5471:
4625:
561:
5275:
166:
525:
The customary writing style of the period was strongly modelled on the classics, and thus provides only occasional glimpses of contemporary grammar. Some works, while generally following the conventional archaizing style, contain passages in a more colloquial style thought to reflect contemporary
2994:
442:. To support their challenge to the orthodox position on the classics, Old Text scholars produced many philological studies. Many of these works contain remarks of various types on the pronunciation of various words. The sources with the most glosses are the
1176:, but this has been challenged by several authors, partly because Eastern Han Buddhist transcriptions use such syllables for foreign words lacking any palatal element. However, Coblin points out that this practice continued into the Tang period, for which a
1182:
medial is generally accepted. Scholars agree that the difference reflects a real phonological distinction, but there have been a range of proposals for its realization in early periods. The distinction is variously described in
Eastern Han commentaries:
1072:
Some
Eastern Han dialects show evidence of the voiceless sonorant initials postulated for Old Chinese, but they had disappeared by the Eastern Han period in most areas. The Old Chinese voiceless lateral and nasal initials yielded a
1024:, which branched off during the Han period, has palatalized velars but not dentals. The retroflex stops and sibilants of Middle Chinese are not distinguished from plain stops and sibilants in the Eastern Han data.
437:
During the
Eastern Han, Confucian scholars were bitterly divided between different versions of the classics: the officially recognized New Texts, and rediscovered versions written in a pre-Qin script known as the
606:, from the southern group, which spread both to the south and to the east. These two dialects were also the principal sources of the Han standard language. The central dialects of the area of former states of
5470:
1540:. Syllables in this category were avoided when transcribing long vowels in the Eastern Han period, suggesting that they were shorter, possibly reflecting this final glottal stop.
540:
includes paraphrases of the classic written for the benefit of novice students, and therefore in a more contemporary style. Similar passages are also found in the commentaries of
3503:
4048:
1895:
marked a rhetorical question, for which a negative answer was expected, but in the
Eastern Han it was a general question marker. At the same time, a new question marker
631:
or in many modern varieties. The exception is the
Buddhist transcriptions, suggesting that the later varieties descend from Han-period varieties spoken in the region of
4010:
1532:
by the
Eastern Han period, as suggested by a slight preference to use them to transcribe Indic long vowels. Based on Haudricourt's analysis of Vietnamese tones,
662:
called these Han-era southeastern dialects Old
Southern Chinese, and suggested that they were the source of common features found in the oldest layers of modern
5620:
4750:
3532:
5649:
1717:
between numerals or demonstratives and nouns, a characteristic of the modern language, began in the Han period and became more extensive in the following
4557:
4547:
4552:
4311:
3859:
618:
were the most conservative. The dialects of the eastern area, which had been more recently and slowly sinified, include some non-Chinese vocabulary.
4466:
5548:
5309:
4633:
3871:
1020:, merging to form a new series of palatal initials. Several Eastern Han varieties show either or both of these palatalizations. However,
3260:
5831:
5709:
5881:
3835:
3823:
1567:
The monosyllabic words of the classical period were largely replaced by disyllabic compounds with clearly defined syntactic roles:
1724:
Old
Chinese had a range of personal pronouns, including case distinctions. In the Eastern Han, these were reduced to first person
3847:
3339:
3206:——— (2013) , "Late Han vernacular elements in the earliest Buddhist translations", in Silk, Jonathan A. (ed.),
510:
collected all the remaining glosses and transcriptions, and used them in an attempt to reconstruct an intermediate stage between
5479:
5438:
5384:
4931:
434:
and Zhou Zumo in 1958. This work identifies the rhyme classes of the period, but leaves the phonetic value of each class open.
5658:
4170:
3223:
3089:
3070:
3051:
3029:
3007:
2961:
2942:
2891:
2868:
522:. Axel Schuessler included reconstructed pronunciations (under the name Later Han Chinese) in his dictionary of Old Chinese.
483:
in AD 148, began translating
Buddhist texts into Chinese. These translations include transcriptions in Chinese characters of
1504:
categories, traditionally known as even, rising and departing tones, with syllables having stop codas assigned to a fourth "
5413:
4981:
1172:, it has been common to project the palatal medial of Middle Chinese division-III syllables back to an Old Chinese medial *
1127:
medial like Middle
Chinese. Moreover, this medial also occurs after other initials, including syllables with Old Chinese *
591:, surrounded by northern, eastern, southern and western areas, and a southeastern area to the south and east of the lower
5886:
5654:
5615:
5403:
4823:
598:
The most influential dialect was the Qin–Jin dialect, from the western group, reflecting the ascendancy of the state of
595:. Distinct rhyme systems of the Han period poets identified by Luo and Zhou broadly correspond to these dialect areas.
625:. They often show marked phonological differences. Many of them exhibit mergers that are not found in the 7th-century
5664:
1123:
series. However, the two series are not separated in Eastern Han glosses, suggesting that Eastern Han Chinese had a *
5302:
5810:
4903:
1718:
1298:. Eastern Han rhyming practice indicates that some of the changes found in Middle Chinese had already occurred:
5627:
5498:
3610:
3253:
283:
195:
416:
The rhyming practice of Han poets has been studied since the Qing period as an intermediate stage between the
5588:
5519:
5443:
5350:
5219:
4673:
1548:
In comparison with Warring States texts, colloquial Eastern Han texts display a massive increase in compound
348:
297:
260:
209:
5388:
5278:
5189:
4713:
2996:
A Guide to the Earliest Chinese Buddhist Translations Texts from the Eastern Han and Three Kingdoms Periods
1537:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1494:
1486:
1482:
1470:
1399:
1382:
1358:
1330:
1326:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1173:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1001:
994:
988:
983:
967:
961:
955:
949:
922:
913:
908:
893:
882:
875:
855:
849:
843:
838:
833:
817:
811:
805:
800:
795:
781:
776:
770:
764:
759:
754:
5592:
5408:
5295:
5194:
5066:
4991:
4648:
491:
vocabulary, which were first systematically mined for evidence of the evolution of Chinese phonology by
5674:
5537:
5365:
5327:
5236:
5209:
5086:
4998:
4745:
4725:
1116:
694:
The consonant clusters postulated for Old Chinese had generally disappeared by the Eastern Han period.
3187:
526:
speech, at least in part. any such examples are found in translated Buddhist literature, particularly
5355:
4788:
3486:
3246:
3017:
720:
659:
579:, from the start of the period, discusses variations in regional vocabulary. By analysing the text,
479:
also expanded greatly in China during the Eastern Han period. Buddhist missionaries, beginning with
5644:
5377:
5372:
5339:
5162:
5147:
5137:
4851:
5687:
5448:
5174:
3413:
1104:
5167:
5016:
3188:"Vernacular Elements in Early Buddhist Texts: An attempt to define the optimal source materials"
5453:
5393:
5335:
5108:
4951:
3549:
2983:
A Study on the Evolution of Rhyme through the Han, Wei, Jin and Northern and Southern Dynasties
71:
5345:
1012:
One of the major changes between Old Chinese and Middle Chinese was palatalization of initial
5637:
5605:
5525:
5512:
5103:
5026:
4740:
4718:
3473:
3306:
3163:
Chinese Phonology of the Wei–Chin Period: Reconstruction of the finals as reflected in poetry
531:
5787:
5699:
5542:
5458:
5398:
4871:
4839:
4668:
3793:
3288:
1827:
1254:
492:
439:
3002:, Bibliotheca Philologica et Philosophica Buddhica, vol. 10, Tokyo: Soka University,
2904:(1977–1978), "The initials of the Eastern Han period as reflected in phonological cases",
1425:
occurs only after plain sibilant and palatal initials, with no known conditioning factor.
8:
5747:
5682:
5360:
5115:
5081:
4883:
4730:
4658:
4575:
4416:
4411:
4165:
3975:
3481:
1120:
1081:
in western ones. By the Eastern Han, the Old Chinese voiced lateral had also evolved to *
936:
789:
748:
742:
638:
The southeastern dialects are not reflected in Eastern Han texts. They were known as Wu (
541:
507:
54:
1165:
finals, and this seems to have still been a distinct phoneme in the Eastern Han period.
