1233:
1039:
1361:
1082:
167:
294:
5831:(2006:154) notes "the languages of the Germanic group in the Old period are much closer than has previously been noted. Indeed it would not be inappropriate to regard them as dialects of one language. They are undoubtedly far closer one to another than are the various dialects of modern Chinese, for example. A reasonable modern analogy might be Arabic, where considerable dialectical diversity exists but within the concept of a single Arabic language." In:
1851:
1304:
1007:
unusual innovations that virtually force us to posit a West
Germanic clade. On the other hand, the internal subgrouping of both North Germanic and West Germanic is very messy, and it seems clear that each of those subfamilies diversified into a network of dialects that remained in contact for a considerable period of time (in some cases right up to the present).
902:), linguists know almost nothing about "Weser–Rhine Germanic" and "Elbe Germanic". In fact, both terms were coined in the 1940s to refer to groups of archaeological findings, rather than linguistic features. Only later were the terms applied to hypothetical dialectal differences within both regions. Even today, the very small number of
1055:
If indeed Proto-West
Germanic existed, it must have been between the 2nd and 7th centuries. Until the late 2nd century AD, the language of runic inscriptions found in Scandinavia and in Northern Germany were so similar that Proto-North Germanic and the Western dialects in the south were still part of
1072:
that occurred mostly during the 7th century AD in what is now southern
Germany, Austria, and Switzerland can be considered the end of the linguistic unity among the West Germanic dialects, although its effects on their own should not be overestimated. Bordering dialects very probably continued to be
974:
among the
Germanic languages spoken in Central Europe, not reaching those spoken in Scandinavia or reaching them much later. Rhotacism, for example, was largely complete in West Germanic while North Germanic runic inscriptions still clearly distinguished the two phonemes. There is also evidence that
1006:
That North
Germanic is ... a unitary subgroup is completely obvious, as all of its dialects shared a long series of innovations, some of them very striking. That the same is true of West Germanic has been denied, but I will argue in vol. ii that all the West Germanic languages share several highly
375:
English is by far the most-spoken West
Germanic language, with more than 1 billion speakers worldwide. Within Europe, the three most prevalent West Germanic languages are English, German, and Dutch. Frisian, spoken by about 450,000 people, constitutes a fourth distinct variety of West Germanic. The
5207:
Note that some of the shown similarities of
Frisian and English vis-à-vis Dutch and German are secondary and not due to a closer relationship between them. For example, the plural of the word for "sheep" was originally unchanged in all four languages and still is in some Dutch dialects and a great
809:
which was ancestral only to later West
Germanic languages. In 2002, Gert Klingenschmitt presented a series of pioneering reconstructions of Proto-West Germanic morphological paradigmas and new views on some early West Germanic phonological changes, and in 2013 the first monographic analysis and
792:
Since at least the early 20th century, a number of morphological, phonological, and lexical archaisms and innovations have been identified as specifically West
Germanic. Since then, individual Proto-West Germanic lexemes have also been reconstructed. Yet, there was a long dispute if these West
453:
were already unable to communicate fluently by around the 3rd century AD. As a result of the substantial progress in the study of Proto-West
Germanic in the early 21st century, there is a growing consensus that East and West Germanic indeed would have been mutually unintelligible at that time,
1016:
Several scholars have published reconstructions of Proto-West Germanic morphological paradigms and many authors have reconstructed individual Proto-West Germanic morphological forms or lexemes. The first comprehensive reconstruction of the Proto-West Germanic language was published in 2013 by
1063:
set in. By the end of the 6th century, the area in which West Germanic languages were spoken, at least by the upper classes, had tripled compared to the year 400. This caused an increasing disintegration of the West Germanic language and finally the formation of the daughter languages.
759:
not existing in North Germanic and/or East Germanic – archaisms as well as common neologisms. Some lexemes have specific meanings in West Germanic and there are specific innovations in word formation and derivational morphology, for example neologisms ending with modern English
995:. However, there are also a number of common archaisms in West Germanic shared by neither Old Norse nor Gothic. Some authors who support the concept of a West Germanic proto-language claim that, not only shared innovations can require the existence of a linguistic
1911:
The following table shows a list of various linguistic features and their extent among the West Germanic languages, organized roughly from northwest to southeast. Some may only appear in the older languages but are no longer apparent in the modern languages.
1067:
It has been argued that, judging by their nearly identical syntax, the West Germanic dialects were closely enough related to have been mutually intelligible up to the 7th century. Over the course of this period, the dialects diverged successively. The
693:
in most verbs, particularly in Old High German. This implies the same for West Germanic, whereas in East and North Germanic many of these alternations (in Gothic almost all of them) had been levelled out analogically by the time of the earliest texts.
433:
Germanic. In some cases, their exact relation was difficult to determine from the sparse evidence of runic inscriptions, so that some individual varieties have been difficult to classify. This is especially true for the unattested
561:). For more than 150 years there has been a scientific debate on the best explanation of these difficult forms. Today, some linguists, beginning with J. v. Fierlinger in 1885 and followed by R. Löwe (1907), O. Behaghel (1922),
5579:
Meid, Wolfgang (1971). "Das germanische Präteritum", Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachwissenschaft, p. 13; Euler, Wolfram/Badenheuer, Konrad (2009), "Sprache und Herkunft der Germanen", pp. 168–171, London/Berlin: Inspiration Un
6339:(West Germanic: from its Emergence in the 3rd up until its Dissolution in the 7th Century CE: Analyses and Reconstruction). 267 p., in German with English summary, 2nd edition, Verlag Inspiration Unlimited, Berlin 2022,
969:
Under that view, the properties that the West Germanic languages have in common, separate from the North Germanic languages, are not necessarily inherited from a "Proto-West Germanic" language, but may have spread by
999:, but also that there are archaisms that cannot be explained simply as retentions later lost in the North or East, because this assumption can produce contradictions with attested features of the other branches.
2723:
The phonological system of the West Germanic branching as reconstructed is mostly similar to that of Proto-Germanic, with some changes in the categorization and phonetic realization of some phonemes.
2720:
The existence of a unified Proto-West Germanic language is debated. Features which are common to West Germanic languages may be attributed either to common inheritance or to areal effects.
909:
from the area, many of them illegible, unclear or consisting only of one word, often a name, is insufficient to identify linguistic features specific to the two supposed dialect groups.
2331:
The following table shows some comparisons of consonant development in the respective dialect/language (online examples though) continuum, showing the gradually growing partake in the
6685:
912:
Evidence that East Germanic split off before the split between North and West Germanic comes from a number of linguistic innovations common to North and West Germanic, including:
1174:, they are not mutually intelligible. The southernmost varieties have completed the second sound shift, whereas the northern dialects remained unaffected by the consonant shift.
6591:(1998). "Die Sprache(n) der Germanen in der Zeit der Völkerwanderung" (The Language(s) of the Germanic Peoples during the Migration Period), in E. Koller & H. Laitenberger,
1221:, settled in Britain following the end of Roman rule in the island. Once in Britain, these Germanic peoples eventually developed a shared cultural and linguistic identity as
684:
A relative chronology of about 20 sound changes from Proto-Northwest Germanic to Proto-West Germanic (some of them only regional) has been published by Don Ringe in 2014.
594:
3453:
The following table compares a number of Frisian, English, Scots, Yola, Dutch, Limburgish, German and Afrikaans words with common West Germanic (or older) origin. The
894:
Although there is quite a bit of knowledge about North Sea Germanic or Anglo-Frisian (because of the characteristic features of its daughter languages, Anglo-Saxon/
805:
made the conviction grow that a West Germanic proto-language did exist. But up until the 1990s, some scholars doubted that there was once a Proto-West Germanic
813:
Today, there is a scientific consensus on what Don Ringe stated in 2012, that "these changes amount to a massive evidence for a valid West Germanic clade".
6352:
Zur deutschen conjugation. (1. Die II. ps. sg. perf. starker flexion im westgerm. 2. Praesentia der wurzelclasse. 3. Zur westgerm. flexion des verb. subst.)
7268:
8861:
8823:
8810:
8802:
6649:
5991:
8818:
8838:
2731:
In addition to the particular changes described above, some notable differences in the consonant system of West Germanic from Proto-Germanic are:
6470:
1189:
derives, is in the extreme northern part of Germany between the Danish border and the Baltic coast. The area of the Saxons (parts of today's
8678:
7643:
6721:
6635:
In Irma Hyvärinen et al. (Hg.), Etymologie, Entlehnungen und Entwicklungen. Mémoires de la Soc. Néophil. de Helsinki 63. Helsinki. 385–396.
7441:
1321:
8853:
8828:
2918:
The creation of a new short /o/ phoneme, from the lowering of /u/ in initial syllables before /a/, and the reduction of word-final /ɔː/
1232:
6690:
6643:
6440:
6265:
2336:
2332:
1872:
1325:
6005:
1158:
from the other West Germanic languages. By early modern times, the span had extended into considerable differences, ranging from
820:
languages, divided into four main dialects: North Germanic, and the three groups conventionally called "West Germanic", namely:
8787:
6515:
In Heinrich Beck et al. (eds.), Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde (2. Auflage), Band 15, 432–439. Berlin: De Gruyter.
8926:
8907:
8887:
6380:
6329:
5786:
441:
Until the late 20th century, some scholars claimed that all Germanic languages remained mutually intelligible throughout the
8795:
7258:
6344:
816:
After East Germanic broke off (an event usually dated to the 2nd or 1st century BC), the remaining Germanic languages, the
484:
innovations or archaisms not found in North and East Germanic. Examples of West Germanic phonological particularities are:
6286:
Current trends in West Germanic etymological lexicography: proceedings of the Symposium held in Amsterdam 12–13 June 1989
5857:
Map based on: Meineke, Eckhard & Schwerdt, Judith, Einführung in das Althochdeutsche, Paderborn/Zürich 2001, pp. 209.
8170:
987:
was lowered before it was shortened in West Germanic, but in North Germanic the shortening occurred first, resulting in
6572:
5807:
574:
6337:
Das Westgermanische – von der Herausbildung im 3. bis zur Aufgliederung im 7. Jahrhundert – Analyse und Rekonstruktion
6318:
Das Westgermanische – von der Herausbildung im 3. bis zur Aufgliederung im 7. Jahrhundert – Analyse und Rekonstruktion
5775:
Das Westgermanische – von der Herausbildung im 3. bis zur Aufgliederung im 7. Jahrhundert — Analyse und Rekonstruktion
6508:. Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachwissenschaft. (2nd edition 1985), 311p., Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachwissenschaft.
5932:
5842:
5316:
5258:
1898:
1347:
573:(1964), W. Meid (1971), E. Hill (2004), K.-H. Mottausch and W. Euler (1992ff.) explain this ending as a relic of the
1880:
8957:
8671:
6714:
8775:
6578:
5779:
West Germanic: From its Emergence in the 3rd Century to its Split in the 7th Century: Analyses and Reconstruction
5304:
793:
Germanic characteristics had to be explained with the existence of a West Germanic proto-language or rather with
6458:
Nordgermanen und Alemannen: Studien zur germanischen und frühdeutschen Sprachgeschichte, Stammes- und Volkskunde
5957:
1876:
1329:
6395:
Place-Names and Settlement History. Aspects of Selected Topographical Elements on the Continent and in England
8537:
6506:
Old English and the Continental Germanic languages. A Survey of Morphological and Phonological Interrelations
6321:
1038:
8698:
8567:
7737:
7699:
7684:
2065:
1676:
1561:
562:
530:, becomes in all positions. (The two other fricatives and are retained.). This must have occurred after
438:; today, most scholars classify Jutish as a West Germanic variety with several features of North Germanic.
8812:
8804:
7011:
3065:
3060:
3055:
3041:
3036:
3029:
3024:
3012:
3007:
3000:
2995:
951:
947:
921:
658:
654:
644:
621:
617:
613:
609:
527:
8962:
8664:
8547:
8407:
7757:
7716:
7706:
6707:
6610:
6453:
6355:
6278:
5828:
5462:
Crist, Sean: An Analysis of *z loss in West Germanic. Linguistic Society of America, Annual Meeting, 2002
2305:
1710:
1701:
1365:
1151:
1144:
1069:
1371:
Divisions between subfamilies of continental Germanic languages are rarely precisely defined; most form
6923:
6608:
Stifter, David (2009). "The Proto-Germanic shift *ā > ō and early Germanic linguistic contacts", in
1693:
1566:
1503:
1364:
Grouping of the main Germanic tribes (which can be equated with their languages/dialects) according to
1059:
Sometime after that, the split into West and North Germanic occurred. By the 4th and 5th centuries the
8264:
5835:
Comparative Syntax of Old English and Old Icelandic: Linguistic, Literary and Historical Implications
2226:
784:) are specific to the West Germanic languages and are thus seen as a Proto West Germanic innovation.
8733:
8542:
8496:
8491:
8415:
8025:
8009:
7888:
7747:
7638:
7633:
6490:
2750:
1861:
1593:
1159:
943:
843:
748:
650:
477:
430:
333:
139:
99:
8713:
8703:
8481:
8420:
8340:
8013:
7963:
7263:
7081:
6837:
6765:
1865:
1571:
1458:
1400:
1314:
834:
426:
337:
89:
58:
8603:
8323:
7721:
8486:
7968:
7934:
7552:
7368:
7228:
7068:
6963:
1686:
1628:
1527:
1448:
6359:
8745:
8644:
8608:
7876:
7869:
7821:
7591:
7562:
7531:
7494:
7419:
7176:
7089:
6950:
6912:
6640:
The Pan-West Germanic Isoglosses and the Subrelationships of West Germanic to Other Branches.
6553:
In Philomen Probert and Andreas Willi (eds.), Laws and Rules on Indo-European, 33–42. Oxford.
1830:
1783:
1495:
1471:
1155:
851:
689:
278:
8109:
6984:
5973:
5755:. Volume I. From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic, Oxford University Press, p. 213-214.
1085:
The approximate extent of the continental West Germanic languages in the early 10th century:
8894:
8755:
8613:
8593:
8562:
8435:
8295:
8041:
7859:
7451:
7278:
7240:
7235:
7109:
7056:
6814:
6412:
Im Vorfeld des Althochdeutschen und Altsächsischen (Prior to Old High German and Old Saxon)
1577:
1551:
1546:
1466:
1394:
899:
895:
884:
720:
8269:
6482:
Die reduplizierenden Verben im Nord- und Westgermanischen: Versuch eines Raum-Zeit-Modells
6375:(Oxford Studies in Diachronic and Historical Linguistics), Oxford University Press, 2023.
2339:, to avoid confusion via orthographical differences. The realisation of will be ignored.
8:
8723:
8552:
7788:
7742:
7676:
7429:
7076:
6989:
6787:
6236:
1705:
1453:
1360:
1081:
697:
A common morphological innovation of the West Germanic languages is the development of a
8099:
7944:
7191:
5208:
deal of German dialects. Many other similarities, however, are indeed old inheritances.
585:. Sceptical about this explanation – and mostly explaining these forms as influenced by
8843:
8738:
8687:
8598:
8522:
8450:
8440:
8395:
8157:
8084:
7981:
7826:
7801:
7796:
7689:
7517:
7402:
7223:
7001:
6996:
6975:
6936:
6740:
6730:
6475:
Das germanische Praeteritum. Indogermanische Grundlagen und Entfaltung im Germanischen
6432:
6271:
3454:
2908:
Some notable differences in the vowel system of West Germanic from Proto-Germanic are:
1826:
1812:
1738:
1722:
1717:
1681:
1657:
1541:
1513:
1422:
1416:
1390:
1190:
1167:
906:
855:
838:
830:
825:
817:
798:
727:
325:
201:
183:
84:
63:
7752:
6535:
6499:
Untersuchungen zur Vorgeschichte des germanischen starken Verbs. Die Rolle des Aorists
6388:
Das germanische Verb für 'tun' und die Ausgänge des germanischen schwachen Präteritums
6246:
5981:
5887:
2. Halbband. de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 1983, ISBN 3-11-009571-8, pp. 807–900.
5390:
Löwe, R.: Kuhns Zeitschrift vol. 40, p. 267; quoted from Hirt (1932 / vol. 2), p. 152
598:
570:
157:
8833:
8572:
8371:
8287:
8280:
8235:
8179:
7939:
7929:
7912:
7907:
7811:
7573:
7373:
7334:
7314:
7152:
7044:
7026:
6878:
6568:
6376:
6340:
6325:
5977:
5953:
5928:
5838:
5803:
5782:
5764:
H. F. Nielsen (1981, 2001), G. Klingenschmitt (2002) and K.-H. Mottausch (1998, 2011)
5735:
5312:
5254:
2091:
1797:
1787:
1633:
1443:
1372:
1255:
1132:
1126: Line marking the boundaries of the continental West Germanic dialect continuum.
