137:
331:
Broadly speaking, the changes that characterise the
Ingvaeonic languages can be divided into two groups, those being changes that occurred after the split from Proto-Northwest-Germanic (Ingvaeonic B) and those preceding it (Ingvaeonic A). Linguistic evidence for Ingvaeonic B observed in Old Frisian,
639:
Several, but not all, characteristics are also found in Dutch, which did not generally undergo the nasal spirant law (except for a few words), retained the three distinct plural endings (only to merge them in a later, unrelated change), and exhibits the
644:
plural in only a limited number of words. However, it lost the reflexive pronoun (even though it did later regain it via borrowing) and had the same four relic weak verbs in Class III.
859:(West Germanic: from its Emergence in the 3rd up until its Dissolution in the 7th Century CE: Analyses and Reconstruction). 244 p., in German with English summary, London/Berlin 2013,
1587:
2995:
1962:
1040:
3000:
1760:
968:
939:
864:
846:
1577:
2489:
857:
Das
Westgermanische – von der Herausbildung im 3. bis zur Aufgliederung im 7. Jahrhundert – Analyse und Rekonstruktion
3015:
923:
908:
256:
3005:
1033:
901:
Grundzüge deutscher
Sprachgeschichte. Diachronie des Sprachsystems. Band I: Einführung – Genealogie – Konstanten
3010:
2856:
2886:
2056:
2018:
2003:
337:
1330:
987:
2990:
2985:
2866:
2726:
2076:
2035:
2025:
1026:
873:
1242:
441:
2583:
2861:
2815:
2810:
2734:
2344:
2328:
2207:
2066:
1957:
1952:
177:
158:
684:
2800:
2744:
2739:
2659:
2332:
2282:
1582:
1400:
1156:
1084:
1072:
392:
269:
197:
84:
74:
2922:
2642:
2040:
2805:
2287:
2253:
1871:
1687:
1547:
1387:
1282:
988:"The Pan-West Germanic Isoglosses and the Subrelationships of West Germanic to Other Branches"
2963:
2927:
2195:
2188:
2140:
1910:
1881:
1850:
1813:
1738:
1495:
1408:
1269:
1231:
689:
2428:
1303:
2932:
2912:
2881:
2754:
2614:
2360:
2178:
1770:
1597:
1559:
1554:
1428:
1375:
1133:
950:
277:
2588:
566:
Elimination of the weak stem -in- in n-stem noun paradigms. For example, OHG gen/dat. sg.
8:
2871:
2107:
2061:
1995:
1748:
1395:
1308:
1106:
2418:
2263:
1510:
2917:
2841:
2769:
2714:
2476:
2403:
2300:
2145:
2120:
2115:
2008:
1836:
1721:
1542:
1320:
1315:
1294:
1255:
1059:
1049:
974:
882:: Studien zur germanischen und frühdeutschen Sprachgeschichte, Stammes- und Volkskunde
365:
142:
79:
2071:
127:
2891:
2690:
2606:
2599:
2554:
2498:
2258:
2248:
2231:
2226:
2130:
1892:
1692:
1653:
1633:
1471:
1363:
1345:
1197:
1007:
978:
964:
935:
919:
904:
860:
842:
359:
3020:
2846:
2637:
2571:
2527:
2522:
2482:
2471:
2463:
2268:
2236:
2183:
2172:
2085:
1794:
1733:
1523:
1505:
1340:
1101:
1093:
999:
956:
218:
2683:
2876:
2836:
2669:
2576:
2559:
2544:
2539:
2532:
2241:
2150:
2135:
2090:
1942:
1905:
1897:
1876:
1863:
1843:
1829:
1592:
1569:
1500:
1490:
1482:
1262:
528:
524:
300:
69:
2957:
2851:
2831:
2783:
2675:
2549:
2219:
1986:
1925:
1704:
1661:
1618:
1535:
1530:
1419:
1369:
1220:
1171:
1126:
1119:
316:
1003:
593:
Shortening of pronominal and adjectival non-feminine dative singulars like ON
535:
Dative plurals and first person plural forms in numerous paradigms reduced to
2979:
2907:
2749:
2505:
2456:
2273:
2212:
2125:
2030:
1968:
1915:
1799:
1726:
1011:
852:
694:
187:
136:
107:
2776:
2200:
2164:
2097:
1920:
1743:
1716:
1699:
1643:
1602:
1184:
1163:
395:
languages further develop these palatal consonants into continuants as in
320:
2423:
2593:
2566:
2384:
2292:
1974:
1935:
1518:
1213:
1177:
1112:
890:
The
Development of Old English – A Linguistic History of English, vol. II
349:
273:
2438:
2433:
2413:
1778:
1448:
1149:
423:
288:
112:
2619:
2367:
2013:
1930:
1711:
1666:
1638:
1464:
1018:
879:
520:
292:
281:
121:
44:
40:
2443:
433:
2408:
1756:
960:
399:, Old Saxon did undergo palatalisation as evidenced by forms like
391:
Palatalisation of velar consonants before front vowels; while the
319:
but as a group of closely related dialects that underwent several
303:(the latter also mentioning that tribes in the group included the
2449:
2045:
1947:
308:
296:
48:
955:. Studies in Germanic Linguistics. Vol. 3. John Benjamins.
