: 4537: 4529: 4521: 4489: 4488: 4486: 4482: 4455: 4451: 4445: 4437: 4411: 4407: 4401: 4393: 4385: 4376: 4370: 4363:'fight' > 4362: 4336: 4332: 4326: 4318: 4292: 4288: 4282: 4274: 4248: 4247: 4245: 4244: 4236: 4235: 4231: 4230: 4223: 4215: 4209: 4201: 4193: 4185: 4176: 4173: 4167: 4159: 4151: 4148: 4142: 4134: 4114: 4113: 4111: 4099: 4074: 4071: 4070: 4067: 4065: 4062: 4045: 4042: 4040: 4033: 4025: 4017: 4009: 3990: 3987: 3985: 3978: 3970: 3962: 3954: 3935: 3933: 3931: 3924: 3917:'night' > 3916: 3897: 3896: 3876: 3873: 3872: 3868: 3862: 3854: 3847:'horse' > 3846: 3833:by following 3832: 3829: 3828: 3823: 3817: 3809: 3800: 3794: 3786: 3765: 3762: 3761: 3756: 3750: 3742: 3734: 3701: 3700: 3699:Cowgill's law 3696: 3695: 3689: 3684: 3678: 3670: 3666: 3660: 3652: 3644: 3636: 3628: 3619: 3615: 3614: 3612: 3607:'seeds' > 3605: 3584: 3581: 3575: 3567: 3559: 3555: 3549: 3541: 3532: 3529:Word-initial 3528: 3527: 3519: 3515: 3514: 3513:of laryngeals 3509: 3508: 3504: 3498: 3491:'seeds' > 3490: 3482: 3479: 3478: 3472: 3466: 3458: 3450: 3442: 3433: 3431: 3427: 3426: 3418: 3412: 3404: 3396: 3388: 3361: 3360: 3358: 3350: 3349: 3343: 3337: 3329: 3310: 3307: 3301: 3293: 3274: 3270: 3264: 3256: 3237: 3234: 3228: 3220: 3201: 3200: 3198: 3195: 3191: 3184: 3180: 3179: 3173: 3156: 3153: 3147: 3139: 3120: 3117: 3111: 3103: 3084: 3081: 3075: 3067: 3048: 3047: 3045: 3042: 3041: 3035: 3029: 3021: 3002: 2999: 2993: 2986:'eagle' > 2985: 2966: 2962: 2956: 2948: 2928: 2925:'in addition' 2923: 2917: 2909: 2889: 2888: 2886: 2878: 2877: 2874: 2865: 2863: 2856: 2846: 2839: 2835: 2834:East Germanic 2825: 2824:Elbe Germanic 2815: 2805: 2795: 2791: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2771: 2767: 2763: 2758: 2752: 2745: 2743: 2739: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2725: 2720: 2716: 2713: 2709: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2682: 2680: 2670: 2668: 2665: 2661: 2657: 2653: 2650: 2646: 2642: 2638: 2635:(such as the 2634: 2629: 2627: 2623: 2619: 2614: 2612: 2608: 2604: 2600: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2580: 2576: 2573: 2569: 2564: 2562: 2558: 2557: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2539: 2537: 2533: 2529: 2521: 2517: 2513: 2509: 2505: 2497: 2486: 2475: 2466: 2454: 2453:East Germanic 2449: 2396: 2393: 2389: 2386:Expansion of 2384: 2375: 2369: 2368: 2363: 2359: 2355: 2351: 2347: 2343: 2339: 2338:reconstructed 2334: 2332: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2315: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2300: 2298: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2277:East Germanic 2274: 2273:West Germanic 2270: 2265: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2252: 2251:reconstructed 2248: 2244: 2241:(abbreviated 2240: 2229: 2224: 2222: 2217: 2215: 2210: 2209: 2207: 2206: 2199: 2198: 2194: 2192: 2191: 2187: 2185: 2184: 2180: 2178: 2177: 2173: 2171: 2170: 2166: 2165: 2162: 2159: 2158: 2155: 2152: 2151: 2148: 2145: 2144: 2141: 2140:J. P. Mallory 2138: 2136: 2133: 2132: 2129: 2126: 2125: 2122: 2117: 2116: 2109: 2105: 2102: 2100: 2097: 2095: 2092: 2090: 2087: 2086: 2083: 2080: 2079: 2076: 2073: 2068: 2064: 2061: 2057: 2056: 2055: 2052: 2047: 2043: 2040: 2036: 2033: 2029: 2028: 2027: 2024: 2019: 2015: 2012: 2008: 2005: 2001: 1998: 1994: 1991: 1987: 1986: 1985: 1982: 1980: 1977: 1975: 1972: 1969: 1966: 1963: 1960: 1957: 1954: 1951: 1947: 1944: 1943: 1942: 1940: 1939: 1932: 1929: 1928: 1927: 1925: 1916: 1912: 1911: 1910: 1907: 1902: 1898: 1895: 1891: 1890: 1889: 1886: 1881: 1877: 1876: 1875: 1872: 1871: 1870: 1868: 1867: 1859: 1855: 1852: 1848: 1845: 1841: 1836: 1832: 1831: 1830: 1827: 1826: 1825: 1823: 1822: 1815: 1812: 1811: 1808: 1805: 1804: 1800: 1797: 1795: 1792: 1790: 1787: 1785: 1782: 1781: 1778: 1777:Reconstructed 1775: 1774: 1768: 1767: 1760: 1757: 1756: 1755: 1754: 1748: 1745: 1744: 1743: 1742: 1736: 1733: 1731: 1727: 1724: 1722: 1719: 1717: 1714: 1712: 1709: 1708: 1707: 1705: 1699: 1696: 1695: 1694: 1692: 1686: 1683: 1682: 1679: 1676: 1671: 1667: 1664: 1660: 1657: 1653: 1650: 1646: 1643: 1639: 1638: 1637: 1633: 1630: 1628: 1625: 1623: 1620: 1618: 1615: 1613: 1610: 1605: 1604:Insular Celts 1601: 1598: 1594: 1591: 1587: 1586: 1585: 1582: 1581: 1580: 1578: 1572: 1569: 1567: 1564: 1563: 1562: 1560: 1554: 1551: 1550: 1549: 1547: 1541: 1538: 1537: 1536: 1534: 1528: 1525: 1524: 1521: 1520:Indo-Iranians 1518: 1516: 1513: 1511: 1508: 1503: 1498: 1495: 1494: 1491: 1488: 1487: 1481: 1480: 1473: 1470: 1468: 1465: 1464: 1463: 1462: 1456: 1453: 1452: 1451: 1449: 1443: 1440: 1438: 1435: 1433: 1430: 1429: 1428: 1426: 1420: 1417: 1416: 1415: 1413: 1407: 1404: 1403: 1399: 1396: 1394: 1391: 1389: 1386: 1385: 1384: 1382: 1376: 1373: 1371: 1368: 1366: 1363: 1361: 1358: 1356: 1353: 1351: 1348: 1346: 1343: 1341: 1338: 1336: 1333: 1331: 1328: 1327: 1326: 1324: 1318: 1315: 1313: 1310: 1308: 1305: 1304: 1303: 1301: 1295: 1292: 1290: 1287: 1285: 1282: 1280: 1277: 1275: 1272: 1270: 1267: 1266: 1265: 1263: 1262:Pontic Steppe 1256: 1253: 1252: 1245: 1241: 1238: 1234: 1233: 1232: 1229: 1228: 1227: 1225: 1219: 1216: 1214: 1211: 1208: 1204: 1203: 1202: 1200: 1194: 1191: 1190: 1189: 1187: 1181: 1178: 1177: 1176: 1174: 1163: 1159: 1156: 1152: 1151: 1149: 1145: 1142: 1138: 1135: 1131: 1128: 1124: 1121: 1117: 1114: 1110: 1109: 1108: 1105: 1103: 1100: 1096: 1095:Kurgan stelae 1093: 1092: 1091: 1088: 1086: 1083: 1082: 1081: 1079: 1078:Pontic Steppe 