709:
353:
251:
6633:
Place-adverbs and the development of Proto-Germanic long *ē1 in early West Germanic.
983:
occurred first in West Germanic and spread to North Germanic later since word-final
340:
languages). The West Germanic branch is classically subdivided into three branches:
8899:
8527:
8318:
8252:
8208:
8203:
8163:
8152:
8144:
7949:
7917:
7864:
7853:
7766:
7475:
7414:
7204:
7186:
7021:
6782:
6774:
6593:
Suevos – Schwaben. Das Königreich der Sueben auf der Iberischen Halbinsel (411–585)
6583:
Old English and Its Closest Relatives. A Survey of the Earliest Germanic Languages.
5995:
2739:
1822:
1807:
1779:
1410:
1405:
1060:
971:
903:
859:
558:
442:
381:
345:
242:
210:
192:
8364:
5883:
In: Werner Besch, Ulrich Knoop, Wolfgang Putschke, Herbert Ernst Wiegand (Hrsg.):
5706:
Don Ringe (2012): Cladistic Methodology and West Germanic – Yale Linguistics, p. 6
1002:
The debate on the existence of a Proto-West Germanic clade was summarized (2006):
8728:
8557:
8517:
8350:
8257:
8240:
8225:
8220:
8213:
7922:
7831:
7816:
7771:
7623:
7586:
7578:
7557:
7544:
7524:
7510:
7273:
7250:
7181:
7171:
7163:
6943:
6680:
5061:
5051:
3506:
3496:
3019:
1802:
1745:
1733:
1583:
1518:
1206:
1171:
1163:
1100:
936:
880:
863:
734:
590:
462:
450:
401:
369:
283:
219:
53:
6540:
Diachronic development of structural patterns in the Germanic conjugation system
8879:
8760:
8750:
8638:
8532:
8512:
8464:
8356:
8230:
7900:
7667:
7606:
7385:
7342:
7299:
7216:
7211:
7100:
7050:
6901:
6852:
6807:
6800:
6448:
Runes around the North Sea and on the Continent AD 150–700; Text & Contents
5246:
5069:
3514:
1792:
1671:
1608:
1603:
1482:
1436:
1277:
1242:
1226:
1198:
1140:
876:
806:
458:
397:
361:
260:
233:
166:
104:
6477:
134pp,. Innsbrucker Beiträge zur Sprachwissenschaft; 3. University, Innsbruck.
5742:, in «Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung», 86/1, 1972, pp. 104–110.
3085:
The noun paradigms of Proto-West Germanic have been reconstructed as follows:
8951:
8588:
8430:
8186:
8137:
7954:
7893:
7806:
7711:
7649:
7596:
7480:
7407:
6675:
6598:
6588:
6298:
2935:
1764:
1753:
1650:
1428:
1236:
The varieties of the continental West Germanic dialect continuum since 1945:
1018:
958:
868:
586:
489:
389:
110:
616:) and only in single-syllable words. Following the later loss of word-final
8457:
7881:
7845:
7778:
7601:
7424:
7397:
7380:
7324:
7283:
6865:
6844:
6400:
6000:
5885:
Dialektologie. Ein Handbuch zur deutschen und allgemeinen Dialektforschung,
1774:
1618:
1613:
1286:
1246:
1222:
1194:
1135:, the West Germanic languages were separated by the insular development of
1022:
872:
602:
566:
446:
8104:
6390:, in: Sprachwissenschaft, ISSN 0344-8169, Vol. 29, no. 3, p. 257–304.
425:
The Germanic languages are traditionally divided into three groups: West,
131:
8919:
8914:
8718:
8274:
8247:
8065:
7973:
7655:
7616:
7199:
6894:
6858:
6793:
6565:
The Development of Old English – A Linguistic History of English, vol. II
5800:
The Development of Old English – A Linguistic History of English, vol. II
5056:
3501:
2990:
2966:
2957:
2952:
2947:
2930:
1136:
1109:
1073:
mutually intelligible even beyond the boundaries of the consonant shift.
115:
8119:
6532:, in Horst Munske et al., "Handbuch des Friesischen". Tübingen, 523–530.
1840:
810:
description of Proto-West Germanic was published (second edition 2022).
8871:
8114:
8094:
7459:
7129:
6830:
6551:
Cladistic principles and linguistic reality: the case of West Germanic.
6518:
5868:
Measuring Dialect Pronunciation Differences using Levenshtein Distance.
5697:
Hartmann 2023: 199 ("a West Germanic protolanguage is uncontroversial")
5331:
Euler (2013): p. 53, Ringe / Tayler (2014): p. 104, Euler (2022): p. 61
3048:
2971:
2940:
1664:
1597:
1536:
1332: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1268:
1178:
794:
554:
481:
357:
349:
341:
293:
269:
93:
5224:
Original meaning "relative" has become "brother or sister" in English.
8656:
8300:
8048:
7694:
7611:
7392:
7347:
7319:
7145:
6699:
5986:
1768:
1638:
1623:
1264:
1118:
1091:
847:
716:
473:
457:
Dialects with the features assigned to the western group formed from
385:
377:
365:
310:
151:
125:
45:
8124:
6646:
66:1 (2013), Nielsen, Hans Frede and Patrick V. Stiles (eds.), 5 ff.
6212:
sources: Ringe, Don / Taylor, Ann (2014) and Euler, Wolfram (2013),
1850:
1303:
643:'horn'; this change must have occurred after the loss of word-final
8866:
8089:
7437:
6293:
An Introduction to Old Frisian. History, Grammar, Reader, Glossary.
6231:
On the mutual relations between Nordic and other Germanic dialects.
1556:
329:
5716:
Kuhn, Hans (1955–56). "Zur Gliederung der germanischen Sprachen".
747:(in Old English and Old High German, but neither in Gothic nor in
624:, this made the nominative and accusative of many nouns identical.
8130:
7726:
7628:
6661:
Early Germanic Grammar: pre-, proto-, and post-Germanic Language.
6601:(2006). "Westgermanische Sprachen" (West Germanic Languages), in
1376:
1214:
1210:
454:
whereas West and North Germanic remained partially intelligible.
445:, while others hold that speakers of West Germanic dialects like
393:
5900:
19. Auflage. dtv, München 2019, ISBN 978-3-423-03025-0, pp. 230.
2753:, which is visible in the history of all West Germanic languages
687:
A phonological archaism of West Germanic is the preservation of
7433:
6694:
6262:
The Preterite of Germanic Strong Verbs in Classes Fore and Five
5972:
5781:). 244 p., in German with English summary, London/Berlin 2013,
1697:
1202:
1182:
1181:
is the one that most resembles modern English. The district of
756:
744:
698:
409:
405:
6467:, in "Amsterdamer Beiträge zur älteren Germanistik" 56, 23–26.
6276:
Die 2. Pers. Sing. Ind. Prät. st. Flexion im Westgermanischen.
1209:, in combination with a number of other peoples from northern
661:.; this change must have occurred after the loss of final *-a.
7351:
6642:
In Unity and Diversity in West Germanic, I. Special issue of
6621:. Nowele 6 pp. 81–104, 7 pp. 3–27, 8 pp. 3–25.
6544:
Proceedings of the Ninth International Congress of Linguists.
1643:
1218:
996:
435:
33:
1166:
dialect being the southernmost surviving German dialect) to
1011:
6484:, in "North-Western European Language Evolution" 33, 43–91.
545:
Replacement of the second-person singular preterite ending
472:). The West Germanic group is characterized by a number of
41:
37:
6427:
Name, Sprache, und Kulturen. Festschrift Heinz Dieter Pohl
6241:
Der indogermanische Aorist und das germanische Präteritum
6030:. Oxford University Press, 2nd ed. 2014. pp. 114–115.
787:
6368:, in: "Medieval Archaeology" No. 55, 2011, pp. 1–28.
5718:
Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum und deutsche Literatur
1379:
being mutually intelligible and more separated ones not.
704:
Common morphological archaisms of West Germanic include:
6208:
6206:
6295:
Amsterdam / Philadelphia: Benjamins Publishing Company.
5359:
5357:
5355:
1225:; the extent of the linguistic influence of the native
6542:, pp. 870–880, in: Lunt, Horace G. (ed.) (1964).
6120:
6118:
6116:
6114:
6112:
6110:
6108:
6106:
1825:(a language based on Eastern-Central dialects of late
6465:
The Bergakker inscription and the beginnings of Dutch
6203:
6150:
6104:
6102:
6100:
6098:
6096:
6094:
6092:
6090:
6088:
6086:
6076:
6074:
6072:
6070:
6068:
6066:
6064:
6062:
1841:
Comparison of phonological and morphological features
6654:
West Germanic inflection, derivation and compounding
6196:
6194:
6192:
6190:
6180:
6178:
6176:
6174:
6164:
6162:
6160:
6148:
6146:
6144:
6142:
6140:
6138:
6136:
6134:
6132:
6130:
6052:
6050:
6048:
6046:
5352:
2335:
and the anglofrisian palatalization. The table uses
1170:
in the North. Although both extremes are considered
755:
Furthermore, the West Germanic languages share many
324:
constitute the largest of the three branches of the
6255:
Old English Runes and their Continental Background.
2342:C = any consonant, A = back vowel, E = front vowel
492:
of all labiovelar consonants except word-initially.
299:Extent of Germanic languages in present day Africa
6083:
6059:
5992:Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology
5245:Hawkins, John A. (1987). "Germanic languages". In
4962:
4898:
4833:
4768:
4722:
4677:
4631:
4585:
4521:
4456:
4392:
4326:
4280:
4234:
4170:
4122:
4045:
3979:
3910:
3841:
3777:
3713:
3649:
3585:
3521:
2912:Reduction of overlong vowels to simple long vowels
803:Old English and the Continental Germanic Languages
171:Extent of Germanic languages in present day Europe
6423:Zweck und Methode der sprachlichen Rekonstruktion
6187:
6171:
6157:
6127:
6043:
8949:
5927:. John Benjamins Publishing. pp. 196–198.
612:. Only Old High German preserves it at all (as
420:
8672:
6715:
6628:, in "Friesische Studien I". Odense, 177–220.
5952:. John Benjamins Publishing. pp. 28–29.
5913:Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen, 2008, pp. 233.
5552:Euler (2013): p. 67, 70, 74, 76, 97, 113 etc.
1028:
6311:Klagenfurter Beiträge zur Sprachwissenschaft
6245:Languages and Cultures. Studies in Honor of
6025:
1056:one language ("Proto-Northwest Germanic").
6603:Reallexikon der germanischen Altertumskunde
5870:University of Groningen, 2009, pp. 232–234.
5525:Stiles (2013): p. 24ff, Euler (2013): p. 49
5253:. Oxford University Press. pp. 68–76.
4972:
4908:
4843:
4778:
4732:
4687:
4641:
4595:
4531:
4466:
4402:
4368:"fragment, bit, morsel, crumb" also "bread"
4336:
4290:
4244:
4180:
4138:
4132:
4058:
3989:
3920:
3851:
3787:
3723:
3659:
3595:
3531:
3448:
2143:Reduction of weak class III to four relics
1879:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
8679:
8665:
6722:
6708:
6320:. 244 p., in German with English summary,
5941:
5916:
5299:
5297:
6563:Ringe, Donald R. and Taylor, Ann (2014).
6441:North-Western European Language Evolution
6305:(From West Germanic to Old High German),
6303:Vom Westgermanischen zum Althochdeutschen
6266:North-Western European Language Evolution
5999:
5798:Ringe, Donald R. and Taylor, Ann (2014).
5340:Stiles (1985): p. 91-94, with references.
5273:Euler (2022): p.25f, Seebold (1998): p.13
1899:Learn how and when to remove this message
1348:Learn how and when to remove this message
1229:population on the incomers is debatable.
1012:The reconstruction of Proto-West Germanic
8774:
6684:) is being considered for deletion. See
6558:Cladistic Methodology and West Germanic.
6525:, 2. edition. Woodbridge: Bogdell Press.
6366:Anglo-Saxon Immigration and Ethnogenesis
5303:
5027:Other words, with a variety of origins:
2735:Fortition of /ð/ to /d/ in all positions
1359:
1320:Relevant discussion may be found on the
1231:
1080:
412:are based on Dutch, English, or German.
6619:The fate of the numeral "4" in Germanic
6397:, Magister Theses, Universität Leipzig.
6307:Sprachaufgliederung im Dialektkontinuum
5715:
5294:
5244:
788:Validity of West Germanic as a subgroup
743:the preservation of some traces of the
653:: lengthening of all consonants except
8950:
8686:
6729:
5947:
5922:
5881:Die Einteilung der deutschen Dialekte.
5238:
2923:Monophthong phonemes of West Germanic
635:) in polysyllables: e.g. acc. sg. OHG
372:and its close relatives and variants.
8773:
8660:
8393:
8007:
6751:
6703:
6626:Remarks on the "Anglo-Frisian" thesis
5911:Dialecten op de grens van twee talen.
5832:
5309:Old English and Its Closest Relatives
4875:"joy, pleasure, ecstasy, music, song"
2686:
2663:
2657:
2654:
2596:
2532:
2526:
2506:
2477:
2456:
2450:
2447:
6233:Germanica Wratislavensia 7. 115–158.
5982:"Glottolog 4.8 - Irish Anglo-Norman"
5925:Dublin English: Evolution and Change
5709:
4040:"relationship, kinship, friendship"
3457:of each term is noted as masculine (
2758:Consonant phonemes of West Germanic
1877:adding citations to reliable sources
1844:
1330:adding citations to reliable sources
1297:
577:. Under this assumption, the ending
7284:Plautdietsch / Mennonite Low German
6253:Bammesberger, Alfred (Ed.) (1991).
2746:), which eventually merged with /r/
1967:Unrounding of front rounded vowels
1021:, followed in 2014 by the study of
13:
8643:Languages between parentheses are
8008:
6446:Looijenga, Jantina Helena (1997).
5543:Euler (2013): p. 61, 133, 171, 174
14:
8974:
6688:to help reach a consensus. ›
6667:
5679:Klingenschmitt (2002): p. 169-189
4751:nass (traditional spelling: naß)
3901:(late Proto-Germanic, from Latin
3410:*suniu < *suniwi / *suniwi, -ō
2692:-> some southernmost dialects
2042:Merging of plural forms of verbs
1185:(or Anglia), from which the name
252:West, North and Saterland Frisian
6617:Stiles, Patrick V. (1985–1986).
6523:An Introduction to English Runes
6279:IF (Indogermanische Forschungen)
5980:; Bank, Sebastian (2023-07-10).
5819:Euler (2013): p. 20-34, 229, 231
5381:v. Fierlinger (1885): p. 432-446
5113:*tōgadura, *tegadura / *tesamane
1849:
1302:
1037:
601:(1921), Bammesberger (1986) and
292:
165:
6284:Bremmer, Rolf H. (ed.) (1993).