5231:
5098:
5061:
4946:
4844:
4778:
4773:
4663:
4653:
4279:
4257:
4150:
3958:
3953:
3876:
3864:
3852:
3840:
3828:
3352:
3149:
2921:
1714:
1501:
1473:
in most cases, but in some cases reflects vocalic codas in some Eastern Han varieties.
715:
466:
155:
5752:
5142:
5132:
5011:
4976:
4831:
4783:
4735:
4502:
4355:
4289:
4145:
4130:
3801:
3778:
3732:
3657:
3583:
3463:
3431:
3385:
3324:
3314:
3279:
3219:
3107:
3085:
3066:
3047:
3025:
3003:
2957:
2938:
2887:
2864:
2856:
1533:
1474:
1169:
931:
730:
710:
573:
Several texts contain evidence of dialectal variation in the Eastern Han period. The
418:
76:
5610:
5248:
4768:
4643:
4507:
4497:
4482:
4428:
4350:
4301:
4262:
4211:
4125:
4077:
4061:
3941:
3901:
3896:
3783:
3737:
3683:
3678:
3668:
3662:
3491:
3436:
3421:
3297:
3269:
3211:
3145:
3141:
2917:
2913:
1812:. Most of the interrogatives of Old Chinese were replaced with periphrastic forms.
1512:
suggested that the Middle Chinese departing tone derived from an Old Chinese final
1013:
827:
705:
394:
period (1st–3rd centuries AD). It is considered an intermediate stage between
387:
320:
232:
81:
5824:
5859:
5838:
5777:
5199:
5179:
5076:
5036:
5021:
4760:
4610:
4600:
4580:
4537:
4532:
4398:
4362:
4345:
4335:
4274:
4092:
4028:
3970:
3918:
3913:
3815:
3711:
3706:
3615:
3562:
3557:
3537:
3522:
3517:
3458:
3453:
3443:
3426:
3398:
3370:
3347:
3132:——— (1962), "Chinese dialectology based on written documents",
3082:
Minimal Old Chinese and Later Han Chinese: A Companion to Grammata Serica Recensa
2901:
1017:
725:
683:
682:
Eastern Han Chinese syllables consisted of an initial consonant, optional medial
503:
123:
63:
3170:
5817:
5632:
5253:
5243:
5214:
5204:
4921:
4893:
4605:
4590:
4492:
4443:
4438:
4423:
4367:
4306:
4188:
4160:
4140:
4087:
4056:
4033:
4023:
4018:
3980:
3963:
3908:
3773:
3755:
3673:
3647:
3588:
3508:
3496:
3448:
3403:
3393:
3319:
3039:
2879:
1553:
1478:
737:
575:
566:
536:
515:
399:
116:
4624:
3215:
3173:(1977), "Late Han vernacular elements in the earliest Buddhist translations",
1524:
was still present in the Eastern Han period in words derived from Old Chinese
1159:
to account for Middle Chinese retroflex initials, division-II finals and some
5875:
5845:
5054:
4866:
4861:
4433:
4377:
4372:
4340:
4327:
4203:
4155:
4082:
4038:
3928:
3765:
3688:
3527:
3375:
3362:
3111:
1557:
667:
527:
454:
5852:
5424:
4926:
4876:
4252:
4135:
4108:
3652:
3642:
3099:
2971:
1549:
1505:
1258:
611:
603:
580:
519:
431:
423:
341:
327:
253:
239:
5757:
5571:
5505:
5419:
5318:
5071:
5045:
4941:
4911:
4888:
4856:
4595:
4585:
4389:
4284:
4269:
4232:
4180:
4001:
3992:
3888:
3727:
3602:
3329:
2990:
1561:
671:
663:
651:
615:
599:
560:
511:
427:
395:
391:
106:
3153:
2925:
1193:; mid 2nd century) describes syllables that gave rise to Middle Chinese
1057:
must be reconstructed. Most Eastern Han dialects have a single initial *
5772:
5767:
5566:
4487:
4461:
4227:
4193:
3698:
3625:
1536:
suggested that the Middle Chinese rising tone derived from Old Chinese
864:
622:
607:
588:
545:
470:
3119:——— (1960), "Note on Archaic Chinese dialectology",
1836:
B (as in modern Chinese), replacing the typical classical pattern A B
5727:
5694:
5561:
5531:
5492:
5287:
4936:
4687:
4678:
4406:
4296:
3948:
3936:
3747:
3578:
1500:
Middle Chinese syllables with vocalic or nasal codas fell into three
1463:
are projected back onto Eastern Han Chinese. The Middle Chinese coda
1262:
1250:
1103:. In some Eastern Han dialects, this initial may have been a lateral
1021:
584:
480:
148:
136:
2588:
2331:
1779:'that'. Both kinds of pronouns were often used with plural suffixes
621:
The Eastern Han glosses come from 11 sites, all to the north of the
5762:
5722:
5600:
5555:
5433:
5226:
4812:
4453:
3634:
3238:
2259:
1746:. Similarly, the demonstratives were almost exclusively reduced to
1490:
1161:
484:
476:
5258:
2271:
5796:
5737:
5717:
5125:
4805:
4692:
4521:
4117:
1464:
1458:
1452:
1446:
1440:
1434:
1420:
1414:
1408:
1389:
1372:
1363:
1334:
1274:
Most recent reconstructions of Old Chinese identify six vowels, *
1224:
1194:
1177:
1098:
1089:, depending on syllable type. The gap was filled by Old Chinese *
1040:
1034:
1028:
632:
592:
549:
488:
449:
444:
165:
5803:
5742:
5732:
5487:
5184:
4986:
655:
627:
404:
3165:, Taipei: Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica.
2552:
2379:
2283:
2232:
1027:
There is some uncertainty whether the Middle Chinese initials
5428:
4697:
1227:(early 3rd century) describes the former as 'urgent breath' (
353:
265:
44:
2627:
2016:
2004:
583:
identified six dialect areas: a central area centred on the
3121:
Orbis: Bulletin International de Documentation Linguistique
2644:
2642:
2499:
2355:
2028:
3210:, Sinica Leidensia, vol. 112, Brill, pp. 27–61,
2463:
2249:
2247:
2196:
2136:
2076:
2040:
1992:
2403:
2319:
2295:
2208:
2172:
2785:
2749:
2727:
2725:
2688:
2686:
2684:
2669:
2659:
2657:
2639:
2600:
2564:
2511:
2487:
2475:
2451:
2220:
2112:
2100:
2064:
1342:
The following splits and mergers of finals had occurred:
1155:
respectively. Most OC reconstructions include a medial *
2737:
2617:
2615:
2576:
2427:
2415:
2367:
2343:
2307:
2244:
2124:
2088:
1115:
Most modern reconstructions of Old Chinese distinguish
658:
described them as quite distinct from other varieties.
3104:
The Chinese Dialects of Han Time According to Fang Yen
2542:
2540:
2538:
1968:
1944:
1045:
can all be derived from a single Old Chinese initial *
2809:
2773:
2761:
2722:
2710:
2698:
2681:
2654:
2523:
2148:
2052:
1932:
1244:
1233:
1216:
1205:
332:
244:
3175:
Journal of the Chinese Language Teachers Association
2833:
2821:
2797:
2612:
2439:
2391:
2184:
2160:
1980:
1920:
5853:
Treatise on Cold Injury and Miscellaneous Disorders
3208:
Buddhism in China: Collected Papers of Erik Zürcher
2535:
1261:distinction, but a more literal reading suggests a
635:(in the western part of the central dialect area).
2954:Late Han Chinese: A Study of the Archaic-Han Shift
1956:
1210:), while others are said to be 'inside and deep' (
564:Major Han-period dialect groups inferred from the
1528:. Other departing tone syllables may have become
5873:
1520:. Several Buddhist transcriptions indicate that
16:Form of Chinese spoken in the Eastern Han period
5825:Essential Prescriptions from the Golden Cabinet
1119:and labiolaryngeal initials from the velar and
1049:, or whether an additional fricative initial *
5549:Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals
5303:
3254:
1901:
1896:
1890:
1885:
1876:
1871:
1865:
1860:
1854:
1849:
1843:
1837:
1831:
1821:
1816:
1807:
1802:
1796:
1791:
1785:
1780:
1774:
1769:
1763:
1758:
1752:
1747:
1741:
1736:
1730:
1725:
1704:
1699:
1693:
1688:
1682:
1677:
1668:
1663:
1657:
1652:
1646:
1641:
1635:
1630:
1624:
1619:
1610:
1605:
1599:
1594:
1588:
1583:
1577:
1572:
1239:
1228:
1211:
1200:
1188:
1061:in such words, but some of them distinguish *
645:
639:
518:, both represented by the reconstructions of
302:
288:
214:
200:
5053:
2877:
2594:
2469:
2361:
2337:
2277:
2985:] (in Chinese), Beijing: Science Press.