1072: 1069: 1068: 1062: 1061: 1054: 1051: 1049: 1046: 1044: 1041: 1039: 1036: 1034: 1031: 1029: 1026: 1025: 1020: 1019: 1015: 1012: 1010: 1007: 1005: 1002: 1001: 996: 995: 991: 988: 986: 983: 981: 978: 976: 973: 972: 966: 965: 958: 955: 953: 950: 948: 945: 943: 940: 938: 935: 933: 930: 928: 925: 923: 920: 918: 915: 913: 910: 908: 905: 903: 900: 898: 895: 893: 890: 888: 885: 884: 878: 877: 869: 868:Proto-Iranian 865: 862: 859: 855: 851: 848: 846: 843: 840: 836: 832: 829: 826: 822: 819: 817: 814: 812: 809: 807: 804: 803: 800: 797: 796: 792: 789: 787: 784: 782: 779: 777: 774: 772: 769: 767: 764: 762: 759: 758: 755: 752: 751: 747: 744: 742: 739: 737: 734: 732: 729: 727: 724: 722: 719: 717: 714: 712: 711:Daco-Thracian 709: 707: 704: 703: 700: 697: 696: 690: 686: 682: 678: 675: 674: 672: 669: 668: 665: 664:Reconstructed 662: 661: 654: 650: 647: 643: 640: 636: 633: 629: 626: 622: 619: 615: 612: 608: 605: 601: 600: 599: 596: 594: 591: 589: 586: 585: 582: 579: 578: 572: 568: 567: 566: 563: 558: 554: 551: 547: 544: 540: 539: 538: 535: 530: 526: 525: 524: 521: 519: 516: 514: 511: 506: 502: 499: 495: 494: 493: 490: 488: 485: 480: 476: 475: 474: 471: 470: 467: 464: 463: 459: 456: 455: 451: 446: 445: 441: 437: 436: 433: 430: 429: 425: 421: 420: 414: 410: 406: 402: 394: 389: 381: 377: 373: 369: 365: 363: 359: 338: 335: 332: 329: 327: 324: 323: 322: 318: 314: 310: 305:Reconstructed 302: 297: 500 BC 292: 288: 285: 282: 278: 275: 272: 268: 263: 258: 249: 246: 231: 221: 216: 212: 205: 195: 185: 178: 173: 164: 163: 154: 151: 143: 132: 129: 125: 122: 118: 115: 111: 108: 104: 101: – 100: 96: 95:Find sources: 89: 85: 79: 78: 73:This article 71: 67: 62: 61: 56: 54: 47: 46: 41: 40: 35: 30: 21: 20: 20067: 20048: 20040: 20028: 20020: 20012: 19936: 19874:Northumbrian 19843: 19774: 19658:Verner's law 19621: 19603: 19598:Gotho-Nordic 19596: 19589: 19510: 19503: 19495: 19489: 19479: 19464:Fårö Gutnish 19426: 19419: 19325: 19318: 19309: 19302: 19283: 19276: 19204: 19199: 19194: 19187: 19180: 19120: 19022:Swiss German 18986:Upper German 18919:Amana German 18893:Volga German 18862:Hunsrückisch 18788: 18742:Unserdeutsch 18737:Berlinerisch 18670: 18663: 18656: 18649: 18609:Cover groups 18565:Mohawk Dutch 18560:Jersey Dutch 18538:East Flemish 18521:West Flemish 18465:Middle Dutch 18419:Low Prussian 18291: 18284: 18250:Terschelling 18234:Clay Frisian 18209:West Frisian 18197:Wiedingharde 18189: 18177: 18137:Heligolandic 18114: 18089: 18082: 18075: 18070: 18053:East Frisian 18040: 18033: 18006:Middle Scots 18004: 17997: 17983: 17976: 17969: 17964: 17953: 17946: 17939: 17932: 17833: 17829: 17787: 17756: 17737: 17718: 17706:. Retrieved 17688: 17653: 17640: 17630: 17620: 17592: 17583: 17568: 17553: 17545: 17534: 17526: 17525:Fulk, R. D. 17518: 17514: 17502: 17498: 17486: 17482: 17459: 17448: 17445:Campbell, A. 17436: 17407: 17401: 17378: 17373: 17361: 17349: 17342:Kroonen 2013 17323:. Retrieved 17319:the original 17314: 17304: 17292: 17273: 17269: 17259: 17250: 17244: 17234:, retrieved 17227:the original 17218: 17211: 17203: 17198: 17186: 17174: 17162: 17150: 17138: 17126: 17114: 17102: 17098: 17093: 17083: 17076: 17067: 17061: 17052: 17046: 17037: 17031: 17008: 17004: 16998: 16991:Kroonen 2013 16986: 16974: 16962: 16950: 16931: 16925: 16906: 16900: 16881: 16875: 16856: 16850: 16838: 16834: 16829: 16804:. Retrieved 16797:the original 16784: 16776: 16771: 16759: 16747: 16736:. Retrieved 16714: 16707: 16698: 16692: 16683: 16677: 16648:, Old Saxon 16635: 16627: 16622: 16613: 16604: 16579: 16575: 16569: 16560: 16556: 16535: 16523: 16502: 16495: 16473:(1): 19–36. 16470: 16466: 16460: 16427: 16423: 16417: 16395:(1): 67–74. 16392: 16388: 16379: 16370: 16364:. Retrieved 16344: 16340: 16316: 16307: 16298: 16289: 16280: 16253: 16241: 16234:Mallory 1989 16229: 16210: 16204: 16180: 16174: 16150: 16143: 16124: 16089: 16083: 16059: 16030: 16020: 15995: 15987: 15968: 15958: 15926: 15908: 15884: 15880: 15870: 15857: 15850:Ringe (2006) 15846:Green (2000) 15840: 15831: 15819:Ringe (2017) 15814: 15794: 15784: 15778: 15770: 15765: 15720: 15706: 15692: 15688: 15678: 15668: 15441:First person 14887:Subjunctive 14868: 14801: 14763: 14704:frawardijaną 14623: 14620:Verner's Law 14615: 14611: 14607: 14603: 14599: 14592:deadjectival 14581: 14564:mediopassive 14556: 14535: 14531: 14527: 14523: 14490: 14477:periphrastic 14467: 14460:desiderative 14455: 14452: 14447:Donald Ringe 14435:Proto-Slavic 14424: 14375:Instrumental 14374: 14343: 14312: 14281: 14226: 14219: 14214: 14209: 14204: 14199: 14194: 14187: 14182: 14167: 14163: 14159: 14155: 14151: 14147: 14125: 14121: 14117: 14111: 14106: 14090: 14086: 14082: 14078: 14016: 13949:Instrumental 13948: 13885: 13830:blindas, -is 13822: 13767: 13674: 13667: 13662: 13657: 13652: 13647: 13642: 13637: 13632: 13627: 13622: 13617: 13612: 13605: 13600: 13595: 13590: 13583: 13578: 13552: 13548: 13545: 13510:Instrumental 13509: 13470: 13431: 13392: 13369: 13330: 13323: 13318: 13313: 13308: 13300: 13298: 13292: 13290: 13275: 13246: 13242: 13238:Sievers' law 13235: 13220: 13196: 13188: 13168: 13164: 13156:Middle Indic 13152: 13123:Middle Indic 13100: 13097: 13061: 13057: 13051: 12899:is > jis 12635: 12630: 12622: 12618: 12614: 12610: 12606: 12602: 12583: 12572: 12568: 12566: 12561: 12557: 12545: 12527: 12513: 12507: 12502: 12498: 12494: 12475: 12465: 12461: 12457: 12453: 12451: 12446: 12442: 12438: 12434: 12430: 12426: 12422: 12418: 12414: 