234:
25:
3369:
Since Anglo-Frisian features occur in Low German â especially in its older stages such as Old Saxon â some scholars regard the North Sea
Germanic classification as more meaningful than a sharp division into Anglo-Frisian and Low German. In other words, because Old Saxon came under strong Old High
558:
subfamily cannot be considered a majority opinion. In fact, the groupings of
Ingvaeonic and West Germanic languages are highly debated, even though they rely on much more innovations and evidence. Some scholars consider a Proto-Anglo-Frisian language as disproven, as far as such postulates are
3400:" in classification. Since Old Anglian and Jutish were, like Old Saxon, direct ancestors of Old English, it might follow that Old Saxon, Old Anglian and/or Jutish were more closely related to English than any of them was to Frisian (or vice versa).
554:, were spoken by intercommunicating populations. While this has been cited as a reason for a few traits exclusively shared by Old Saxon and either Old English or Old Frisian, a genetic unity of the Anglo-Frisian languages beyond that of an
542:. According to this reading, English and Frisian would have had a proximal ancestral form in common that no other attested group shares. The early Anglo-Frisian varieties, like
3370:
German and Old Low
Franconian influence at an early stage, it lost some North Sea Germanic features, that it had previously shared with Old English and Old Frisian.
3897:
Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Anglic". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck
Institute for the Science of Human History.
4732:
6325:
6287:
6274:
6266:
3863:
6282:
6302:
4006:
Fulk, Robert D. (1998). "The
Chronology of Anglo-Frisian Sound Changes". In Bremmer Jr., Rolf H.; Johnston, Thomas S.B.; Vries, Oebele (eds.).
6142:
5107:
4185:
1496:
These are the words for the numbers one to 12 in the Anglo-Frisian languages, with Dutch, West-Flemish and German included for comparison:
4905:
364:
6317:
6292:
89:
586:, whereas the modern Frisian languages developed under contact with the southern Germanic populations, restricted to the continent.
61:
42:
3877:
6251:
68:
559:
falsifiable. Nevertheless, the close ties and strong similarities between the Anglic and the
Frisian grouping are part of the
6390:
6371:
6351:
4132:
4058:
3919:
3743:
3710:
6259:
4722:
1303:. That these were simultaneous and in that order for all Anglo-Frisian languages is considered disproved by some scholars.
1299:
The following is a summary of the major sound changes affecting vowels in chronological order. For additional detail, see
1300:
1144:, by far the most spoken of the three main branches with 875,840 total speakers, constitutes an official language in the
75:
5634:
4125:
West
Germanic: from its Emergence in the 3rd up until its Dissolution in the 7th Century CE: Analyses and Reconstruction
4154:
3804:
1992:
108:
563:. Therefore, the concept of Anglo-Frisian languages can be useful and is today employed without these implications.
57:
6426:
6421:
6135:
4178:
6239:
1204:
There are no known East
Frisian dialects, but there are three dialects of West Frisian and ten of North Frisian.
247:
3829:
3779:
979:
46:
3366:. The North Sea Germanic grouping may be regarded as an alternative to Anglo-Frisian, or as ancestral to it.
6001:
3377:, but rather as a group of closely related dialects that underwent several areal changes in relative unison.
1370:
256:
6162:
6031:
5201:
5163:
5148:
1148:
352:
6276:
6268:
4475:
368:
6431:
6128:
6011:
5871:
5221:
5180:
5170:
4171:
4083:
3408:
1480:
912:
4387:
4073:
For a full discussion of the areal changes involved and their relative chronologies, see Voyles (1992).
774:
289:
5728:
3691:
Friesische
Studien II: BeitrĂ€ge des Föhrer Symposiums zur Friesischen Philologie vom 7.â8. April 1994
3689:
1364:
360:
82:
6197:
6006:
5960:
5955:
5879:
5489:
5473:
5352:
5211:
5102:
5097:
3433:
1323:
1009:
1993:
Words in
English, West Riding Yorkshire, Scots, Yola, West Frisian, Dutch, German and West-Flemish
6172:
6167:
5945:
5889:
5884:
5804:
5477:
5427:
4727:
4545:
4301:
4217:
3351:
1374:
721:
341:
174:
164:
35:
6067:
5787:
5185:
5950:
5432:
5398:
5016:
4832:
4692:
4532:
4427:
1156:
1024:
807:
711:
574:, except from contact with communities capable of open water navigation. This resulted in more
337:
329:
280:
1254:
815:
6209:
6108:
6072:
5340:
5333:
5285:
5055:
5026:
4995:
4958:
4883:
4640:
4553:
4414:
4376:
3428:
1195:
1160:
1141:
937:
766:
734:
388:
333:
271:
5573:
4448:
3845:
884:
6358:
6219:
6077:
6057:
6026:
5899:
5759:
5505:
5323:
4915:
4742:
4704:
4699:
4573:
4520:
4278:
3359:
1248:
1237:
1191:
1171:
991:
945:
853:
729:
659:
560:
347:
The Anglo-Frisian languages are distinct from other West Germanic languages due to several
5733:
8:
6187:
6016:
5252:
5206:
5140:
4893:
4540:
4453:
4251:
1466:
1019:
1014:
879:
716:
5563:
5408:
4655:
6307:
6202:
6151:
6062:
5986:
5914:
5904:
5859:
5621:
5548:
5445:
5290:
5265:
5260:
5153:
4981:
4866:
4687:
4465:
4460:
4439:
4400:
4204:
4194:
3389:
3380:
The extinction of two little-attested and presumably North Sea Germanic languages, Old
3347:
3342:
1417:
1187:
891:
871:
863:
787:
686:
571:
555:
179:
169:
5216:
3853:
224:
6297:
6036:
5835:
5751:
5744:
5699:
5643:
5403:
5393:
5376:
5371:
5275:
5037:
4837:
4798:
4778:
4616:
4508:
4490:
4342:
4150:
4128:
4054:
3948:
Thomas Burns McArthur, The English Languages, Cambridge University Press, 1998. p.203
3915:
3849:
3825:
3800:
3775:
3749:
3739:
3706:
3416:
3397:
1266:
1260:
1119:
833:
828:
706:
325:
261:
209:
139:
3939:
in A. J. Aitken, Tom McArthur, Languages of Scotland, W. and R. Chambers, 1979. p.27
6363:
5991:
5782:
5716:
5672:
5667:
5627:
5616:
5608:
5413:
5381:
5328:
5317:
5230:
4939:
4878:
4668:
4650:
4485:
4246:
4238:
3867:
3698:
3381:
1283:
846:
667:
309:
204:
5828:
3385:
6192:
6021:
5981:
5814:
5721:
5704:
5689:
5684:
5677:
5386:
5295:
5280:
5235:
5087:
5050:
5042:
5021:
5008:
4988:
4974:
4737:
4714:
4645:
4635:
4627:
4407:
4109:
Nordgermanen und Alemannen: Studien zur Sprachgeschichte, Stammes- und Volkskunde
916:
795:
579:
418:
294:
233:
159:
3914:. The New Edinburgh History of Scotland. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
6343:
6224:
6214:
6102:
5996:
5976:
5928:
5820:
5694:
5364:
5131:
5070:
4849:
4806:
4763:
4680:
4675:
4564:
4514:
4365:
4316:
4271:
4264:
3412:
3374:
1125:
987:
949:
941:
838:
759:
742:
649:
639:
629:
583:
399:
313:
238:
Approximate present day distribution of the Anglo-Frisian languages in Europe.
3753:
6415:
6052:
5894:
5650:
5601:
5418:
5357:
5270:
5175:
5113:
5060:
4944:
4871:
4116:
1175:
1002:
969:
694:
644:
634:
567:
321:
5921:
5345:
5309:
5242:
5065:
4888:
4861:
4844:
4788:
4747:
4329:
4308:
4142:
4036:
3992:
3978:
3961:
3872:
3733:
1473:
1438:
1327:
1228:
1183:
1164:
961:
957:
348:
5568:
4127:] (in German). London/Berlin: Verlag Inspiration Un Ltd. p. 244.
1272:
Northern Goesharde Frisian (incl. Hooringer FrÀisch & Hoolmer Freesch)
6383:
6378:
6182:
5738:
5711:
5529:
5437:
5119:
5080:
4663:
4358:
4322:
4257:
3355:
1145:
1133:
953:
933:
654:
550:, and the third Ingvaeonic group at the time, the ancestor of Low German
547:
543:
5583:
3415:
that had become popular following the work of the 19th-century linguist
6335:
5578:
5558:
4923:
4593:
4294:
3907:
1179:
1124:
The Frisian languages are a group of languages spoken by about 500,000
965:
539:
538:
The grouping is usually implied as a separate branch in regards to the
356:
317:
4084:"Friedrich Maurer (Lehrstuhl fĂŒr Germanische Philologie â Linguistik)"
3403:
North Sea Germanic, as a hypothetical grouping, was first proposed in
6120:
5764:
5512:
5158:
5075:
4856:
4811:
4783:
4609:
4163:
3858:
3363:
1437:
restored before a back vowel in the following syllable (later in the
1199:
1152:
1129:
575:
551:
371:
are for the most part unique to the modern Anglo-Frisian languages:
218:
147:
143:
5588:
24:
6330:
5553:
4901:
3702:
3645:
3639:
3624:
3618:
3603:
3597:
3591:
3585:
3579:
3573:
3567:
3561:
3555:
3549:
3543:
3537:
3531:
3525:
3519:
3513:
3507:
3501:
3495:
3489:
3483:
3477:
3471:
3465:
3459:
3453:
1985:
1979:
5594:
5190:
5092:
3393:
1168:
1137:
983:
973:
151:
135:
4147:
The Development of Old English - A Linguistic History of English
4897:
3844:
1198:
is spoken by only about 2,000 people; speakers are located in
986:
and not necessarily their grammar, phonology, etc. comes from
4815:
3419:
and which assumed the existence of an Anglo-Frisian group.