6223:
6034:
6019:
6008:from the original on 2023-07-17
5966:
5950:A Source Book for Irish English
5903:
5890:
5873:
5860:
5851:
5822:
5813:
5792:
5767:
5758:
5753:A Linguistic History of English
5745:
5728:
5700:
5691:
5682:
5673:
5664:
5655:
5646:
5637:
5634:Ringe/Taylor (2014): p. 129-132
5628:
5619:
5616:Ringe/Taylor (2014): p. 126-128
5610:
5601:
5592:
5583:
5573:
5564:
5555:
5546:
5537:
5528:
5519:
5510:
5501:
5492:
5483:
5474:
5465:
5456:
5447:
5438:
5429:
5420:
5411:
5402:
5393:
5384:
5375:
5366:
5349:Ringe/Taylor (2014): p. 73, 104
5218:
1313:needs additional citations for
1147:on the continent on the other.
916:The lowering of Proto-Germanic
8647:of the language on their left.
6497:Mottausch, Karl-Heinz (2013).
6487:Mottausch, Karl-Heinz (2011).
6480:Mottausch, Karl-Heinz (1998).
6425:, in: Peter Anreiter (et al.)
6407:(3 vols.). Heidelberg: Winter.
6291:Bremmer, Rolf H., Jr. (2009).
6250:. 791 pp., Berlin: de Gruyter.
6028:The Development of Old English
5408:Hirt (1932 / vol. 2), p. 152f.
5343:
5334:
5325:
5285:
5276:
5267:
4387:"cooked food, leavened bread"
2681:Upper German (only partly HG)
1293:
1076:
376:language family also includes
1:
8538:Germanic substrate hypothesis
8394:
6673:
6511:Nielsen, Hans Frede. (2000).
6421:Klingenschmitt, Gert (2002).
6322:Verlag Inspiration Un Limited
6260:Bammesberger, Alfred (1996).
5498:Ringe/Taylor (2014): p. 50-54
5311:. Stanford University Press.
5231:
3075:
2738:The transition of /z/ into a
2726:
2538:North Low Franconian (Dutch)
1045:
961:pronoun ancestral to English
526:, the fricative allophone of
466:
364:and its close relatives; and
8568:Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law
7259:Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch
6450:. Groningen: SSG Uitgeverij.
6405:Handbuch des Urgermanischen
5625:Ringe/Taylor (2014): p. 128f
5160:(traditional spelling: Roß)
3255:*sunī<*suniwi/*suniwi, -ō
2715:
2066:Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law
1696:, including the dialects of
1562:Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch
1217:Peninsula, particularly the
1177:Of modern German varieties,
7:
8548:High German consonant shift
6656:, 240p., The Hague: Mouton.
6638:Stiles, Patrick V. (2013).
6631:Stiles, Patrick V. (2004).
6624:Stiles, Patrick V. (1995).
6611:Historische Sprachforschung
6358:, vol. 27, p. 430ff. (
5898:dtv-Atlas Deutsche Sprache.
5740:Indo-European ē in Germanic
5251:The World's Major Languages
4090:"key, solution, experiment"
3316:*sunu < *sunų / *sunų̄?
2333:High German consonant shift
2306:High German consonant shift
1197:) lay south of Anglia. The
1152:High German consonant shift
1145:High German consonant shift
1070:High German consonant shift
421:Origins and characteristics
10:
8979:
7086:Westlauwers–Terschellings
6739:According to contemporary
6659:Voyles, Joseph B. (1992).
6585:Stanford University Press.
6530:Frisian Runic Inscriptions
6350:v. Fierlinger, J. (1885).
5480:Ringe/Taylor (2014): p. 43
4890:*draumaz (< *draugmaz)
2517:
2483:
2459:
2016:Class II weak verb ending
1463:Westlauwers–Terschellings
1029:Dating Early West Germanic
581:would have replaced older
575:Indo-European aorist tense
415:
282:Dots indicate areas where
8852:
8786:
8782:
8769:
8694:
8630:
8581:
8505:
8474:
8406:
8402:
8389:
8338:
8311:
8265:Southern Schleswig Danish
8196:
8077:
8033:
8024:
8020:
8003:
7844:
7787:
7675:
7666:
7571:
7543:
7502:
7493:
7468:
7450:
7361:
7333:
7307:
7298:
7249:
7162:
7137:
7128:
7067:
6962:
6911:
6886:
6877:
6773:
6764:
6760:
6747:
6737:
6663:San Diego: Academic Press
6556:Ringe, Donald R. (2012):
6549:Ringe, Donald R. (2012).
6528:Page, Raymond I. (2001).
6504:Nielsen, Hans F. (1981).
6501:, 278p. – Hamburg: Kovač.
6416:Entstehung des Deutschen.
5670:Robinson (1992): p. 17-18
5516:Ringe/Taylor (2014): 104.
5417:Polomé (1964), pp. 870ff.
5282:Euler (2022): p. 238, 243
3974:"belonging to the lord")
3412:
3406:
3403:
3400:
3394:
3388:
3382:
3376:
3260:
3257:
3254:
3251:
3248:
3245:
3242:
3239:
3236:
3233:
3230:
3224:
3218:
3151:
3143:
3135:
3127:
3118:
3110:
3102:
3093:
3090:
3069:
3052:
3033:
3004:
2956:
2951:
2946:
2939:
2934:
2929:
2927:
2903:
2896:
2894:
2888:
2886:
2884:
2877:
2875:
2868:
2866:
2850:
2844:
2833:
2827:
2820:
2811:
2800:
2797:
2792:
2790:
2787:
2779:
2776:
2770:
2767:
2764:
2749:A process referred to as
2708:
2697:
2683:
2675:
2669:
2666:
2660:
2651:
2648:
2628:
2607:
2593:
2590:
2587:
2562:
2560:North/Central Low German
2554:
2546:
2543:
2540:
2529:
2523:
2520:
2492:
2489:
2486:
2480:
2474:
2471:
2465:
2462:
2453:
2444:
2441:
2304:
2277:
2250:
2227:Final-obstruent devoicing
2225:
2195:
2165:
2142:
2120:in single-syllable words
2115:
2089:
2064:
2041:
2015:
1989:
1966:
1944:Palatalisation of velars
1943:
1936:
1931:
1928:
1925:
1922:
1919:
1704:, and most of those from
664:Change of Proto-Germanic
291:
164:
150:
138:
124:
78:
54:Linguistic classification
52:
26:
21:
8811:Changes before historic
8803:Changes before historic
8543:West Germanic gemination
8497:Ancient Belgian language
8492:Germanic parent language
8436:Weser-Rhine (Istvaeonic)
7558:Austrian Standard German
6752:
6686:templates for discussion
6393:Hilsberg, Susan (2009).
6364:Härke, Heinrich (2011).
6281:, vol. 40, p. 167f.
6040:Euler (2022), pp. 78–107
5948:Hickey, Raymond (2002).
5923:Hickey, Raymond (2005).
5607:Euler (2013): p. 194-200
5598:Euler (2022): p. 196-211
5589:Euler (2013): p. 138-141
5570:Euler (2013): p. 170-173
5561:Euler (2013): p. 168-178
5211:
5181:/ ehu- (in compositions)
3449:West Germanic vocabulary
3439:*sunu < *sunū / *sunu
3080:
2915:Lowering of /ɛː/ to /æː/
2751:West Germanic gemination
1143:on one hand, and by the
1044:West Germanic languages
852:substrate or superstrate
715:the preservation of the
651:West Germanic gemination
400:. Additionally, several
175:North Germanic languages
8958:West Germanic languages
8714:Anglo-Frisian languages
6335:Euler, Wolfram (2022).
6316:Euler, Wolfram (2013).
6229:Adamus, Marian (1962).
5435:Hill (2004): p. 281-286
5399:Behaghel (1922), p. 167
5363:P. Stiles (2013): p. 15
4973:
4909:
4844:
4779:
4733:
4688:
4642:
4596:
4532:
4467:
4403:
4337:
4291:
4245:
4181:
4139:
4133:
4059:
3990:
3921:
3852:
3788:
3724:
3660:
3596:
3532:
2166:Monophthongization of *
1459:Schiermonnikoog Frisian
1415:Irish Middle English /
1385:West Germanic languages
991:that later merged with
957:The development of the
708:The preservation of an
322:West Germanic languages
302:West Germanic languages
225:West Germanic languages
32:Originally between the
8604:Preterite-present verb
8487:Proto-Germanic grammar
8441:North Sea (Ingvaeonic)
7553:German Standard German
7229:East Frisian Low Saxon
6463:Mees, Bernard (2002).
6460:, Straßburg: Hüneburg.
6410:Klein, Thomas (2004).
6356:Kuhns Zeitschrift (KZ)
6324:, London/Berlin 2013,
6001:10.5281/zenodo.8131084
5833:Davis, Graeme (2006).
4963:
4899:
4834:
4810:< pre-English *ǣoga
4769:
4723:
4678:
4666:s(w)uozi (< *swōti)
4632:
4586:
4522:
4498:< pre-English *ǣora
4457:
4393:
4327:
4281:
4235:
4171:
4123:
4113:"key"; *kēgaz, *kēguz
4046:
3996:sibbe (dated) / meany
3980:
3911:
3842:
3778:
3714:
3650:
3586:
3522:
2742:(often transcribed as
1990:Loss of intervocalic *
1368:
1290:
1128:
1009:
631:(including from PGmc.
332:(the others being the
8746:Anglo-Norman language
8609:Grammatischer Wechsel
7592:Namibian Black German
7563:Swiss Standard German
7532:Early New High German
7090:Mainland West Frisian
6951:Harlingerland Frisian
6489:Der Nominalakzent im
5453:Euler (2022): p. 153f
5426:Meid (1971), p. 13ff.
3141:*gastĭ/*gasti (guest)
2515:South Low Franconian
2196:Diphthongization of *
1831:Early New High German
1472:Mainland West Frisian
1419:/ Irish Anglo-Norman
1363:
1235:
1156:High German languages
1084:
1004:
690:grammatischer Wechsel
470: 1st century BC
8776:Phonological history
8756:Early Modern English
8614:Indo-European ablaut
8594:Germanic strong verb
8563:Germanic spirant law
7700:Southeast Limburgish
7196:Gelders-Overijssels
6825:Irish Middle English
6815:Early Modern English
6418:Heidelberg, 241–270.
6403:(1931, 1932, 1934).
6386:Hill, Eugen (2004).
6371:Hartmann, Frederik:
6313:, Vol. 28/29, 69–90.
6237:Bammesberger, Alfred
6124:Ringe (2014), p. 114
6080:Ringe (2014), p. 115
5990:. Leipzig, Germany:
5837:. Bern: Peter Lang.
5652:Euler (2022): p. 222
5643:Ringe (2014): p. 132
5372:Euler (2022): p. 71f
5291:Euler (2022): p. 243
5052:Standard High German
4117:"stake, post, pole"
3970:(from Ancient Greek
3497:Standard High German
2646:East Central German
2579:West Central German
2350:Proto West Germanic
1873:improve this section
1727:Schlesisch–Wilmesau
1598:Istvaeonic languages
1594:Weser–Rhine Germanic
1467:Terschelling Frisian
1395:Ingvaeonic languages
1326:improve this article
885:Langobardic language
844:Weser–Rhine Germanic
360:, which encompasses
350:Low German languages
100:Weser–Rhine Germanic
8709:Proto-West-Germanic
8699:Proto-Indo-European
8582:Synchronic features
8553:Germanic a-mutation
8506:Diachronic features
7856:in the broad sense
7789:East Central German
7743:Lorraine Franconian
7717:Transylvanian Saxon
7677:West Central German
7452:East Low Franconian
7362:West Low Franconian
6443:" 54/55, 265 – 278.
6433:Kortlandt, Frederik
6257:Heidelberg: Winter.
6200:Euler (2022), p. 88
6184:Euler (2022), p. 83
6168:Euler (2022), p. 78
6154:Euler (2022), p. 81
6056:Euler (2022), p. 85
5974:Hammarström, Harald
5534:Euler (2013): p.230
5471:Euler (2013): p. 53
5066:Proto-West Germanic
3954:chirihha, *kirihha
3511:Proto-West Germanic
2924:
2759:
2602:Mid Central German
2346:
1769:Irminonic languages
1702:Pennsylvania German
1454:Hindeloopen Frisian
935:The development of
871:, ancestral to the
608:Loss of word-final
8963:Germanic languages
8844:Trisyllabic laxing
8824:Close front vowels
8688:History of English
8599:Germanic weak verb
8408:Language subgroups
7758:Pennsylvania Dutch
7707:Moselle Franconian
7685:Central Franconian
7518:Middle High German
7269:Central Pomeranian
7224:Northern Low Saxon
6937:Wangerooge Frisian
6731:Germanic languages
6691:Germanic languages
6595:. Tübingen, 11–20.
6579:Robinson, Orrin W.
6491:Frühurgermanischen
6373:Germanic Phylogeny
6026:Ringe and Taylor.
5978:Haspelmath, Martin
5976:; Forkel, Robert;
5751:Ringe, Don. 2006:
5736:Cercignani, Fausto
5688:Euler (2013, 2022)
5507:Euler (2013): p.54
5489:Euler (2013): p.53
5305:Robinson, Orrin W.
3469:) where relevant.
3455:grammatical gender
2922:
2757:
2345:
1827:Middle High German
1723:Upper Saxon German
1711:Pennsylvania Dutch
1677:Central Franconian
1567:Central Pomeranian
1542:Northern Low Saxon
1514:Wangerooge Frisian
1391:North Sea Germanic
1369:
1291:
1191:Schleswig-Holstein
1168:Northern Low Saxon
1162:in the South (the
1154:distinguished the
1129:
907:runic inscriptions
883:, and the extinct
856:Central Franconian
831:North Sea Germanic
826:Northwest Germanic
818:Northwest Germanic
799:Hans Frede Nielsen
85:North Sea Germanic
16:Group of languages
8945:
8944:
8941:
8940:
8937:
8936:
8834:Great Vowel Shift
8819:Close back vowels
8654:
8653:
8639:extinct languages
8626:
8625:
8622:
8621:
8573:Great Vowel Shift
8385:
8384:
8381:
8380:
8334:
8333:
8180:Greenlandic Norse
7999:
7998:
7995:
7994:
7991:
7990:
7930:Southern Bavarian
7913:Northern Bavarian
7889:Highest Alemannic
7840:
7839:
7574:standard variants
7489:
7488:
7335:Standard variants
7294:
7293:
7153:Middle Low German
7124:
7123:
7120:
7119:
6924:Saterland Frisian
6650:Voyles, Joseph B.
6560:Yale Linguistics.
6494:– Hamburg: Kovač.
6381:978-0-198-87273-3
6330:978-3-9812110-7-8
5879:Peter Wiesinger:
5787:978-3-9812110-7-8
5205:
5204:
5025:
5024:
4507:*aura < *auza
3446:
3445:
3116:*hirdijă (herder)
3073:
3072:
2901:
2900:
2713:
2712:
2329:
2328:
2282:before consonant
2255:before consonant
2092:reflexive pronoun
1909:
1908:
1901:
1504:Saterland Frisian
1358:
1357:
1350:
1160:Highest Alemannic
1133:Early Middle Ages
850:and present as a
710:instrumental case
368:, which includes
354:Frisian languages
344:, which includes
318:
317:
145:52-AB & 52-AC
118:
107:
96:
48:; today worldwide
8970:
8839:Open back vowels
8814:
8806:
8784:
8783:
8771:
8770:
8681:
8674:
8667:
8658:
8657:
8431:Elbe (Irminonic)
8404:
8403:
8391:
8390:
8319:Mainland Gutnish
8209:Swedish dialects
8171:Middle Icelandic
8145:Middle Norwegian
8034:Historical forms
8031:
8030:
8022:
8021:
8005:
8004:
7964:South Franconian
7950:Hutterite German
7918:Central Bavarian
7738:Rhine Franconian
7673:
7672:
7503:Historical forms
7500:
7499:
7415:Surinamese Dutch
7308:Historical forms
7305:
7304:
7138:Historical forms
7135:
7134:
6887:Historical forms
6884:
6883:
6771:
6770:
6762:
6761:
6749:
6748:
6724:
6717:
6710:
6701:
6700:
6536:Polomé, Edgar C.
6519:Page, Raymond I.
6454:Friedrich Maurer
6429:. Wien, 453–474.
6345:978-3-945127-414
6288:. Leiden: Brill.