2976:Hàn Wèi Jìn Nánběicháo yùnbù yǎnbiàn yánjiū
2900:
2385:
2238:
698:Initial consonants in Eastern Han dialects
465:), a study of the history and structure of
430:. The definitive reference was compiled by
5310:
5296:
5274:
5044:
3261:
3247:
3079:
3063:ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese
3060:
2648:
2633:
2606:
2517:
2505:
2493:
2481:
2457:
2226:
2034:
2022:
1881:was retained from the classical language.
164:
5832:The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art
3024:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
3084:, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press,
3065:, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press,
559:
390:attested in poetry and glosses from the
4969:
3231:
3205:
3185:
3169:
3131:
3118:
3098:
2989:
2970:
2937:, Hong Kong: Chinese University Press,
2935:A Handbook of Eastern Han Sound Glosses
2815:
2791:
2767:
2755:
2731:
2704:
2692:
2675:
2529:
2202:
2154:
2142:
2118:
2106:
2070:
2058:
1962:
5874:
5439:Disasters of the Partisan Prohibitions
5317:
3038:
3016:
2951:
2932:
2855:
2839:
2827:
2803:
2779:
2743:
2716:
2663:
2621:
2582:
2570:
2558:
2445:
2433:
2421:
2409:
2397:
2373:
2349:
2325:
2313:
2301:
2289:
2265:
2253:
2214:
2190:
2178:
2166:
2130:
2094:
2082:
2046:
2010:
1998:
1986:
1974:
1950:
1938:
1926:
1419:occur with finals of all kinds, while
502:glosses were collected and studied by
5291:
3242:
689:
473:'s commentaries on various classics.
5414:Second Chinese domination of Vietnam
3268:
3160:
2546:
1238:) and the latter as 'slack breath' (
5655:Protectorate of the Western Regions
5404:First Chinese domination of Vietnam
2861:A Handbook of Old Chinese Phonology
448:, a dictionary of classical terms,
13:
3106:, University of California Press,
1556:. They also make much less use of
1481:argue that these words had a coda
14:
5898:
2884:Old Chinese: A New Reconstruction
1884:In classical texts, the particle
1077:initial in eastern dialects and *
5665:Translation of government titles
5469:
5273:
4751:Literary and colloquial readings
4623:
1110:
686:, a vowel and an optional coda.
5882:History of the Chinese language
5811:Book on Numbers and Computation
2956:, University of Toronto Press,
1719:Northern and Southern dynasties
354:
266:
5628:Three Lords and Nine Ministers
5499:Records of the Grand Historian
3186:——— (1996),
3146:10.1080/02549948.1962.11731024
3080:——— (2009),
2933:——— (1983),
2918:10.1080/02549948.1977.11745047
2848:
1902:
1891:
1877:
1866:
1855:
1838:
1832:
1822:
1808:
1797:
1786:
1775:
1764:
1753:
1742:
1731:
1705:
1694:
1683:
1669:
1658:
1647:
1636:
1625:
1611:
1600:
1589:
1578:
333:
303:
289:
245:
215:
201:
1:
5520:Records of the Three Kingdoms
5444:Way of the Five Pecks of Rice
5351:Rebellion of the Seven States
3046:, Amsterdam: John Benjamins,
2863:, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter,
2268:, pp. 54–59, 75–76, 132.
1909:
1698:'personally', 'together' and
1485:in Old Chinese, which became
1168:Since the pioneering work of
1093:, which yielded Eastern Han *
459:
171:
170:Provinces of the Han dynasty
5279:List of varieties of Chinese
1914:
1465:
1459:
1453:
1447:
1441:
1435:
1421:
1415:
1409:
1390:
1373:
1364:
1335:
1195:
1178:
1099:
1041:
1035:
1029:
677:
7:
2886:, Oxford University Press,
1897:
1886:
1872:
1861:
1850:
1844:
1830:in sentences of the form A
1817:
1803:
1792:
1781:
1770:
1759:
1748:
1737:
1726:
1700:
1689:
1678:
1664:
1653:
1642:
1631:
1620:
1606:
1595:
1584:
1573:
1333:had merged (Middle Chinese
1245:
1234:
1217:
1206:
1016:and (in some environments)
555:
10:
5903:
5887:Culture of the Han dynasty
5650:Provinces and commanderies
5538:Eight Immortals of Huainan
5366:War of the Heavenly Horses
5237:Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols
2595:Baxter & Sagart (2014)
2470:Baxter & Sagart (2014)
2362:Baxter & Sagart (2014)
2338:Baxter & Sagart (2014)
2278:Baxter & Sagart (2014)
1848:). Unlike any other verb,
1826:also came to be used as a
1543:
1407:The Middle Chinese finals
1199:as 'outside and shallow' (
411:
5786:
5708:
5673:
5587:
5478:
5467:
5356:Han dynasty in Inner Asia
5326:
5271:
5155:
5124:
5035:
4960:
4902:
4822:
4797:
4759:
4706:
4632:
4621:
4568:
4520:
4475:
4452:
4397:
4388:
4326:
4245:
4220:
4202:
4179:
4116:
4107:
4070:
4047:
4009:
4000:
3991:
3927:
3887:
3814:
3792:
3764:
3746:
3720:
3697:
3633:
3624:
3601:
3571:
3548:
3472:
3412:
3384:
3361:
3338:
3305:
3296:
3287:
3276:
3216:10.1163/9789004263291_003
3061:Schuessler, Axel (2007),
2952:Dobson, W.A.C.H. (1964),
1552:in clearly distinguished
1510:André-Georges Haudricourt
1433:The Middle Chinese codas
1388:
1380:
1371:
1356:
1269:
1240:
1229:
1212:
1201:
1189:
930:
863:
736:
702:
646:
640:
369:
365:
347:
340:
326:
319:
314:
310:
296:
282:
277:
267:Tang-hàn siōng-kóo Hàn-gú
259:
252:
238:
231:
226:
222:
208:
194:
189:
185:
181:
163:
146:
134:
129:
113:
99:
60:
50:
40:
26:
21:
5409:Trung sisters' rebellion
5373:Han conquest of Gojoseon
5340:Feast at Swan Goose Gate
3161:Ting, Pang-Hsin (1975),
3044:The Roots of Old Chinese
2978:
2597:, pp. 254–268, 319.
2561:, pp. 414, 479–481.
2340:, pp. 112–114, 320.
2292:, pp. 46–47, 53–54.
1493:and adjacent areas, and
1469:also appears to reflect
1428:
1147:), which had broken to *
654:period, when the writer
284:Traditional Chinese
196:Traditional Chinese
5688:Ancient Chinese coinage
5449:Yellow Turban Rebellion
2013:, pp. 43, 131–132.
298:Simplified Chinese
210:Simplified Chinese
159: Late Han Chinese
5710:Science and technology
5454:End of the Han dynasty
5394:Han conquest of Nanyue
2280:, pp. 33, 76, 79.
1870:– the negative copula
1713:The widespread use of
1257:interpreted this as a
570:
386:) is the stage of the
355:Āu-kî siōng-kóo Hàn-gú
5638:Three Ducal Ministers
5526:Flying Horse of Gansu
5513:Book of the Later Han
2974:; Zhou, Zumo (1958),
2530:Luo & Zhou (1958)
2001:, pp. 43, 30–31.
1859:was not negated with
1516:, later weakening to
1135:before acute codas (*
563:
246:Dōnghàn shànggǔ hànyǔ
5700:Sino-Roman relations
5543:Mawangdui Silk Texts
5459:Battle of Red Cliffs
5399:Han conquest of Dian
3195:Sino-Platonic Papers
2878:Baxter, William H.;
2085:, pp. xvii–xix.
2049:, pp. 111, 125.
1255:Zhengzhang Shangfang
493:Edwin G. Pulleyblank
440:Ancient Script Texts
5579:Eastern Han Chinese
5480:Society and culture
5385:Southward expansion
5346:Lü Clan disturbance
2412:, pp. 566–567.