1459:
OE breaking; in West Saxon palatal diphthongization follows
3350:, also known as Ingvaeonic, is a proposed grouping of the
1388:
before front vowels (but not phonemicization of palatals)
4051:
Handbuch des Friesischen: = Handbook of Frisian studies
1194:). North Frisian has approximately 8,000 speakers. The
1278:
Southern Goesharde Frisian (extinct since early 1980s)
3373:
North Sea Germanic is not thought of as a monolithic
1491:
1476:, followed by second fronting in parts of West Mercia
1383:
1377:
866:
841:
798:
790:
782:
697:
689:
4049:Munske, Horst Haider; Ă
rhammar, Nils, eds. (2001).
49:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
3956:
3954:
3864:Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology
498:
436:
392:
3973:
3971:
982:are not generally included, as mainly only their
6413:
517:
460:
452:
411:
3951:
3799:. John Benjamins Publishing. pp. 196â198.
4048:
3968:
3411:(1898â1984), as an alternative to the strict
3407:(1942) by the German linguist and philologist
6136:
4179:
3824:. John Benjamins Publishing. pp. 28â29.
1410:under the influence of neighboring consonants
1333:Single form for present and preterite plurals
1294:
666:Northern English (see the article about the
529:
523:
468:
422:
4141:
4025:. Cambridge: University Press. p. 105.
594:The proposed Anglo-Frisian family tree is:
511:
505:
490:
476:
444:
403:
381:
6143:
6129:
4186:
4172:
4021:Grant, William; Dixon, James Main (1921).
4020:
3979:"Frisian, Northern | Ethnologue Free"
3765:
3763:
3697:. NOWELE Supplement Series. Vol. 12.
3396:respectively), mat have led to a form of "
1307:Backing and nasalization of West Germanic
1190:state (Heligoland is part of its mainland
4149:. Vol. 2. Oxford: University Press.
3871:
3813:
3788:
1989:is an adjectival form used before nouns.
109:Learn how and when to remove this message
6238:
3769:
3993:"Saterfriesisch | Ethnologue Free"
3774:. Cambridge, Mass., USA: B. Blackwell.
3760:
3735:Frisians and their North Sea Neighbours
3336:
6414:
6150:
4193:
4106:
3819:
3794:
3687:
3644:
3638:
3623:
3617:
3602:
3596:
3590:
3584:
3578:
3572:
3566:
3560:
3554:
3548:
3542:
3536:
3530:
3524:
3518:
3512:
3506:
3500:
3494:
3488:
3482:
3476:
3470:
3464:
3458:
3452:
1984:
1978:
1214:South or Southwest Frisian (SĂșdhoeksk)
6237:
6124:
5857:
5471:
4215:
4167:
4115:
3906:
3731:
582:influences during the development of
4005:
3854:"Glottolog 4.8 - Irish Anglo-Norman"
3797:Dublin English: Evolution and Change
3683:
3681:
3679:
3677:
1234:Föhr-Amrum Frisian (Fering, Ăömrang)
1113:
47:adding citations to reliable sources
18:
4748:Plautdietsch / Mennonite Low German
4111:(in German). Strasbourg: HĂŒnenburg.
4008:Approaches to Old Frisian Philology
1301:Phonological history of Old English
906:
566:Geography isolated the settlers of
13:
6107:Languages between parentheses are
5472:
4100:
4010:. Amsterdam: Rodopoi. p. 185.
1492:Numbers in Anglo-Frisian languages
1083:Southwestern Early Modern English
1077:Metropolitan Early Modern English
1043:Southwestern Early Middle English
1037:Southeastern Early Middle English
14:
6443:
3674:
940:descended from it. These include
589:
3962:"Frisian | Ethnologue Free"
3852:; Bank, Sebastian (2023-07-10).
1844:North Frisian (Mooring dialect)
1472:Phonemicization of palatals and
232:
23:
16:Group of West Germanic languages
4076:
4067:
4042:
4029:
4014:
3999:
3985:
3942:
3912:From Pictland to Alba, 789â1070
3880:from the original on 2023-07-17
3822:A Source Book for Irish English
3652:
3631:
3610:
3445:
1322:before a spirant, resulting in
1128:on the southern fringes of the
34:needs additional citations for
6111:of the language on their left.
3929:
3900:
3891:
3838:
3725:
3688:Stiles, Patrick (2018-08-01).
1486:
1469:; Old Frisian breaking follows
1080:Southern Early Modern English
1071:Northern Early Modern English
1040:Southern Early Middle English
1031:Northern Early Middle English
980:English-based creole languages
1:
6002:Germanic substrate hypothesis
5858:
4086:. Germanistik.uni-freiburg.de
3721:– via www.academia.edu.
3668:
3388:, in their homelands (modern
1074:Midland Early Modern English
1034:Midland Early Middle English
293:Hatched areas indicate where
6032:Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law
4723:Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch
1063:Southwestern Middle English
1057:Southeastern Middle English
353:Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law
7:
6012:High German consonant shift
3422:
913:List of dialects of English
10:
6448:
4550:WestlauwersâTerschellings
4203:According to contemporary
4107:Maurer, Friedrich (1942).
3405:Nordgermanen und Alemannen
3340:
1384:
1378:
1295:Anglo-Frisian developments
1117:
910:
726:WestlauwersâTerschellings
6316:
6250:
6246:
6233:
6158:
6094:
6045:
5969:
5938:
5870:
5866:
5853:
5802:
5775:
5729:Southern Schleswig Danish
5660:
5541:
5497:
5488:
5484:
5467:
5308:
5251:
5139:
5130:
5035:
5007:
4966:
4957:
4932:
4914:
4825:
4797:
4771:
4762:
4713:
4626:
4601:
4592:
4531:
4426:
4375:
4350:
4341:
4237:
4228:
4224:
4211:
4201:
1365:Anglo-Frisian brightening
1355:, even in the diphthongs
1275:Central Goesharde Frisian
1211:Clay Frisian (Klaaifrysk)
1096:
1062:
1042:
1030:
1023:
1008:
1001:
361:Anglo-Frisian brightening
231:
217:
198:
160:Linguistic classification
158:
128:
123:
58:"Anglo-Frisian languages"
6275:Changes before historic
6267:Changes before historic
6007:West Germanic gemination
5961:Ancient Belgian language
5956:Germanic parent language
5900:Weser-Rhine (Istvaeonic)
5022:Austrian Standard German
4216:
4039:. Cf. Bremmer (2009:22).
3820:Hickey, Raymond (2002).
3795:Hickey, Raymond (2005).
3770:Trudgill, Peter (1990).
3738:. Boydell & Brewer.
3451:Depending on dialect 1.
3439:
3434:Low Franconian languages
1315:before a nasal consonant
1222:North Frisian dialects:
1217:Wood Frisian (WĂąldfrysk)
1060:Southern Middle English
1051:Northern Middle English
1010:Northumbrian Old English
6427:West Germanic languages
6422:Anglo-Frisian languages
6178:Anglo-Frisian languages
3937:Scots its range of Uses
3772:The dialects of England
3352:West Germanic languages
1208:West Frisian dialects:
1054:Midland Middle English
812:Mainland North Frisian
722:Schiermonnikoog Frisian
518:
491:
477:
461:
453:
412:
382:
342:West Germanic languages
306:Anglo-Frisian languages
6068:Preterite-present verb
5951:Proto-Germanic grammar
5905:North Sea (Ingvaeonic)
5017:German Standard German
4693:East Frisian Low Saxon
4145:; Taylor, Ann (2014).
4053:. TĂŒbingen: Niemeyer.
4023:Manual of Modern Scots
3873:10.5281/zenodo.8131084
1584:West Riding Yorkshire
1465:-mutation followed by
1416:: OE dialects (except
1163:and parts of mainland
1025:West Saxon Old English
860:Insular North Frisian
676:Lower Northern English
530:
524:
512:
506:
499:
469:
445:
437:
423:
404:
393:
355:, which is present in
6210:Anglo-Norman language
6073:Grammatischer Wechsel
5056:Namibian Black German
5027:Swiss Standard German
4996:Early New High German
4554:Mainland West Frisian
4415:Harlingerland Frisian
3637:Depending on dialect
3616:Depending on dialect
3429:High German languages
3029:ear, lug (colloquial)
2583:meany / sibbe (dated)
2003:West Riding Yorkshire
1196:East Frisian language
1192:district of Pinneberg
1161:North Frisian Islands
735:Mainland West Frisian
6240:Phonological history
6220:Early Modern English
6078:Indo-European ablaut
6058:Germanic strong verb
6027:Germanic spirant law
5164:Southeast Limburgish
4660:Gelders-Overijssels
4289:Irish Middle English
4279:Early Modern English
3862:. Leipzig, Germany:
3732:Hines, John (2017).