12410: 12406: 12402: 12398: 12394: 12390: 12386: 12382: 12378: 12374: 12370: 12366: 12362: 12358: 12351: 12347: 12343: 12339: 12335: 12331: 12327: 12323: 12319: 12315: 12311: 12307: 12303: 12297: 12293: 12289: 12285: 12281: 12275: 12270: 12266: 12262: 12258: 12254: 12250: 12246: 12242: 12238: 12234: 12230: 12226: 12222: 12218: 12214: 12210: 12209:Consonant + 12204: 12200: 12196: 12192: 12188: 12184: 12180: 12176: 12172: 12168: 12164: 12160: 12156: 12150: 12146: 12142: 12136: 12132: 12128: 12124: 12118: 12113: 12109: 12105: 12101: 12097: 12093: 12087: 12083: 12079: 12075: 12071: 12067: 12063: 12057: 12053: 12049: 12045: 12041: 12037: 12033: 12029: 12025: 12021: 12017: 12011: 12007: 12003: 11999: 11995: 11991: 11987: 11983: 11979: 11973: 11969: 11966:Phonotactics 11920: 11889: 11851:West Frisian 11846: 11838: 11834: 11830: 11826: 11822: 11818: 11814: 11810: 11800: 11773: 11769: 11765: 11744: 11735:(cf. Gothic 11688: 11684: 11678: 11664: 11659: 11657: 11644: 11632: 11628: 11617: 11613: 11609: 11607: 11560:Old English 11539: 11535: 11531: 11528: 11523: 11519: 11515: 11511: 11507: 11503: 11499: 11495: 11491: 11487: 11483: 11479: 11475: 11471: 11467: 11463: 11459: 11455: 11451: 11447: 11443: 11439: 11435: 11431: 11427: 11423: 11421: 11418:Nasal vowels 11410: 11406: 11402: 11391: 11354: 11312: 11308: 11296: 11292: 11284:'to plow' ← 11275: 11271: 11267: 11263: 11255: 11245: 11224:'ham', Goth 11209: 11202: 11198: 11194: 11190: 11186: 11184: 11167: 11163: 11159: 11155: 11138: 11134: 11130: 11115: 11111: 11110: 11105: 11101: 11093: 11089: 11085: 11081: 11077: 11073: 11069: 11065: 11061: 11057: 11053: 11049: 11045: 11043: 11036: 11025: 11021: 11017: 11013: 11009: 11005: 11001: 10998: 10988: 10984: 10980: 10976: 10971:differed in 10969: 10959: 10951: 10947: 10943: 10932: 10924: 10920: 10916: 10905: 10901: 10897: 10891: 10881: 10863: 10855: 10840: 10815:. Contrast: 10808: 10797: 10783: 10748: 10744: 10740: 10736: 10732: 10728: 10718: 10682:Old English 10664: 10649: 10645: 10643: 10629: 10625: 10617: 10604: 10569: 10558:, (possibly 10515: 10505: 10501: 10497: 10486: 10485:was lost in 10478: 10474: 10470: 10468: 10460:> Gothic 10437: 10433: 10429: 10425: 10421: 10407: 10399: 10395: 10391: 10387: 10383: 10379: 10375: 10371: 10367: 10363: 10361: 10303: 10053:Oral vowels 10044: 10030: 10022: 10004: 9999:*h₂ster-n-ós 9996: 9988: 9970: 9936:'id.' < * 9923:'star' < 9914: 9912: 9882:3p. singular 9865: 9825: 9818: 9814: 9809: 9805: 9799: 9794: 9790: 9773: 9764: 9735: 9616: 9576:'word' (not 9532:Modern Dutch 9489: 9453: 9449: 9437: 9417: 9401: 9388: 9364: 9349: 9327: 9315: 9307: 9290: 9286: 9282: 9278: 9274: 9270: 9266: 9262: 9258: 9254: 9250: 9246: 9245: 9154:labiovelars 8972: 8954: 8951:Verner's law 8929: 8925: 8921: 8917: 8913: 8905: 8870: 8563: 8552: 8548: 8537: 8533: 8529: 8525: 8521: 8517: 8516:and perhaps 8513: 8509: 8505: 8501: 8497: 8493: 8486: 8482: 8478: 8467: 8456: 8452: 8445: 8441: 8437: 8433: 8429: 8417: 8410: 8406: 8395: 8364: 8360: 8356: 8317: 8313: 8309: 8300: 8294: 8288: 8252: 8248: 8244: 8238: 8204: 8192: 8166: 8081: 8078: 8068:October 2017 8065: 8061:adding to it 8056: 7896:East Iranian 7893: 7824: 7820: 7816: 7812: 7808: 7797: 7793: 7789: 7785: 7754: 7745: 7715: 7697: 7670: 7662: 7625: 7610: 7595: 7568: 7491: 7417:menninkäinen 7365: 7351:Negau helmet 7328: 7292: 7270: 7248: 7217: 7188: 7164: 7060: 7038: 7003: 6981: 6963: 6945: 6937: 6929: 6914:'snow' > 6907: 6900:, sometimes 6887: 6834: 6826: 6804: 6782: 6773: 6752: 6744: 6736: 6677:'full' > 6670: 6606: 6598: 6590: 6582: 6564: 6530: 6522: 6500: 6499:elsewhere — 6458: 6450: 6435:'sand' > 6428: 6410: 6371: 6355: 6337: 6329: 6321: 6299: 6291: 6276: 6268: 6260: 6250: 6232: 6224: 6216: 6201: 6193: 6185: 6170: 6138: 6116: 6101: 6089: 6064: 6056: 6041: 6033: 6025: 5991: 5983: 5968: 5960: 5952: 5918: 5903: 5895: 5871: 5850: 5842: 5834: 5791: 5776: 5768: 5753: 5745: 5737: 5712: 5704: 5696: 5688: 5680: 5672: 5657: 5622: 5584: 5576: 5568: 5539: 5531: 5523: 5502: 5483: 5475: 5459: 5440: 5424: 5378: 5370: 5363:, were lost) 5335: 5327: 5319: 5311: 5296: 5288: 5287:'I am' > 5280: 5272: 5255: 5247: 5239: 5224: 5216: 5208: 5185: 5177: 5169: 5144: 5136: 5128: 5120: 5096: 5088: 5080: 5056: 5048: 5047:'over' > 5040: 5027:Verner's law 5025: 5001: 4993: 4963: 4955: 4924: 4916: 4886: 4878: 4839: 4831: 4801: 4793: 4792:'work' > 4785: 4755: 4754:'what' > 4747: 4732: 4724: 4693: 4685: 4648: 4640: 4632: 4590: 4582: 4574: 4531: 4523: 4515: 4439: 4438:'what' > 4431: 4395: 4387: 4379: 4364: 4356: 4320: 4319:'that' > 4312: 4276: 4268: 4232: 4203: 4195: 4187: 4179: 4161: 4153: 4136: 4128: 4093: 4072: 4066: 4058: 4035: 4027: 4019: 4011: 4003: 3980: 3972: 3964: 3956: 3948: 3926: 3918: 3910: 3889:) or before 3874: 3856: 3848: 3840: 3830: 3811: 3810:'sand' > 3803: 3788: 3780: 3763: 3744: 3736: 3728: 3697: 3672: 3654: 3646: 3638: 3630: 3622: 3599: 3569: 3561: 3543: 3535: 3510: 3492: 3484: 3480: 3460: 3452: 3444: 3436: 3428: 3406: 3398: 3390: 3382: 3351: 3331: 3330:'worm' > 3323: 3295: 3294:'wolf' > 3287: 3258: 3250: 3222: 3214: 3181: 3141: 3133: 3105: 3104:'work' > 3097: 3069: 3061: 3043: 3023: 3015: 2987: 2979: 2950: 2942: 2911: 2903: 2879: 2871: 2858: 2844: 2816:(Istvaeonic) 2806:(Ingvaeonic) 2774: 2769: 2760:, 'knows'. 