2388:, pp. 228–232.
2328:, pp. 133–135.
2304:, pp. 209–210.
2241:, pp. 245–246.
2217:, pp. 210–214.
2205:, pp. 325–328.
2181:, pp. 132–135.
2145:, pp. 322–323.
2025:, pp. 120–121.
1604:'be beautiful' and
1310:had merged before *
1097:and Middle Chinese
699:
508:Weldon South Coblin
402:of the 7th-century
376:Eastern Han Chinese
334:Wǎnqí shànggǔ hànyǔ
87:Eastern Han Chinese
55:Eastern Han dynasty
22:Eastern Han Chinese
5797:Balanced Discourse
5336:Chu–Han Contention
5232:Cantonese Bopomofo
5099:Chinese characters
5027:Written Sichuanese
3611:Zhangjiakou–Hohhot
3100:Serruys, Paul L-M.
2857:Baxter, William H.
2636:, pp. 23, 30.
2573:, pp. 80, 88.
2386:Coblin (1977–1978)
2239:Coblin (1977–1978)
1815:The demonstrative
1735:and second person
697:
690:Initial consonants
650:) dialects in the
571:
467:Chinese characters
463: 100 AD
175: 189 AD
5869:
5868:
5378:Four Commanderies
5285:
5284:
5267:
5266:
5094:
5093:
5012:Written Cantonese
5007:
5006:
4789:Classical grammar
4784:Cantonese grammar
4619:
4618:
4516:
4515:
4322:
4321:
4241:
4240:
4103:
4102:
3810:
3809:
3597:
3596:
3487:Chengdu–Chongqing
3280:Sinitic languages
3225:978-90-04-26329-1
3091:978-0-8248-3264-3
3072:978-0-8248-2975-9
3053:978-90-272-3690-6
3031:978-0-521-29653-3
3009:978-4-904234-00-6
2963:978-1-4426-3117-5
2944:978-962-201-258-5
2893:978-0-19-994537-5
2870:978-3-11-012324-1
2794:, pp. 44–36.
2758:, pp. 43–49.
2746:, pp. 87–88.
2678:, pp. 32–33.
2649:Schuessler (2009)
2634:Schuessler (2009)
2607:Schuessler (2007)
2585:, pp. 89–92.
2508:, pp. 16–17.
2506:Schuessler (2009)
2494:Schuessler (2009)
2482:Schuessler (2009)
2458:Schuessler (2007)
2436:, pp. 78–79.
2424:, pp. 77–78.
2376:, pp. 47–48.
2352:, pp. 30–31.
2316:, pp. 72–74.
2256:, pp. 75–76.
2227:Schuessler (2009)
2133:, pp. 19–22.
2121:, pp. 42–43.
2109:, pp. 98–99.
2073:, pp. 28–31.
2037:, pp. 29–31.
2035:Schuessler (2009)
2023:Schuessler (2007)
1977:, pp. 31–32.
1953:, pp. 27–31.
1676:adverbs, such as
1534:Edwin Pulleyblank
1405:
1404:
1170:Bernhard Karlgren
1010:
1009:
978:
943:
905:
871:
830:
792:
751:
602:. Second was the
534:'s commentary on
419:Classic of Poetry
408:rime dictionary.
380:Later Han Chinese
373:
372:
361:
360:
321:Standard Mandarin
273:
272:
233:Standard Mandarin
30:Later Han Chinese
5894:
5473:
5312:
5305:
5298:
5289:
5288:
5277:
5276:
5249:Taiwanese Hangul
5138:Mainland Chinese
5051:
5050:
5042:
5041:
4967:
4966:
4644:Standard Chinese
4627:
4395:
4394:
4114:
4113:
4007:
4006:
3998:
3997:
3880:
3868:
3856:
3844:
3832:
3631:
3630:
3303:
3302:
3294:
3293:
3270:Chinese language
3263:
3256:
3249:
3240:
3239:
3229:
3202:
3192:
3182:
3166:
3157:
3134:Monumenta Serica
3128:
3115:
3095:
3076:
3057:
3035:
3013:
3001:
2986:
2967:
2948:
2929:
2906:Monumenta Serica
2902:Coblin, W. South
2897:
2874:
2843:
2837:
2831:
2825:
2819:
2813:
2807:
2801:
2795:
2789:
2783:
2777:
2771:
2765:
2759:
2753:
2747:
2741:
2735:
2729:
2720:
2714:
2708:
2702:
2696:
2690:
2679:
2673:
2667:
2661:
2652:
2646:
2637:
2631:
2625:
2619:
2610:
2604:
2598:
2592:
2586:
2580:
2574:
2568:
2562:
2556:
2550:
2544:
2533:
2527:
2521:
2515:
2509:
2503:
2497:
2491:
2485:
2479:
2473:
2467:
2461:
2455:
2449:
2443:
2437:
2431:
2425:
2419:
2413:
2407:
2401:
2395:
2389:
2383:
2377:
2371:
2365:
2359:
2353:
2347:
2341:
2335:
2329:
2323:
2317:
2311:
2305:
2299:
2293:
2287:
2281:
2275:
2269:
2263:
2257:
2251:
2242:
2236:
2230:
2224:
2218:
2212:
2206:
2200:
2194:
2188:
2182:
2176:
2170:
2164:
2158:
2152:
2146:
2140:
2134:
2128:
2122:
2116:
2110:
2104:
2098:
2097:, p. xviii.
2092:
2086:
2080:
2074:
2068:
2062:
2056:
2050:
2044:
2038:
2032:
2026:
2020:
2014:
2008:
2002:
1996:
1990:
1984:
1978:
1972:
1966:
1960:
1954:
1948:
1942:
1941:, pp. 9–10.
1936:
1930:
1924:
1905:
1904:
1900:
1894:
1893:
1889:
1880:
1879:
1875:
1869:
1868:
1864:
1858:
1857:
1853:
1847:
1841:
1840:
1835:
1834:
1825:
1824:
1820:
1811:
1810:
1806:
1800:
1799:
1795:
1789:
1788:
1784:
1778:
1777:
1773:
1767:
1766:
1762:
1756:
1755:
1751:
1745:
1744:
1740:
1734:
1733:
1729:
1708:
1707:
1703:
1697:
1696:
1692:
1686:
1685:
1681:
1672:
1671:
1667:
1661:
1660:
1656:
1650:
1649:
1645:
1640:'acquaintance',
1639:
1638:
1634:
1628:
1627:
1623:
1614:
1613:
1609:
1603:
1602:
1598:
1592:
1591:
1587:
1581:
1580:
1576:
1539:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1496:
1488:
1484:
1472:
1468:
1462:
1456:
1450:
1444:
1438:
1424:
1418:
1412:
1401:
1393:
1384:
1376:
1367:
1360:
1346:
1345:
1338:
1332:
1328:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1248:
1243:
1242:
1237:
1232:
1231:
1220:
1215:
1214:
1209:
1204:
1203:
1198:
1192:
1191:
1181:
1175:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1102:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1038:
1032:
1003:
996:
990:
985:
976:
969:
963:
957:
951:
941:
924:
915:
910:
903:
895:
884:
877:
869:
857:
851:
845:
840:
835:
826:
819:
813:
807:
802:
797:
788:
783:
778:
772:
766:
761:
756:
747:
700:
696:
649:
648:
644:) or Jiangdong (
643:
642:
464:
461:
388:Chinese language
384:Late Old Chinese
357:
356:
336:
335:
312:
311:
306:
305:
292:
291:
278:Late Old Chinese
269:
268:
248:
247:
224:
223:
218:
217:
204:
203:
176:
173:
168:
158:
139:
119:
66:
33:Late Old Chinese
19:
18:
5902:
5901:
5897:
5896:
5895:
5893:
5892:
5891:
5872:
5871:
5870:
5865:
5860:Zhoubi Suanjing
5839:Huangdi Neijing
5804:Book of Origins
5782:
5778:Zhang Zhongjing
5704:
5669:
5583:
5474:
5465:
5361:Han–Xiongnu War
5322:
5316:
5286:
5281:
5263:
5200:Tongyong Pinyin
5180:Gwoyeu Romatzyh
5168:Dungan Cyrillic
5151:
5120:
5090:
5031:
5022:Written Hokkien
5003:
4962:
4956:
4932:Middle Mandarin
4898:
4818:
4793:
4755:
4702:
4635:
4628:
4615:
4564:
4512:
4471:
4448:
4384:
4318:
4237:
4216:
4198:
4175:
4099:
4066:
4043:
3987:
3923:
3883:
3874:
3862:
3850:
3838:
3826:
3806:
3788:
3760:
3742:
3716:
3693:
3620:
3593:
3567:
3544:
3468:
3408:
3380:
3357:
3334:
3283:
3272:
3267:
3237:
3226:
3190:
3092:
3073:
3054:
3040:Sagart, Laurent
3032:
3010:
2999:
2980:
2964:
2945:
2894:
2880:Sagart, Laurent
2871:
2851:
2846:
2838:
2834:
2826:
2822:
2814:
2810:
2802:
2798:
2790:
2786:
2778:
2774:
2766:
2762:
2754:
2750:
2742:
2738:
2730:
2723:
2715:
2711:
2703:
2699:
2691:
2682:
2674:
2670:
2662:
2655:
2647:
2640:
2632:
2628:
2620:
2613:
2605:
2601:
2593:
2589:
2581:
2577:
2569:
2565:
2557:
2553:
2545:
2536:
2528:
2524:
2518:Schuessler 2009
2516:
2512:
2504:
2500:
2492:
2488:
2480:
2476:
2468:
2464:
2456:
2452:
2444:
2440:
2432:
2428:
2420:
2416:
2408:
2404:
2396:
2392:
2384:
2380:
2372:
2368:
2360:
2356:
2348:
2344:
2336:
2332:
2324:
2320:
2312:
2308:
2300:
2296:
2288:
2284:
2276:
2272:
2264:
2260:
2252:
2245:
2237:
2233:
2225:
2221:
2213:
2209:
2201:
2197:
2189:
2185:
2177:
2173:
2165:
2161:
2153:
2149:
2141:
2137:
2129:
2125:
2117:
2113:
2105:
2101:
2093:
2089:
2081:
2077:
2069:
2065:
2057:
2053:
2045:
2041:
2033:
2029:
2021:
2017:
2009:
2005:
1997:
1993:
1989:, pp. 7–8.