6217:
6210:
6201:
6198:
6185:
6182:
6169:
6166:
6155:
6152:
6125:
6122:
6081:
6078:
6057:
6054:
6041:
6038:
6032:
6031:
6023:
6017:
6016:
6014:
6013:
6003:
5970:
5964:
5963:
5945:
5939:
5938:
5920:
5914:
5907:
5901:
5894:
5888:
5877:
5871:
5864:
5858:
5855:
5849:
5848:
5826:
5820:
5817:
5811:
5796:
5790:
5771:
5765:
5762:
5756:
5749:
5743:
5732:
5726:
5725:
5713:
5707:
5704:
5698:
5695:
5689:
5686:
5680:
5677:
5671:
5668:
5662:
5659:
5653:
5650:
5644:
5641:
5635:
5632:
5626:
5623:
5617:
5614:
5608:
5605:
5599:
5596:
5590:
5587:
5581:
5577:
5571:
5568:
5562:
5559:
5553:
5550:
5544:
5541:
5535:
5532:
5526:
5523:
5517:
5514:
5508:
5505:
5499:
5496:
5490:
5487:
5481:
5478:
5472:
5469:
5463:
5460:
5454:
5451:
5445:
5444:Mottausch (2013)
5442:
5436:
5433:
5427:
5424:
5418:
5415:
5409:
5406:
5400:
5397:
5391:
5388:
5382:
5379:
5373:
5370:
5364:
5361:
5350:
5347:
5341:
5338:
5332:
5329:
5323:
5322:
5301:
5292:
5289:
5283:
5280:
5274:
5271:
5265:
5264:
5242:
5225:
5222:
5030:
5029:
4976:
4966:
4912:
4902:
4847:
4837:
4782:
4772:
4763:*wētaz / *nataz
4736:
4726:
4691:
4681:
4645:
4635:
4599:
4589:
4535:
4525:
4470:
4460:
4406:
4396:
4340:
4330:
4294:
4284:
4248:
4238:
4184:
4174:
4142:
4136:
4126:
4062:
4049:
4021:"kinship, peace"
3993:
3983:
3924:
3914:
3855:
3845:
3791:
3781:
3727:
3717:
3663:
3653:
3599:
3589:
3535:
3525:
3472:
3471:
3088:
3087:
3067:
3062:
3057:
3043:
3038:
3031:
3026:
3014:
3009:
3002:
2997:
2925:
2921:
2760:
2756:
2740:rhotic consonant
2568:East Low German
2552:West Low German
2347:
2344:
2278:Loss of initial
2251:Loss of initial
1915:
1914:
1904:
1897:
1893:
1890:
1884:
1853:
1845:
1808:South Franconian
1694:Rhine Franconian
1375:, with adjacent
1373:dialect continua
1366:Friedrich Maurer
1353:
1346:
1342:
1339:
1333:
1306:
1298:
1284:
1275:
1262:
1253:
1240:
1125:
1116:
1107:
1098:
1089:
1048:580 (Euler 2022)
1047:
1041:
1025:and Ann Taylor.
975:the lowering of
972:language contact
953:
949:
923:
904:Migration Period
860:Rhine Franconian
660:
656:
646:
623:
619:
615:
611:
595:W. L. van Helten
559:subjunctive mood
529:
471:
468:
449:and speakers of
443:Migration Period
336:and the extinct
308:
296:
276:
267:
258:
249:
240:
231:
217:
208:
199:
190:
181:
169:
160:
146:
134:
114:
103:
88:
19:
18:
8978:
8977:
8973:
8972:
8971:
8969:
8968:
8967:
8948:
8947:
8946:
8933:
8903:-glottalization
8848:
8778:
8765:
8690:
8685:
8655:
8650:
8618:
8577:
8558:Germanic umlaut
8523:Holtzmann's law
8501:
8470:
8398:
8377:
8330:
8307:
8241:South Jutlandic
8226:Danish dialects
8192:
8073:
8016:
7987:
7969:East Franconian
7923:Viennese German
7836:
7817:Silesian German
7783:
7772:Central Hessian
7662:
7587:Namibian German
7576:
7567:
7545:Standard German
7539:
7525:New High German
7511:Old High German
7485:
7464:
7446:
7357:
7329:
7290:
7274:East Pomeranian
7264:Brandenburgisch
7251:East Low German
7245:
7172:Dutch Low Saxon
7164:West Low German
7158:
7116:
7082:Schiermonnikoog
7063:
6958:
6944:Wursten Frisian
6907:
6873:
6756:
6743:
6733:
6728:
6689:
6670:
6274:, Otto (1922).
6247:Edgar C. Polomé
6226:
6221:
6220:
6211:
6204:
6199:
6188:
6183:
6172:
6167:
6158:
6153:
6128:
6123:
6084:
6079:
6060:
6055:
6044:
6039:
6035:
6024:
6020:
6011:
6009:
5971:
5967:
5960:
5946:
5942:
5935:
5921:
5917:
5908:
5904:
5895:
5891:
5878:
5874:
5865:
5861:
5856:
5852:
5845:
5827:
5823:
5818:
5814:
5797:
5793:
5773:Wolfram Euler:
5772:
5768:
5763:
5759:
5750:
5746:
5733:
5729:
5714:
5710:
5705:
5701:
5696:
5692:
5687:
5683:
5678:
5674:
5669:
5665:
5660:
5656:
5651:
5647:
5642:
5638:
5633:
5629:
5624:
5620:
5615:
5611:
5606:
5602:
5597:
5593:
5588:
5584:
5578:
5574:
5569:
5565:
5560:
5556:
5551:
5547:
5542:
5538:
5533:
5529:
5524:
5520:
5515:
5511:
5506:
5502:
5497:
5493:
5488:
5484:
5479:
5475:
5470:
5466:
5461:
5457:
5452:
5448:
5443:
5439:
5434:
5430:
5425:
5421:
5416:
5412:
5407:
5403:
5398:
5394:
5389:
5385:
5380:
5376:
5371:
5367:
5362:
5353:
5348:
5344:
5339:
5335:
5330:
5326:
5319:
5302:
5295:
5290:
5286:
5281:
5277:
5272:
5268:
5261:
5243:
5239:
5234:
5229:
5228:
5223:
5219:
5214:
5148:
5139:
5117:
5109:
5104:
5102:
5091:
5086:
5062:Old High German
4757:naz (< *nat)
4513:*auzǭ, *ausōn
4226:*twai(?) skēpō
4030:sibbju, sibbjā
3507:Old High German
3451:
3383:*herjum/*harjum
3351:*gebō(nō)/*gebō
3330:*herjes/*harjas
3292:*herją/*harją̄?
3158:*fehu (cattle)
3157:
3148:
3140:
3132:
3124:
3115:
3107:
3099:
3083:
3078:
2906:
2729:
2718:
1938:
1933:
1905:
1894:
1888:
1885:
1870:
1854:
1843:
1838:
1803:East Franconian
1584:Dutch Low Saxon
1572:East Pomeranian
1519:Wursten Frisian
1354:
1343:
1337:
1334:
1319:
1307:
1296:
1289:
1282:
1280:
1273:
1271:
1260:
1258:
1251:
1249:
1238:
1207:Germanic tribes
1127:
1123:
1121:
1114:
1112:
1105:
1103:
1101:Old High German
1096:
1094:
1087:
1079:
1061:great migration
1053:
1052:
1051:
1050:
1049:
1042:
1031:
1014:
924:, also written
892:
881:Old High German
864:Old High German
854:in some of the
846:, ancestral to
833:, ancestral to
790:
778:*friund(a)skapi
599:Edward Schröder
597:(before 1917),
515:'you' dat.pl.;
490:delabialization
469:
463:Jastorf culture
436:Jutish language
423:
418:
314:
313:
306:
297:
287:
284:multilingualism
281:
274:
272:
265:
263:
256:
254:
247:
245:
238:
236:
229:
222:
215:
213:
206:
204:
197:
195:
188:
186:
179:
172:
156:
144:
130:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
8976:
8966:
8965:
8960:
8943:
8942:
8939:
8938:
8935:
8934:
8932:
8931:
8924:
8923:
8922:
8917:
8905:
8897:
8892:
8885:
8877:
8869:
8864:
8858:
8856:
8850:
8849:
8847:
8846:
8841:
8836:
8831:
8826:
8821:
8816:
8808:
8800:
8792:
8790:
8780:
8779:
8767:
8766:
8764:
8763:
8761:Modern English
8758:
8753:
8751:Middle English
8748:
8743:
8742:
8741:
8736:
8731:
8726:
8716:
8711:
8706:
8704:Proto-Germanic
8701:
8695:
8692:
8691:
8684:
8683:
8676:
8669:
8661:
8652:
8651:
8649:
8648:
8641:
8631:
8628:
8627:
8624:
8623:
8620:
8619:
8617:
8616:
8611:
8606:
8601:
8596:
8591:
8585:
8583:
8579:
8578:
8576:
8575:
8570:
8565:
8560:
8555:
8550:
8545:
8540:
8535:
8530:
8525:
8520:
8515:
8509:
8507:
8503:
8502:
8500:
8499:
8494:
8489:
8484:
8482:Proto-Germanic
8478:
8476:
8472:
8471:
8469:
8468:
8461:
8454:
8446:
8445:
8444:
8443:
8438:
8433:
8423:
8418:
8412:
8410:
8400:
8399:
8387:
8386:
8383:
8382:
8379:
8378:
8376:
8375:
8368:
8361:
8357:Crimean Gothic
8346:
8344:
8336:
8335:
8332:
8331:
8329:
8328:
8327:
8326:
8321:
8312:
8309:
8308:
8306:
8305:
8304:
8303:
8293:
8292:
8291:
8284:
8277:
8272:
8267:
8262:
8261:
8260:
8255:
8245:
8244:
8243:
8233:
8231:Insular Danish
8228:
8218:
8217:
8216:
8214:Rinkebysvenska
8211:
8200:
8198:
8194:
8193:
8191:
8190:
8183:
8176:
8175:
8174:
8167:
8155:
8150:
8149:
8148:
8141:
8134:
8128:
8122:
8117:
8112:
8107:
8102:
8097:
8092:
8081:
8079:
8075:
8074:
8072:
8071:
8070:
8069:
8062:
8060:Old East Norse
8057:
8055:Old West Norse
8045:
8037:
8035:
8028:
8018:
8017:
8001:
8000:
7997:
7996:
7993:
7992:
7989:
7988:
7986:
7985:
7978:
7977:
7976:
7966:
7961:
7960:
7959:
7958:
7957:
7952:
7947:
7942:
7937:
7935:South Tyrolean
7927:
7926:
7925:
7915:
7905:
7904:
7903:
7898:
7897:
7896:
7886:
7885:
7884:
7877:High Alemannic
7874:
7873:
7872:
7867:
7850:
7848:
7842:
7841:
7838:
7837:
7835:
7834:
7829:
7824:
7819:
7814:
7809:
7804:
7799:
7793:
7791:
7785:
7784:
7782:
7781:
7776:
7775:
7774:
7764:
7763:
7762:
7761:
7760:
7755:
7745:
7735:
7734:
7733:
7732:
7731:
7730:
7729:
7719:
7714:
7704:
7703:
7702:
7697:
7681:
7679:
7670:
7668:Central German
7664:
7663:
7661:
7660:
7659:
7658:
7653:
7646:
7641:
7636:
7626:
7621:
7620:
7619:
7609:
7607:Barossa German
7604:
7599:
7594:
7589:
7583:
7581:
7569:
7568:
7566:
7565:
7560:
7555:
7549:
7547:
7541:
7540:
7538:
7537:
7536:
7535:
7521:
7514:
7506:
7504:
7497:
7491:
7490:
7487:
7486:
7484:
7483:
7478:
7472:
7470:
7466:
7465:
7463:
7462:
7456:
7454:
7448:
7447:
7445:
7444:
7427:
7422:
7417:
7411:
7410:
7405:
7400:
7395:
7390:
7389:
7388:
7386:French Flemish
7378:
7377:
7376:
7365:
7363:
7359:
7358:
7356:
7355:
7345:
7339:
7337:
7331:
7330:
7328:
7327:
7322:
7317:
7311:
7309:
7302:
7300:Low Franconian
7296:
7295:
7292:
7291:
7289:
7288:
7287:
7286:
7276:
7271:
7266:
7261:
7255:
7253:
7247:
7246:
7244:
7243:
7238:
7233:
7232:
7231:
7221:
7220:
7219:
7214:
7209:
7208:
7207:
7202:
7194:
7189:
7184:
7179:
7168:
7166:
7160:
7159:
7157:
7156:
7149:
7141:
7139:
7132:
7126:
7125:
7122:
7121:
7118:
7117:
7115:
7114:
7113:
7112:
7107:
7106:
7105:
7104:
7103:
7101:Westereendersk
7095:
7084:
7079:
7073:
7071:
7065:
7064:
7062:
7061:
7060:
7059:
7054:
7047:
7042:
7041:
7040:
7035:
7032:
7024:
7019:
7018:
7017:
7006:
7005:
7004:
6999:
6994:
6993:
6992:
6987:
6979:
6968:
6966:
6960:
6959:
6957:
6956:
6955:
6954:
6947:
6940:
6928:
6927:
6926:
6917:
6915:
6909:
6908:
6906:
6905:
6902:Middle Frisian
6898:
6890:
6888:
6881:
6875:
6874:
6872:
6871:
6870:
6869:
6862:
6850:
6849:
6848:
6841:
6834:
6822:
6821:
6820:
6819:
6818:
6808:Modern English
6804:
6801:Middle English
6797:
6790:
6779:
6777:
6768:
6758:
6757:
6745:
6744:
6738:
6735:
6734:
6727:
6726:
6719:
6712:
6704:
6698:
6697:
6669:
6668:External links
6666:
6665:
6664:
6657:
6647:
6636:
6629:
6622:
6615:
6606:
6599:Seebold, Elmar
6596:
6589:Seebold, Elmar
6586:
6576:
6573:978-0199207848
6561:
6554:
6547:
6533:
6526:
6516:
6509:
6502:
6495:
6485:
6478:
6471:Meid, Wolfgang
6468:
6461:
6451:
6444:
6430:
6419:
6408:
6398:
6391:
6384:
6369:
6362:
6348:
6333:
6314:
6299:Euler, Wolfram
6296:
6289:
6282:
6269:
6258:
6251:
6234:
6225:
6222:
6219:
6218:
6202:
6186:
6170:
6156:
6126:
6082:
6058:
6042:
6033:
6018:
5965:
5958:
5940:
5933:
5915:
5902:
5896:Werner König:
5889:
5872:
5859:
5850:
5843:
5821:
5812:
5808:978-0199207848
5791:
5766:
5757:
5744:
5727:
5708:
5699:
5690:
5681:
5672:
5663:
5661:Nielsen (1981)
5654:
5645:
5636:
5627:
5618:
5609:
5600:
5591:
5582:
5572:
5563:
5554:
5545:
5536:
5527:
5518:
5509:
5500:
5491:
5482:
5473:
5464:
5455:
5446:
5437:
5428:
5419:
5410:
5401:
5392:
5383:
5374:
5365:
5351:
5342:
5333:
5324:
5317:
5293:
5284:
5275:
5266:
5259:
5247:Bernard Comrie
5236:
5235:
5233:
5230:
5227:
5226:
5216:
5215:
5213:
5210:
5203:
5202:
5192:
5182:
5171:
5161:
5150:
5145:
5133:
5130:
5127:
5124:
5120:
5119:
5114:
5111:
5106:
5099:
5096:
5093:
5088:
5083:
5080:
5077:
5073:
5072:
5070:Proto-Germanic
5067:
5064:
5059:
5054:
5049:
5046:
5043:
5040:
5037:
5034:
5023:
5022:
5016:
5010:
5004:
4998:
4992:
4989:
4983:
4980:
4977:
4970:
4967:
4959:
4958:
4952:
4946:
4940:
4934:
4928:
4925:
4919:
4916:
4913:
4906:
4903:
4895:
4894:
4888:
4882:
4876:
4869:
4863:
4860:
4854:
4851:
4848:
4841:
4838:
4830:
4829:
4823:
4817:
4811:
4804:
4798:
4795:
4789:
4786:
4783:
4776:
4773:
4765:
4764:
4761:
4758:
4755:
4752:
4749:
4746:
4743:
4740:
4737:
4730:
4727:
4719:
4718:
4715:
4713:
4710:
4707:
4704:
4701:
4698:
4695:
4692:
4685:
4682:
4674:
4673:
4670:
4667:
4664:
4661:
4658:
4655:
4652:
4649:
4646:
4639:
4636:
4628:
4627:
4624:
4621:
4618:
4615:
4612:
4609:
4606:
4603:
4600:
4593:
4590:
4582:
4581:
4575:
4569:
4563:
4557:
4551:
4548:
4542:
4539:
4536:
4529:
4526:
4518:
4517:
4511:
4505:
4499:
4492:
4486:
4483:
4477:
4474:
4471:
4464:
4461:
4453:
4452:
4446:
4440:
4434:
4428:
4422:
4419:
4413:
4410:
4407:
4400:
4397:
4389:
4388:
4381:
4375:
4369:
4362:
4356:
4353:
4347:
4344:
4341:
4334:
4331:
4323:
4322:
4319:
4316:
4313:
4310:
4307:
4304:
4301:
4298:
4295:
4288:
4285:
4277:
4276:
4273:
4270:
4267:
4266:habban, hafian
4264:
4261:
4258:
4255:
4252:
4249:
4242:
4239:
4231:
4230:
4224:
4218:
4212:
4206:
4200:
4197:
4191:
4188:
4185:
4178:
4175:
4167:
4166:
4164:
4162:
4160:
4158:
4155:
4152:
4149:
4146:
4143:
4130:
4127:
4119:
4118:
4107:
4097:
4091:
4084:
4078:
4075:
4069:
4066:
4063:
4056:
4053:
4042:
4041:
4034:
4028:
4022:
4015:
4009:
4006:
4000:
3997:
3994:
3987:
3984:
3976:
3975:
3964:
3958:
3952:
3946:
3940:
3937:
3931:
3928:
3925:
3918:
3915:
3907:
3906:
3895:
3889:
3883:
3877:
3871:
3868:
3862:
3859:
3856:
3849:
3846:
3838:
3837:
3831:
3825:
3819:
3813:
3807:
3804:
3798:
3795:
3792:
3785:
3782:
3774:
3773:
3767:
3761:
3755:
3749:
3743:
3740:
3734:
3731:
3728:
3721:
3718:
3710:
3709:
3703:
3697:
3691:
3685:
3679:
3676:
3670:
3667:
3664:
3657:
3654:
3646:
3645:
3639:
3633:
3627:
3621:
3615:
3612:
3606:
3603:
3600:
3593:
3590:
3582:
3581:
3575:
3571:kąbă , *kambă
3569:
3563:
3557:
3551:
3548:
3542:
3539:
3536:
3529:
3526:
3518:
3517:
3515:Proto-Germanic
3512:
3509:
3504:
3499:
3494:
3491:
3488:
3485:
3482:
3479:
3476:
3465:), or neuter (
3450:
3447:
3444:
3443:
3440:
3437:
3434:
3431:
3428:
3425:
3422:
3418:
3417:
3414:
3411:
3408:
3405:
3402:
3399:
3396:
3393:
3390:
3387:
3384:
3381:
3378:
3375:
3372:
3368:
3367:
3364:
3361:
3358:
3355:
3354:*gastes/*gastī
3352:
3349:
3346:
3343:
3340:
3337:
3334:
3331:
3328:
3325:
3322:
3318:
3317:
3314:
3311:
3310:*gasti/*gastį̄
3308:
3305:
3302:
3299:
3296:
3293:
3290:
3287:
3284:
3281:
3277:
3276:
3273:
3270:
3267:
3263:
3262:
3259:
3256:
3253:
3250:
3247:
3244:
3241:
3238:
3235:
3232:
3229:
3226:
3225:*herjā/*harjō?