2754:> Gothic 2746: 2742:pitch-accent 2738:Verner's law 2728: 2721: 2717: 2693: 2676: 2645:Gothic Bible 2630: 2615: 2565: 2554: 2542: 2540: 2501: 2365: 2358:Roman Empire 2354:Negau helmet 2335: 2316: 2301: 2266: 2246: 2242: 2238: 2237: 2195: 2188: 2181: 2174: 2167: 2161:Publications 2160: 2146: 2127: 2081: 1964: 1958: 1952: 1946:Paleo-Balkan 1936: 1935: 1923: 1922: 1864: 1863: 1819: 1818: 1806: 1776: 1759:Greater Iran 1752: 1751: 1740: 1739: 1703: 1702: 1690: 1689: 1632:Paleo-Balkan 1597:Celtiberians 1576: 1575: 1558: 1557: 1545: 1544: 1532: 1531: 1460: 1459: 1447: 1446: 1424: 1423: 1411: 1410: 1380: 1379: 1322: 1321: 1299: 1298: 1261: 1260: 1223: 1222: 1198: 1197: 1185: 1184: 1172: 1171: 1113:Bug–Dniester 1077: 1076: 942:Gothic Bible 858:Proto-Baltic 854:Proto-Slavic 839:Proto-Italic 835:Proto-Celtic 820: 798: 753: 741:Italo-Celtic 736:Indo-Hittite 726:Graeco-Aryan 699:Hypothetical 698: 663: 598:Paleo-Balkan 580: 537:Indo-Iranian 492:Balto-Slavic 465: 355: 241: 225: 211:ISO 639 code 207:}} 201:{{ 197:}} 191:{{ 187:}} 181:{{ 176: 146: 137: 127: 120: 113: 106: 94: 82:Please help 77:verification 74: 50: 43: 37: 36:Please help 33: 19859:Old English 19673:Kluge's law 19653:Grimm's law 19436:Dalecarlian 19415:Perkerdansk 19388:East Danish 19206:Old Gutnish 19182:Proto-Norse 19122:Langobardic 19114:Vogtlandian 18942:Upper Saxon 18796:Lachoudisch 18757:Lotegorisch 18635:High German 18381:Westphalian 18376:Eastphalian 18340:Achterhooks 18217:Hindeloopen 18152:Bökingharde 18121:Föhr–Amrum 18035:Old Frisian 17999:Early Scots 17934:Old English 17521:(1): 72–82. 16969:, p. . 16660:, Bavarian 16246:Polomé 1992 15887:: 245–254. 15863:Orel (2003) 15545:Accusative 15498:Nominative 15388:Infinitive 14890:Imperative 14884:Indicative 14810:fra-werþaną 14013:Determiners 13561:Old English 13439:wulfas, -is 13346:wulfōz, -ōs 13054:Proto-Norse 13026:aus (=ɔ̄s) 12554:Old English 12510:Proto-Norse 12155:Geminates: 11757:'vex' < 11667:Proto-Norse 11278:; e.g. OHG 11189:(secondary 10956:Stang's law 10929:Stang's law 10854:← pre-Gmc * 10833:← pre-Gmc * 10826:'wolves' ← 10007:-verb 3sg. 9973:-stem nom. 9962:'id.' < 9907:C_G-unanþi 9808:-stems and 9802:Kluge's law 9673:and before 9613:Labiovelars 9554:was after 9414:Trask says: 9371:> PGmc. 9356:> PGmc. 9322:High German 9310:High German 9269:'star' and 8957:chain shift 8947:Grimm's law 8811:Approximant 8287:to produce 8217:superstrate 8119:, Estonian 7880:tūnaz, tūną 7848:'hostage', 7834:'servant', 7335:'god' > 7299:'new' > 6789:'ten' > 6712:Proto-Samic 6593:*tn̥h₂éwih₂ 6421:Unstressed 6251:Word-final 6223:'ten' > 6102:Word-final 5658:Unstressed 5555:Unstressed 5503:Unstressed 5460:Unstressed 5425:Unstressed 5396:*gʷʰédʰyeti 5211:*h₁régʷeses 5123:*h₂yuHn̥ḱós 4938:'judgement' 4234:Grimm's law 4160:'and' > 3192:before the 2826:(Irminonic) 2794:Proto-Norse 2734:Jacob Grimm 2656:persecution 2641:Proto-Norse 2583:Upper Rhine 2528:Proto-Norse 2520:Grimm's law 2506:during the 2304:Grimm's law 2291:(including 2039:Continental 2032:Anglo-Saxon 1735:Middle Ages 1685:Middle Ages 1540:Indo-Aryans 1533:Indo-Aryans 1340:Bell Beaker 1335:Corded ware 1231:Corded ware 1120:Sredny Stog 1065:Archaeology 845:Proto-Greek 825:Proto-Norse 405:Scandinavia 391:Map of the 382:characters. 331:Proto-Norse 20092:Categories 19994:Consonants 19969:Diphthongs 19879:West Saxon 19505:Burgundian 19421:Old Danish 19410:Gøtudanskt 19393:Bornholmsk 19255:Vestlandsk 19235:Kebabnorsk 18972:Halcnovian 18937:Thuringian 18600:Limburgish 18570:Stadsfries 18543:Brabantian 18270:Low German 18116:Eiderstedt 17971:Fingallian 17505:: 106–112. 17366:Ringe 2006 17354:Ringe 2006 17325:2010-12-04 17236:2011-01-22 17191:Ringe 2006 17179:Ringe 2017 17167:Ringe 2017 17155:Ringe 2017 17143:Ringe 2017 17131:Ringe 2006 17119:Ringe 2006 16979:Ringe 2006 16967:Ringe 2006 16955:Ringe 2006 16806:2014-05-28 16764:Ringe 2006 16752:Ringe 2006 16738:2017-04-04 16540:Ringe 2006 16366:2016-10-13 16326:Ringe, Don 16273:Ringe 2006 16258:Ringe 2006 16197:Ringe 2006 15950:References 15786:Ingaevones 15077:nemaindau? 14836:'and' and 14697:frawerþaną 14688:brannijaną 14624:-éi̯e/éi̯o 14612:-éi̯e/éi̯o 14600:-éi̯e/éi̯o 14411:See also: 14282:Accusative 14227:Nominative 13996:blindammiz 13972:blindaimiz 13933:blindammaz 13909:blindaimaz 13901:blindaizōi 13893:blindammai 13846:blindaizǫ̂ 13838:blindaizōz 13815:blindōnunz 13807:blindanunz 13768:Accusative 13754:*blindōnō 13675:Nominative 13542:Adjectives 13393:Accusative 13331:Nominative 13088:Morphology 13072:Tune stone 12916:eis (=īs) 12642:Ending(s) 11571:-u > — 11554:Old Norse 11426:(from PIE 11032:still has 10696:-u > Ø 10679:Old Norse 10512:Diphthongs 10414:(that is, 9991:*h₂stér-ōn 9897:3p. plural 9871:-presents 9839:nominative 9743:'to see', 9539:homorganic 9526:and other 9444:gemination 9404:allophones 9398:Allophones 9352:*bʰréh₂tēr 9318:Low German 8567:allophones 8560:Consonants 8542:Ringe 2006 7975:'house'), 7962:'shirt'), 7887:and early 7862:'healer', 7710:, causing 7673:*sth₂yónti 7510:'in' > 7220:i-mutation 6932:*kʷekʷléh₂ 6910:*snóygʷʰos 6609:*tn̥h₂wíh₂ 6461:*takəyónti 6431:*sámh₂dʰos 6374:*dʰédʰeh₁m 6362:is lowered 5837:*gʰósteyes 5683:*légʰyonti 5172:*kʷekʷléh₂ 4186:'us' > 3806:*sámh₂dʰos 3568:'is' > 3531:laryngeals 3518:allophones 3183:Epenthesis 2862:Ringe 2006 2853:See also: 2703:tree model 2451:The early 2340:using the 2147:Institutes 2067:Lithuanian 1821:Indo-Aryan 1807:Historical 1741:Indo-Aryan 1698:Tocharians 1612:Cimmerians 1490:Bronze Age 1381:South Asia 1255:Bronze Age 1193:Afanasievo 997:Mainstream 761:Vocabulary 681:Sound laws 543:Indo-Aryan 333:(attested) 228:April 2020 140:March 2021 110:newspapers 39:improve it 20035:Rhoticity 20015:-dropping 19785:varieties 19777:indicate 19591:Northwest 19536:Philology 19441:Elfdalian 19376:Jutlandic 19298:Icelandic 19273:(written) 19267:(written) 19245:Trøndersk 19225:Norwegian 19189:Old Norse 19010:Coloniero 18994:Alemannic 18967:Wymysorys 18835:Colognian 18830:Ripuarian 18752:Rotwelsch 18582:Midslands 18533:Zeelandic 18514:Hollandic 18488:Afrikaans 18460:Old Dutch 18286:Old Saxon 18185:Karrharde 18167:Goesharde 18148:Mainland 17881:philology 17708:3 January 17596:. Leiden 17276:(1): 53. 