1985:
1981:
1973:
1969:
1961:
1957:
1949:
1945:
1937:
1933:
1929:, pp. 3–4.
1925:
1921:
1917:
1912:
1618:nouns, such as
1571:verbs, such as
1546:
1431:
1352:Middle Chinese
1272:
1113:
935:
741:
692:
680:
558:
504:Nicholas Bodman
462:
414:
378:(alternatively
177:
174:
154:
135:
124:Clerical script
120:
115:
109:
102:
95:
67:
64:Language family
62:
36:
17:
12:
11:
5:
5900:
5890:
5889:
5884:
5867:
5866:
5864:
5863:
5856:
5849:
5842:
5835:
5828:
5821:
5814:
5807:
5800:
5792:
5790:
5784:
5783:
5781:
5780:
5775:
5770:
5765:
5760:
5755:
5750:
5745:
5740:
5735:
5730:
5725:
5720:
5714:
5712:
5706:
5705:
5703:
5702:
5697:
5692:
5691:
5690:
5679:
5677:
5671:
5670:
5668:
5667:
5662:
5659:Chief Official
5652:
5647:
5642:
5641:
5640:
5635:
5633:Nine Ministers
5625:
5624:
5623:
5618:
5608:
5603:
5597:
5595:
5585:
5584:
5582:
5581:
5576:
5575:
5574:
5564:
5559:
5552:
5545:
5540:
5535:
5528:
5523:
5516:
5509:
5502:
5495:
5490:
5484:
5482:
5476:
5475:
5468:
5466:
5464:
5463:
5462:
5461:
5451:
5446:
5441:
5436:
5431:
5422:
5417:
5411:
5406:
5401:
5396:
5391:
5389:Han–Minyue War
5382:
5381:
5380:
5370:
5369:
5368:
5363:
5353:
5348:
5343:
5332:
5330:
5324:
5323:
5315:
5314:
5307:
5300:
5292:
5283:
5282:
5272:
5269:
5268:
5265:
5264:
5262:
5261:
5256:
5251:
5246:
5244:Taiwanese kana
5241:
5240:
5239:
5234:
5224:
5223:
5222:
5217:
5215:Lessing-Othmer
5212:
5207:
5202:
5197:
5192:
5187:
5182:
5172:
5171:
5170:
5159:
5157:
5153:
5152:
5150:
5145:
5140:
5135:
5130:
5128:
5122:
5121:
5119:
5118:
5113:
5112:
5111:
5106:
5095:
5092:
5091:
5089:
5084:
5079:
5074:
5069:
5064:
5059:
5057:
5048:
5039:
5033:
5032:
5030:
5029:
5024:
5019:
5017:Written Dungan
5014:
5008:
5005:
5004:
5002:
5001:
4996:
4995:
4994:
4989:
4984:
4973:
4971:
4964:
4958:
4957:
4955:
4954:
4949:
4944:
4939:
4934:
4929:
4924:
4922:Middle Chinese
4919:
4914:
4908:
4906:
4900:
4899:
4897:
4896:
4891:
4889:Wubi (Wang Ma)
4886:
4881:
4880:
4879:
4874:
4869:
4859:
4854:
4849:
4848:
4847:
4837:
4834:
4828:
4826:
4820:
4819:
4817:
4816:
4809:
4801:
4799:
4795:
4794:
4792:
4791:
4786:
4781:
4776:
4771:
4765:
4763:
4757:
4756:
4754:
4753:
4748:
4743:
4738:
4733:
4728:
4723:
4722:
4721:
4710:
4708:
4704:
4703:
4701:
4700:
4695:
4690:
4685:
4684:
4683:
4682:
4681:
4676:
4666:
4661:
4656:
4651:
4640:
4638:
4630:
4629:
4622:
4620:
4617:
4616:
4614:
4613:
4608:
4606:Xiangnan Tuhua
4603:
4598:
4593:
4591:Shaozhou Tuhua
4588:
4583:
4578:
4572:
4570:
4566:
4565:
4563:
4562:
4561:
4560:
4555:
4550:
4542:
4541:
4540:
4535:
4526:
4524:
4518:
4517:
4514:
4513:
4511:
4510:
4505:
4500:
4495:
4490:
4485:
4479:
4477:
4473:
4472:
4470:
4469:
4464:
4458:
4456:
4450:
4449:
4447:
4446:
4441:
4436:
4431:
4426:
4421:
4420:
4419:
4414:
4403:
4401:
4392:
4386:
4385:
4383:
4382:
4381:
4380:
4375:
4370:
4360:
4359:
4358:
4348:
4343:
4338:
4332:
4330:
4324:
4323:
4320:
4319:
4317:
4316:
4315:
4314:
4309:
4304:
4294:
4293:
4292:
4282:
4277:
4272:
4267:
4266:
4265:
4260:
4249:
4247:
4243:
4242:
4239:
4238:
4236:
4235:
4230:
4224:
4222:
4218:
4217:
4215:
4214:
4208:
4206:
4200:
4199:
4197:
4196:
4191:
4185:
4183:
4177:
4176:
4174:
4173:
4168:
4163:
4158:
4153:
4148:
4143:
4138:
4133:
4128:
4122:
4120:
4111:
4105:
4104:
4101:
4100:
4098:
4097:
4096:
4095:
4090:
4080:
4074:
4072:
4068:
4067:
4065:
4064:
4059:
4053:
4051:
4045:
4044:
4042:
4041:
4036:
4031:
4026:
4021:
4015:
4013:
4004:
3995:
3989:
3988:
3986:
3985:
3984:
3983:
3973:
3968:
3967:
3966:
3961:
3956:
3946:
3945:
3944:
3933:
3931:
3925:
3924:
3922:
3921:
3916:
3911:
3906:
3905:
3904:
3893:
3891:
3885:
3884:
3882:
3881:
3869:
3857:
3845:
3833:
3820:
3818:
3812:
3811:
3808:
3807:
3805:
3804:
3798:
3796:
3790:
3789:
3787:
3786:
3781:
3776:
3770:
3768:
3762:
3761:
3759:
3758:
3752:
3750:
3744:
3743:
3741:
3740:
3735:
3730:
3724:
3722:
3718:
3717:
3715:
3714:
3709:
3703:
3701:
3695:
3694:
3692:
3691:
3686:
3681:
3676:
3671:
3666:
3660:
3655:
3650:
3645:
3639:
3637:
3628:
3622:
3621:
3619:
3618:
3613:
3607:
3605:
3599:
3598:
3595:
3594:
3592:
3591:
3586:
3581:
3575:
3573:
3569:
3568:
3566:
3565:
3560:
3554:
3552:
3546:
3545:
3543:
3542:
3541:
3540:
3530:
3525:
3520:
3515:
3514:
3513:
3512:
3511:
3504:Renshou–Fushun
3501:
3500:
3499:
3489:
3478:
3476:
3470:
3469:
3467:
3466:
3461:
3456:
3451:
3446:
3441:
3440:
3439:
3429:
3424:
3418:
3416:
3414:Central Plains
3410:
3409:
3407:
3406:
3401:
3396:
3390:
3388:
3382:
3381:
3379:
3378:
3373:
3367:
3365:
3359:
3358:
3356:
3355:
3350:
3344:
3342:
3336:
3335:
3333:
3332:
3327:
3322:
3317:
3311:
3309:
3300:
3291:
3285:
3284:
3277:
3274:
3273:
3266:
3265:
3258:
3251:
3243:
3236:
3235:
3232:Zürcher (1977)
3224:
3203:
3183:
3167:
3158:
3129:
3116:
3096:
3090:
3077:
3071:
3058:
3052:
3036:
3030:
3014:
3008:
2987:
2968:
2962:
2949:
2943:
2930:
2898:
2892:
2875:
2869:
2852:
2850:
2847:
2845:
2844:
2832:
2820:
2816:Zürcher (2013)
2808:
2796:
2792:Zürcher (2013)
2784:
2782:, p. 125.