609:, all of which have eliminated the final vowel; contrast Gothic
427:
1752:
369:
312:
304:
803:
791:
500:
Development of numerous new words, such as the replacement of
233:
1670:
719:
373:
227:
291:, a West Germanic cultural group or proto-tribe along the
239:
779:
245:
224:
916:
Early
Germanic Grammar: Pre-, Proto-, and Post-Germanic
815:
668:
Democratic' and 'elitist' trends and a
Frisian standard
952:
A Comparative
Grammar of the Early Germanic Languages
743:
731:
257:
248:
242:
221:
892:. United States of America: Oxford University Press.
672:
Standardization: Studies from the
Germanic Languages
485:
478:
471:
464:
230:
767:
707:
236:
755:
376:, which reduced three forms into one form: merged
992:NOWELE: North-Western European Language Evolution
659:
657:
2977:
670:, in: Andrew R. Linn, Nicola McLelland (eds.),
654:
1034:
444:into a relic class consisting of four verbs (
887:
809:
797:
785:
725:
1041:
1027:
519:Changes originating in Ingvaeonic A, like
463:The split of the Class II weak verb ending
332:Old English and Old Saxon is as follows:
426:in s/z-stem plurals; compare Anglian OE
315:). It is thought of as not a monolithic
929:
749:
737:
29:Ingvaeonic, Ingveonic, coastal Germanic
2978:
1048:
985:
903:. Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruyter.
821:
773:
713:
2996:Archaeological terminology (Germanic)
2712:
2326:
1070:
1022:
948:
761:
1603:Plautdietsch / Mennonite Low German
888:Ringe, Donald; Taylor, Ann (2014).
13:
3001:Linguistic theories and hypotheses
2962:Languages between parentheses are
2327:
831:
326:
14:
3032:
986:Stiles, Patrick V. (2013-01-01).
841:. Amsterdam: John Benjamins B.V.
295:coast that was mentioned by both
539:. Compare an-stem dative plural
217:
141:The distribution of the primary
135:
16:Group of West Germanic languages
674:, 2002, p. 205 ff., here p. 205
493:Development of a plural ending
2966:of the language on their left.
934:. Cambridge University Press.
839:An Introduction to Old Frisian
677:
287:Ingvaeonic is named after the
268:), refers to a subgrouping of
1:
2857:Germanic substrate hypothesis
2713:
918:. San Diego: Academic Press.
647:
146:
2887:Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law
1578:Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch
899:Sonderegger, Stefan (1979).
338:Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law
7:
2867:High German consonant shift
407:"emperor" (contrast German
10:
3037:
1405:Westlauwers–Terschellings
1058:According to contemporary
949:Fulk, R. D. (2018-09-15).
914:Voyles, Joseph B. (1992).
415:"pay", similar to English
2949:
2900:
2824:
2793:
2725:
2721:
2708:
2657:
2630:
2584:Southern Schleswig Danish
2515:
2396:
2352:
2343:
2339:
2322:
2163:
2106:
1994:
1985:
1890:
1862:
1821:
1812:
1787:
1769:
1680:
1652:
1626:
1617:
1568:
1481:
1456:
1447:
1386:
1281:
1230:
1205:
1196:
1092:
1083:
1079:
1066:
1056:
1004:10.1075/nowele.66.1.02sti
837:Bremmer, Rolf H. (2009).
384:"you (plural) have" with
358:Loss of the third-person
284:, and their descendants.
134:
120:
101:
70:Linguistic classification
68:
55:
33:
28:
23:
3016:History of the North Sea
2862:West Germanic gemination
2816:Ancient Belgian language
2811:Germanic parent language
2755:Weser-Rhine (Istvaeonic)
1877:Austrian Standard German
1071:
884:, Strasbourg: Hüneburg.
3006:West Germanic languages
930:Harbert, Wayne (2006).