17070:. Winter. 17017:cite book 16666:, Gothic 16640:Orel 2003 16452:163783497 16024:See e.g. 15936:alveolars 15800:Neolithic 15596:*inkweraz 15581:Genitive 15487:Masculine 15478:Masculine 15367:3rd plur 15346:2nd plur 15325:1st plur 15302:2nd dual 15280:1st dual 15259:3rd sing 15238:2nd sing 15203:1st sing 15171:3rd plur 15142:2nd plur 15118:1st plur 15087:2nd dual 15046:1st dual 15031:nemaidau? 15001:3rd sing 14986:nemaizau? 14956:2nd sing 14915:1st sing 14795:laizijaną 14779:grōtijaną 14672:baugijaną 14656:raizijaną 14640:baitijaną 14584:denominal 14577:Icelandic 14569:Old Norse 14486:Afrikaans 14443:deflexion 14210:Masculine 14195:Masculine 14105:(lacking 14004:blindōmiz 13964:blindaizō 13941:blindōmaz 13878:blindōnǫ̂ 13870:blindanǫ̂ 13862:blindōniz 13854:blindiniz 13760:blindōniz 13749:blindaniz 13690:blinda-tō 13658:Masculine 13643:Masculine 13628:Masculine 13613:Masculine 13299:Nouns in 13291:Nouns in 12882:i > ī 12842:e > i 12785:o > u 12782:o > u 12346:(however 12123:Dental + 12100:+ nasal: 11958:*bringaną 11841:. Hence: 11778:Elfdalian 11776:. Modern 11671:Old Norse 11357:misdʰ-eh₂ 11339:) ← PGmc 11241:pēi-s-eh₂ 11030:Salic law 10958:) ← PIE * 10931:) ← PIE * 10843:wĺ̥kʷoHom 10765:→ Gothic 10755:salbōjaną 10725:laryngeal 10540:) before 10018:gubunanþi 9987:< PIE 9892:C_CC-ōþi 8728:Fricative 8320:(perhaps 8281:graphemes 8223:Phonology 8195:substrate 8193:The term 8090:druhtinaz 8019:Scythians 8014:vərəštuua 7982:'cloak', 7923:'flax'), 7907:Khotanese 7885:Hallstatt 7521:séngʷʰeti 7006:*swéh₂dus 6984:*dʰóh₁mos 6673:*pl̥h₁nós 6533:*takəyéti 6469:þagəyanþi 5986:*swéh₂dus 5955:*dʰóh₁mos 5917:'guest'; 5845:*gostiyiz 5790:'early'; 5715:*legyondi 5699:*legyondi 5675:*légʰyeti 5629:'I' > 5402:*gʷédyedi 5258:*hʷéhʷloz 5250:*hʷéhʷlos 5242:*kʷékʷlos 5227:*rékʷezez 5219:*rékʷeses 5188:*hʷegʷlā́ 5180:*hʷehʷlā́ 4996:*sóngʷʰos 4919:*dʰóh₁mos 4727:*h₁dóntm̥ 4546:'captive' 4022:*gʷʰuntís 4014:*gʷʰn̥tís 4006:*gʷʰéntis 3959:*gʷm̥téys 3814:*sámədʰos 3538:*h₁dóntm̥ 3474:'command' 3447:*káydstis 3439:*káyd-tis 3420:'certain' 3197:sonorants 3144:*gʰh₁yéti 3136:*ǵʰh₁yéti 3026:*bʰlóh₃mō 3018:*bʰléh₃mō 2732:regarded 2695:Phylogeny 2690:Solutions 2673:Evolution 2649:Thervingi 2249:) is the 2082:Practices 1901:Yarsanism 1711:Albanians 1691:East Asia 1678:Scythians 1670:Phrygians 1663:Paeonians 1656:Illyrians 1642:Thracians 1559:East Asia 1510:Armenians 1437:Hallstatt 1419:Chernoles 1360:Terramare 1350:Trzciniec 1317:Sintashta 1312:Andronovo 1213:Cernavodă 1186:East Asia 1141:Khvalynsk 881:Philology 791:Particles 677:Phonology 618:Liburnian 593:Tocharian 588:Anatolian 557:Nuristani 450:Languages 45:talk page 20060:stopping 20055:fronting 20007:Flapping 20002:Clusters 19512:Vandalic 19455:Gutnish 19260:Vikværsk 19240:Sognamål 19230:Bergensk 19080:Cimbrian 19048:Bavarian 19005:Alsatian 18952:Lusatian 18888:Palatine 18578:Amelands 18455:Frankish 18345:Sallaans 18327:Gronings 18178:Southern 18171:Northern 18162:Halligen 18111:Insular 17928:dialects 17814:Archived 17683:(2006). 17447:(1959). 17379:Language 17296:But see 16815:cite web 16576:Language 16467:Language 16389:Language 16031:Language 16029:(1984). 15881:Language 15735:See also 15721:English 15599:*izweraz 15590:*unseraz 15587:*unkeraz 15490:Feminine 15481:Feminine 15470:Singular 15461:Singular 15452:Singular 15429:Pronouns 15407:nemandaz 15193:nemandau 15111:nemadiz? 15102:nemaidiz 15061:nemandai 14912:Present 14904:Passive 14898:Passive 14860:), e.g. 14854:Sanskrit 14752:fōrijaną 14681:brinnaną 14588:deverbal 14559:optative 14552:optative 14439:Sanskrit 14313:Genitive 14220:Feminine 14205:Feminine 14183:Singular 14071:, neut. 13988:blindōnē 13980:blindinē 13956:blindanō 13925:blindōni 13917:blindini 13823:Genitive 13799:blindōnų 13791:blindanų 13783:blindanz 13775:blindanǭ 13735:*blindô 13668:Feminine 13653:Feminine 13638:Feminine 13623:Feminine 13601:Singular 13591:Singular 13533:gastimiz 13525:wulfamiz 13502:gastimaz 13486:wulfamaz 13463:gastijǫ̂ 13432:Genitive 13370:Vocative 13319:Singular 13309:Singular 13143:Sanskrit 13131:Sanskrit 13111:Sanskrit 13077:Holtijaz 11952:branhtaz 11923:, WFris 11845:English 11728:< PG 11707:< PG 11643:) while 11248:(s)peh₁i 10975:, i.e., 10884:wĺ̥kʷoes 10773:prosodic 10721:morpheme 10463:Rumoneis 10410:Rumoneis 10254:Open-mid 9927:sterran- 9856:C_CC-az 9853:C_C-n-ós 9850:genitive 9797:-verbs. 