2772:
2768:Zürcher (2013)
2760:
2756:Zürcher (2013)
2748:
2736:
2732:Zürcher (2013)
2721:
2719:, p. 115.
2709:
2705:Zürcher (2013)
2697:
2693:Zürcher (2013)
2680:
2676:Zürcher (2013)
2668:
2666:, p. 101.
2653:
2638:
2626:
2611:
2599:
2587:
2575:
2563:
2551:
2549:, p. 270.
2534:
2522:
2510:
2498:
2486:
2474:
2462:
2450:
2438:
2426:
2414:
2402:
2390:
2378:
2366:
2364:, p. 110.
2354:
2342:
2330:
2318:
2306:
2294:
2282:
2270:
2258:
2243:
2231:
2219:
2207:
2203:Serruys (1962)
2195:
2183:
2171:
2159:
2155:Serruys (1960)
2147:
2143:Serruys (1962)
2135:
2123:
2119:Serruys (1960)
2111:
2107:Serruys (1959)
2099:
2087:
2075:
2071:Zürcher (2013)
2063:
2059:Zürcher (1996)
2051:
2039:
2027:
2015:
2003:
1991:
1979:
1967:
1963:Nattier (2008)
1955:
1943:
1931:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1711:
1710:
1674:
1616:
1558:function words
1545:
1542:
1430:
1427:
1403:
1402:
1395:
1394:
1386:
1385:
1378:
1377:
1369:
1368:
1361:
1354:
1353:
1350:
1344:
1343:
1340:
1323:
1271:
1268:
1267:
1266:
1222:
1112:
1109:
1008:
1007:
1005:
998:
991:
986:
981:
979:
973:
972:
970:
965:
958:
953:
946:
944:
939:
928:
927:
925:
920:
918:
916:
911:
906:
900:
899:
897:
890:
888:
886:
879:
872:
867:
861:
860:
858:
853:
846:
841:
836:
831:
823:
822:
820:
815:
808:
803:
798:
793:
785:
784:
779:
774:
767:
762:
757:
752:
745:
734:
733:
728:
723:
718:
713:
708:
703:
691:
688:
679:
676:
557:
554:
516:Middle Chinese
413:
410:
400:Middle Chinese
371:
370:
367:
366:
363:
362:
359:
358:
351:
345:
344:
338:
337:
330:
324:
323:
317:
316:
315:Transcriptions
308:
307:
300:
294:
293:
286:
280:
279:
275:
274:
271:
270:
263:
257:
256:
250:
249:
242:
236:
235:
229:
228:
227:Transcriptions
220:
219:
212:
206:
205:
198:
192:
191:
187:
186:
183:
182:
179:
178:
169:
161:
160:
152:
144:
143:
140:
132:
131:
130:Language codes
127:
126:
121:
117:Writing system
114:
111:
110:
105:
103:
100:
97:
96:
94:
93:
92:
91:
90:
89:
70:
68:
61:
58:
57:
52:
48:
47:
42:
41:Native to
38:
37:
35:
34:
31:
27:
24:
23:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5899:
5888:
5885:
5883:
5880:
5879:
5877:
5862:
5861:
5857:
5855:
5854:
5850:
5848:
5847:
5846:Shuowen Jiezi
5843:
5841:
5840:
5836:
5834:
5833:
5829:
5827:
5826:
5822:
5820:
5819:
5815:
5813:
5812:
5808:
5806:
5805:
5801:
5799:
5798:
5794:
5793:
5791:
5789:
5785:
5779:
5776:
5774:
5771:
5769:
5766:
5764:
5761:
5759:
5756:
5754:
5751:
5749:
5746:
5744:
5741:
5739:
5736:
5734:
5731:
5729:
5726:
5724:
5721:
5719:
5716:
5715:
5713:
5711:
5707:
5701:
5698:
5696:
5693:
5689:
5686:
5685:
5684:
5681:
5680:
5678:
5676:
5672:
5666:
5663:
5660:
5656:
5653:
5651:
5648:
5646:
5643:
5639:
5636:
5634:
5631:
5630:
5629:
5626:
5622:
5619:
5617:
5614:
5613:
5612:
5609:
5607:
5604:
5602:
5599:
5598:
5596:
5594:
5590:
5586:
5580:
5577:
5573:
5570:
5569:
5568:
5565:
5563:
5560:
5558:
5557:
5553:
5551:
5550:
5546:
5544:
5541:
5539:
5536:
5534:
5533:
5529:
5527:
5524:
5522:
5521:
5517:
5515:
5514:
5510:
5508:
5507:
5503:
5501:
5500:
5496:
5494:
5491:
5489:
5486:
5485:
5483:
5481:
5477:
5472:
5460:
5457:
5456:
5455:
5452:
5450:
5447:
5445:
5442:
5440:
5437:
5435:
5432:
5430:
5426:
5423:
5421:
5418:
5415:
5412:
5410:
5407:
5405:
5402:
5400:
5397:
5395:
5392:
5390:
5386:
5383:
5379:
5376:
5375:
5374:
5371:
5367:
5364:
5362:
5359:
5358:
5357:
5354:
5352:
5349:
5347:
5344:
5341:
5337:
5334:
5333:
5331:
5329:
5325:
5320:
5313:
5308:
5306:
5301:
5299:
5294:
5293:
5290:
5280:
5270:
5260:
5257:
5255:
5252:
5250:
5247:
5245:
5242:
5238:
5235:
5233:
5230:
5229:
5228:
5225:
5221:
5218:
5216:
5213:
5211:
5208:
5206:
5203:
5201:
5198:
5196:
5193:
5191:
5188:
5186:
5183:
5181:
5178:
5177:
5176:
5173:
5169:
5166:
5165:
5164:
5163:Cyrillization
5161:
5160:
5158:
5154:
5149:
5146:
5144:
5141:
5139:
5136:
5134:
5131:
5129:
5127:
5123:
5117:
5114:
5110:
5107:
5105:
5102:
5101:
5100:
5097:
5096:
5088:
5085:
5083:
5080:
5078:
5075:
5073:
5070:
5068:
5065:
5063:
5060:
5058:
5056:
5055:Script styles
5052:
5049:
5047:
5043:
5040:
5038:
5034:
5028:
5025:
5023:
5020:
5018:
5015:
5013:
5010:
5009:
5000:
4997:
4993:
4990:
4988:
4985:
4983:
4980:
4979:
4978:
4975:
4974:
4972:
4968:
4965:
4959:
4953:
4950:
4948:
4945:
4943:
4940:
4938:
4935:
4933:
4930:
4928:
4925:
4923:
4920:
4918:
4915:
4913:
4910:
4909:
4907:
4905:
4901:
4895:
4892:
4890:
4887:
4885:
4882:
4878:
4875:
4873:
4870:
4868:
4865:
4864:
4863:
4860:
4858:
4855:
4853:
4850:
4846:
4843:
4842:
4841:
4838:
4835:
4833:
4830:
4829:
4827:
4825:
4821:
4815:
4814:
4810:
4808:
4807:
4803:
4802:
4800:
4796:
4790:
4787:
4785:
4782:
4780:
4777:
4775:
4772:
4770:
4767:
4766:
4764:
4762:
4758:
4752:
4749:
4747:
4744:
4742:
4739:
4737:
4734:
4732:
4729:
4727:
4724:
4720:
4717:
4716:
4715:
4712:
4711:
4709:
4705:
4699:
4696:
4694:
4691:
4689:
4686:
4680:
4677:
4675:
4672:
4671:
4670:
4667:
4665:
4662:
4660:
4657:
4655:
4652:
4650:
4647:
4646:
4645:
4642:
4641:
4639:
4637:
4631:
4626:
4612:
4609:
4607:
4604:
4602:
4599:
4597:
4594:
4592:
4589:
4587:
4584:
4582:
4579:
4577:
4574:
4573:
4571:
4567:
4559:
4556:
4554:
4551:
4549:
4546:
4545:
4543:
4539:
4536:
4534:
4531:
4530:
4528:
4527:
4525:
4523:
4519:
4509:
4506:
4504:
4501:
4499:
4496:
4494:
4491:
4489:
4486:
4484:
4481:
4480:
4478:
4474:
4468:
4465:
4463:
4460:
4459:
4457:
4455:
4451:
4445:
4442:
4440:
4437:
4435:
4432:
4430:
4427:
4425:
4422:
4418:
4415:
4413:
4410:
4409:
4408:
4405:
4404:
4402:
4400:
4396:
4393:
4391:
4387:
4379:
4376:
4374:
4371:
4369:
4366:
4365:
4364:
4361:
4357:
4354:
4353:
4352:
4349:
4347:
4344:
4342:
4339:
4337:
4334:
4333:
4331:
4329:
4325:
4313:
4310:
4308:
4305:
4303:
4300:
4299:
4298:
4295:
4291:
4288:
4287:
4286:
4283:
4281:
4278:
4276:
4273:
4271:
4268:
4264:
4261:
4259:
4256:
4255:
4254:
4251:
4250:
4248:
4244:
4234:
4231:
4229:
4226:
4225:
4223:
4219:
4213:
4210:
4209:
4207:
4205:
4201:
4195:
4192:
4190:
4187:
4186:
4184:
4182:
4178:
4172:
4169:
4167:
4164:
4162:
4159:
4157:
4154:
4152:
4149:
4147:
4144:
4142:
4139:
4137:
4134:
4132:
4129:
4127:
4124:
4123:
4121:
4119:
4115:
4112:
4110:
4106:
4094:
4091:
4089:
4086:
4085:
4084:
4081:
4079:
4076:
4075:
4073:
4069:
4063:
4060:
4058:
4055:
4054:
4052:
4050:
4046:
4040:
4037:
4035:
4032:
4030:
4027:
4025:
4022:
4020:
4017:
4016:
4014:
4012:
4008:
4005:
4003:
3999:
3996:
3994:
3990:
3982:
3979:
3978:
3977:
3974:
3972:
3969:
3965:
3962:
3960:
3957:
3955:
3952:
3951:
3950:
3947:
3943:
3940:
3939:
3938:
3935:
3934:
3932:
3930:
3926:
3920:
3917:
3915:
3912:
3910:
3907:
3903:
3900:
3899:
3898:
3895:
3894:
3892:
3890:
3886:
3878:
3873:
3870:
3866:
3861:
3858:
3854:
3849:
3846:
3842:
3837:
3834:
3830:
3825:
3822:
3821:
3819:
3817:
3813:
3803:
3800:
3799:
3797:
3795:
3791:
3785:
3782:
3780:
3777:
3775:
3772:
3771:
3769:
3767:
3763:
3757:
3754:
3753:
3751:
3749:
3745:
3739:
3736:
3734:
3731:
3729:
3726:
3725:
3723:
3719:
3713:
3710:
3708:
3705:
3704:
3702:
3700:
3696:
3690:
3687:
3685:
3682:
3680:
3677:
3675:
3672:
3670:
3667:
3664:
3661:
3659:
3656:
3654:
3651:
3649:
3646:
3644:
3641:
3640:
3638:
3636:
3632:
3629:
3627:
3623:
3617:
3614:
3612:
3609:
3608:
3606:
3604:
3600:
3590:
3587:
3585:
3582:
3580:
3577:
3576:
3574:
3570:
3564:
3561:
3559:
3556:
3555:
3553:
3551:
3547:
3539:
3536:
3535:
3534:
3531:
3529:
3526:
3524:
3521:
3519:
3516:
3510:
3507:
3506:
3505:
3502:
3498:
3495:
3494:
3493:
3490:
3488:
3485:
3484:
3483:
3480:
3479:
3477:
3475:
3471:
3465:
3462:
3460:
3457:
3455:
3452:
3450:
3447:
3445:
3442:
3438:
3435:
3434:
3433:
3430:
3428:
3425:
3423:
3420:
3419:
3417:
3415:
3411:
3405:
3402:
3400:
3397:
3395:
3392:
3391:
3389:
3387:
3383:
3377:
3374:
3372:
3369:
3368:
3366:
3364:
3360:
3354:
3351:
3349:
3346:
3345:
3343:
3341:
3337:
3331:
3328:
3326:
3323:
3321:
3318:
3316:
3313:
3312:
3310:
3308:
3304:
3301:
3299:
3295:
3292:
3290:
3286:
3282:
3281:
3275:
3271:
3264:
3259:
3257:
3252:
3250:
3245:
3244:
3241:
3233:
3227:
3221:
3217:
3213:
3209:
3204:
3200:
3196:
3189:
3184:
3181:(3): 177–203.
3180:
3176:
3172:
3171:Zürcher, Erik
3168:
3164:
3159:
3155:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3139:
3135:
3130:
3126:
3122:
3117:
3113:
3109:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3093:
3087:
3083:
3078:
3074:
3068:
3064:
3059:
3055:
3049:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3033:
3027:
3023:
3019:
3018:Norman, Jerry
3015:
3011:
3005:
2998:
2997:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2977:
2973:
2972:Luo, Changpei
2969:
2965:
2959:
2955:
2950:
2946:
2940:
2936:
2931:
2927:
2923:
2919:
2915:
2911:
2907:
2903:
2899:
2895:
2889:
2885:
2881:
2876:
2872:
2866:
2862:
2858:
2854:
2853:
2842:, p. 91.
2841:
2840:Dobson (1964)
2836:
2830:, p. 94.
2829:
2828:Dobson (1964)
2824:
2818:, p. 45.
2817:
2812:
2806:, p. 71.
2805:
2804:Dobson (1964)
2800:
2793:
2788:
2781:
2780:Norman (1988)
2776:
2770:, p. 43.
2769:
2764:
2757:
2752:
2745:
2744:Dobson (1964)
2740:
2734:, p. 42.
2733:
2728:
2726:
2718:
2717:Norman (1988)
2713:
2707:, p. 33.
2706:
2701:
2695:, p. 50.
2694:
2689:
2687:
2685:
2677:
2672:
2665:
2664:Dobson (1964)
2660:
2658:
2651:, p. 30.
2650:
2645:
2643:
2635:
2630:
2624:, p. 92.
2623:
2622:Coblin (1983)
2618:
2616:
2609:, p. 29.
2608:
2603:
2596:
2591:
2584:
2583:Coblin (1983)
2579:
2572:
2571:Coblin (1983)
2567:
2560:
2555:
2548:
2543:
2541:
2539:
2532:, p. 14.
2531:
2526:
2520:, p. 25.
2519:
2514:
2507:
2502:
2496:, p. 16.
2495:
2490:
2484:, p. 17.
2483:
2478:
2472:, p. 73.
2471:
2466:
2460:, p. 95.
2459:
2454:
2448:, p. 79.