810:Ringe & Taylor 2014
798:Ringe & Taylor 2014
786:Ringe & Taylor 2014
726:Ringe & Taylor 2014
487:
480:
473:
466:
434:
428:
270:West Germanic languages
2923:Preterite-present verb
2806:Proto-Germanic grammar
2760:North Sea (Ingvaeonic)
1872:German Standard German
1548:East Frisian Low Saxon
932:The Germanic Languages
2928:Grammatischer Wechsel
1911:Namibian Black German
1882:Swiss Standard German
1851:Early New High German
1409:Mainland West Frisian
1270:Harlingerland Frisian
690:CollinsDictionary.com
512:"less" (adverb) with
3011:History of Friesland
2933:Indo-European ablaut
2913:Germanic strong verb
2882:Germanic spirant law
2019:Southeast Limburgish
1515:Gelders-Overijssels
1144:Irish Middle English
1134:Early Modern English
442:Class III weak verbs
323:in relative unison.
178:Weser–Rhine Germanic
2901:Synchronic features
2872:Germanic a-mutation
2825:Diachronic features
2175:in the broad sense
2108:East Central German
2062:Lorraine Franconian
2036:Transylvanian Saxon
1996:West Central German
1771:East Low Franconian
1681:West Low Franconian
812:, pp. 165–166.
800:, pp. 162–163.
728:, pp. 139–141.
440:The development of
2991:1942 introductions
2986:North Sea Germanic
2918:Germanic weak verb
2727:Language subgroups
2077:Pennsylvania Dutch
2026:Moselle Franconian
2004:Central Franconian
1837:Middle High German
1588:Central Pomeranian
1543:Northern Low Saxon
1256:Wangerooge Frisian
1050:Germanic languages
663:Anthonia Feitsma,
360:reflexive pronouns
209:North Sea Germanic
168:North Sea Germanic
143:Germanic languages
90:North Sea Germanic
51:; today, worldwide
24:North Sea Germanic
2973:
2972:
2958:extinct languages
2945:
2944:
2941:
2940:
2892:Great Vowel Shift
2704:
2703:
2700:
2699:
2653:
2652:
2499:Greenlandic Norse
2318:
2317:
2314:
2313:
2310:
2309:
2249:Southern Bavarian
2232:Northern Bavarian
2208:Highest Alemannic
2159:
2158:
1893:standard variants
1808:
1807:
1654:Standard variants
1613:
1612:
1472:Middle Low German
1443:
1442:
1439:
1438:
1243:Saterland Frisian
970:978-90-272-6313-1
941:978-0-521-80825-5
878:Nordgermanen und
874:Maurer, Friedrich
865:978-3-9812110-7-8
847:978-90-272-3255-7
824:, pp. 21–23.
432:"lambs" with OHG
272:that consists of
206:
205:
64:
3028:
2750:Elbe (Irminonic)
2723:
2722:
2710:
2709:
2638:Mainland Gutnish
2528:Swedish dialects
2490:Middle Icelandic
2464:Middle Norwegian
2353:Historical forms
2350:
2349:
2341:
2340:
2324:
2323:
2283:South Franconian
2269:Hutterite German
2237:Central Bavarian
2057:Rhine Franconian
1992:
1991:
1822:Historical forms
1819:
1818:
1734:Surinamese Dutch
1627:Historical forms
1624:
1623:
1457:Historical forms
1454:
1453:
1206:Historical forms
1203:
1202:
1090:
1089:
1081:
1080:
1068:
1067:
1043:
1036:
1029:
1020:
1019:
1015:
982:
945:
898:
893:
872:
825:
819:
813:
807:
801:
795:
789:
783:
777:
771:
765:
759:
753:
747:
741:
735:
729:
723:
717:
711:
705:
704:
702:
701:
681:
675:
667:
661:
497:in a-stem nouns.
490:
483:
476:
469:
437:
431:
368:distinctions in
264:
260:
255:
254:
251:
250:
247:
244:
241:
238:
235:
232:
229:
226:
223:
211:, also known as
195:
185:
175:
165:
156:
151:
148:
139:
130:
62:
21:
20:
3036:
3035:
3031:
3030:
3029:
3027:
3026:
3025:
2976:
2975:
2974:
2969:
2937:
2896:
2877:Germanic umlaut
2842:Holtzmann's law
2820:
2789:
2717:
2696:
2649:
2626:
2560:South Jutlandic
2545:Danish dialects
2511:
2392:
2335:
2306:
2288:East Franconian
2242:Viennese German
2155:
2136:Silesian German
2102:
2091:Central Hessian
1981:
1906:Namibian German
1895:
1886:
1864:Standard German
1858:
1844:New High German
1830:Old High German
1804:
1783:
1765:
1676:
1648:
1609:
1593:East Pomeranian
1583:Brandenburgisch
1570:East Low German
1564:
1491:Dutch Low Saxon
1483:West Low German
1477:
1435:
1401:Schiermonnikoog
1382:
1277:
1263:Wursten Frisian
1226:
1192:
1075:
1062:
1052:
1047:
971:
942:
896:
870:
834:
832:Further reading
829:
828:
820:
816:
808:
804:
796:
792:
784:
780:
772:
768:
760:
756:
752:, pp. 7–8.