9717:'snow', 9710:'warm', 9692:grindaną 9637:singwaną 9621:The PIE 9367:*meh₂tḗr 9048:dentals 8995:labials 8961:plosives 8592:Alveolar 8582:Bilabial 8135:kuningas 8129:kuningaz 8096:ruhtinas 7953:kurtilaz 7933:xumællæg 7916:Ossetian 7869:'lead', 7855:'iron', 7831:ambahtaz 7784:), with 7718:*ḱónketi 7681:stayanþi 7646:'early' 7628:*h₂eyeri 7598:*-oyh₁m̥ 7535:singwidi 7528:sengʷidi 7431:minþingō 7424:menþingō 7414:Finnish 7391:Finnish 7273:*médʰyos 7251:*bʰéreti 7181:Finnish 7157:Finnish 7134:Finnish 6940:*hʷegʷlā 6918:snaygʷaz 6807:*bʰéroyd 6601:*tn̥h₂ús 6585:*ténh₂us 6541:þagəyiþi 6525:*takéh₁- 6483:þagjanþi 6476:þagyanþi 6453:*takéh₁- 6137:'then'; 5898:*gʰóstis 5864:'guests' 5827:becomes 5730:ligjanþi 5691:*legyidi 5408:*bédyedi 5322:*h₁senti 5314:*h₁sénti 5266:hwehwlaz 5235:rikwiziz 5207:> — 5167:> — 5118:> — 5083:*tewtéh₂ 5078:> — 5038:> — 5004:*sóngʷos 4881:*bʰéreti 4842:*kʷémeþi 4834:*gʷémeti 4635:*nokʷtm̥ 4518:*kh₂ptós 4043:'battle' 4030:*gʰuntís 3967:*gʷumtís 3951:*gʷémtis 3877:next to 3455:*káyssis 3430:Geminate 3401:*witstós 3393:*widstos 3385:*wid-tós 3298:*wúlkʷos 3290:*wĺ̥kʷos 3194:syllabic 2953:*mah₂tḗr 2945:*meh₂tḗr 2664:Frankish 2581:and the 2556:Urheimat 2543:Urheimat 2374:AD 90). 2367:Germania 2128:Scholars 2026:Germanic 1997:Scottish 1962:Thracian 1956:Illyrian 1950:Albanian 1938:European 1931:Armenian 1915:Ossetian 1909:Scythian 1894:Yazidism 1844:Buddhism 1835:Hinduism 1726:Norsemen 1636:Anatolia 1553:Iranians 1546:Iranians 1527:Iron Age 1502:Hittites 1455:Colchian 1448:Caucasus 1406:Iron Age 1375:Lusatian 1370:Urnfield 1294:Srubnaya 1289:Poltavka 1279:Catacomb 1218:Cucuteni 1173:Caucasus 990:Religion 975:Homeland 917:Behistun 897:Linear B 786:Numerals 781:Pronouns 706:Balkanic 653:Thracian 646:Phrygian 639:Paeonian 625:Messapic 611:Illyrian 523:Hellenic 518:Germanic 487:Armenian 479:Albanian 473:Albanoid 424:a series 422:Part of 307:ancestor 19869:Mercian 19864:Kentish 19775:Italics 19398:Scanian 19344:Swedish 19293:Faroese 19271:Nynorsk 19250:Valdris 19085:Mòcheno 19041:Swabian 18907:Hessian 18867:Hunsrik 18779:Western 18774:Eastern 18769:Yiddish 18719:creoles 18616:Bergish 18332:Drèents 18322:Tweants 18174:Central 18156:Mooring 18019:Frisian 17978:Kildare 17923:English 17429:Sources 16672:'coat'. 16563:: 9–55. 16444:1261448 15967:(ed.). 15940:dorsals 15932:dentals 15805:or the 15684:a fable 15631:*inkwiz 15616:Dative 15493:Neuter 15473:Plural 15420:numanaz 15317:nēmīdiz 15308:nēmudiz 15227:nēmį̄?? 15223:(?; or 15177:nemandi 15124:nemamaz 15093:nemadiz 15039:nemadau 15015:nemadai 14970:nemazai 14907:Active 14901:Active 14895:Active 14845:dis-sat 14817:werþaną 14804:preverb 14772:grētaną 14759:farjaną 14736:lagjaną 14729:ligjaną 14720:nazjaną 14665:beuganą 14602:to the 14573:Faroese 14547:wiljaną 14495:" and " 14143:þeim-si 14140:, dat. 14134:, gen. 14065:, dat. 13722:blindôz 13706:blindai 13682:blindaz 13424:gastinz 13408:wulfanz 13080:in the 13056:, e.g. 12613:, but * 12536:on the 12533:gestumz 12522:on the 11945:brą̄htæ 11938:brōchte 11921:brought 11772:before 11732:junhizô 11725:jų̄hizô 11651:(later 11647:became 11639:(later 11635:became 11596:-a, -u 11574:-u / — 11551:Gothic 11446:, long 11353:← PIE * 11333:, Goth 11315:: OEng 11288:arjanan 11244:← PIE * 11174:runes, 11122:(PGmc. 10904:← PIE * 10862:← PIE * 10839:← PIE * 10836:wúlpōom 10811:h₂éḱ-mō 10807:← PIE * 10762:salbôną 10699:-u / Ø 10676:Gothic 10578:before 10520:Short: 10506:teacher 10493:-ārijaz 10457:Rūmōnīz 10450:Rūmānīz 10417:Rūmōnīs 10304:Notes: 10219:overl. 10088:overl. 10079:overl. 10014:, 3pl. 10011:guppōþi 10003:and an 9984:sterraz 9980:, gen. 9966:guppōn- 9940:steran- 9920:steorra 9915:grading 9885:C_C-néh 9842:C_́C-ōn 9828:-stems 9740:sehwaną 9714:snaiwaz 9688:'god', 9666:sangwaz 9440:letters 9101:velars 8871:Notes: 8607:Labial– 8597:Palatal 8283:with a 8214:Semitic 8110:hringaz 8106:(later 8103:hrengaz 8008:wurstwą 8004:), and 7998:, gen. 7991:Avestan 7902:hanapiz 7889:La Tène 7859:lēkijaz 7726:hanhidi 7665:*steh₂- 7558:hringaz 7554:(later 7551:hrengaz 7475:(later 7456:þikkwiz 7449:þekkwiz 7442:deahkki 7427:(later 7404:(later 7368:*tréyes 7353:) > 7349:in the 7339:teiwaz- 7331:*deywós 7295:*néwios 7128:sōkija- 7124:(later 7121:sākija- 7110:Finnish 7100:Rūmōnīz 7093:Rūmānīz 7063:*-eh₂es 7041:*séh₁mō 6948:*hʷewlā 6925:snaiwaz 6837:*mélit- 6785:*déḱm̥d 6739:*h₁esmi 6555:þagaiþi 6548:þagəiþi 6503:*ph₂tḗr 6439:samədaz 6257:is lost 6235:*tehunt 6227:*tehumt 6219:*déḱm̥d 6204:*hundan 6196:*humdan 6188:*ḱm̥tóm 6059:*-eh₂es 6028:*séh₁mō 5994:*swātuz 5921:*kápros 5906:*gostiz 5853:*gostīz 5794:*tréyes 5748:*-oyint 5740:*-oyend 5707:*legidi 5606:before 5526:*-éteh₂ 5414:*bidiþi 5283:*h₁esmi 5275:*h₁ésmi 5147:*yungós 5139:*yunhós 5131:*yunkós 5099:*þewdā́ 5091:*þewþā́ 5012:sangwaz 4889:*béreþi 4850:kwimidi 4804:*wérkom 4796:*wérgom 4788:*wérǵom 4735:*tónþum 4688:*h₂ébōl 4651:*nohtum 4643:*noktum 4534:*həftós 4526:*kəptós 4480:remain. 4382:*h₂eǵs- 4271:*ph₂tḗr 3975:*gumtís 3913:*nókʷts 3783:*ph₂tḗr 3739:*n̥h₃wé 3731:*n̥h₃mé 3649:*-eh₂es 3602:*séh₁mō 3564:*h₁ésti 3546:*dóntum 3495:*séh₁mô 3487:*séh₁mō 3463:*káysis 3451:) > 3409:*wissós 3397:) > 3334:*wúrmis 3326:*wŕ̥mis 3272:'among' 3225:*kumtóm 3217:*ḱm̥tóm 3108:*wérgom 3100:*wérǵom 3072:*km̥tóm 3064:*ḱm̥tóm 2914:*h₂ánti 2906:*h₂énti 2620:to the 2595:Vistula 2483: 2472: 2463: 2441: 1 2362:Tacitus 2293:English 2285:contact 2260:of the 2256:of the 2060:Latvian 2018:Cornish 1888:Kurdish 1874:Persian 1866:Iranian 1858:Sikhism 1851:Jainism 1814:Hittite 1753:Iranian 1649:Dacians 1442:Jastorf 1365:Tumulus 1345:Únětice 1274:Yamnaya 1269:Chariot 1207:Usatovo 1148:Yamnaya 985:Society 969:Origins 902:Rigveda 754:Grammar 581:Extinct 571:Romance 550:Iranian 411:of the 376:Unicode 299:–200 AD 220:See why 124:scholar 19928:Vowels 19491:Gothic 19361:Danish 19265:Bokmål 18764:Yenish 18574:Bildts 18357:Veluws 18352:Urkers 18191:Strand 17915:Anglic 17763: 17744: 17725: 17699: 17661: 17608: 17575: 17560: 17470: 17414: 16938: 16913: 16888: 16863: 16729: 16596:409353 16594: 16510: 16487:411849 16485: 16450: 16442: 16409:411250 16407: 16361:162958 16359: 16217: 16162: 16131: 16096: 16071: 16037: 16008: 15975: 15915: 15901:408831 15899: 15780:Mannus 15771:framea 15682:wrote 15663:*imiz 15646:*imaz 15643:*immai 15637:*immai 15634:*izwiz 15625:*unsiz 15622:*unkiz 15611:*ezǫ̂ 15593:*þīnaz 15584:*mīnaz 15567:*izwiz 15484:Neuter 15467:Plural 15458:Plural 15394:nemaną 15220:nēmijų 15185:nemain 15156:nemaid 15132:nemaim 15069:nemaiw 15007:nimidi 14978:nemaiz 14962:nimizi 14943:nema-ų 14935:nemai? 