3337:Alternative grouping
1249:Wiedingharde Frisian
1238:Heligolandic Frisian
1167:in the northernmost
992:Early Modern English
946:Early Modern English
938:linguistic varieties
854:Wiedingharde Frisian
730:Terschelling Frisian
673:Northumbrian English
616:East Central English
613:West Central English
561:scientific consensus
43:improve this article
6173:Proto-West-Germanic
6163:Proto-Indo-European
6046:Synchronic features
6017:Germanic a-mutation
5970:Diachronic features
5320:in the broad sense
5253:East Central German
5207:Lorraine Franconian
5181:Transylvanian Saxon
5141:West Central German
4916:East Low Franconian
4826:West Low Franconian
4121:Das Westgermanische
3935:J. Derrick McClure
3846:Hammarström, Harald
2445:church (older kurk)
1441:dialects); Frisian
1255:Bökingharde Frisian
1020:Kentish Old English
1015:Mercian Old English
998:
880:Amrum North Frisian
816:Bökingharde Frisian
717:Hindeloopen Frisian
683:Irish Anglo-Norman
434:, and West Frisian
340:) varieties of the
6432:North Sea Germanic
6308:Trisyllabic laxing
6288:Close front vowels
6152:History of English
6063:Germanic weak verb
5872:Language subgroups
5222:Pennsylvania Dutch
5171:Moselle Franconian
5149:Central Franconian
4982:Middle High German
4733:Central Pomeranian
4688:Northern Low Saxon
4401:Wangerooge Frisian
4195:Germanic languages
3850:Haspelmath, Martin
3848:; Forkel, Robert;
3532:[ËfÊu(É)r]
3390:southern Schleswig
3348:North Sea Germanic
3343:North Sea Germanic
3301:es geht weiter/los
1797:Saterland Frisian
1330:of preceding vowel
1245:Mainland dialects
1188:Schleswig-Holstein
1159:is spoken on some
997:
964:; and the extinct
892:Heligoland Frisian
885:Föhr North Frisian
872:Sylt North Frisian
864:Eiderstedt Frisian
788:Wangerooge Frisian
572:Continental Europe
180:North Sea Germanic
6409:
6408:
6405:
6404:
6401:
6400:
6298:Great Vowel Shift
6283:Close back vowels
6118:
6117:
6103:extinct languages
6090:
6089:
6086:
6085:
6037:Great Vowel Shift
5849:
5848:
5845:
5844:
5798:
5797:
5644:Greenlandic Norse
5463:
5462:
5459:
5458:
5455:
5454:
5394:Southern Bavarian
5377:Northern Bavarian
5353:Highest Alemannic
5304:
5303:
5038:standard variants
4953:
4952:
4799:Standard variants
4758:
4757:
4617:Middle Low German
4588:
4587:
4584:
4583:
4388:Saterland Frisian
4134:978-3-9812110-7-8
4060:978-3-484-73048-9
3921:978-0-7486-1234-5
3745:978-1-78744-063-0
3712:978-87-7838-059-3
3574:[ËsÉivÉn]
3568:[ËseËvÉn]
3562:[ËsiËvÉn]
3417:August Schleicher
3398:survivorship bias
3354:that encompasses
3334:
3333:
1972:
1971:
1449:> Old Frisian
1267:Goesharde Frisian
1261:Karrharde Frisian
1225:Insular dialects
1120:Frisian languages
1114:Frisian languages
1111:
1110:
930:English languages
834:Karrharde Frisian
829:Goesharde Frisian
775:Saterland Frisian
496:and West Frisian
302:
301:
290:Saterland Frisian
154:; today worldwide
140:Scottish Lowlands
119:
118:
111:
93:
6439:
6303:Open back vowels
6278:
6270:
6248:
6247:
6235:
6234:
6145:
6138:
6131:
6122:
6121:
5895:Elbe (Irminonic)
5868:
5867:
5855:
5854:
5783:Mainland Gutnish
5673:Swedish dialects
5635:Middle Icelandic
5609:Middle Norwegian
5498:Historical forms
5495:
5494:
5486:
5485:
5469:
5468:
5428:South Franconian
5414:Hutterite German
5382:Central Bavarian
5202:Rhine Franconian
5137:
5136:
4967:Historical forms
4964:
4963:
4879:Surinamese Dutch
4772:Historical forms
4769:
4768:
4602:Historical forms
4599:
4598:
4351:Historical forms
4348:
4347:
4235:
4234:
4226:
4225:
4213:
4212:
4188:
4181:
4174:
4165:
4164:
4160:
4138:
4112:
4095:
4094:
4092:
4091:
4080:
4074:
4071:
4065:
4064:
4046:
4040:
4033:
4027:
4026:
4018:
4012:
4011:
4003:
3997:
3996:
3989:
3983:
3982:
3975:
3966:
3965:
3958:
3949:
3946:
3940:
3933:
3927:
3925:
3904:
3898:
3895:
3889:
3888:
3886:
3885:
3875:
3842:
3836:
3835:
3817:
3811:
3810:
3792:
3786:
3785:
3767:
3758:
3757:
3729:
3723:
3722:
3720:
3719:
3696:
3685:
3663:
3656:
3650:
3648:
3642:
3635:
3629:
3627:
3621:
3614:
3608:
3606:
3600:
3594:
3588:
3582:
3576:
3570:
3564:
3558:
3552:
3546:
3540:
3534:
3528:
3522:
3516:
3510:
3504:
3498:
3492:
3486:
3480:
3474:
3468:
3462:
3456:
3449:
3409:Friedrich Maurer
3289:it gaes/gangs on
1997:
1996:
1988:
1982:
1499:
1498:
1387:
1386:
1381:
1380:
1339:: West Germanic
1284:Halligen Frisian
999:
996:
926:Insular Germanic
907:Anglic languages
868:
847:Halligen Frisian
843:
800:
792:
784:
699:
691:
668:Humber-Lune Line
621:Southern English
610:Central English
533:
527:
521:
515:
509:
502:
494:
480:
472:
464:
456:
448:
440:
426:
415:
407:
396:
385:
370:
308:are the Anglic (
287:
278:
269:
254:
245:
236:
227:
121:
120:
114:
107:
103:
100:
94:
92:
51:
27:
19:
6447:
6446:
6442:
6441:
6440:
6438:
6437:
6436:
6412:
6411:
6410:
6397:
6367:-glottalization
6312:
6242:
6229:
6154:
6149:
6119:
6114:
6082:
6041:
6022:Germanic umlaut
5987:Holtzmann's law
5965:
5934:
5862:
5841:
5794:
5771:
5705:South Jutlandic
5690:Danish dialects
5656:
5537:
5480:
5451:
5433:East Franconian
5387:Viennese German
5300:
5281:Silesian German
5247:
5236:Central Hessian
5126:
5051:Namibian German
5040:
5031:
5009:Standard German
5003:
4989:New High German
4975:Old High German
4949:
4928:
4910:
4821:
4793:
4754:
4738:East Pomeranian
4728:Brandenburgisch
4715:East Low German
4709:
4636:Dutch Low Saxon
4628:West Low German
4622:
4580:
4546:Schiermonnikoog
4527:
4422:
4408:Wursten Frisian
4371:
4337:
4220:
4207:
4197:
4192:
4157:
4135:
4103:
4101:Further reading
4098:
4089:
4087:
4082:
4081:
4077:
4072:
4068:
4061:
4047:
4043:
4034:
4030:
4019:
4015:
4004:
4000:
3991:
3990:
3986:
3977:
3976:
3969:
3960:
3959:
3952:
3947:
3943:
3934:
3930:
3922:
3905:
3901:
3896:
3892:
3883:
3881:
3843:
3839:
3832:
3818:
3814:
3807:
3793:
3789:
3782:
3768:
3761:
3746:
3730:
3726:
3717:
3715:
3713:
3694:
3686:
3675:
3671:
3666:
3657:
3653:
3636:
3632:
3615:
3611:
3544:[faiËv]
3450:
3446:
3442:
3425:
3345:
3339:
3286:it goes/goas on
2858:
2853:
2848:
2752:zy(n)/Ăš gewist
2731:have been (was)
2615:
2565:
1995:
1858:
1853:
1848:
1811:
1806:
1801:
1650:
1639:
1631:
1629:
1494:
1489:
1414:Second fronting
1297:
1251:(Wiringhiirder)
1203:
1186:, both part of
1122:
1116:
1097:Modern English
919:
917:World Englishes
909:
904:
796:Wursten Frisian
592:
580:Norman language
474:, though Scots
298:
295:multilingualism
292:
285:
283:
276:
274:
267:
259:
252:
250:
243:
223:
130:
115:
104:
98:
95:
52:
50:
40:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
6445:
6435:
6434:
6429:
6424:
6407:
6406:
6403:
6402:
6399:
6398:
6396:
6395:
6388:
6387:
6386:
6381:
6369:
6361:
6356:
6349:
6341:
6333:
6328:
6322:
6320:
6314:
6313:
6311:
6310:
6305:
6300:
6295:
6290:
6285:
6280:
6272:
6264:
6256:
6254:
6244:
6243:
6231:
6230:
6228:
6227:
6225:Modern English
6222:
6217:
6215:Middle English
6212:
6207:
6206:
6205:
6200:
6195:
6190:
6180:
6175:
6170:
6168:Proto-Germanic
6165:
6159:
6156:
6155:
6148:
6147:
6140:
6133:
6125:
6116:
6115:
6113:
6112:
6105:
6095:
6092:
6091:
6088:
6087:
6084:
6083:
6081:
6080:
6075:
6070:
6065:
6060:
6055:
6049:
6047:
6043:
6042:
6040:
6039:
6034:
6029:
6024:
6019:
6014:
6009:
6004:
5999:
5994:
5989:
5984:
5979:
5973:
5971:
5967:
5966:
5964:
5963:
5958:
5953:
5948:
5946:Proto-Germanic
5942:
5940:
5936:
5935:
5933:
5932:
5925:
5918:
5910:
5909:
5908:
5907:
5902:
5897:
5887:
5882:
5876:
5874:
5864:
5863:
5851:
5850:
5847:
5846:
5843:
5842:
5840:
5839:
5832:
5825:
5821:Crimean Gothic
5810:
5808:
5800:
5799:
5796:
5795:
5793:
5792:
5791:
5790:
5785:
5776:
5773:
5772:
5770:
5769:
5768:
5767:
5757:
5756:
5755:
5748:
5741:
5736:
5731:
5726:
5725:
5724:
5719:
5709:
5708:
5707:
5697:
5695:Insular Danish
5692:
5682:
5681:
5680:
5678:Rinkebysvenska
5675:
5664:
5662:
5658:
5657:
5655:
5654:
5647:
5640:
5639:
5638:
5631:
5619:
5614:
5613:
5612:
5605:
5598:
5592:
5586:
5581:
5576:
5571:
5566:
5561:
5556:
5545:
5543:
5539:
5538:
5536:
5535:
5534:
5533:
5526:
5524:Old East Norse
5521:
5519:Old West Norse
5509:
5501:
5499:
5492:
5482:
5481:
5465:
5464:
5461:
5460:
5457:
5456:
5453:
5452:
5450:
5449:
5442:
5441:
5440:
5430:
5425:
5424:
5423:
5422:
5421:
5416:
5411:
5406:
5401:
5399:South Tyrolean
5391:
5390:
5389:
5379:
5369:
5368:
5367:
5362:
5361:
5360:
5350:
5349:
5348:
5341:High Alemannic
5338:
5337:
5336:
5331:
5314:
5312:
5306:
5305:
5302:
5301:
5299:
5298:
5293:
5288:
5283:
5278:
5273:
5268:
5263:
5257:
5255:
5249:
5248:
5246:
5245:
5240:
5239:
5238:
5228:
5227:
5226:
5225:
5224:
5219:
5209:
5199:
5198:
5197:
5196:
5195:
5194:
5193:
5183:
5178:
5168:
5167:
5166:
5161:
5145:
5143:
5134:
5132:Central German
5128:
5127:
5125:
5124:
5123:
5122:
5117:
5110:
5105:
5100:
5090:
5085:
5084:
5083:
5073:
5071:Barossa German
5068:
5063:
5058:
5053:
5047:
5045:
5033:
5032:
5030:
5029:
5024:
5019:
5013:
5011:
5005:
5004:
5002:
5001:
5000:
4999:
4985:
4978:
4970:
4968:
4961:
4955:
4954:
4951:
4950:
4948:
4947:
4942:
4936:
4934:
4930:
4929:
4927:
4926:
4920:
4918:
4912:
4911:
4909:
4908:
4891:
4886:
4881:
4875:
4874:
4869:
4864:
4859:
4854:
4853:
4852:
4850:French Flemish
4842:
4841:
4840:
4829:
4827:
4823:
4822:
4820:
4819:
4809:
4803:
4801:
4795:
4794:
4792:
4791:
4786:
4781:
4775:
4773:
4766:
4764:Low Franconian
4760:
4759:
4756:
4755:
4753:
4752:
4751:
4750:
4740:
4735:
4730:
4725:
4719:
4717:
4711:
4710:
4708:
4707:
4702:
4697:
4696:
4695:
4685:
4684:
4683:
4678:
4673:
4672:
4671:
4666:
4658:
4653:
4648:
4643:
4632:
4630:
4624:
4623:
4621:
4620:
4613:
4605:
4603:
4596:
4590:
4589:
4586:
4585:
4582:
4581:
4579:
4578:
4577:
4576:
4571:
4570:
4569:
4568:
4567:
4565:Westereendersk
4559:
4548:
4543:
4537:
4535:
4529:
4528:
4526:
4525:
4524:
4523:
4518:
4511:
4506:
4505:
4504:
4499:
4496:
4488:
4483:
4482:
4481:
4470:
4469:
4468:
4463:
4458:
4457:
4456:
4451:
4443:
4432:
4430:
4424:
4423:
4421:
4420:
4419:
4418:
4411:
4404:
4392:
4391:
4390:
4381:
4379:
4373:
4372:
4370:
4369:
4366:Middle Frisian
4362:
4354:
4352:
4345:
4339:
4338:
4336:
4335:
4334:
4333:
4326:
4314:
4313:
4312:
4305:
4298:
4286:
4285:
4284:
4283:
4282:
4272:Modern English
4268:
4265:Middle English
4261:
4254:
4243:
4241:
4232:
4222:
4221:
4209:
4208:
4202:
4199:
4198:
4191:
4190:
4183:
4176:
4168:
4162:
4161:
4156:978-0199207848
4155:
4139:
4133:
4117:Euler, Wolfram
4113:
4102:
4099:
4097:
4096:
4075:
4066:
4059:
4041:
4028:
4013:
3998:
3984:
3967:
3950:
3941:
3928:
3920:
3899:
3890:
3837:
3830:
3812:
3805:
3787:
3780:
3759:
3744:
3724:
3711:
3703:10.1075/nss.12
3672:
3670:
3667:
3665:
3664:
3658:Also known as
3651:
3646:[ΞrÊu]
3640:[ΞruË]
3630:
3609:
3592:[nÉin]
3556:[saks]
3538:[fuwr]
3526:[triË]
3520:[ΞriË]
3514:[ΞrÉi]
3508:[twaË]
3502:[tweË]
3496:[twÉË]
3490:[twÉË]
3443:
3441:
3438:
3437:
3436:
3431:
3424:
3421:
3375:proto-language
3341:Main article:
3338:
3335:
3332:
3331:
3328:
3325:
3322:
3319:
3316:
3313:
3310:
3306:
3305:
3302:
3299:
3296:
3293:
3290:
3287:
3284:
3280:
3279:
3276:
3273:
3270:
3267:
3264:
3261:
3258:
3254:
3253:
3250:
3247:
3244:
3241:
3238:
3235:
3232:
3228:
3227:
3224:
3221:
3218:
3215:
3212:
3209:
3206:
3202:
3201:
3198:
3195:
3192:
3189:
3186:
3183:
3180:
3176:
3175:
3172:
3169:
3166:
3163:
3160:
3157:
3154:
3150:
3149:
3146:
3143:
3140:
3137:
3134:
3131:
3130:through/thrugh
3128:
3124:
3123:
3120:
3117:
3114:
3111:
3108:
3105:
3102:
3098:
3097:
3094:
3091:
3088:
3085:
3082:
3079:
3076:
3072:
3071:
3068:
3065:
3062:
3059:
3056:
3053:
3050:
3046:
3045:
3042:
3039:
3036:
3033:
3030:
3027:
3024:
3020:
3019:
3016:
3013:
3010:
3007:
3004:
3001:
2998:
2994:
2993:
2990:
2987:
2984:
2981:
2978:
2975:
2972:
2968:
2967:
2964:
2961:
2958:
2955:
2952:
2949:
2946:
2942:
2941:
2938:
2935:
2932:
2929:
2926:
2923:
2920:
2916:
2915:
2912:
2909:
2906:
2903:
2900:
2897:
2894:
2890:
2889:
2886:
2883:
2880:
2877:
2874:
2871:
2868:
2864:
2863:
2860:
2855:
2850:
2845:
2842:
2839:
2836:
2832:
2831:
2828:
2825:
2822:
2819:
2816:
2813:
2810:
2806:
2805:
2802:
2799:
2796:
2793:
2790:
2787:
2784:
2780:
2779:
2776:
2773:
2770:
2767:
2764:
2761:
2758:
2754:
2753:
2750:
2747:
2744:
2741:
2738:
2735:
2732:
2728:
2727:
2724:
2721:
2718:
2715:
2712:
2709:
2706:
2702:
2701:
2698:
2695:
2692:
2689:
2686:
2683:
2680:
2676:
2675:
2672:
2669:
2666:
2663:
2660:
2657:
2654:
2650:
2649:
2646:
2643:
2640:
2637:
2634:
2631:
2628:
2624:
2623:
2620:
2617:
2612:
2609:
2606:
2603:
2600:
2596:
2595:
2593:
2590:
2587:
2584:
2581:
2578:
2577:sib (obsolete)
2575:
2571:
2570:
2567:
2562:
2559:
2556:
2553:
2550:
2547:
2543:
2542:
2539:
2536:
2533:
2530:
2527:
2524:
2521:
2517:
2516:
2513:
2510:
2507:
2504:
2501:
2498:
2495:
2491:
2490:
2487:
2484:
2481:
2478:
2475:
2472:
2469:
2465:
2464:
2461:
2458:
2455:
2452:
2449:
2446:
2443:
2439:
2438:
2435:
2432:
2429:
2426:
2423:
2420:
2417:
2413:
2412:
2409:
2406:
2403:
2400:
2397:
2394:
2391:
2387:
2386:
2383:
2380:
2377:
2374:
2371:
2368:
2365:
2361:
2360:
2357:
2354:
2351:
2348:
2345:
2342:
2339:
2335:
2334:
2331:
2328:
2325:
2322:
2319:
2316:
2313:
2309:
2308:
2305:
2302:
2299:
2296:
2293:
2290:
2287:
2283:
2282:
2279:
2276:
2273:
2270:
2267:
2264:
2261:
2257:
2256:
2253:
2250:
2247:
2244:
2241:
2238:
2235:
2231:
2230:
2227:
2224:
2221:
2218:
2215:
2212:
2209:
2205:
2204:
2201:
2198:
2195:
2192:
2189:
2186:
2183:
2179:
2178:
2175:
2172:
2169:
2166:
2163:
2160:
2157:
2153:
2152:
2149:
2146:
2143:
2140:
2137:
2134:
2131:
2127:
2126:
2123:
2120:
2117:
2114:
2111:
2108:
2105:
2101:
2100:
2097:
2094:
2091:
2088:
2085:
2082:
2079:
2075:
2074:
2071:
2068:
2065:
2062:
2059:
2056:
2053:
2049:
2048:
2045:
2042:
2039:
2036:
2033:
2030:
2027:
2023:
2022:
2019:
2016:
2013:
2010:
2007:
2004:
2001:
1994:
1991:
1970:
1969:
1966:
1963:
1960:
1957:
1954:
1951:
1948:
1945:
1942:
1939:
1936:
1933:
1929:
1928:
1925:
1922:
1919:
1916:
1913:
1910:
1907:
1904:
1901:
1898:
1895:
1892:
1888:
1887:
1884:
1881:
1878:
1875:
1872:
1869:
1866:
1863:
1860:
1855:
1850:
1845:
1841:
1840:
1837:
1834:
1831:
1828:
1825:
1822:
1819:
1816:
1813:
1812:trjo (f., n.)
1808:
1803:
1798:
1794:
1793:
1790:
1787:
1784:
1781:
1778:
1775:
1772:
1769:
1766:
1763:
1760:
1757:
1753:
1752:
1749:
1746:
1743:
1740:
1737:
1734:
1731:
1728:
1725:
1722:
1719:
1716:
1712:
1711:
1708:
1705:
1702:
1699:
1696:
1693:
1690:
1687:
1684:
1681:
1678:
1675:
1671:
1670:
1667:
1664:
1661:
1658:
1655:
1652:
1647:
1644:
1641:
1636:
1633:
1626:
1622:
1621:
1618:
1615:
1612:
1609:
1606:
1603:
1600:
1597:
1594:
1591:
1588:
1585:
1581:
1580:
1577:
1574:
1571:
1568:
1565:
1562:
1559:
1556:
1553:
1550:
1547:
1544:
1540:
1539:
1536:
1533:
1530:
1527:
1524:
1521:
1518:
1515:
1512:
1509:
1506:
1503:
1493:
1490:
1488:
1485:
1484:
1483:
1479:Smoothing and
1477:
1470:
1460:
1457:
1428:
1420:) and Frisian
1411:
1389:
1375:Proto-Germanic
1371:palatalization
1368:
1334:
1331:
1316:
1296:
1293:
1292:
1291:
1290:
1289:
1288:
1287:
1281:
1280:
1279:
1276:
1273:
1269:(Gooshiirder)
1264:
1258:
1252:
1243:
1242:
1241:
1235:
1232:
1220:
1219:
1218:
1215:
1212:
1178:, and also in
1126:Frisian people
1118:Main article:
1115:
1112:
1109:
1108:
1103:
1098:
1095:
1091:
1090:
1087:
1084:
1081:
1078:
1075:
1072:
1069:
1065:
1064:
1061:
1058:
1055:
1052:
1049:
1045:
1044:
1041:
1038:
1035:
1032:
1028:
1027:
1022:
1017:
1012:
1006:
1005:
950:Modern English
942:Middle English
908:
905:
903:
902:
901:
900:
899:
898:
897:
896:
895:
894:
889:
888:
887:
882:
874:
869:
858:
857:
856:
851:
850:
849:
839:Strand Frisian
836:
831:
826:
825:
824:
821:
805:
804:
803:
802:
801:
793:
781:Weser Frisian
779:
778:
777:
764:
763:
762:
760:Westereendersk
757:
756:
755:
754:
753:
750:
747:
746:
745:
743:Westereendersk
732:
724:
719:
704:
703:
702:
701:
700:
692:
681:
680:
679:
678:
677:
674:
664:
663:
662:
657:
652:
650:Southern Scots
647:
642:
640:Northern Scots
637:
624:
623:
622:
619:
618:
617:
614:
596:
591:
590:Classification
588:
584:Modern English
536:
535:
516:), Low German
482:
428:
365:palatalization
351:: besides the
300:
299:
284:
275:
266:
251:
242:
237:
229:
228:
221:
215:
214:
213:
212:
207:
200:
196:
195:
194:
193:
192:
191:
190:
189:
188:
187:
162:
156:
155:
132:
126:
125:
117:
116:
31:
29:
22:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6444:
6433:
6430:
6428:
6425:
6423:
6420:
6419:
6417:
6394:
6393:
6389:
6385:
6382:
6380:
6377:
6376:
6375:
6374:
6370:
6368:
6366:
6362:
6360:
6357:
6355:
6354:
6350:
6348:
6347:-vocalization
6346:
6342:
6340:
6338:
6334:
6332:
6329:
6327:
6324:
6323:
6321:
6319:
6315:
6309:
6306:
6304:
6301:
6299:
6296:
6294:
6291:
6289:
6286:
6284:
6281:
6279:
6273:
6271:
6265:
6263:
6262:
6258:
6257:
6255:
6253:
6249:
6245:
6241:
6236:
6232:
6226:
6223:
6221:
6218:
6216:
6213:
6211:
6208:
6204:
6201:
6199:
6196:
6194:
6191:
6189:
6186:
6185:
6184:
6181:
6179:
6176:
6174:
6171:
6169:
6166:
6164:
6161:
6160:
6157:
6153:
6146:
6141:
6139:
6134:
6132:
6127:
6126:
6123:
6110:
6106:
6104:
6100:
6097:
6096:
6093:
6079:
6076:
6074:
6071:
6069:
6066:
6064:
6061:
6059:
6056:
6054:
6053:Germanic verb
6051:
6050:
6048:
6044:
6038:
6035:
6033:
6030:
6028:
6025:
6023:
6020:
6018:
6015:
6013:
6010:
6008:
6005:
6003:
6000:
5998:
5995:
5993:
5992:Sievers's law
5990:
5988:
5985:
5983:
5980:
5978:
5975:
5974:
5972:
5968:
5962:
5959:
5957:
5954:
5952:
5949:
5947:
5944:
5943:
5941:
5939:Reconstructed
5937:
5931:
5930:
5926:
5924:
5923:
5919:
5917:
5916:
5912:
5911:
5906:
5903:
5901:
5898:
5896:
5893:
5892:
5891:
5888:
5886:
5883:
5881:
5878:
5877:
5875:
5873:
5869:
5865:
5861:
5856:
5852:
5838:
5837:
5833:
5831:
5830:
5826:
5823:
5822:
5817:
5816:
5812:
5811:
5809:
5807:
5806:
5801:
5789:
5786:
5784:
5781:
5780:
5778:
5777:
5774:
5766:
5763:
5762:
5761:
5758:
5754:
5753:
5752:Middle Danish
5749:
5747:
5746:
5742:
5740:
5737:
5735:
5732:
5730:
5727:
5723:
5720:
5718:
5715:
5714:
5713:
5710:
5706:
5703:
5702:
5701:
5698:
5696:
5693:
5691:
5688:
5687:
5686:
5683:
5679:
5676:
5674:
5671:
5670:
5669:
5666:
5665:
5663:
5659:
5653:
5652:
5648:
5646:
5645:
5641:
5637:
5636:
5632:
5630:
5629:
5628:Old Icelandic
5625:
5624:
5623:
5620:
5618:
5615:
5611:
5610:
5606:
5604:
5603:
5602:Old Norwegian
5599:
5596:
5593:
5590:
5587:
5585:
5582:
5580:
5577:
5575:
5572:
5570:
5567:
5565:
5562:
5560:
5557:
5555:
5552:
5551:
5550:
5547:
5546:
5544:
5540:
5532:
5531:
5527:
5525:
5522:
5520:
5517:
5516:
5515:
5514:
5510:
5508:
5507:
5503:
5502:
5500:
5496:
5493:
5491:
5487:
5483:
5479:
5475:
5470:
5466:
5448:
5447:
5443:
5439:
5436:
5435:
5434:
5431:
5429:
5426:
5420:
5419:Gottscheerish
5417:
5415:
5412:
5410:
5407:
5405:
5402:
5400:
5397:
5396:
5395:
5392:
5388:
5385:
5384:
5383:
5380:
5378:
5375:
5374:
5373:
5370:
5366:
5363:
5359:
5358:Walser German
5356:
5355:
5354:
5351:
5347:
5344:
5343:
5342:
5339:
5335:
5332:
5330:
5327:
5326:
5325:
5324:Low Alemannic
5322:
5321:
5319:
5316:
5315:
5313:
5311:
5307:
5297:
5294:
5292:
5289:
5287:
5286:High Prussian
5284:
5282:
5279:
5277:
5274:
5272:
5271:Erzgebirgisch
5269:
5267:
5264:
5262:
5259:
5258:
5256:
5254:
5250:
5244:
5241:
5237:
5234:
5233:
5232:
5229:
5223:
5220:
5218:
5215:
5214:
5213:
5210:
5208:
5205:
5204:
5203:
5200:
5192:
5189:
5188:
5187:
5184:
5182:
5179:
5177:
5176:Luxembourgish
5174:
5173:
5172:
5169:
5165:
5162:
5160:
5157:
5156:
5155:
5152:
5151:
5150:
5147:
5146:
5144:
5142:
5138:
5135:
5133:
5129:
5121:
5118:
5116:
5115:
5114:Klezmer-loshn
5111:
5109:
5108:Scots Yiddish
5106:
5104:
5101:
5099:
5096:
5095:
5094:
5091:
5089:
5086:
5082:
5079:
5078:
5077:
5074:
5072:
5069:
5067:
5064:
5062:
5059:
5057:
5054:
5052:
5049:
5048:
5046:
5044:
5039:
5034:
5028:
5025:
5023:
5020:
5018:
5015:
5014:
5012:
5010:
5006:
4998:
4997:
4993:
4992:
4991:
4990:
4986:
4984:
4983:
4979:
4977:
4976:
4972:
4971:
4969:
4965:
4962:
4960:
4956:
4946:
4945:Meuse-Rhenish
4943:
4941:
4938:
4937:
4935:
4931:
4925:
4922:
4921:
4919:
4917:
4913:
4907:
4903:
4899:
4895:
4892:
4890:
4887:
4885:
4882:
4880:
4877:
4876:
4873:
4872:Kleverlandish
4870:
4868:
4865:
4863:
4860:
4858:
4855:
4851:
4848:
4847:
4846:
4843:
4839:
4836:
4835:
4834:
4833:Central Dutch
4831:
4830:
4828:
4824:
4817:
4813:
4810:
4808:
4805:
4804:
4802:
4800:
4796:
4790:
4787:
4785:
4782:
4780:
4777:
4776:
4774:
4770:
4767:
4765:
4761:
4749:
4746:
4745:
4744:
4741:
4739:
4736:
4734:
4731:
4729:
4726:
4724:
4721:
4720:
4718:
4716:
4712:
4706:
4703:
4701:
4698:
4694:
4691:
4690:
4689:
4686:
4682:
4679:
4677:
4674:
4670:
4667:
4665:
4662:
4661:
4659:
4657:
4654:
4652:
4649:
4647:
4644:
4642:
4641:Stellingwarfs
4639:
4638:
4637:
4634:
4633:
4631:
4629:
4625:
4619:
4618:
4614:
4612:
4611:
4607:
4606:
4604:
4600:
4597:
4595:
4591:
4575:
4572:
4566:
4563:
4562:
4561:Wood Frisian
4560:
4557:
4556:
4555:
4552:
4551:
4549:
4547:
4544:
4542:
4539:
4538:
4536:
4534:
4530:
4522:
4519:
4517:
4516:
4512:
4510:
4507:
4503:
4500:
4497:
4494:
4493:
4492:
4489:
4487:
4484:
4479:
4478:
4477:
4474:
4473:
4471:
4467:
4464:
4462:
4459:
4455:
4452:
4450:
4447:
4446:
4444:
4442:
4441:
4437:
4436:
4434:
4433:
4431:
4429:
4428:North Frisian
4425:
4417:
4416:
4412:
4410:
4409:
4405:
4403:
4402:
4398:
4397:
4396:
4393:
4389:
4386:
4385:
4383:
4382:
4380:
4378:
4374:
4368:
4367:
4363:
4361:
4360:
4356:
4355:
4353:
4349:
4346:
4344:
4340:
4332:
4331:
4327:
4325:
4324:
4320:
4319:
4318:
4315:
4311:
4310:
4306:
4304:
4303:
4299:
4297:
4296:
4292:
4291:
4290:
4287:
4281:
4280:
4276:
4275:
4274:
4273:
4269:
4267:
4266:
4262:
4260:
4259:
4255:
4253:
4250:
4249:
4248:
4245:
4244:
4242:
4240:
4236:
4233:
4231:
4230:Anglo-Frisian
4227:
4223:
4219:
4214:
4210:
4206:
4200:
4196:
4189:
4184:
4182:
4177:
4175:
4170:
4169:
4166:
4158:
4152:
4148:
4144:
4140:
4136:
4130:
4126:
4122:
4118:
4114:
4110:
4105:
4104:
4085:
4079:
4070:
4062:
4056:
4052:
4045:
4038:
4035:Some include
4032:
4024:
4017:
4009:
4002:
3994:
3988:
3980:
3974:
3972:
3963:
3957:
3955:
3945:
3938:
3932:
3923:
3917:
3913:
3909:
3903:
3894:
3879:
3874:
3869:
3865:
3861:
3860:
3855:
3851:
3847:
3841:
3833:
3827:
3823:
3816:
3808:
3806:90-272-4895-8
3802:
3798:
3791:
3783:
3777:
3773:
3766:
3764:
3755:
3751:
3747:
3741:
3737:
3736:
3728:
3714:
3708:
3704:
3700:
3693:
3692:
3684:
3682:
3680:
3678:
3673:
3661:
3655:
3647:
3641:
3634:
3626:
3625:[kÉi]
3620:
3619:[kiË]
3613:
3605:
3604:[tÉn]
3599:
3598:[nin]
3593:
3587:
3586:[Éçt]
3581:
3580:[ext]
3575:
3569:
3563:
3557:
3551:
3550:[fÉv]
3545:
3539:
3533:
3527:
3521:
3515:
3509:
3503:
3497:
3491:
3485:
3484:[jeË]
3479:
3478:[*eË]
3473:
3472:[wan]
3467:
3461:
3460:[jÉȘn]
3455:
3448:
3444:
3435:
3432:
3430:
3427:
3426:
3420:
3418:
3414:
3413:tree diagrams
3410:
3406:
3401:
3399:
3395:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3378:
3376:
3371:
3367:
3365:
3361:
3357:
3353:
3349:
3344:
3329:
3326:
3323:
3320:
3317:
3314:
3311:
3308:
3307:
3303:
3300:
3298:het gaat door
3297:
3294:
3291:
3288:
3285:
3282:
3281:
3277:
3274:
3271:
3268:
3265:
3262:
3259:
3256:
3255:
3251:
3248:
3245:
3242:
3239:
3236:
3233:
3230:
3229:
3225:
3222:
3219:
3216:
3213:
3210:
3207:
3204:
3203:
3199:
3196:
3193:
3190:
3187:
3184:
3181:
3178:
3177:
3173:
3170:
3167:
3164:
3161:
3158:
3155:
3152:
3151:
3147:
3144:
3141:
3138:
3135:
3132:
3129:
3126:
3125:
3121:
3118:
3115:
3112:
3109:
3106:
3103:
3100:
3099:
3095:
3092:
3089:
3086:
3083:
3080:
3077:
3074:
3073:
3069:
3066:
3063:
3060:
3057:
3054:
3051:
3048:
3047:
3043:
3040:
3037:
3034:
3031:
3028:
3025:
3022:
3021:
3017:
3014:
3011:
3008:
3005:
3002:
2999:
2996:
2995:
2991:
2988:
2985:
2982:
2979:
2976:
2973:
2970:
2969:
2965:
2962:
2959:
2956:
2953:
2950:
2947:
2944:
2943:
2939:
2936:
2933:
2930:
2927:
2924:
2921:
2918:
2917:
2913:
2910:
2907:
2904:
2901:
2898:
2895:
2892:
2891:
2887:
2884:
2881:
2878:
2875:
2872:
2869:
2866:
2865:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2846:
2843:
2840:
2837:
2834:
2833:
2829:
2826:
2823:
2820:
2817:
2814:
2811:
2808:
2807:
2803:
2800:
2797:
2794:
2791:
2788:
2785:
2782:
2781:
2777:
2774:
2771:
2768:
2765:
2762:
2759:
2756:
2755:
2751:
2748:
2745:
2742:
2739:
2736:
2733:
2730:
2729:
2725:
2722:
2719:
2716:
2713:
2710:
2707:
2704:
2703:
2699:
2696:
2693:
2690:
2687:
2684:
2681:
2678:
2677:
2673:
2670:
2667:
2664:
2661:
2658:
2655:
2652:
2651:
2647:
2644:
2641:
2638:
2635:
2632:
2629:
2626:
2625:
2621:
2618:
2613:
2610:
2607:
2604:
2601:
2598:
2597:
2594:
2591:
2589:sibbe (dated)
2588:
2585:
2582:
2579:
2576:
2573:
2572:
2568:
2566:Forke (dated)
2563:
2560:
2557:
2554:
2551:
2548:
2545:
2544:
2540:
2537:
2534:
2531:
2528:
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2522:
2519:
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2514:
2511:
2508:
2505:
2502:
2499:
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2493:
2492:
2488:
2485:
2482:
2479:
2476:
2473:
2470:
2467:
2466:
2462:
2459:
2456:
2453:
2450:
2447:
2444:
2441:
2440:
2436:
2433:
2430:
2427:
2424:
2421:
2418:
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2414:
2410:
2407:
2404:
2401:
2398:
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2389:
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2378:
2375:
2372:
2369:
2366:
2363:
2362:
2358:
2355:
2352:
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2346:
2343:
2340:
2337:
2336:
2332:
2329:
2326:
2323:
2320:
2317:
2314:
2311:
2310:
2306:
2303:
2300:
2297:
2294:
2291:
2288:
2285:
2284:
2280:
2277:
2274:
2271:
2268:
2265:
2262:
2259:
2258:
2254:
2251:
2248:
2245:
2242:
2239:
2236:
2233:
2232:
2228:
2225:
2222:
2219:
2216:
2213:
2210:
2207:
2206:
2202:
2199:
2196:
2193:
2190:
2187:
2184:
2181:
2180:
2176:
2173:
2170:
2167:
2164:
2161:
2158:
2155:
2154:
2150:
2147:
2144:
2141:
2138:
2135:
2132:
2129:
2128:
2124:
2121:
2118:
2115:
2112:
2109:
2106:
2103:
2102:
2098:
2095:
2092:
2089:
2086:
2083:
2080:
2077:
2076:
2072:
2069:
2066:
2063:
2060:
2057:
2054:
2051:
2050:
2046:
2043:
2040:
2037:
2034:
2031:
2028:
2025:
2024:
2021:West-Flemish
2020:
2017:
2014:
2011:
2008:
2005:
2002:
1999:
1998:
1990:
1987:
1986:[jeË]
1981:
1977:
1967:
1964:
1961:
1958:
1955:
1952:
1949:
1946:
1943:
1940:
1937:
1934:
1931:
1930:
1926:
1923:
1920:
1917:
1914:
1911:
1908:
1905:
1902:
1899:
1896:
1893:
1890:
1889:
1885:
1882:
1879:
1876:
1873:
1870:
1867:
1864:
1861:
1856:
1851:
1846:
1843:
1842:
1838:
1835:
1832:
1829:
1826:
1823:
1820:
1817:
1814:
1809:
1807:two (f., n.)
1804:
1802:een (f., n.)
1799:
1796:
1795:
1791:
1788:
1785:
1782:
1779:
1776:
1773:
1770:
1767:
1764:
1761:
1758:
1756:West-Flemish
1755:
1754:
1750:
1747:
1744:
1741:
1738:
1735:
1732:
1729:
1726:
1723:
1720:
1717:
1715:West Frisian
1714:
1713:
1709:
1706:
1703:
1700:
1697:
1694:
1691:
1688:
1685:
1682:
1679:
1676:
1673:
1672:
1668:
1665:
1662:
1659:
1656:
1653:
1648:
1645:
1642:
1637:
1634:
1627:
1624:
1623:
1619:
1616:
1613:
1610:
1607:
1604:
1601:
1598:
1595:
1592:
1589:
1586:
1583:
1582:
1578:
1575:
1572:
1569:
1566:
1563:
1560:
1557:
1554:
1551:
1548:
1545:
1542:
1541:
1537:
1534:
1531:
1528:
1525:
1522:
1519:
1516:
1513:
1510:
1507:
1504:
1501:
1500:
1497:
1482:
1481:back mutation
1478:
1475:
1471:
1468:
1464:
1461:
1458:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1431:A-restoration
1429:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1412:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1392:A-restoration
1390:
1376:
1372:
1369:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1335:
1332:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1305:
1304:
1302:
1285:
1282:
1277:
1274:
1271:
1270:
1268:
1265:
1262:
1259:
1256:
1253:
1250:
1247:
1246:
1244:
1239:
1236:
1233:
1230:
1227:
1226:
1224:
1223:
1221:
1216:
1213:
1210:
1209:
1207:
1206:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1176:Nordfriesland
1173:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1157:North Frisian
1154:
1150:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1121:
1107:
1104:
1102:
1099:
1094:Modern Scots
1093:
1092:
1088:
1085:
1082:
1079:
1076:
1073:
1070:
1068:Middle Scots
1067:
1066:
1059:
1056:
1053:
1050:
1047:
1046:
1039:
1036:
1033:
1029:
1026:
1021:
1018:
1016:
1013:
1011:
1007:
1004:
1003:Proto-English
1000:
995:
993:
989:
985:
981:
977:
975:
971:
967:
963:
959:
955:
951:
947:
943:
939:
935:
931:
927:
923:
918:
914:
893:
890:
886:
883:
881:
878:
877:
875:
873:
870:
865:
862:
861:
859:
855:
852:
848:
845:
844:
840:
837:
835:
832:
830:
827:
822:
819:
818:
817:
814:
813:
811:
810:
809:
808:North Frisian
806:
797:
794:
789:
786:
785:
780:
776:
773:
772:
770:
769:
768:
765:
761:
758:
752:South Frisian
751:
748:
744:
741:
740:
739:Wood Frisian
738:
737:
736:
733:
731:
728:
727:
725:
723:
720:
718:
715:
714:
713:
710:
709:
708:
705:
696:
693:
688:
685:
684:
682:
675:
672:
671:
669:
665:
661:
658:
656:
653:
651:
648:
646:
645:Central Scots
643:
641:
638:
636:
635:Insular Scots
633:
632:
631:
628:
627:
626:North Anglic
625:
620:
615:
612:
611:
609:
608:
607:South Anglic
606:
605:
603:
602:
601:
600:Anglo-Frisian
598:
597:
595:
587:
585:
581:
577:
573:
569:
568:Great Britain
564:
562:
557:
553:
549:
545:
541:
532:
526:
520:
514:
508:
503:
501:
495:
493:
487:
483:
481:
479:
473:
471:
466:, and German
465:
463:
457:
455:
450:, Low German
449:
447:
441:
439:
433:
429:
427:
425:
420:
416:
414:
409:, Low German
408:
406:
401:
397:
395:
390:
386:
384:
378:
374:
373:
372:
366:
362:
358:
354:
350:
349:sound changes
345:
343:
339:
335:
331:
330:North Frisian
327:
323:
319:
315:
311:
307:
296:
291:
282:
281:North Frisian
273:
265:
263:
258:
249:
241:
235:
230:
226:
222:
220:
216:
211:
208:
206:
203:
202:
201:
197:
186:
185:Anglo-Frisian
183:
182:
181:
178:
177:
176:
175:West Germanic
173:
172:
171:
168:
167:
166:
165:Indo-European
163:
161:
157:
153:
149:
145:
141:
137:
133:
127:
124:Anglo-Frisian
122:
113:
110:
102:
99:December 2009
91:
88:
84:
81:
77:
74:
70:
67:
63:
60: â
59:
55:
54:Find sources:
48:
44:
38:
37:
32:This article
30:
26:
21:
20:
6391:
6372:
6364:
6352:
6344:
6336:
6260:
6198:Northumbrian
6177:
6098:
5982:Verner's law
5927:
5922:Gotho-Nordic
5920:
5913:
5834:
5827:
5819:
5813:
5803:
5788:FÄrö Gutnish
5750:
5743:
5649:
5642:
5633:
5626:
5607:
5600:
5528:
5523:
5518:
5511:
5504:
5444:
5346:Swiss German
5310:Upper German
5243:Amana German
5217:Volga German
5186:HunsrĂŒckisch
5112:
5066:Unserdeutsch
5061:Berlinerisch
4994:
4987:
4980:
4973:
4933:Cover groups
4889:Mohawk Dutch
4884:Jersey Dutch
4862:East Flemish
4845:West Flemish
4789:Middle Dutch
4743:Low Prussian
4615:
4608:
4574:Terschelling
4558:Clay Frisian
4533:West Frisian
4521:Wiedingharde
4513:
4501:
4461:Heligolandic
4438:
4413:
4406:
4399:
4394:
4377:East Frisian
4364:
4357:
4330:Middle Scots
4328:
4321:
4307:
4300:
4293:
4288:
4277:
4270:
4263:
4256:
4229:
4146:
4124:
4120:
4108:
4088:. Retrieved
4078:
4069:
4050:
4044:
4037:West Flemish
4031:
4022:
4016:
4007:
4001:
3987:
3944:
3936:
3931:
3911:
3902:
3893:
3882:. Retrieved
3857:
3840:
3821:
3815:
3796:
3790:
3771:
3734:
3727:
3716:. Retrieved
3690:
3659:
3654:
3633:
3612:
3466:[in]
3454:[en]
3447:
3404:
3402:
3379:
3372:
3368:
3346:
2859:Ross (dated)
2849:hoars (rare)
2786:have/heve/ha
2772:twee schapen
2012:West Frisian
1980:[eË]
1975:
1973:
1932:High German
1495:
1474:assibilation
1462:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1439:Southumbrian
1434:
1430:
1425:
1421:
1413:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1328:nasalization
1319:
1312:
1308:
1298:
1286:(Halifreesk)
1263:(Karrharder)
1229:Sylt Frisian
1184:German Bight
1165:North Frisia
1142:West Frisian
1123:
1105:
1100:
1048:Early Scots
978:
972:dialects in
962:Modern Scots
958:Middle Scots
936:and all the