748:
744:
736:
732:
724:
720:
712:
708:
699:
697:
683:
682:
678:
665:
662:
655:
650:
616:as well as OHG
529:Old High German
484:"to make" into
329:
327:Characteristics
301:Pliny the Elder
262:
258:
220:
216:
202:
201:
193:
191:
183:
181:
180:, or Istvaeonic
173:
171:
170:, or Ingvaeonic
163:
161:
154:
149:
126:
58:
57:Native speakers
39:Originally the
35:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3034:
3024:
3023:
3018:
3013:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2993:
2988:
2971:
2970:
2968:
2967:
2960:
2950:
2947:
2946:
2943:
2942:
2939:
2938:
2936:
2935:
2930:
2925:
2920:
2915:
2910:
2904:
2902:
2898:
2897:
2895:
2894:
2889:
2884:
2879:
2874:
2869:
2864:
2859:
2854:
2849:
2844:
2839:
2834:
2828:
2826:
2822:
2821:
2819:
2818:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2801:Proto-Germanic
2797:
2795:
2791:
2790:
2788:
2787:
2780:
2773:
2765:
2764:
2763:
2762:
2757:
2752:
2742:
2737:
2731:
2729:
2719:
2718:
2706:
2705:
2702:
2701:
2698:
2697:
2695:
2694:
2687:
2680:
2676:Crimean Gothic
2665:
2663:
2655:
2654:
2651:
2650:
2648:
2647:
2646:
2645:
2640:
2631:
2628:
2627:
2625:
2624:
2623:
2622:
2612:
2611:
2610:
2603:
2596:
2591:
2586:
2581:
2580:
2579:
2574:
2564:
2563:
2562:
2552:
2550:Insular Danish
2547:
2537:
2536:
2535:
2533:Rinkebysvenska
2530:
2519:
2517:
2513:
2512:
2510:
2509:
2502:
2495:
2494:
2493:
2486:
2474:
2469:
2468:
2467:
2460:
2453:
2447:
2441:
2436:
2431:
2426:
2421:
2416:
2411:
2400:
2398:
2394:
2393:
2391:
2390:
2389:
2388:
2381:
2379:Old East Norse
2376:
2374:Old West Norse
2364:
2356:
2354:
2347:
2337:
2336:
2320:
2319:
2316:
2315:
2312:
2311:
2308:
2307:
2305:
2304:
2297:
2296:
2295:
2285:
2280:
2279:
2278:
2277:
2276:
2271:
2266:
2261:
2256:
2254:South Tyrolean
2246:
2245:
2244:
2234:
2224:
2223:
2222:
2217:
2216:
2215:
2205:
2204:
2203:
2196:High Alemannic
2193:
2192:
2191:
2186:
2169:
2167:
2161:
2160:
2157:
2156:
2154:
2153:
2148:
2143:
2138:
2133:
2128:
2123:
2118:
2112:
2110:
2104:
2103:
2101:
2100:
2095:
2094:
2093:
2083:
2082:
2081:
2080:
2079:
2074:
2064:
2054:
2053:
2052:
2051:
2050:
2049:
2048:
2038:
2033:
2023:
2022:
2021:
2016:
2000:
1998:
1989:
1987:Central German
1983:
1982:
1980:
1979:
1978:
1977:
1972:
1965:
1960:
1955:
1945:
1940:
1939:
1938:
1928:
1926:Barossa German
1923:
1918:
1913:
1908:
1902:
1900:
1888:
1887:
1885:
1884:
1879:
1874:
1868:
1866:
1860:
1859:
1857:
1856:
1855:
1854:
1840:
1833:
1825:
1823:
1816:
1810:
1809:
1806:
1805:
1803:
1802:
1797:
1791:
1789:
1785:
1784:
1782:
1781:
1775:
1773:
1767:
1766:
1764:
1763:
1746:
1741:
1736:
1730:
1729:
1724:
1719:
1714:
1709:
1708:
1707:
1705:French Flemish
1697:
1696:
1695:
1684:
1682:
1678:
1677:
1675:
1674:
1664:
1658:
1656:
1650:
1649:
1647:
1646:
1641:
1636:
1630:
1628:
1621:
1619:Low Franconian
1615:
1614:
1611:
1610:
1608:
1607:
1606:
1605:
1595:
1590:
1585:
1580:
1574:
1572:
1566:
1565:
1563:
1562:
1557:
1552:
1551:
1550:
1540:
1539:
1538:
1533:
1528:
1527:
1526:
1521:
1513:
1508:
1503:
1498:
1487:
1485:
1479:
1478:
1476:
1475:
1468:
1460:
1458:
1451:
1445:
1444:
1441:
1440:
1437:
1436:
1434:
1433:
1432:
1431:
1426:
1425:
1424:
1423:
1422:
1420:Westereendersk
1414:
1403:
1398:
1392:
1390:
1384:
1383:
1381:
1380:
1379:
1378:
1373:
1366:
1361:
1360:
1359:
1354:
1351:
1343:
1338:
1337:
1336:
1325:
1324:
1323:
1318:
1313:
1312:
1311:
1306:
1298:
1287:
1285:
1279:
1278:
1276:
1275:
1274:
1273:
1266:
1259:
1247:
1246:
1245:
1236:
1234:
1228:
1227:
1225:
1224:
1221:Middle Frisian
1217:
1209:
1207:
1200:
1194:
1193:
1191:
1190:
1189:
1188:
1181:
1169:
1168:
1167:
1160:
1153:
1141:
1140:
1139:
1138:
1137:
1127:Modern English
1123:
1120:Middle English
1116:
1109:
1098:
1096:
1087:
1077:
1076:
1064:
1063:
1057:
1054:
1053:
1046:
1045:
1038:
1031:
1023:
1017:
1016:
983:
969:
961:10.1075/sigl.3
946:
940:
927:
912:
894:
885:
868:
853:Euler, Wolfram
850:
833:
830:
827:
826:
814:
802:
790:
788:, p. 161.
778:
766:
764:, p. 133.
754:
742:
740:, p. 179.
730:
718:
706:
676:
652:
651:
649:
646:
637:
636:
591:
564:
551:(Gothic) with
517:
516:
498:
491:
461:
438:
420:
409:kennen, Kaiser
389:
380:"we have" and
362:
356:
336:The so-called
328:
325:
317:proto-language
204:
203:
192:
190:, or Irminonic
182:
172:
162:
159:North Germanic
153:
140:
132:
131:
124:
118:
117:
116:
115:
110:
103:
99:
98:
97:
96:
95:
94:
93:
92:
72:
66:
65:
59:
56:
53:
52:
37:
31:
30:
26:
25:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3033:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3004:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2992:
2989:
2987:
2984:
2983:
2981:
2965:
2961:
2959:
2955:
2952:
2951:
2948:
2934:
2931:
2929:
2926:
2924:
2921:
2919:
2916:
2914:
2911:
2909:
2908:Germanic verb
2906:
2905:
2903:
2899:
2893:
2890:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2880:
2878:
2875:
2873:
2870:
2868:
2865:
2863:
2860:
2858:
2855:
2853:
2850:
2848:
2847:Sievers's law
2845:
2843:
2840:
2838:
2835:
2833:
2830:
2829:
2827:
2823:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2798:
2796:
2794:Reconstructed
2792:
2786:
2785:
2781:
2779:
2778:
2774:
2772:
2771:
2767:
2766:
2761:
2758:
2756:
2753:
2751:
2748:
2747:
2746:
2743:
2741:
2738:
2736:
2733:
2732:
2730:
2728:
2724:
2720:
2716:
2711:
2707:
2693:
2692:
2688:
2686:
2685:
2681:
2678:
2677:
2672:
2671:
2667:
2666:
2664:
2662:
2661:
2656:
2644:
2641:
2639:
2636:
2635:
2633:
2632:
2629:
2621:
2618:
2617:
2616:
2613:
2609:
2608:
2607:Middle Danish
2604:
2602:
2601:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2578:
2575:
2573:
2570:
2569:
2568:
2565:
2561:
2558:
2557:
2556:
2553:
2551:
2548:
2546:
2543:
2542:
2541:
2538:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2525:
2524:
2521:
2520:
2518:
2514:
2508:
2507:
2503:
2501:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2491:
2487:
2485:
2484:
2483:Old Icelandic
2480:
2479:
2478:
2475:
2473:
2470:
2466:
2465:
2461:
2459:
2458:
2457:Old Norwegian
2454:
2451:
2448:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2422:
2420:
2417:
2415:
2412:
2410:
2407:
2406:
2405:
2402:
2401:
2399:
2395:
2387:
2386:
2382:
2380:
2377:
2375:
2372:
2371:
2370:
2369:
2365:
2363:
2362:
2358:
2357:
2355:
2351:
2348:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2325:
2321:
2303:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2291:
2290:
2289:
2286:
2284:
2281:
2275:
2274:Gottscheerish
2272:
2270:
2267:
2265:
2262:
2260:
2257:
2255:
2252:
2251:
2250:
2247:
2243:
2240:
2239:
2238:
2235:
2233:
2230:
2229:
2228:
2225:
2221:
2218:
2214:
2213:Walser German
2211:
2210:
2209:
2206:
2202:
2199:
2198:
2197:
2194:
2190:
2187:
2185:
2182:
2181:
2180:
2179:Low Alemannic
2177:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2170:
2168:
2166:
2162:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2144:
2142:
2141:High Prussian
2139:
2137:
2134:
2132:
2129:
2127:
2126:Erzgebirgisch
2124:
2122:
2119:
2117:
2114:
2113:
2111:
2109:
2105:
2099:
2096:
2092:
2089:
2088:
2087:
2084:
2078:
2075:
2073:
2070:
2069:
2068:
2065:
2063:
2060:
2059:
2058:
2055:
2047:
2044:
2043:
2042:
2039:
2037:
2034:
2032:
2031:Luxembourgish
2029:
2028:
2027:
2024:
2020:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2011:
2010:
2007:
2006:
2005:
2002:
2001:
1999:
1997:
1993:
1990:
1988:
1984:
1976:
1973:
1971:
1970:
1969:Klezmer-loshn
1966:
1964:
1963:Scots Yiddish
1961:
1959:
1956:
1954:
1951:
1950:
1949:
1946:
1944:
1941:
1937:
1934:
1933:
1932:
1929:
1927:
1924:
1922:
1919:
1917:
1914:
1912:
1909:
1907:
1904:
1903:
1901:
1899:
1894:
1889:
1883:
1880:
1878:
1875:
1873:
1870:
1869:
1867:
1865:
1861:
1853:
1852:
1848:
1847:
1846:
1845:
1841:
1839:
1838:
1834:
1832:
1831:
1827:
1826:
1824:
1820:
1817:
1815:
1811:
1801:
1800:Meuse-Rhenish
1798:
1796:
1793:
1792:
1790:
1786:
1780:
1777:
1776:
1774:
1772:
1768:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1747:
1745:
1742:
1740:
1737:
1735:
1732:
1731:
1728:
1727:Kleverlandish
1725:
1723:
1720:
1718:
1715:
1713:
1710:
1706:
1703:
1702:
1701:
1698:
1694:
1691:
1690:
1689:
1688:Central Dutch
1686:
1685:
1683:
1679:
1672:
1668:
1665:
1663:
1660:
1659:
1657:
1655:
1651:
1645:
1642:
1640:
1637:
1635:
1632:
1631:
1629:
1625:
1622:
1620:
1616:
1604:
1601:
1600:
1599:
1596:
1594:
1591:
1589:
1586:
1584:
1581:
1579:
1576:
1575:
1573:
1571:
1567:
1561:
1558:
1556:
1553:
1549:
1546:
1545:
1544:
1541:
1537:
1534:
1532:
1529:
1525:
1522:
1520:
1517:
1516:
1514:
1512:
1509:
1507:
1504:
1502:
1499:
1497:
1496:Stellingwarfs
1494:
1493:
1492:
1489:
1488:
1486:
1484:
1480:
1474:
1473:
1469:
1467:
1466:
1462:
1461:
1459:
1455:
1452:
1450:
1446:
1430:
1427:
1421:
1418:
1417:
1416:Wood Frisian
1415:
1412:
1411:
1410:
1407:
1406:
1404:
1402:
1399:
1397:
1394:
1393:
1391:
1389:
1385:
1377:
1374:
1372:
1371:
1367:
1365:
1362:
1358:
1355:
1352:
1349:
1348:
1347:
1344:
1342:
1339:
1334:
1333:
1332:
1329:
1328:
1326:
1322:
1319:
1317:
1314:
1310:
1307:
1305:
1302:
1301:
1299:
1297:
1296:
1292:
1291:
1289:
1288:
1286:
1284:
1283:North Frisian
1280:
1272:
1271:
1267:
1265:
1264:
1260:
1258:
1257:
1253:
1252:
1251:
1248:
1244:
1241:
1240:
1238:
1237:
1235:
1233:
1229:
1223:
1222:
1218:
1216:
1215:
1211:
1210:
1208:
1204:
1201:
1199:
1195:
1187:
1186:
1182:
1180:
1179:
1175:
1174:
1173:
1170:
1166:
1165:
1161:
1159:
1158:
1154:
1152:
1151:
1147:
1146:
1145:
1142:
1136:
1135:
1131:
1130:
1129:
1128:
1124:
1122:
1121:
1117:
1115:
1114:
1110:
1108:
1105:
1104:
1103:
1100:
1099:
1097:
1095:
1091:
1088:
1086:
1085:Anglo-Frisian
1082:
1078:
1074:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1055:
1051:
1044:
1039:
1037:
1032:
1030:
1025:
1024:
1021:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
984:
980:
976:
972:
966:
962:
958:
954:
953:
947:
943:
937:
933:
928:
925:
924:0-12-728270-X
921:
917:
913:
910:
909:3-11-003570-7
906:
902:
895:
891:
886:
883:
881:
875:
869:
866:
862:
858:
854:
851:
848:
844:
840:
836:
835:
823:
818:
811:
806:
799:
794:
787:
782:
776:, p. 18.