3223:
3220:
3217:
3214:
3210:
3209:
3206:
3203:
3200:
3197:
3194:
3191:
3188:
3185:
3182:
3179:
3176:
3173:
3170:
3167:
3164:
3160:
3159:
3150:
3142:
3134:
3126:
3117:
3109:
3101:
3092:
3082:
3079:
3077:
3074:
3071:
3070:
3068:
3063:
3058:
3053:
3051:
3045:
3044:
3039:
3034:
3032:
3027:
3022:
3016:
3015:
3010:
3005:
3003:
2998:
2993:
2987:
2986:
2983:
2980:
2977:
2974:
2969:
2964:
2961:
2960:
2955:
2950:
2944:
2943:
2938:
2933:
2928:
2920:
2919:
2916:
2913:
2905:
2902:
2899:
2898:
2895:
2893:
2890:
2887:
2885:
2883:
2879:
2878:
2876:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2865:
2861:
2860:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2849:
2846:
2843:
2840:
2836:
2835:
2832:
2829:
2826:
2823:
2821:
2819:
2816:
2813:
2810:
2807:
2803:
2802:
2799:
2796:
2794:
2791:
2789:
2786:
2782:
2781:
2778:
2775:
2772:
2769:
2766:
2763:
2755:
2754:
2747:
2736:
2728:
2725:
2717:
2714:
2711:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2699:
2696:
2693:
2689:
2688:
2685:
2682:
2678:
2677:
2674:
2671:
2668:
2665:
2662:
2659:
2656:
2653:
2650:
2647:
2643:
2642:
2639:
2636:
2633:
2630:
2627:
2624:
2621:
2618:
2615:
2612:
2609:
2606:
2603:
2599:
2598:
2595:
2592:
2589:
2586:
2583:
2580:
2576:
2575:
2572:
2569:
2565:
2564:
2561:
2557:
2556:
2553:
2549:
2548:
2545:
2542:
2539:
2535:
2534:
2531:
2528:
2525:
2522:
2519:
2516:
2512:
2511:
2508:
2505:
2502:
2499:
2495:
2494:
2491:
2488:
2485:
2482:
2479:
2476:
2473:
2470:
2467:
2464:
2461:
2458:
2455:
2452:
2449:
2448:??? (f/ɣ/θ/ð)
2446:
2443:
2440:
2437:
2434:
2430:
2429:
2426:
2423:
2420:
2417:
2414:
2411:
2408:
2405:
2402:
2399:
2396:
2393:
2390:
2387:
2384:
2381:
2378:
2375:
2372:
2369:
2366:
2363:
2360:
2357:
2354:
2351:
2327:
2326:
2323:
2320:
2317:
2314:
2311:
2308:
2302:
2301:
2298:
2297:Most dialects
2295:
2292:
2289:
2286:
2283:
2275:
2274:
2271:
2268:
2265:
2262:
2259:
2256:
2248:
2247:
2244:
2241:
2238:
2235:
2232:
2229:
2223:
2222:
2219:
2216:
2213:
2210:
2207:
2204:
2193:
2192:
2189:
2186:
2183:
2180:
2177:
2174:
2163:
2162:
2159:
2156:
2153:
2150:
2147:
2144:
2140:
2139:
2136:
2133:
2130:
2127:
2124:
2121:
2116:Loss of final
2113:
2112:
2109:
2106:
2105:Most dialects
2103:
2102:Most dialects
2100:
2097:
2094:
2087:
2086:
2083:
2080:
2077:
2074:
2071:
2068:
2062:
2061:
2058:
2055:
2052:
2049:
2046:
2043:
2039:
2038:
2035:
2032:
2029:
2026:
2023:
2020:
2013:
2012:
2009:
2006:
2003:
2000:
1997:
1994:
1987:
1986:
1983:
1980:
1977:
1974:
1971:
1968:
1964:
1963:
1960:
1957:
1954:
1951:
1948:
1945:
1941:
1940:
1935:
1930:
1927:
1924:
1921:
1918:
1907:
1906:
1857:
1855:
1848:
1842:
1839:
1837:
1836:
1835:
1834:
1820:
1819:
1818:
1817:
1816:
1810:
1805:
1800:
1795:
1790:
1761:
1760:
1759:
1758:
1757:
1751:
1750:
1749:
1743:
1742:
1741:
1736:
1730:Bielsko-Biała
1725:
1720:
1715:
1714:
1713:
1691:
1690:
1689:
1684:
1672:Central German
1669:
1668:
1667:
1662:
1661:
1660:
1655:
1654:
1653:
1648:
1647:
1646:
1641:
1626:
1621:
1616:
1604:Low Franconian
1590:
1589:
1588:
1587:
1586:
1581:
1575:
1569:
1564:
1559:
1554:
1549:
1544:
1534:
1533:
1532:
1531:
1530:
1525:
1524:
1523:
1522:
1521:
1516:
1508:
1507:
1506:
1493:
1492:
1491:
1490:
1489:
1488:
1487:
1486:
1485:
1483:Westereendersk
1477:
1469:
1461:
1456:
1441:
1440:
1439:
1434:
1433:
1432:
1426:
1417:Hiberno-Norman
1413:
1381:
1356:
1355:
1324:. Please help
1310:
1308:
1301:
1295:
1292:
1281:
1278:Central German
1272:
1259:
1250:
1243:Low Franconian
1237:
1227:Romano-British
1141:Middle English
1122:
1113:
1104:
1095:
1086:
1078:
1075:
1043:
1036:
1035:
1034:
1033:
1032:
1030:
1027:
1013:
1010:
967:
966:
955:
940:
933:
891:
890:
889:
888:
877:Central German
866:
841:
822:
807:proto-language
801:'s 1981 study
789:
786:
753:
752:
749:North Germanic
741:
713:
682:
681:
662:
648:
627:Loss of final
625:
606:
563:Jakob Sverdrup
543:
524:
493:
459:Proto-Germanic
422:
419:
417:
414:
334:North Germanic
316:
315:
305:
298:
289:
288:
273:
264:
255:
246:
237:
228:
214:
205:
196:
187:
178:
170:
162:
161:
154:
148:
147:
142:
136:
135:
128:
122:
121:
120:
119:
108:
105:Low Franconian
97:
80:
76:
75:
74:
73:
72:
71:
56:
50:
49:
30:
24:
23:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8975:
8964:
8961:
8959:
8956:
8955:
8953:
8930:
8929:
8925:
8921:
8918:
8916:
8913:
8912:
8911:
8910:
8906:
8904:
8902:
8898:
8896:
8893:
8891:
8890:
8886:
8884:
8883:-vocalization
8882:
8878:
8876:
8874:
8870:
8868:
8865:
8863:
8860:
8859:
8857:
8855:
8851:
8845:
8842:
8840:
8837:
8835:
8832:
8830:
8827:
8825:
8822:
8820:
8817:
8815:
8809:
8807:
8801:
8799:
8798:
8794:
8793:
8791:
8789:
8785:
8781:
8777:
8772:
8768:
8762:
8759:
8757:
8754:
8752:
8749:
8747:
8744:
8740:
8737:
8735:
8732:
8730:
8727:
8725:
8722:
8721:
8720:
8717:
8715:
8712:
8710:
8707:
8705:
8702:
8700:
8697:
8696:
8693:
8689:
8682:
8677:
8675:
8670:
8668:
8663:
8662:
8659:
8646:
8642:
8640:
8636:
8633:
8632:
8629:
8615:
8612:
8610:
8607:
8605:
8602:
8600:
8597:
8595:
8592:
8590:
8589:Germanic verb
8587:
8586:
8584:
8580:
8574:
8571:
8569:
8566:
8564:
8561:
8559:
8556:
8554:
8551:
8549:
8546:
8544:
8541:
8539:
8536:
8534:
8531:
8529:
8528:Sievers's law
8526:
8524:
8521:
8519:
8516:
8514:
8511:
8510:
8508:
8504:
8498:
8495:
8493:
8490:
8488:
8485:
8483:
8480:
8479:
8477:
8475:Reconstructed
8473:
8467:
8466:
8462:
8460:
8459:
8455:
8453:
8452:
8448:
8447:
8442:
8439:
8437:
8434:
8432:
8429:
8428:
8427:
8424:
8422:
8419:
8417:
8414:
8413:
8411:
8409:
8405:
8401:
8397:
8392:
8388:
8374:
8373:
8369:
8367:
8366:
8362:
8359:
8358:
8353:
8352:
8348:
8347:
8345:
8343:
8342:
8337:
8325:
8322:
8320:
8317:
8316:
8314:
8313:
8310:
8302:
8299:
8298:
8297:
8294:
8290:
8289:
8288:Middle Danish
8285:
8283:
8282:
8278:
8276:
8273:
8271:
8268:
8266:
8263:
8259:
8256:
8254:
8251:
8250:
8249:
8246:
8242:
8239:
8238:
8237:
8234:
8232:
8229:
8227:
8224:
8223:
8222:
8219:
8215:
8212:
8210:
8207:
8206:
8205:
8202:
8201:
8199:
8195:
8189:
8188:
8184:
8182:
8181:
8177:
8173:
8172:
8168:
8166:
8165:
8164:Old Icelandic
8161:
8160:
8159:
8156:
8154:
8151:
8147:
8146:
8142:
8140:
8139:
8138:Old Norwegian
8135:
8132:
8129:
8126:
8123:
8121:
8118:
8116:
8113:
8111:
8108:
8106:
8103:
8101:
8098:
8096:
8093:
8091:
8088:
8087:
8086:
8083:
8082:
8080:
8076:
8068:
8067:
8063:
8061:
8058:
8056:
8053:
8052:
8051:
8050:
8046:
8044:
8043:
8039:
8038:
8036:
8032:
8029:
8027:
8023:
8019:
8015:
8011:
8006:
8002:
7984:
7983:
7979:
7975:
7972:
7971:
7970:
7967:
7965:
7962:
7956:
7955:Gottscheerish
7953:
7951:
7948:
7946:
7943:
7941:
7938:
7936:
7933:
7932:
7931:
7928:
7924:
7921:
7920:
7919:
7916:
7914:
7911:
7910:
7909:
7906:
7902:
7899:
7895:
7894:Walser German
7892:
7891:
7890:
7887:
7883:
7880:
7879:
7878:
7875:
7871:
7868:
7866:
7863:
7862:
7861:
7860:Low Alemannic
7858:
7857:
7855:
7852:
7851:
7849:
7847:
7843:
7833:
7830:
7828:
7825:
7823:
7822:High Prussian
7820:
7818:
7815:
7813:
7810:
7808:
7807:Erzgebirgisch
7805:
7803:
7800:
7798:
7795:
7794:
7792:
7790:
7786:
7780:
7777:
7773:
7770:
7769:
7768:
7765:
7759:
7756:
7754:
7751:
7750:
7749:
7746:
7744:
7741:
7740:
7739:
7736:
7728:
7725:
7724:
7723:
7720:
7718:
7715:
7713:
7712:Luxembourgish
7710:
7709:
7708:
7705:
7701:
7698:
7696:
7693:
7692:
7691:
7688:
7687:
7686:
7683:
7682:
7680:
7678:
7674:
7671:
7669:
7665:
7657:
7654:
7652:
7651:
7650:Klezmer-loshn
7647:
7645:
7644:Scots Yiddish
7642:
7640:
7637:
7635:
7632:
7631:
7630:
7627:
7625:
7622:
7618:
7615:
7614:
7613:
7610:
7608:
7605:
7603:
7600:
7598:
7595:
7593:
7590:
7588:
7585:
7584:
7582:
7580:
7575:
7570:
7564:
7561:
7559:
7556:
7554:
7551:
7550:
7548:
7546:
7542:
7534:
7533:
7529:
7528:
7527:
7526:
7522:
7520:
7519:
7515:
7513:
7512:
7508:
7507:
7505:
7501:
7498:
7496:
7492:
7482:
7481:Meuse-Rhenish
7479:
7477:
7474:
7473:
7471:
7467:
7461:
7458:
7457:
7455:
7453:
7449:
7443:
7439:
7435:
7431:
7428:
7426:
7423:
7421:
7418:
7416:
7413:
7412:
7409:
7408:Kleverlandish
7406:
7404:
7401:
7399:
7396:
7394:
7391:
7387:
7384:
7383:
7382:
7379:
7375:
7372:
7371:
7370:
7369:Central Dutch
7367:
7366:
7364:
7360:
7353:
7349:
7346:
7344:
7341:
7340:
7338:
7336:
7332:
7326:
7323:
7321:
7318:
7316:
7313:
7312:
7310:
7306:
7303:
7301:
7297:
7285:
7282:
7281:
7280:
7277:
7275:
7272:
7270:
7267:
7265:
7262:
7260:
7257:
7256:
7254:
7252:
7248:
7242:
7239:
7237:
7234:
7230:
7227:
7226:
7225:
7222:
7218:
7215:
7213:
7210:
7206:
7203:
7201:
7198:
7197:
7195:
7193:
7190:
7188:
7185:
7183:
7180:
7178:
7177:Stellingwarfs
7175:
7174:
7173:
7170:
7169:
7167:
7165:
7161:
7155:
7154:
7150:
7148:
7147:
7143:
7142:
7140:
7136:
7133:
7131:
7127:
7111:
7108:
7102:
7099:
7098:
7097:Wood Frisian
7096:
7093:
7092:
7091:
7088:
7087:
7085:
7083:
7080:
7078:
7075:
7074:
7072:
7070:
7066:
7058:
7055:
7053:
7052:
7048:
7046:
7043:
7039:
7036:
7033:
7030:
7029:
7028:
7025:
7023:
7020:
7015:
7014:
7013:
7010:
7009:
7007:
7003:
7000:
6998:
6995:
6991:
6988:
6986:
6983:
6982:
6980:
6978:
6977:
6973:
6972:
6970:
6969:
6967:
6965:
6964:North Frisian
6961:
6953:
6952:
6948:
6946:
6945:
6941:
6939:
6938:
6934:
6933:
6932:
6929:
6925:
6922:
6921:
6919:
6918:
6916:
6914:
6910:
6904:
6903:
6899:
6897:
6896:
6892:
6891:
6889:
6885:
6882:
6880:
6876:
6868:
6867:
6863:
6861:
6860:
6856:
6855:
6854:
6851:
6847:
6846:
6842:
6840:
6839:
6835:
6833:
6832:
6828:
6827:
6826:
6823:
6817:
6816:
6812:
6811:
6810:
6809:
6805:
6803:
6802:
6798:
6796:
6795:
6791:
6789:
6786:
6785:
6784:
6781:
6780:
6778:
6776:
6772:
6769:
6767:
6766:Anglo-Frisian
6763:
6759:
6755:
6750:
6746:
6742:
6736:
6732:
6725:
6720:
6718:
6713:
6711:
6706:
6705:
6702:
6696:
6692:
6687:
6683:
6682:
6677:
6672:
6671:
6662:
6658:
6655:
6651:
6648:
6645:
6641:
6637:
6634:
6630:
6627:
6623:
6620:
6616:
6614:122, 268–283.