14929:nemôi? 14873:nemaną 14822:clitic 14745:faraną 14713:nesaną 14649:rīsaną 14633:bītaną 14608:-j/ij- 14554:mood. 14501:ablaut 14493:strong 14473:/bʱuː/ 14419:, and 14398:þaimiz 14367:þaimaz 14359:þaizōi 14351:þammai 14344:Dative 14336:þaizǫ̂ 14328:þaizōz 14215:Neuter 14200:Neuter 14188:Plural 14137:þes-si 14089:(with 13886:Dative 13741:blindǭ 13730:blindô 13714:blindō 13698:blindō 13663:Neuter 13648:Neuter 13633:Neuter 13618:Neuter 13606:Plural 13596:Plural 13565:Gothic 13557:German 13549:strong 13478:wulfai 13471:Dative 13455:gastīz 13447:wulfǫ̂ 13362:gastīz 13354:gastiz 13338:wulfaz 13324:Plural 13314:Plural 13279:German 13175:plural 13173:, and 13141:, and 13062:*-ijaz 12621:> * 12617:> * 12609:> * 12586:(< 12575:(< 12542:Gothic 11932:brōhte 11926:brocht 11914:*tanþs 11738:jūhiza 11711:hanhaz 11704:hą̄haz 11398:'this' 11370:, OHG 11321:, OHG 11180:Eihwaz 11170:-like 10962:-eh₂ns 10877:wulfôz 10866:-eh₂es 10830:wulfôn 10823:wulfǫ̂ 10786:h₃ér-ō 10768:salbōn 10656:hwadrê 10613:niwjaz 10550:Long: 10469:A new 10443:Rōmānī 10402:Rōmānī 10378:; PIE 10350:, and 10330:, and 10213:short 10207:short 10082:short 10073:short 10041:Vowels 9959:gupfen 9953:gubōn- 9900:C_C-nh 9845:C_C-ō 9782:Finnic 9707:warmaz 9703:(e.g. 9681:(e.g. 9644:sungun 9566:after 9498:, and 9360:brōþēr 9346:accent 9267:stella 9265:) has 9253:, and 8587:Dental 8464:ogonek 8210:Basque 8161:lunnas 8148:lammas 8142:lambaz 8122:rõngas 8116:rengas 8029:marhaz 7959:kʷəræt 7920:gæn(æ) 7852:īsarną 7845:gīslaz 7838:brunjǭ 7809:Volcae 7804:walhaz 7757:Celtic 7688:stānþi 7544:rengas 7465:jievja 7346:teiva- 7310:niwjaz 7303:newyaz 7288:midjaz 7281:medyaz 7266:biridi 7259:beridi 7218:Early 7191:*lēgā- 7167:*kāpa- 7151:skrahō 7144:skrahā 7086:Rōmānī 7021:swōtuz 7014:swātuz 6956:hweulō 6880:milid- 6866:melid- 6852:melid- 6829:*mélid 6815:berayt 6793:tehunt 6695:fullaz 6688:fullos 6681:fulnos 6645:þunnuz 6446:samdaz 6356:Nasal 6324:*-oHom 6294:*-eh₂m 6093:umlaut 6024:(â) — 6002:swōtuz 5971:*dāmaz 5963:*dōmoz 5929:hafraz 5914:gastiz 5861:gastīz 5802:þreyiz 5779:*ayiri 5771:*áyeri 5756:*-oint 5723:ligiþi 5443:*-owos 5338:*sendi 5330:*senþi 5196:hweulō 5155:jungaz 5059:*ubéri 5051:*uféri 5043:*upéri 5015:'song' 4958:*gʰáns 4927:*dṓmos 4897:biridi 4615:/gʷʰt/ 4593:*ohtṓw 4585:*oktṓw 4577:*oḱtṓw 4542:haftaz 4474:, and 4367:*háþus 4359:*kátus 4279:*fəþḗr 4198:*unswé 4190:*n̥swé 4182:*n̥smé 4131:*tósyo 4096:*wóyde 4039:gunþiz 3984:kumþiz 3921:*nókts 3859:*ékʷos 3851:*ékwos 3843:*éḱwos 3822:samdaz 3791:*pətḗr 3747:*ungwé 3625:*-oHom 3618:hiatus 3471:haisiz 3417:wissaz 3342:wurmiz 3306:wulfaz 3261:*untér 3253:*n̥tér 2990:*h₃órō 2982:*h₃érō 2838:Gothic 2832: 2830: 2822: 2820: 2812: 2810: 2802: 2800: 2788: 2786: 2751:wóyd-e 2660:Moesia 2622:Dniepr 2607:Slavic 2579:Danube 2491: 2480: 2470: 2460: 2433: 2422: 2411: 2400: 2392:Celtic 2075:Slavic 2054:Baltic 2004:Breton 1984:Celtic 1968:Dacian 1924:Others 1704:Europe 1577:Europe 1571:Yuezhi 1425:Europe 1412:Steppe 1323:Europe 1180:Maykop 1134:Samara 1090:Kurgan 907:Avesta 689:Ablaut 685:Accent 632:Mysian 604:Dacian 565:Italic 513:Celtic 505:Slavic 498:Baltic 466:Extant 280:Region 126: 119: 112: 105: 97: 19605:South 19556:North 19166:North 19150:North 18492:Kaaps 18483:Dutch 18130:Amrum 18071:Weser 17993:Scots 17823:Table 17230:(PDF) 17223:(PDF) 16800:(PDF) 16793:(PDF) 16719:(PDF) 16669:paida 16663:Pfoad 16657:pfeit 16592:JSTOR 16483:JSTOR 16448:S2CID 16440:JSTOR 16405:JSTOR 16357:S2CID 16337:(PDF) 16065:69–70 15897:JSTOR 15757:Notes 15751:Suebi 15712:* 15698:* 15640:*ezōi 15605:*ezōz 15576:*inz 15564:*inkw 15540:*ijō 15537:*ijōz 15418:* 15405:* 15392:* 15381:nēmīn 15379:* 15373:nēmun 15371:* 15360:nēmīd 15358:* 15352:nēmud 15350:* 15339:nēmīm 15337:* 15331:nēmum 15329:* 15315:* 15306:* 15295:nēmīw 15293:* 15284:* 15271:* 15263:* 15252:nēmīz 15250:* 15242:* 15225:* 15218:* 15207:* 15200:Past 15191:* 15183:* 15175:* 15164:nimid 15162:* 15154:* 15148:nimid 15146:* 15130:* 15122:* 15109:* 15100:* 15091:* 15075:* 15067:* 15059:* 15052:nemōz 15050:* 15037:* 15029:* 15023:nemai 15021:* 15013:* 15005:* 14992:* 14984:* 14976:* 14968:* 14960:* 14941:* 14933:* 14927:* 14919:* 14871:* 14858:Latin 14815:* 14808:* 14793:* 14786:* 14777:* 14770:* 14757:* 14750:* 14743:* 14734:* 14727:* 14718:* 14711:* 14702:* 14695:* 14686:* 14679:* 14670:* 14663:* 14654:* 14647:* 14638:* 14631:* 14545:* 14514:*dʰeH 14431:Latin 14427:Greek 14407:Verbs 14396:* 14390:þaizō 14388:* 14382:þana? 14380:* 14365:* 14357:* 14349:* 14334:* 14326:* 14318:* 14303:* 14295:* 14287:* 14272:* 14264:* 14256:* 14248:* 14240:* 14232:* 14179:Case 14164:those 14160:these 14156:those 14152:these 14131:sa-si 14068:himma 14054:* 14047:* 14040:* 14033:* 14026:* 14019:* 14002:* 13994:* 13986:* 13978:* 13970:* 13962:* 13954:* 13939:* 13931:* 13923:* 13915:* 