775:
770:
763:
758:
751:
746:
739:
734:
727:
722:
716:, p. 24.
715:
710:
696:
695:HarperCollins
692:
691:
686:
680:
673:
669:
660:
658:
653:
645:
643:
635:and the like.
634:
633:
629:
625:
621:
615:
614:
608:
604:
600:
596:
592:
589:
585:
581:
577:
573:
569:
565:
562:
558:
554:
550:
546:
542:
538:
534:
533:
532:
530:
526:
522:
515:
511:
507:
503:
499:
496:
492:
489:
482:
475:
468:
462:
459:
455:
451:
447:
443:
439:
436:
430:
425:
421:
418:
414:
411:) as well as
410:
406:
402:
398:
394:
393:Anglo-Frisian
390:
387:
383:
379:
375:
371:
367:
363:
361:
357:
354:
351:
347:
344:"mouth" into
343:
339:
335:
334:
333:
324:
322:
321:areal changes
318:
314:
310:
306:
302:
298:
294:
290:
285:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
266:
253:
214:
210:
199:
198:East Germanic
189:
188:Elbe Germanic
179:
169:
160:
144:
138:
133:
129:
125:
123:
119:
114:
111:
109:
108:Anglo-Frisian
106:
105:
104:
100:
91:
88:
87:
86:
85:West Germanic
83:
82:
81:
78:
77:
76:
75:Indo-European
73:
71:
67:
60:
54:
50:
46:
42:
38:
32:
27:
22:
19:
2953:
2837:Verner's law
2782:
2777:Gotho-Nordic
2775:
2768:
2759:
2689:
2682:
2674:
2668:
2658:
2643:Fårö Gutnish
2605:
2598:
2504:
2497:
2488:
2481:
2462:
2455:
2383:
2378:
2373:
2366:
2359:
2299:
2201:Swiss German
2165:Upper German
2098:Amana German
2072:Volga German
2041:Hunsrückisch
1967:
1921:Unserdeutsch
1916:Berlinerisch
1849:
1842:
1835:
1828:
1788:Cover groups
1744:Mohawk Dutch
1739:Jersey Dutch
1717:East Flemish
1700:West Flemish
1644:Middle Dutch
1598:Low Prussian
1470:
1463:
1429:Terschelling
1413:Clay Frisian
1388:West Frisian
1376:Wiedingharde
1368:
1356:
1316:Heligolandic
1293:
1268:
1261:
1254:
1249:
1232:East Frisian
1219:
1212:
1185:Middle Scots
1183:
1176:
1162:
1155:
1148:
1143:
1132:
1125:
1118:
1111:
995:
991:
951:
931:
915:
900:
889:
877:
856:
838:
817:
805:
793:
781:
769:
757:
750:Harbert 2006
745:
738:Harbert 2006
733:
721:
709:
698:. Retrieved
688:
685:"Ingvaeonic"
679:
671:
664:
641:
638:
631:
627:
623:
619:
617:
612:
610:
606:
602:
598:
594:
587:
583:
579:
575:
571:
567:
560:
556:
552:
548:
544:
540:
536:
518:
513:
509:
505:
504:"nine" with
501:
494:
477:: converted
457:
453:
452:"to think",
449:
445:
416:
412:
408:
404:
400:
396:
385:
381:
377:
364:The loss of
352:
345:
341:
340:: converted
330:
286:
212:
208:
207:
167:
102:Subdivisions
89:
61:325 million
36:distribution
18:
2852:Kluge's law
2832:Grimm's law
2615:Dalecarlian
2594:Perkerdansk
2567:East Danish
2385:Old Gutnish
2361:Proto-Norse
2301:Langobardic
2293:Vogtlandian
2121:Upper Saxon
1975:Lachoudisch
1936:Lotegorisch
1814:High German
1560:Westphalian
1555:Eastphalian
1519:Achterhooks
1396:Hindeloopen
1331:Bökingharde
1300:Föhr–Amrum
1214:Old Frisian
1178:Early Scots
1113:Old English
998:(1): 5–38.