6613:
6612:
6607:
6604:
6600:
6597:
6594:
6590:
6587:
6584:
6580:
6577:
6574:
6570:
6566:
6562:
6559:
6555:
6552:
6548:
6545:
6541:
6537:
6534:
6531:
6527:
6524:
6520:
6517:
6514:
6510:
6507:
6503:
6500:
6496:
6493:
6492:
6486:
6483:
6479:
6476:
6472:
6469:
6466:
6462:
6459:
6455:
6452:
6449:
6445:
6442:
6438:
6437:Anglo-Frisian
6434:
6431:
6428:
6424:
6420:
6417:
6413:
6409:
6406:
6402:
6401:Hirt, Hermann
6399:
6396:
6392:
6389:
6385:
6382:
6378:
6374:
6370:
6367:
6363:
6360:
6357:
6353:
6349:
6346:
6342:
6338:
6334:
6331:
6327:
6323:
6319:
6315:
6312:
6308:
6304:
6300:
6297:
6294:
6290:
6287:
6283:
6280:
6277:
6273:
6270:
6267:
6263:
6259:
6256:
6252:
6249:
6248:
6242:
6238:
6235:
6232:
6228:
6227:
6215:
6209:
6207:
6197:
6195:
6193:
6191:
6181:
6179:
6177:
6175:
6165:
6163:
6161:
6151:
6149:
6147:
6145:
6143:
6141:
6139:
6137:
6135:
6133:
6131:
6121:
6119:
6117:
6115:
6113:
6111:
6109:
6107:
6105:
6103:
6101:
6099:
6097:
6095:
6093:
6091:
6089:
6087:
6077:
6075:
6073:
6071:
6069:
6067:
6065:
6063:
6053:
6051:
6049:
6047:
6037:
6029:
6022:
6007:
6002:
5997:
5993:
5989:
5988:
5983:
5979:
5975:
5969:
5961:
5955:
5951:
5944:
5936:
5934:90-272-4895-8
5930:
5926:
5919:
5912:
5909:C. Giesbers:
5906:
5899:
5893:
5886:
5882:
5876:
5869:
5866:W. Heeringa:
5863:
5854:
5846:
5844:3-03910-270-2
5840:
5836:
5830:
5825:
5816:
5809:
5805:
5801:
5795:
5788:
5784:
5780:
5776:
5770:
5761:
5754:
5748:
5741:
5737:
5734:However, see
5731:
5723:
5719:
5712:
5703:
5694:
5685:
5676:
5667:
5658:
5649:
5640:
5631:
5622:
5613:
5604:
5595:
5586:
5576:
5567:
5558:
5549:
5540:
5531:
5522:
5513:
5504:
5495:
5486:
5477:
5468:
5459:
5450:
5441:
5432:
5423:
5414:
5405:
5396:
5387:
5378:
5369:
5360:
5358:
5356:
5346:
5337:
5328:
5320:
5318:0-8047-2221-8
5314:
5310:
5306:
5300:
5298:
5288:
5279:
5270:
5262:
5260:0-19-520521-9
5256:
5252:
5248:
5241:
5237:
5221:
5217:
5209:
5201:
5197:
5193:
5191:
5187:
5183:
5180:
5176:
5172:
5170:
5166:
5162:
5159:
5155:
5151:
5146:
5143:
5138:
5134:
5131:
5128:
5125:
5122:
5121:
5115:
5112:
5107:
5100:
5097:
5094:
5089:
5084:
5081:
5078:
5075:
5074:
5071:
5068:
5065:
5063:
5060:
5058:
5055:
5053:
5050:
5047:
5044:
5041:
5038:
5035:
5032:
5031:
5028:
5021:
5017:
5015:
5011:
5009:
5005:
5003:
4999:
4997:
4993:
4990:
4988:
4984:
4981:
4978:
4975:
4971:
4968:
4965:
4961:
4960:
4957:
4953:
4951:
4947:
4945:
4941:
4939:
4935:
4933:
4929:
4926:
4924:
4920:
4917:
4914:
4911:
4907:
4904:
4901:
4897:
4896:
4893:
4889:
4887:
4883:
4881:
4877:
4874:
4870:
4868:
4864:
4861:
4859:
4855:
4852:
4849:
4846:
4842:
4839:
4836:
4832:
4831:
4828:
4824:
4822:
4818:
4816:
4812:
4809:
4805:
4803:
4799:
4796:
4794:
4790:
4787:
4784:
4781:
4777:
4774:
4771:
4767:
4766:
4762:
4760:*wǣtă / *nată
4759:
4756:
4753:
4750:
4747:
4744:
4741:
4738:
4735:
4731:
4728:
4725:
4721:
4720:
4716:
4714:
4711:
4708:
4705:
4702:
4699:
4696:
4693:
4690:
4686:
4683:
4680:
4676:
4675:
4671:
4668:
4665:
4662:
4659:
4656:
4653:
4650:
4647:
4644:
4640:
4637:
4634:
4630:
4629:
4625:
4622:
4619:
4616:
4613:
4610:
4607:
4604:
4601:
4598:
4594:
4591:
4588:
4584:
4583:
4580:
4576:
4574:
4570:
4568:
4564:
4562:
4558:
4556:
4552:
4549:
4547:
4543:
4540:
4537:
4534:
4530:
4527:
4524:
4520:
4519:
4516:
4512:
4510:
4506:
4504:
4500:
4497:
4493:
4491:
4487:
4484:
4482:
4478:
4475:
4472:
4469:
4465:
4462:
4459:
4455:
4454:
4451:
4447:
4445:
4441:
4439:
4435:
4433:
4429:
4427:
4423:
4420:
4418:
4414:
4411:
4408:
4405:
4401:
4398:
4395:
4391:
4390:
4386:
4382:
4380:
4376:
4374:
4370:
4367:
4363:
4361:
4357:
4354:
4352:
4348:
4345:
4342:
4339:
4335:
4332:
4329:
4325:
4324:
4320:
4317:
4314:
4311:
4308:
4305:
4302:
4299:
4296:
4293:
4289:
4286:
4283:
4279:
4278:
4274:
4271:
4268:
4265:
4262:
4259:
4256:
4253:
4250:
4247:
4243:
4240:
4237:
4233:
4232:
4229:
4225:
4223:
4219:
4217:
4213:
4211:
4207:
4205:
4201:
4198:
4196:
4193:twee schapen
4192:
4189:
4186:
4183:
4179:
4176:
4173:
4169:
4168:
4165:
4163:
4161:
4159:
4156:
4154:bin geweis(t)
4153:
4150:
4147:
4144:
4141:
4135:
4131:
4128:
4125:
4121:
4120:
4116:
4112:
4108:
4106:
4102:
4098:
4096:
4092:
4089:
4086:cǣġ(e), cǣga
4085:
4083:
4079:
4076:
4074:
4070:
4067:
4064:
4061:
4057:
4054:
4052:
4048:
4044:
4043:
4039:
4035:
4033:
4029:
4027:
4023:
4020:
4016:
4014:
4010:
4007:
4005:
4001:
3998:
3995:
3992:
3988:
3985:
3982:
3978:
3977:
3973:
3969:
3965:
3963:
3959:
3957:
3953:
3951:
3947:
3945:
3941:
3938:
3936:
3932:
3929:
3926:
3923:
3919:
3916:
3913:
3909:
3908:
3904:
3900:
3896:
3894:
3890:
3888:
3884:
3882:
3878:
3876:
3872:
3869:
3867:
3863:
3860:
3857:
3854:
3850:
3847:
3844:
3840:
3839:
3836:
3832:
3830:
3826:
3824:
3820:
3818:
3814:
3812:
3808:
3805:
3803:
3799:
3796:
3793:
3790:
3786:
3783:
3780:
3776:
3775:
3772:
3768:
3766:
3762:
3760:
3756:
3754:
3750:
3748:
3744:
3741:
3739:
3735:
3732:
3729:
3726:
3722:
3719:
3716:
3712:
3711:
3708:
3704:
3702:
3698:
3696:
3692:
3690:
3686:
3684:
3680:
3678:rengel, raege
3677:
3675:
3671:
3668:
3665:
3662:
3658:
3655:
3652:
3648:
3647:
3644:
3640:
3638:
3634:
3632:
3628:
3626:
3622:
3620:
3616:
3613:
3611:
3607:
3604:
3601:
3598:
3594:
3591:
3588:
3584:
3583:
3580:
3576:
3574:
3570:
3568:
3564:
3562:
3558:
3556:
3552:
3549:
3547:
3543:
3540:
3538:khime / rack
3537:
3534:
3530:
3527:
3524:
3520:
3519:
3516:
3513:
3510:
3508:
3505:
3503:
3500:
3498:
3495:
3492:
3489:
3486:
3483:
3480:
3477:
3474:
3473:
3470:
3468:
3464:
3461:), feminine (
3460:
3456:
3441:
3438:
3435:
3432:
3429:
3427:*herju/*harju
3426:
3423:
3421:Instrumental
3420:
3419:
3415:
3409:
3404:*gastē/*gastī
3397:
3391:
3385:
3380:*herjē/*harjē
3379:
3373:
3370:
3369:
3365:
3362:
3359:
3356:
3353:
3350:
3347:
3344:
3341:
3338:
3335:
3333:*herjō/*harjō
3332:
3329:
3326:
3323:
3320:
3319:
3315:
3312:
3309:
3307:*gastĭ/*gasti
3306:
3303:
3300:
3297:
3294:
3291:
3288:
3285:
3282:
3279:
3278:
3274:
3271:
3268:
3265:
3264:
3246:*gastĭ/*gasti
3227:
3221:
3215:
3212:
3211:
3207:
3204:
3201:
3198:
3195:
3192:
3189:
3186:
3183:
3180:
3177:
3174:
3171:
3168:
3165:
3162:
3161:
3155:
3147:
3139:
3131:
3122:
3114:
3108:*herjă (army)
3106:
3097:
3089:
3086:
3064:
3059:
3054:
3050:
3047:
3046:
3040:
3035:
3028:
3023:
3021:
3018:
3017:
3011:
3006:
2999:
2994:
2992:
2989:
2988:
2984:
2981:
2978:
2975:
2973:
2970:
2968:
2965:
2963:
2962:
2959:
2954:
2949:
2945:
2942:
2937:
2932:
2926:
2917:
2914:
2911:
2910:
2909:
2891:
2881:
2880:
2873:
2870:
2863:
2862:
2858:
2855:
2853:
2847:
2841:
2838:
2837:
2830:
2824:
2822:
2817:
2814:
2808:
2805:
2804:
2795:
2784:
2783:
2773:
2762:
2761:
2752:
2748:
2745:
2741:
2737:
2734:
2733:
2732:
2724:
2721:
2706:
2703:
2700:
2694:
2691:
2690:
2680:
2679:
2672:
2645:
2644:
2640:
2637:
2634:
2631:
2625:
2622:
2619:
2616:
2613:
2610:
2604:
2601:
2600:
2584:
2581:
2578:
2577:
2573:
2570:
2567:
2566:
2559:
2558:
2551:
2550:
2537:
2536:
2514:
2513:
2509:
2503:
2500:
2497:
2496:
2468:
2438:
2435:
2432:
2431:
2427:
2424:
2421:
2418:
2415:
2412:
2409:
2406:
2403:
2400:
2397:
2394:
2391:
2388:
2385:
2382:
2379:
2376:
2373:
2370:
2367:
2364:
2361:
2358:
2355:
2352:
2349:
2348:
2343:
2340:
2338:
2334:
2324:
2321:
2318:
2315:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2296:
2293:
2290:
2287:
2284:
2281:
2276:
2272:
2269:
2266:
2263:
2260:
2257:
2254:
2249:
2245:
2242:
2239:
2236:
2233:
2230:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2217:
2214:
2211:
2208:
2205:
2203:
2199:
2194:
2190:
2187:
2184:
2181:
2178:
2175:
2173:
2169:
2164:
2160:
2157:
2154:
2151:
2148:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2134:
2131:
2128:
2125:
2122:
2119:
2114:
2110:
2107:
2104:
2101:
2098:
2095:
2093:
2088:
2084:
2081:
2078:
2075:
2072:
2069:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2056:
2053:
2050:
2047:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2033:
2030:
2027:
2024:
2021:
2019:
2014:
2010:
2007:
2004:
2001:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1988:
1984:
1981:
1979:Southwestern
1978:
1975:
1972:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1958:
1955:
1952:
1949:
1946:
1942:
1917:
1916:
1913:
1903:
1900:
1892:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1868:
1867:
1863:
1858:This section
1856:
1852:
1847:
1846:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1821:
1814:
1811:
1809:
1806:
1804:
1801:
1799:
1796:
1794:
1791:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1778:
1777:
1776:
1773:
1772:
1771:
1770:
1766:
1765:Elbe Germanic
1762:
1755:
1754:High Prussian
1752:
1747:
1744:
1740:
1737:
1735:
1732:
1731:
1729:
1728:
1726:
1724:
1721:
1719:
1716:
1712:
1709:
1708:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1692:
1688:
1687:Luxembourgish
1685:
1683:
1680:
1679:
1678:
1675:
1674:
1673:
1670:
1666:
1663:
1659:
1656:
1652:
1651:Kleverlandish
1649:
1645:
1642:
1640:
1637:
1636:
1635:
1632:
1631:
1630:
1629:Central Dutch
1627:
1625:
1622:
1620:
1617:
1615:
1612:
1611:
1610:
1607:
1606:
1605:
1602:
1601:
1600:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1585:
1582:
1579:
1576:
1573:
1570:
1568:
1565:
1563:
1560:
1558:
1555:
1553:
1550:
1548:
1545:
1543:
1540:
1539:
1538:
1535:
1529:
1528:North Frisian
1526:
1520:
1517:
1515:
1512:
1511:
1509:
1505:
1502:
1501:
1499:
1498:
1497:
1494:
1484:
1481:
1480:
1479:Wood Frisian
1478:
1475:
1474:
1473:
1470:
1468:
1465:
1464:
1462:
1460:
1457:
1455:
1452:
1451:
1450:
1447:
1446:
1445:
1442:
1438:
1435:
1430:
1427:
1424:
1421:
1420:
1418:
1414:
1412:
1409:
1408:
1407:
1404:
1403:
1402:
1401:Anglo-Frisian
1399:
1398:
1397:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1387:
1386:
1383:
1382:
1380:
1378:
1374:
1367:
1362:
1352:
1349:
1341:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1317:
1316:
1311:This section
1309:
1305:
1300:
1299:
1288:
1279:
1270:
1266:
1257:
1248:
1244:
1234:
1230:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1175:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1148:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1120:
1111:
1102:
1093:
1083:
1074:
1071:
1065:
1062:
1057:
1040:
1026:
1024:
1020:
1019:Wolfram Euler
1008:
1003:
1000:
998:
994:
990:
986:
982:
978:
973:
964:
960:
959:demonstrative
956:
945:
941:
938:
934:
931:
927:
919:
915:
914:
913:
910:
908:
905:
901:
897:
886:
882:
878:
874:
870:
869:Elbe Germanic
867:
865:
861:
857:
853:
849:
845:
842:
840:
836:
835:Anglo-Frisian
832:
829:
828:
827:
824:
823:
821:
819:
814:
811:
808:
804:
800:
796:
785:
783:
780:, cf. German
779:
775:
771:
768:, cf. German
767:
764:(< wgerm.