13907:* 13899:* 13891:* 13876:* 13868:* 13860:* 13852:* 13844:* 13836:* 13828:* 13813:* 13805:* 13797:* 13789:* 13781:* 13773:* 13758:* 13747:* 13739:* 13728:* 13720:* 13712:* 13704:* 13696:* 13688:* 13680:* 13575:Case 13531:* 13523:* 13517:wulfō 13515:* 13500:* 13494:gastī 13492:* 13484:* 13476:* 13461:* 13453:* 13445:* 13437:* 13422:* 13416:gastį 13414:* 13406:* 13400:wulfą 13398:* 13385:gasti 13383:* 13375:* 13360:* 13352:* 13344:* 13336:* 13287:Case 13272:Nouns 13139:Latin 13135:Greek 13127:Latin 13109:, or 13107:Latin 13103:Greek 12936:ijaz 12933:ijaz 12648:Goth 12615:-anaz 12590:-anaz 12588:* 12577:* 12519:horna 11950:* 11943:* 11906:* 11890:tooth 11883:*gans 11875:* 11847:goose 11766:weary 11759:* 11730:* 11723:* 11709:* 11702:* 11524:-unh- 11520:-inh- 11516:-anh- 11512:-ų̄h- 11508:-į̄h- 11504:-ą̄h- 11500:-unh- 11496:-anh- 11492:-inh- 11385:* 11378:* 11350:mizdō 11348:* 11343:mē₂dō 11341:* 11336:mizdō 11330:meord 11324:miata 11303:e-ar- 11301:* 11286:* 11281:erien 11262:with 11239:* 11234:fē₂rō 11232:* 11215:fiara 11176:Ehwaz 11149:* 11124:* 11035:malth 10994:moras 10935:-eh₂m 10875:* 10849:* 10828:* 10821:* 10804:aḱmō̃ 10802:* 10793:akmuõ 10777:* 10760:* 10753:* 10751:(cf. 10654:* 10611:* 10574:> 10564:/ɛːi/ 10560:/ɛːu/ 10556:/ɔːi/ 10552:/ɔːu/ 10502:baker 10491:* 10487:-aja- 10455:* 10453:> 10448:* 10446:> 10324:/ɑ̃ː/ 10225:Close 10216:long 10210:long 10196:Front 10192:Type 10135:eː~ɛː 10094:Close 10085:long 10076:long 10062:Front 10058:Type 10021:< 10016:* 10009:* 9982:* 9977:sterō 9975:* 9964:* 9951:* 9938:* 9933:stera 9925:* 9904:-énti 9778:Samic 9754:sēwīn 9752:* 9747:sēgun 9745:* 9738:* 9728:> 9721:neurô 9719:* 9712:* 9705:* 9690:* 9683:* 9664:* 9642:* 9635:* 9580:waurþ 9578:* 9573:waurd 9375:mōdēr 9373:* 9358:* 9233:> 9216:> 9203:> 9194:> 9185:> 9176:> 9168:> 9160:> 9140:> 9127:> 9118:> 9109:> 9087:> 9074:> 9065:> 9056:> 9034:> 9021:> 9012:> 9003:> 8845:Trill 8616:Nasal 8609:velar 8602:Velar 8578:Type 8471:/õːː/ 8155:lunaz 8153:* 8140:* 8127:* 8108:* 8101:* 8088:* 8027:* 8006:* 8001:pathō 7995:pantā 7986:paþaz 7984:* 7979:paidō 7977:* 7964:* 7951:* 7946:čapiš 7938:* 7925:* 7911:kaṃhā 7900:* 7898:came 7894:From 7878:* 7873:Rīnaz 7871:* 7866:laudą 7864:* 7857:* 7850:* 7843:* 7836:* 7829:* 7811:with 7802:* 7779:* 7772:* 7765:* 7731:* 7724:* 7686:* 7684:> 7679:* 7658:/ɑjɑ/ 7641:* 7639:> 7636:ayiri 7634:* 7619:* 7617:> 7613:*-ayų 7609:> 7606:-oyum 7604:* 7556:* 7549:* 7533:* 7531:> 7526:* 7519:* 7512:* 7497:> 7479:hiują 7477:* 7472:heują 7470:* 7454:* 7447:* 7429:* 7422:* 7408:þiljō 7406:* 7401:þeljō 7399:* 7394:teljo 7381:* 7379:> 7376:þreiz 7374:* 7357:Tīwaz 7355:* 7344:* 7337:* 7308:* 7306:> 7301:* 7286:* 7284:> 7279:* 7264:* 7262:> 7257:* 7229:> 7205:lieko 7199:lēgō- 7197:* 7184:lieka 7175:hōfa- 7173:* 7160:kavio 7149:* 7142:* 7126:* 7119:* 7114:hake- 7098:* 7091:* 7076:* 7074:> 7069:* 7054:* 7052:> 7047:* 7034:/ɔːː/ 7031:> 7028:/ɑːː/ 7019:* 7017:> 7012:* 6999:dōmaz 6997:* 6995:> 6992:dāmaz 6990:* 6974:> 6954:* 6952:> 6944:> 6923:* 6921:> 6916:* 6893:> 6878:* 6871:* 6869:> 6864:* 6857:* 6855:> 6850:* 6845:melit 6843:* 6822:berai 6820:* 6818:> 6813:* 6800:tehun 6798:* 6796:> 6791:* 6761:* 6759:> 6755:*emmi 6751:> 6747:*ezmi 6728:> 6717:polnē 6715:* 6710:> 6707:pulna 6705:* 6693:* 6691:> 6686:* 6684:> 6679:* 6662:> 6652:þunnī 6650:* 6643:* 6641:> 6638:þunnī 6636:* 6631:þunus 6629:* 6627:> 6624:þunwī 6622:* 6617:þunus 6615:* 6613:> 6597:> 6575:> 6553:* 6551:> 6546:* 6544:> 6539:* 6518:fadēr 6516:* 6514:> 6511:fədēr 6509:* 6493:> 6481:* 6479:> 6474:* 6472:> 6467:* 6444:* 6442:> 6437:* 6401:* 6399:> 6396:dedą̄ 6394:* 6392:> 6389:dedę̄ 6387:* 6385:> 6382:dedēn 6380:* 6367:/ɑ̃ː/ 6346:* 6344:> 6336:> 6315:* 6313:> 6308:* 6306:> 6298:> 6285:* 6283:> 6275:> 6243:tehun 6241:* 6239:> 6231:> 6212:hundą 6210:* 6208:> 6200:> 6176:> 6161:* 6159:> 6154:* 6152:> 6147:* 6132:* 6130:> 6125:* 6108:> 6073:* 6071:> 6050:* 6048:> 6044:*sēmâ 6040:> 6036:*sēmô 6021:/ɑːː/ 6018:> 6015:/aːː/ 6009:/oːː/ 6000:* 5998:> 5979:dōmaz 5977:* 5975:> 5967:> 5945:> 5927:* 5912:* 5910:> 5888:> 5859:* 5857:> 5849:> 5824:/iji/ 5814:* 5812:> 5809:þreiz 5807:* 5805:> 5800:* 5785:* 5783:> 5762:* 5760:> 5752:> 5728:* 5721:* 5719:> 5703:> 5664:> 5645:* 5638:* 5631:* 5625:*éǵh₂ 5593:* 5591:> 5583:> 5579:*-iys 5571:*-éys 5548:* 5546:> 5542:*-iþā 5538:> 5534:*-eþā 5509:> 5492:* 5490:> 5486:*-owz 5478:*-ews 5466:> 5449:* 5431:> 5428:/owo/ 5411:> 5405:> 5385:> 5360:sinþi 5358:* 5351:* 5346:sindi 5344:* 5342:> 5334:> 5305:* 5303:> 5299:*ezmi 5295:> 5291:*esmi 5264:* 5262:> 5254:> 5233:* 5231:> 5223:> 5194:* 5192:> 5184:> 5153:* 5151:> 5143:> 5135:> 5107:þeudō 5105:* 5103:> 5095:> 5067:ubiri 5065:* 5063:> 5055:> 5010:* 5008:> 4991:() — 4985:> 4982:/gʷʰ/ 4972:* 4970:> 4966:*gáns 4953:() — 4947:> 4935:dōmaz 4933:* 4931:> 4914:() — 4908:> 4895:* 4893:> 4867:> 4848:* 4846:> 4823:> 4812:werką 4810:* 4808:> 4800:> 4777:> 4764:* 4762:> 4758:*hʷód 4750:*kʷód 4743:tanþų 4741:* 4739:> 4716:> 4704:aplaz 4702:* 4700:> 4696:*ápōl 4677:> 4659:nahtų 4657:* 4655:> 4647:> 4624:> 4621:/kʷt/ 4609:/gʷt/ 4601:ahtōu 4599:* 4597:> 4589:> 4566:> 4557:/gʰt/ 4540:* 4538:> 4530:> 4507:> 4498:/bʰt/ 4477:/skʷ/ 4448:* 4446:> 4442:*hʷód 4434:*kʷód 4417:> 4404:* 4402:> 4398:*ahs- 4394:> 4390:*aks- 4375:haþuz 4373:* 4371:> 4342:> 4329:* 4327:> 4298:> 4287:fadēr 4285:* 4283:> 4254:> 4220:* 4218:(not 4212:* 4210:> 4202:> 4194:> 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