897:(in German)
871:(in German)
822:Stiles 2013
774:Stiles 2013
714:Stiles 2013
570:and Gothic
531:, include:
523:but unlike
456:"to have",
403:"know" and
388:"they have"
350:Old English
278:Old English
274:Old Frisian
150: AD 1
43:coast from
2980:Categories
2684:Burgundian
2600:Old Danish
2589:Gøtudanskt
2572:Bornholmsk
2434:Vestlandsk
2414:Kebabnorsk
2151:Halcnovian
2116:Thuringian
1779:Limburgish
1749:Stadsfries
1722:Brabantian
1449:Low German
1295:Eiderstedt
1150:Fingallian
700:2024-03-24
648:References
574:versus OE
547:(OHG) and
460:"to live")
448:"to say",
424:i-mutation
289:Ingaevones
213:Ingvaeonic
145:in Europe
113:Low German
34:Geographic
2964:varieties
2956:indicate
2770:Northwest
2715:Philology
2620:Elfdalian
2555:Jutlandic
2477:Icelandic
2452:(written)
2446:(written)
2424:Trøndersk
2404:Norwegian
2368:Old Norse
2189:Coloniero
2173:Alemannic
2146:Wymysorys
2014:Colognian
2009:Ripuarian
1931:Rotwelsch
1761:Midslands
1712:Zeelandic
1693:Hollandic
1667:Afrikaans
1639:Old Dutch
1465:Old Saxon
1364:Karrharde
1346:Goesharde
1327:Mainland
1060:philology
1012:0108-8416
979:165765984
880:Alemannen
762:Fulk 2018
605:, and OS
586:, and ON
580:han-an/on
572:han-in(s)
559:(OS) and
557:han-um/un
521:Old Norse
372:forms of
348:(compare
293:North Sea
282:Old Saxon
122:Glottolog
45:Friesland
41:North Sea
2691:Vandalic
2634:Gutnish
2439:Vikværsk
2419:Sognamål
2409:Bergensk
2259:Cimbrian
2227:Bavarian
2184:Alsatian
2131:Lusatian
2067:Palatine
1757:Amelands
1634:Frankish
1524:Sallaans
1506:Gronings
1357:Southern
1350:Northern
1341:Halligen
1290:Insular
1107:dialects
855:(2013).
599:þǣm~þām,
422:Lack of
386:*habją̄þ
311:and the
128:nort3175
80:Germanic
3021:Jutland
2954:Italics
2577:Scanian
2523:Swedish
2472:Faroese
2450:Nynorsk
2429:Valdris
2264:Mòcheno
2220:Swabian
2086:Hessian
2046:Hunsrik
1958:Western
1953:Eastern
1948:Yiddish
1898:creoles
1795:Bergish
1511:Drèents
1501:Tweants
1353:Central
1335:Mooring
1198:Frisian
1157:Kildare
1102:English
876:(1942)
537:-um/-un
488:makōjan
458:*libjan
454:*habjan
450:*hugjan
446:*sagjan
401:kiennan
378:*habjum
309:Teutoni
297:Tacitus
49:Jutland
2670:Gothic
2540:Danish
2444:Bokmål
1943:Yenish
1753:Bildts
1536:Veluws
1531:Urkers
1370:Strand
1094:Anglic
1010:
977:
967:
938:
922:
907:
863:
845:
630:, thëm
626:, thëm
576:han-an
568:han-en
561:han-um
555:(ON),
553:hǫn-um
549:han-am
541:han-ōm
525:Gothic
514:*laisi
510:*minni
506:*nigun
502:*newun
435:lembir
429:lombur
413:ieldan
405:kiesur
397:church
382:*habēþ
370:plural
366:person
313:Chauci
307:, the
305:Cimbri
280:, and
196:
194:
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63:(2004)
2784:South
2735:North
2345:North
2329:North
1671:Kaaps
1662:Dutch
1309:Amrum
1250:Weser
1172:Scots
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