763:
758:
750:
746:
742:
739:
736:
732:
729:
725:
722:
718:
714:
711:
707:
706:
705:
702:
700:
695:
692:
691:
685:
679:
675:
671:
667:
663:
652:
649:
642:
638:
634:
630:
626:
607:
604:
600:
596:
592:
588:
584:
580:
576:
572:
568:
564:
560:
556:
552:
548:
544:
541:
537:
533:
525:
522:
518:
514:
510:
506:
502:
498:
494:
491:
487:
486:
485:
483:
479:
478:morphological
475:
464:
460:
455:
452:
448:
444:
439:
437:
432:
428:
413:
411:
407:
403:
399:
395:
391:
390:Luxembourgish
387:
383:
379:
373:
371:
367:
363:
359:
355:
351:
347:
343:
339:
338:East Germanic
335:
331:
327:
323:
312:
304:
303:
295:
290:
285:
280:
271:
262:
253:
244:
235:
227:
226:
221:
212:
203:
194:
185:
177:
176:
168:
163:
159:
155:
153:
149:
143:
141:
137:
133:
129:
127:
123:
117:
112:
111:Elbe Germanic
109:
106:
101:
98:
95:
91:
90:Anglo-Frisian
86:
83:
82:
81:
77:
70:
69:West Germanic
67:
66:
65:
62:
61:
60:
59:Indo-European
57:
55:
51:
47:
43:
39:
35:
31:
25:
22:West Germanic
20:
8927:
8908:
8900:
8888:
8880:
8872:
8796:
8734:Northumbrian
8708:
8634:
8518:Verner's law
8463:
8458:Gotho-Nordic
8456:
8449:
8425:
8370:
8363:
8355:
8349:
8339:
8324:Fårö Gutnish
8286:
8279:
8185:
8178:
8169:
8162:
8143:
8136:
8064:
8059:
8054:
8047:
8040:
7980:
7882:Swiss German
7846:Upper German
7779:Amana German
7753:Volga German
7722:Hunsrückisch
7648:
7602:Unserdeutsch
7597:Berlinerisch
7530:
7523:
7516:
7509:
7469:Cover groups
7425:Mohawk Dutch
7420:Jersey Dutch
7398:East Flemish
7381:West Flemish
7325:Middle Dutch
7279:Low Prussian
7151:
7144:
7110:Terschelling
7094:Clay Frisian
7069:West Frisian
7057:Wiedingharde
7049:
7037:
6997:Heligolandic
6974:
6949:
6942:
6935:
6930:
6913:East Frisian
6900:
6893:
6866:Middle Scots
6864:
6857:
6843:
6836:
6829:
6824:
6813:
6806:
6799:
6792:
6753:
6679:
6660:
6653:
6639:
6632:
6625:
6618:
6609:
6605:33, 530–536.
6602:
6592:
6582:
6564:
6557:
6550:
6543:
6539:
6529:
6522:
6513:Ingwäonisch.
6512:
6505:
6498:
6488:
6481:
6474:
6464:
6457:
6447:
6436:
6426:
6422:
6415:
6411:
6404:
6394:
6387:
6372:
6365:
6351:
6336:
6317:
6310:
6306:
6302:
6292:
6285:
6275:
6268:" 27, 33–43.
6261:
6254:
6244:
6240:
6230:
6224:Bibliography
6213:
6036:
6027:
6021:
6010:. Retrieved
5985:
5968:
5949:
5943:
5924:
5918:
5910:
5905:
5897:
5892:
5884:
5880:
5875:
5867:
5862:
5853:
5834:
5829:Graeme Davis
5824:
5815:
5799:
5794:
5778:
5774:
5769:
5760:
5752:
5747:
5739:
5730:
5721:
5717:
5711:
5702:
5693:
5684:
5675:
5666:
5657:
5648:
5639:
5630:
5621:
5612:
5603:
5594:
5585:
5575:
5566:
5557:
5548:
5539:
5530:
5521:
5512:
5503:
5494:
5485:
5476:
5467:
5458:
5449:
5440:
5431:
5422:
5413:
5404:
5395:
5386:
5377:
5368:
5345:
5336:
5327:
5308:
5287:
5278:
5269:
5250:
5240:
5220:
5206:
5199:
5195:
5189:
5185:
5178:
5177:/ pfarifrit
5174:
5168:
5164:
5157:
5153:
5141:
5136:
5033:West Frisian
5026:
5019:
5013:
5007:
5001:
4995:
4986:
4955:
4949:
4943:
4937:
4931:
4922:
4891:
4885:
4879:
4872:
4866:
4857:
4826:
4820:
4814:
4807:
4801:
4792:
4578:
4572:
4566:
4560:
4554:
4545:
4514:
4508:
4502:
4495:
4489:
4480:
4449:
4443:
4437:
4431:
4425:
4416:
4384:
4378:
4372:
4365:
4359:
4350:
4260:hebbe, höbbe
4227:
4221:
4220:*twai skēpu
4215:
4209:
4203:
4202:zwei Schafe
4199:twieë schäöp
4194:
4157:bin gewesen
4151:ben geweest
4114:
4110:
4104:
4100:
4094:
4087:
4081:
4072:
4050:
4037:
4031:
4025:
4018:
4012:
4003:
3986:sib; sibling
3971:
3967:
3961:
3955:
3949:
3943:
3934:
3902:
3898:
3892:
3886:
3885:chāsi, kāsi
3880:
3879:ċēse, ċīese
3874:
3865:
3834:
3828:
3822:
3816:
3810:
3801:
3770:
3764:
3758:
3752:
3746:
3737:
3706:
3700:
3694:
3688:
3682:
3673:
3642:
3636:
3630:
3624:
3618:
3609:
3578:
3572:
3566:
3560:
3554:
3545:
3475:West Frisian
3466:
3462:
3458:
3452:
3416:*fehiwi, -ō
3289:*herjă/*hari
3286:*dagą̄?/dagą
3272:*herjă/*hari
3222:*herjă/*hari
3153:
3145:
3137:
3133:*gebu (gift)
3129:
3125:*joką (yoke)
3120:
3112:
3104:
3095:
3084:
2907:
2882:Approximant
2780:Labio-Velar
2743:
2730:
2722:
2719:
2341:
2330:
2279:
2252:
2201:
2197:
2171:
2167:
2117:
2090:Loss of the
2017:
1991:
1970:ø but not y
1923:Old Frisian
1920:Old English
1910:
1895:
1886:
1871:Please help
1859:
1784:Swiss German
1782:, including
1775:Upper German
1763:
1619:East Flemish
1614:West Flemish
1592:
1578:Low Prussian
1496:East Frisian
1476:Clay Frisian
1449:West Frisian
1389:
1384:
1370:
1344:
1335:
1315:verification
1312:
1287:Upper German
1247:Netherlandic
1223:Anglo-Saxons
1195:Lower Saxony
1186:
1176:
1149:
1130:
1066:
1058:
1054:
1023:Donald Ringe
1015:
1005:
1001:
992:
988:
984:
980:
976:
968:
962:
929:
925:
917:
911:
893:
879:dialects of
873:Upper German
862:dialects of
815:
812:
802:
791:
782:Freundschaft
781:
777:
773:
769:
765:
761:
754:
737:
730:
723:
719:verbs (e.g.
703:
696:
688:
686:
683:
677:
673:
669:
665:
640:
636:
632:
628:
589:forms – are
582:
578:
567:Hermann Hirt
550:
546:
539:
538:have become
535:
531:
520:
516:
512:
508:
504:
500:
496:
474:phonological
461:in the late
456:
447:Old Frankish
440:
424:
374:
321:
319:
301:
300:
224:
223:
174:
173:
140:Linguasphere
79:Subdivisions
68:
29:distribution
8719:Old English
8533:Kluge's law
8513:Grimm's law
8296:Dalecarlian
8275:Perkerdansk
8248:East Danish
8066:Old Gutnish
8042:Proto-Norse
7982:Langobardic
7974:Vogtlandian
7802:Upper Saxon
7656:Lachoudisch
7617:Lotegorisch
7495:High German
7241:Westphalian
7236:Eastphalian
7200:Achterhooks
7077:Hindeloopen
7012:Bökingharde
6981:Föhr–Amrum
6895:Old Frisian
6859:Early Scots
6794:Old English
6674:‹ The
6301:(2002/03).
5057:Old English
4355:mik, broeëd
4214:zwei scāfa
4187:twye zheep
3502:Old English
3398:*gebu/*gebē
3301:*geba/*gebā
3280:Accusative
3243:*gebā/*gebō
3219:*dagō?/dagā
3213:Nominative
3149:*sunu (son)
3100:*dagă (day)
2433:PR-English
2273:Developing
2243:Developing
2008:Developing
2002:Developing
1932:Old Central
1552:Eastphalian
1547:Westphalian
1338:August 2023
1294:Family tree
1131:During the
1110:Old Frisian
1077:Middle Ages
900:Old Frisian
896:Old English
721:Anglo-Saxon
279:High German
116:High German
8952:Categories
8854:Consonants
8829:Diphthongs
8739:West Saxon
8365:Burgundian
8281:Old Danish
8270:Gøtudanskt
8253:Bornholmsk
8115:Vestlandsk
8095:Kebabnorsk
7832:Halcnovian
7797:Thuringian
7460:Limburgish
7430:Stadsfries
7403:Brabantian
7130:Low German
6976:Eiderstedt
6831:Fingallian
6546:The Hague.
6012:2023-07-16
5959:9027237530
5232:References
5082:thegither
5048:Limburgish
4208:twā sċēap
4190:twee skape
4148:was gewees
4109:*slutilaz
4080:Schlüssel
4065:kei / kie
3730:wei / wye
3493:Limburgish
3076:Morphology
2839:Fricative
2727:Consonants
2028:Sometimes
1929:Old Dutch
1926:Old Saxon
1756:(moribund)
1748:(moribund)
1734:Halcnovian
1718:Thuringian
1665:Limburgish
1658:Brabantian
1580:(moribund)
1574:(moribund)
1537:Low German
1269:Low German
1179:Low German
795:Sprachbund
776:(< wg.
774:friendship
591:W. Scherer
555:indicative
495:Change of
358:Istvaeonic
352:, and the
342:Ingvaeonic
328:family of
286:is common.
270:Low German
94:Low German
27:Geographic
8895:Rhoticity
8875:-dropping
8645:varieties
8637:indicate
8451:Northwest
8396:Philology
8301:Elfdalian
8236:Jutlandic
8158:Icelandic
8133:(written)
8127:(written)
8105:Trøndersk
8085:Norwegian
8049:Old Norse
7870:Coloniero
7854:Alemannic
7827:Wymysorys
7695:Colognian
7690:Ripuarian
7612:Rotwelsch
7442:Midslands
7393:Zeelandic
7374:Hollandic
7348:Afrikaans
7320:Old Dutch
7146:Old Saxon
7045:Karrharde
7027:Goesharde
7008:Mainland
6741:philology
6575:. Oxford.
5987:Glottolog
5810:. Oxford.
5198:, *ehwaz
5116:*tōgadur
5101:tōgædere
5098:zusammen
5042:Afrikaans
4954:*stainaz
4785:ei / iee
4430:hēr, hǣr
4275:*habjaną
4272:*habbjană
4182:twa sheep
4177:two sheep
4172:twa skiep
4129:have been
4099:*slutilă
3897:*kāsijaz
3487:Afrikaans
3389:*hirdijum
3336:*hirdijas
3321:Genitive
3298:*hirdiją̄
3283:*dag/dagă
3266:Vocative
3216:*dag/dagă
3152:Nouns in
3144:Nouns in
3136:Nouns in
3128:Nouns in
3119:Nouns in
3111:Nouns in
3103:Nouns in
3094:Nouns in
2953:unrounded
2948:unrounded
2771:Alveolar
2716:Phonology
1937:Old Upper
1889:July 2019
1860:does not
1815:(extinct)
1813:Lombardic
1780:Alemannic
1739:Wymysorys
1682:Ripuarian
1639:Afrikaans
1634:Hollandic
1624:Zeelandic
1431:(extinct)
1425:(extinct)
1423:Fingalian
1322:talk page
1265:Low Saxon
1119:Old Saxon
1092:Old Dutch
944:rhotacism
875:and most
848:Old Dutch
839:Old Saxon
797:effects.
728:Old Saxon
717:athematic
639:vs. ORu.
603:Don Ringe
571:E. Polomé
386:Low Saxon
378:Afrikaans
366:Irminonic
330:languages
311:Afrikaans
202:Norwegian
184:Icelandic
152:Glottolog
126:ISO 639-5
46:North Sea
8920:stopping
8915:fronting
8867:Flapping
8862:Clusters
8372:Vandalic
8315:Gutnish
8120:Vikværsk
8100:Sognamål
8090:Bergensk
7940:Cimbrian
7908:Bavarian
7865:Alsatian
7812:Lusatian
7748:Palatine
7438:Amelands
7315:Frankish
7205:Sallaans
7187:Gronings
7038:Southern
7031:Northern
7022:Halligen
6971:Insular
6788:dialects
6676:template
6652:(1974).
6581:(1992).
6567:, 632p.
6538:(1964).
6521:(1999).
6473:(1971).
6456:(1942),
6435:(2008).
6272:Behaghel
6239:(1984).
6006:Archived
5802:, 632p.
5307:(1992).