929:
925:
921:
920:
823:East Mooring
820:West Mooring
771:Ems Frisian
767:East Frisian
749:Clay Frisian
712:West Frisian
660:Ulster Scots
599:
593:
565:
537:
504:, but Dutch
497:
489:
485:
475:
467:
459:
451:
443:
442:, but Dutch
435:
431:
421:
410:
402:
391:
389:West Frisian
380:
376:
346:
338:West Frisian
334:East Frisian
305:
303:
272:West Frisian
260:
239:
199:Subdivisions
184:
131:distribution
105:
96:
86:
79:
72:
65:
53:
41:Please help
36:verification
33:
6183:Old English
5997:Kluge's law
5977:Grimm's law
5760:Dalecarlian
5739:Perkerdansk
5712:East Danish
5530:Old Gutnish
5506:Proto-Norse
5446:Langobardic
5438:Vogtlandian
5266:Upper Saxon
5120:Lachoudisch
5081:Lotegorisch
4959:High German
4705:Westphalian
4700:Eastphalian
4664:Achterhooks
4541:Hindeloopen
4476:Bökingharde
4445:FöhrâAmrum
4359:Old Frisian
4323:Early Scots
4258:Old English
3908:Woolf, Alex
3660:Anglo-Saxon
3382:Old Anglian
3360:Old English
3356:Old Frisian
3321:goeie (dei)
3304:tgoa deure
3295:it giet oan
3292:it goath an
3200:wooge/ĂŽoge
2854:ros (dated)
2778:twi skoapn
2775:zwei Schafe
2749:bin gewesen
2746:ben geweest
2659:until, till
2653:until, till
2307:skip/sjgip
1487:Comparisons
1324:lengthening
1257:(Mooringer)
1202:in Germany.
1134:Netherlands
1086:Fingallian
954:Early Scots
934:Old English
876:FöhrâAmrum
655:Doric Scots
548:Old Frisian
544:Old English
146:coast from
134:Originally
6416:Categories
6318:Consonants
6293:Diphthongs
6203:West Saxon
5829:Burgundian
5745:Old Danish
5734:GĂžtudanskt
5717:Bornholmsk
5579:Vestlandsk
5559:Kebabnorsk
5296:Halcnovian
5261:Thuringian
4924:Limburgish
4894:Stadsfries
4867:Brabantian
4594:Low German
4440:Eiderstedt
4295:Fingallian
4143:Ringe, Don
4090:2013-06-24
3884:2023-07-16
3831:9027237530
3781:0631139176
3754:1013723499
3718:2020-10-23
3669:References
3386:Old Jutish
3330:goein dah
3318:gooude dei
3283:it goes on
3000:maath, gob
2766:twye zheep
2700:woa(r)(e)
2281:oalmahtih
2278:allmÀchtig
2272:almachtich
1805:twÀin (m.)
1418:West Saxon
1337:A-fronting
1240:(Halunder)
1231:(Söl'ring)
1180:Heligoland
966:Fingallian
932:encompass
911:See also:
556:Ingvaeonic
540:tree model
357:Low German
318:Fingallian
297:is common.
129:Geographic
69:newspapers
6359:Rhoticity
6339:-dropping
6109:varieties
6101:indicate
5915:Northwest
5860:Philology
5765:Elfdalian
5700:Jutlandic
5622:Icelandic
5597:(written)
5591:(written)
5569:TrĂžndersk
5549:Norwegian
5513:Old Norse
5334:Coloniero
5318:Alemannic
5291:Wymysorys
5159:Colognian
5154:Ripuarian
5076:Rotwelsch
4906:Midslands
4857:Zeelandic
4838:Hollandic
4812:Afrikaans
4784:Old Dutch
4610:Old Saxon
4509:Karrharde
4491:Goesharde
4472:Mainland
4205:philology
3859:Glottolog
3364:Old Saxon
3327:guten Tag
3324:goedendag
3312:gooid day
3096:rwod/rĂŽd
3044:wore/ĂŽre
2769:twa skiep
2763:twa sheep
2760:two sheep
2757:two sheep
2723:SchlĂŒssel
2714:kei / kie
2627:morn(ing)
2605:taegither
2275:almachtig
2269:aulmichty
2266:awmichtie
2151:oaljinne
1886:tweelwen
1810:trÀi (m.)
1617:(e)leven
1502:Language
1200:Saterland
1153:Friesland
1130:North Sea
687:Fingalian
576:Old Norse
552:Old Saxon
522:, German
359:as well,
219:Glottolog
148:Friesland
144:North Sea
6384:stopping
6379:fronting
6331:Flapping
6326:Clusters
5836:Vandalic
5779:Gutnish
5584:VikvĂŠrsk
5564:SognamÄl
5554:Bergensk
5404:Cimbrian
5372:Bavarian
5329:Alsatian
5276:Lusatian
5212:Palatine
4902:Amelands
4779:Frankish
4669:Sallaans
4651:Gronings
4502:Southern
4495:Northern
4486:Halligen
4435:Insular
4252:dialects
4119:(2013).
3926:, p. 336
3910:(2007).
3878:Archived
3423:See also
3315:guid day
3309:good day
3188:ei / iee
3026:ear, lug
2726:sleutle
2633:morn(in)
2630:morn(in)
2622:tegoare
2619:zusammen
2611:tegearre
2602:together
2599:together
2451:chourche
2260:almighty
2203:snji(w)
1800:aan (m.)
1742:njoggen
1727:fjouwer
1666:eleiven
1543:English
1318:Loss of
1172:district
1149:province
488:, Scots
484:English
430:English
379:, Scots
375:English
240:Anglic:
225:angl1264
170:Germanic
142:and the
6193:Mercian
6188:Kentish
6099:Italics
5722:Scanian
5668:Swedish
5617:Faroese
5595:Nynorsk
5574:Valdris
5409:MĂČcheno
5365:Swabian
5231:Hessian
5191:Hunsrik
5103:Western
5098:Eastern
5093:Yiddish
5043:creoles
4940:Bergish
4656:DrĂšents
4646:Tweants
4498:Central
4480:Mooring
4343:Frisian
4302:Kildare
4247:English
3394:Jutland
3127:through
3070:groene
2847:hynder
2743:ha west
2720:sleutel
2616:tegader
2608:agyther
2454:tsjerke
2385:beuter
2333:noagle
2263:almeety
2142:allinne
2073:wĂšreld
2000:English
1953:sieben
1927:twaalf
1877:nĂŒĂŒgen
1871:soowen
1862:fjouer
1839:twelig
1830:njĂșgen
1827:oachte
1815:fjauer
1792:twolve
1777:zeevne
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4515:Strand
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4131:
4057:
3918:
3828:
3803:
3778:
3752:
3742:
3709:
3362:, and
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286:
279:
277:
270:
268:
255:
253:
246:
244:
205:Anglic
85:
78:
71:
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56:
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4123:[
3695:(PDF)
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2327:nagel
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2223:zomer
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2168:stien
2162:stane
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2096:Regen
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2087:rhyne
2064:wrĂąld
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2055:warld
2052:world
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2006:Scots
1962:zehn
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1956:acht
1947:fĂŒnf
1944:vier
1941:drei
1938:zwei
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1915:acht
1906:vijf
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1900:drie
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4466:Sylt
4449:Föhr
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4055:ISBN
3916:ISBN
3826:ISBN
3801:ISBN
3776:ISBN
3750:OCLC
3740:ISBN
3707:ISBN
3601:10.
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2009:Yola
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387:and
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322:Yola
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