5194:*hrussą
5184:*hrussă
5156:/ Ross
5144:(dated)
5118:*samana
5110:zisamane
5092:tezamen
5079:together
5076:tegearre
5012:*baddjă
4948:*staină
4884:*draumă
4672:*swōtuz
4626:*grōniz
4383:*braudą
4377:*braudă
4140:hiv been
4103:, *kēgă
4093:sluzzil
4077:slueëtel
4071:sleutel
3972:kuriakón
3966:*kirikǭ
3960:*kirikā
3927:chourch
3833:*naglaz
3705:*regnaz
3577:*kambaz
3430:*hirdiju
3386:*hirdijē
3357:*gastijō
3339:*hirdijō
3295:*hirdiją
3231:*hirdijō
3228:*hirdijă
3205:Singular
3199:Singular
3193:Singular
3187:Singular
3181:Singular
3175:Singular
3169:Singular
3163:Singular
2774:Palatal
2498:Frisian
2322:Partial
2191:Partial
2188:Partial
2185:Usually
2018:*-(ō)ja-
1953:Partial
1798:Bavarian
1788:Alsatian
1746:Silesian
1706:Lorraine
1557:Marchian
1377:dialects
1213:and the
1164:Walliser
740:"I do"),
593:(1868),
587:optative
569:(1932),
565:(1927),
326:Germanic
158:west2793
64:Germanic
8729:Mercian
8724:Kentish
8635:Italics
8258:Scanian
8204:Swedish
8153:Faroese
8131:Nynorsk
8110:Valdris
7945:Mòcheno
7901:Swabian
7767:Hessian
7727:Hunsrik
7639:Western
7634:Eastern
7629:Yiddish
7579:creoles
7476:Bergish
7192:Drèents
7182:Tweants
7034:Central
7016:Mooring
6879:Frisian
6838:Kildare
6783:English
6678:below (
5724:: 1–47.
5249:(ed.).
5188:/ *ehu
5173:(h)ros
5135:paard
5105:tōsamne
5036:English
5018:*badją
4915:sthoan
4717:*þurhw
4694:draugh
4684:through
4257:hebben
4145:ha bin
4124:ha west
4068:sleutel
4036:*sibjō
3948:ċiriċe
3942:Kirche
3912:tsjerke
3858:cheese
3827:*naglă
3806:nieëgel
3769:*wegaz
3699:*regnă
3641:*dagaz
3478:English
3407:*gastim
3371:Dative
3363:*suniwō
3275:*hirdī
3269:*dag(ă)
3208:Plural
2958:rounded
2936:Central
2864:Rhotic
2768:Dental
2765:Labial
1939:German
1934:German
1881:removed
1866:sources
1823:Yiddish
1793:Swabian
1444:Frisian
1411:English
1256:Frisian
1215:Jutland
1211:Germany
1187:English
772:) like
770:-schaft
766:-*skapi
757:lexemes
672:before
657:before
605:(2014).
523:'four'.
521:*fewwōr
517:*feđwōr
482:lexical
416:History
410:pidgins
402:creoles
394:Hunsrik
382:Yiddish
346:English
243:English
211:Swedish
193:Faroese
8788:Vowels
8351:Gothic
8221:Danish
8125:Bokmål
7624:Yenish
7434:Bildts
7217:Veluws
7212:Urkers
7051:Strand
6775:Anglic
6695:Curlie
6681:Curlie
6644:NOWELE
6571:
6439:, in "
6379:
6343:
6328:
6264:, in "
6243:, in:
6214:passim
5956:
5931:
5841:
5806:
5785:
5315:
5257:
5152:Pferd
5123:hynder
5108:saman
5103:samen
5090:samen
5087:tesame
5045:Dutch
5039:Scots
5006:betti
4942:stein
4930:Stein
4921:steen
4878:troum
4871:drēam
4865:Traum
4856:droom
4850:dreem
4825:*augō
4819:*auga
4739:weate
4706:durch
4669:*swōtŭ
4648:sweet
4623:*grōnĭ
4620:gruoni
4608:groen
4602:green
4577:*durz
4571:*duru
4448:*hērą
4442:*hǣră
4364:brēad
4349:brood
4343:breed
4263:haben
4134:hae(s)
4024:sippa
4011:Sippe
4002:sibbe
3917:church
3903:cāseus
3891:*kāsī
3853:cheese
3848:cheese
3821:nagal
3815:næġel
3809:Nagel
3800:nagel
3763:*wegă
3693:regan
3681:Regen
3672:regen
3666:rhyne
3635:*dagă
3490:Dutch
3442:*fehu
3413:*sunum
3401:*gebōm
3395:*jokum
3377:*dagum
3366:*fehō
3342:*jokas
3324:*dagas
3249:*gastī
3202:Plural
3196:Plural
3190:Plural
3184:Plural
3178:Plural
3172:Plural
3166:Plural
2982:short
2976:short
2904:Vowels
2834:gʷ~ɣʷ
2785:Nasal
2777:Velar
2422:*-kk-
2416:*-pp-
2410:*-tt-
2380:*-Ek-
2374:*-Ak-
2371:*-Eɣ-
2368:*-Aɣ-
1698:Hessen
1510:Weser
1406:Anglic
1285:
1283:
1276:
1274:
1263:
1261:
1254:
1252:
1241:
1239:
1205:, two
1203:Saxons
1199:Angles
1183:Angeln
1172:German
1124:
1117:
1115:
1108:
1106:
1099:
1097:
1090:
1088:
937:umlaut
745:aorist
699:gerund
536:*- đw-
513:*iwwiz
509:*izwiz
501:*- đw-
451:Gothic
408:, and
406:patois
396:, and
370:German
348:, the
309:
307:
277:
275:
268:
266:
259:
257:
250:
248:
241:
239:
232:
230:
220:Danish
218:
216:
209:
207:
200:
198:
191:
189:
182:
180:
44:, and
8465:South
8416:North
8026:North
8010:North
7352:Kaaps
7343:Dutch
6990:Amrum
6931:Weser
6853:Scots
6414:, in
6354:, in
6309:, in
5212:Notes
5163:hors
5147:perd
5140:ros
5129:pony
5126:horse
5085:saam
5000:bedd
4994:Bett
4936:stān
4927:stein
4918:steen
4910:stane
4905:stone
4900:stien
4862:draum
4853:droom
4845:dream
4840:dream
4835:dream
4813:ouga
4806:ēage
4800:Auge
4712:duruh
4703:doeër
4700:door
4689:throu
4679:troch
4663:swēte
4654:zoet
4643:sweet
4638:sweet
4633:swiet
4617:grēne
4614:grün
4611:greun
4605:groen
4597:green
4592:green
4587:grien
4565:turi
4559:duru
4550:dueër
4544:deur
4538:dher
4494:ēare
4424:Haar
4415:haar
4409:haar
4371:brōt
4358:Brot
4346:brood
4338:breid
4333:bread
4321:*uns
4297:ouse
4269:habēn
4236:hawwe
4017:sibb
3981:sibbe
3933:kerk
3873:Käse
3870:kieës
3864:kaas
3843:tsiis
3794:niel
3687:reġn
3565:camb
3559:camb
3553:Kamm
3484:Yola
3481:Scots
3436:*gebu
3433:*joku
3424:*dagu
3392:*jokē
3374:*dagē
3360:*sunō
3348:*gebā
3345:*jokō
3327:*dagō
3313:*sunu
3304:*gebā
3258:*fehu
3252:*sunu
3240:*gebu
3237:*joku
3234:*joką
3113:-ija-
3091:Case
3081:Nouns
2991:Close
2985:long
2979:long
2967:short
2931:Front
2806:Stop
2801:(ŋʷ)
2428:*kE-
2425:*kA-
2407:*-p-
2404:*-t-
2398:*sE-
2395:*sA-
2389:*-d-
2383:*-Ek
2377:*-Ak
2359:*-β-
2356:*-ð-
2212:Rare
2079:Rare
1644:Kaaps
1609:Dutch
1437:Scots
1219:Jutes
997:clade
928:) to
762:-ship
724:dō(m)
641:horna
633:*-an#
583:-ī(z)
549:with
540:*-ww-
532:*-zw-
519:>
511:>
507:e.g.
505:*-ww-
497:*-zw-
431:North
398:Scots
362:Dutch
261:Dutch
234:Scots
34:Rhine
8426:West
8421:East
8341:East
8197:East
8187:Norn
8078:West
8014:East
8012:and
7577:and
7572:Non-
7002:Sylt
6985:Föhr
6920:Ems
6845:Yola
6754:West
6569:ISBN
6377:ISBN
6341:ISBN
6326:ISBN
5954:ISBN
5929:ISBN
5839:ISBN
5804:ISBN
5783:ISBN
5580:Ltd.
5313:ISBN
5255:ISBN
5167:eoh
5132:perd
5095:same
4985:bed
4979:bed
4791:oog
4770:each
4748:naat
4745:nat
4734:weet
4724:wiet
4709:þurh
4697:deur
4660:süß
4657:zeut
4651:soet
4553:Tür
4541:deur
4533:door
4528:door
4523:doar
4501:ōra
4488:Ohr
4485:oeër
4479:oor
4473:lug
4436:hār
4421:haor
4412:haar
4404:hair
4399:hair
4394:hier
4328:brea
4318:*uns
4309:uns
4303:ons
4241:have
4047:kaai
3939:kêrk
3930:kerk
3922:kirk
3861:kaas
3797:nael
3789:nail
3784:nail
3779:neil
3757:weg
3751:weġ
3745:Weg
3742:weeg
3736:weg
3669:reën
3661:rain
3656:rain
3651:rein
3629:tag
3623:dæġ
3617:Tag
3614:daag
3608:dag
3602:dei
3550:kâmp
3544:kam
3533:kaim
3528:comb
3523:kaam
3261:(?)
3156:(n.)
3123:(n.)
3105:-ja-
3098:(m.)
3049:Open
2972:long
2941:Back
2828:g~ɣ
2812:b~v
2798:(ŋ)
2709:k͡x
2687:p͡f
2597:t͡s
2504:ɾ~d
2493:t̠ʃ
2454:t̠ʃ
2419:*p-
2413:*t-
2401:*sk
2392:*b-
2386:*d-
2365:*g-
2362:*-β
2353:*θ-
2325:Yes
2300:Yes
2270:Yes
2267:Yes
2240:Yes
2221:Yes
2218:Yes
2215:Yes
2182:Yes
2179:Yes
2176:Yes
2155:Yes
2152:Yes
2149:Yes
2146:Yes
2132:Yes
2129:Yes
2126:Yes
2123:Yes
2099:Yes
2096:Yes
2076:Yes
2073:Yes
2070:Yes
2051:Yes
2048:Yes
2045:Yes
2025:Yes
2022:Yes
2005:Yes
1999:Yes
1996:Yes
1973:Yes
1950:Yes
1947:Yes
1864:any
1862:cite
1786:and
1500:Ems
1429:Yola
1201:and
1193:and
1150:The
1139:and
963:this
942:The
922:/ɛː/
898:and
858:and
837:and
735:OHG.
676:and
637:horn
622:/aN/
620:and
557:and
534:and
499:and
488:The
480:and
429:and
427:East
320:The
42:Elbe
38:Alps
8813:/r/
8805:/l/
6693:at
5996:doi
5149:ros
4991:bed
4982:bed
4974:bed
4969:bed
4964:bed
4797:oug
4788:oog
4775:eye
4754:wǣt
4742:nat
4729:wet
4476:oor
4468:lug
4463:ear
4458:ear
4315:uns
4300:ons
4254:het
4251:ha
4246:hae
4060:key
4055:key
3991:sib
3733:weg
3725:wey
3720:way
3715:wei
3605:dag
3597:day
3592:day
3587:dei
3541:kam
3154:-u-
3146:-u-
3138:-i-
3130:-ō-
3121:-a-
3096:-a-
3020:Mid
2859:xʷ
2831:kʷ
2530:sx
2510:sk
2337:IPA
2319:No
2316:No
2313:No
2310:No
2294:No
2291:No
2288:No
2285:No
2280:*w-
2264:No
2261:No
2258:No
2253:*h-
2246:No
2237:No
2234:No
2231:No
2209:No
2206:No
2200:, *
2170:, *
2161:No
2158:No
2138:No
2135:No
2118:*-z
2111:No
2108:No
2085:No
2082:No
2060:No
2057:No
2054:No
2037:No
2034:No
2031:No
2011:No
1992:-h-
1985:No
1982:No
1976:No
1962:No
1959:No
1956:No
1875:by
1328:by
1267:or
1245:or
1137:Old
979:to
952:/r/
950:to
948:/z/
946:of
738:tōm
731:dōm
668:to
659:/j/
655:/r/
645:/z/
629:*-a
618:/a/
614:/r/
610:/z/
528:/d/
503:to
132:gmw
8954::
8928:Wh
8909:Th
8889:Ng
6205:^
6189:^
6173:^
6159:^
6129:^
6085:^
6061:^
6045:^
6004:.
5994:.
5984:.
5738:,
5722:86
5720:.
5354:^
5296:^
5200:m.
5196:n.
5190:m.
5186:n.
5179:n.
5175:n.
5169:m.
5165:n.
5158:n.
5154:n.
5142:n.
5137:n.
5020:n.
5014:n.
5008:n.
5002:n.
4996:n.
4987:n.
4956:m.
4950:m.
4944:m.
4938:m.
4932:m.
4923:m.
4892:m.
4886:m.
4880:m.
4873:m.
4867:m.
4858:m.
4827:n.
4821:n.
4815:n.
4808:n.
4802:n.
4793:n.
4780:ee
4579:f.
4573:f.
4567:f.
4561:f.
4555:f.
4546:f.
4515:n.
4509:n.
4503:n.
4496:n.
4490:n.
4481:n.
4450:n.
4444:n.
4438:n.
4432:n.
4426:n.
4417:n.
4385:n.
4379:m.
4373:n.
4366:n.
4360:n.
4351:n.
4312:ūs
4306:os
4292:us
4287:us
4282:ús
4228:n.
4222:n.
4216:n.
4210:n.
4204:n.
4195:n.
4115:f.
4111:m.
4105:f.
4101:m.
4095:m.
4088:f.
4082:m.
4073:m.
4051:f.
4038:f.
4032:f.
4026:f.
4019:f.
4013:f.
4004:f.
3968:f.
3962:f.
3956:f.
3950:f.
3944:f.
3935:f.
3905:)
3899:m.
3893:m.
3887:m.
3881:m.
3875:m.
3866:m.
3835:m.
3829:m.
3823:m.
3817:m.
3811:m.
3802:m.
3771:m.
3765:m.
3759:m.
3753:m.
3747:m.
3738:m.
3707:m.
3701:m.
3695:m.
3689:m.
3683:m.
3674:m.
3643:m.
3637:m.
3631:m.
3625:m.
3619:m.
3610:m.
3579:m.
3573:m.
3567:m.
3561:m.
3555:m.
3546:m.
3467:n.
3463:f.
3459:m.
3066:aː
3056:æː
3042:oː
3030:eː
3013:uː
3001:iː
2897:w
2892:j
2889:l
2871:r
2856:x
2851:z
2848:s
2845:θ
2842:f
2825:k
2818:d
2815:t
2809:p
2793:n
2788:m
2704:s
2701:p
2698:x
2695:k
2684:ç
2676:k
2673:p
2670:f
2667:s
2664:t
2661:ʃ
2658:x
2655:g
2652:b
2649:d
2641:g
2638:b
2635:v
2632:z
2629:d
2626:ʃ
2623:ʒ
2620:x
2617:ɣ
2614:ʝ
2611:ɣ
2608:b
2605:ɾ
2594:t
2591:ʃ
2588:x
2585:ç
2582:x
2574:ʃ
2571:ʝ
2563:g
2555:ʃ
2547:ç
2544:x
2541:x
2533:k
2527:z
2524:ɣ
2521:d
2518:d
2507:k
2501:t
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2484:p
2481:p
2478:t
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2466:ʃ
2463:s
2460:b
2457:d
2451:k
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2172:au
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1596:/
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1046:c.
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733:,
726:,
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476:,
467:c.
404:,
392:,
388:,
384:,
380:,
356:;
113:–
102:–
92:,
87:–
40:,
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8881:L
8873:H
8797:A
8680:e
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8360:)
8354:(
7440:/
7436:/
7432:/
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7350:(
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4008:–
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3061:a
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1829:/
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930:ā
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920:(
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887:.
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680:.
678:j
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542:.
465:(
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