2447:
2446:Coblin (1983)
2442:
2435:
2434:Coblin (1983)
2430:
2423:
2422:Coblin (1983)
2418:
2411:
2410:Baxter (1992)
2406:
2400:, p. 77.
2399:
2398:Coblin (1983)
2394:
2387:
2382:
2375:
2374:Coblin (1983)
2370:
2363:
2358:
2351:
2350:Sagart (1999)
2346:
2339:
2334:
2327:
2326:Coblin (1983)
2322:
2315:
2314:Coblin (1983)
2310:
2303:
2302:Baxter (1992)
2298:
2291:
2290:Coblin (1983)
2286:
2279:
2274:
2267:
2266:Coblin (1983)
2262:
2255:
2254:Coblin (1983)
2250:
2248:
2240:
2235:
2229:, p. 29.
2228:
2223:
2216:
2215:Norman (1988)
2211:
2204:
2199:
2193:, p. 25.
2192:
2191:Coblin (1983)
2187:
2180:
2179:Coblin (1983)
2175:
2169:, p. 39.
2168:
2167:Coblin (1983)
2163:
2157:, p. 55.
2156:
2151:
2144:
2139:
2132:
2131:Coblin (1983)
2127:
2120:
2115:
2108:
2103:
2096:
2095:Dobson (1964)
2091:
2084:
2083:Dobson (1964)
2079:
2072:
2067:
2061:, p. 14.
2060:
2055:
2048:
2047:Norman (1988)
2043:
2036:
2031:
2024:
2019:
2012:
2011:Coblin (1983)
2007:
2000:
1999:Coblin (1983)
1995:
1988:
1987:Coblin (1983)
1983:
1976:
1975:Coblin (1983)
1971:
1964:
1959:
1952:
1951:Coblin (1983)
1947:
1940:
1939:Coblin (1983)
1935:
1928:
1927:Coblin (1983)
1923:
1919:
1907:
1899:
1888:
1882:
1874:
1863:
1852:
1846:
1829:
1819:
1813:
1805:
1794:
1783:
1772:
1761:
1750:
1739:
1728:
1722:
1720:
1716:
1715:measure words
1702:
1691:
1680:
1675:
1666:
1655:
1644:
1633:
1622:
1617:
1608:
1597:
1586:
1575:
1570:
1569:
1568:
1565:
1563:
1560:in favour of
1559:
1555:
1551:
1550:content words
1541:
1535:
1511:
1507:
1506:entering tone
1503:
1498:
1492:
1480:
1476:
1467:
1461:
1455:
1449:
1443:
1437:
1426:
1423:
1417:
1411:
1397:
1396:
1392:
1387:
1379:
1375:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1355:
1351:
1348:
1347:
1341:
1337:
1324:
1301:
1300:
1299:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1247:
1236:
1226:
1223:
1219:
1208:
1197:
1186:
1185:
1184:
1180:
1171:
1166:
1164:
1163:
1122:
1118:
1111:Medial glides
1108:
1106:
1101:
1070:
1043:
1037:
1031:
1025:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1006:
999:
992:
987:
982:
980:
975:
974:
971:
966:
959:
954:
947:
945:
940:
938:
933:
929:
926:
921:
919:
917:
912:
907:
902:
901:
898:
891:
889:
887:
880:
873:
868:
866:
862:
859:
854:
847:
842:
837:
832:
829:
825:
824:
821:
816:
809:
804:
799:
794:
791:
787:
786:
780:
775:
768:
763:
758:
753:
750:
746:
744:
739:
735:
732:
729:
727:
724:
722:
719:
717:
714:
712:
709:
707:
704:
701:
695:
687:
685:
675:
673:
669:
665:
661:
657:
653:
636:
634:
630:
629:
624:
619:
617:
613:
609:
605:
601:
596:
594:
590:
586:
585:Central Plain
582:
578:
577:
569:
568:
562:
553:
551:
547:
543:
539:
538:
533:
530:. Similarly,
529:
528:direct speech
523:
521:
517:
513:
509:
505:
501:
496:
494:
490:
486:
482:
478:
474:
472:
468:
457:
456:
455:Shuowen Jiezi
451:
447:
446:
441:
435:
433:
429:
425:
421:
420:
409:
407:
406:
401:
397:
393:
389:
385:
381:
377:
368:
364:
352:
350:
346:
343:
339:
331:
329:
325:
322:
318:
313:
309:
301:
299:
295:
287:
285:
281:
276:
264:
262:
258:
255:
251:
243:
241:
237:
234:
230:
225:
221:
213:
211:
207:
199:
197:
193:
188:
184:
180:
167:
162:
157:
153:
151:
150:
145:
141:
138:
133:
128:
125:
122:
118:
112:
108:
104:
98:
88:
85:
84:
83:
80:
79:
78:
75:
74:
73:
69:
65:
59:
56:
53:
49:
46:
43:
39:
32:
29:
28:
25:
20:
5858:
5851:
5844:
5837:
5830:
5823:
5816:
5809:
5802:
5795:
5578:
5554:
5547:
5530:
5518:
5511:
5504:
5497:
5425:Red Eyebrows
5185:Hanyu Pinyin
5175:Romanization
5082:Semi-cursive
4927:Old Mandarin
4916:
4884:Stroke count
4811:
4804:
4726:Old National
4569:Unclassified
3474:Southwestern
3307:Northeastern
3289:Major groups
3278:
3207:
3198:
3194:
3178:
3174:
3162:
3137:
3133:
3124:
3120:
3103:
3081:
3062:
3043:
3021:
2995:
2991:Nattier, Jan
2982:
2979:漢魏晋南北朝韻部演變硏究
2975:
2953:
2934:
2909:
2905:
2883:
2860:
2835:
2823:
2811:
2799:
2787:
2775:
2763:
2751:
2739:
2712:
2700:
2671:
2629:
2602:
2590:
2578:
2566:
2554:
2525:
2513:
2501:
2489:
2477:
2465:
2453:
2441:
2429:
2417:
2405:
2393:
2381:
2369:
2357:
2345:
2333:
2321:
2309:
2297:
2285:
2273:
2261:
2234:
2222:
2210:
2198:
2186:
2174:
2162:
2150:
2138:
2126:
2114:
2102:
2090:
2078:
2066:
2054:
2042:
2030:
2018:
2006:
1994:
1982:
1970:
1958:
1946:
1934:
1922:
1883:
1828:copular verb
1814:
1723:
1712:
1566:
1554:word classes
1547:
1508:" category.
1499:
1432:
1406:
1325:The finals *
1302:The vowels *
1273:
1259:vowel length
1167:
1160:
1114:
1071:
1026:
1014:dental stops
1011:
693:
681:
660:Jerry Norman
637:
626:
620:
597:
581:Paul Serruys
574:
572:
565:
535:
524:
520:Li Fang-Kuei
499:
497:
475:
453:
443:
436:
432:Luo Changpei
424:Western Zhou
417:
415:
403:
383:
379:
375:
374:
342:Southern Min
328:Hanyu Pinyin
254:Southern Min
240:Hanyu Pinyin
190:Chinese name
147:
86:
72:Sino-Tibetan
5758:Luoxia Hong
5621:Family tree
5506:Book of Han
5420:Xin dynasty
5319:Han dynasty
5254:Xiao'erjing
5116:Punctuation
5109:Traditional
5062:Oracle bone
5046:Logographic
4942:Proto-Hakka
4917:Eastern Han
4912:Old Chinese
4774:Classifiers
4741:Northern Wu
4669:Singaporean
3875: [
3863: [
3851: [
3839: [
3827: [
3230:Reprint of
3140:: 320–344,
3127:(1): 42–57.
2912:: 207–247,
2849:Works cited
2559:Baxter 1992
2547:Ting (1975)
1768:'such' and
1662:'body' and
1615:'activate';
1593:'rejoice',
1562:periphrasis
1497:elsewhere.
1349:Old Chinese
1218:nèi ér shēn
1207:wài ér qiǎn
1105:tap or flap
1018:velar stops
674:varieties.
652:Western Jin
604:Chu dialect
512:Old Chinese
428:Tang poetry
426:period and
396:Old Chinese
392:Eastern Han
107:Old Chinese
5876:Categories
5773:Zhang Heng
5768:Wang Chong
5589:Government
5567:Han poetry
5205:Wade–Giles
5104:Simplified
4999:Vernacular
4992:in Vietnam
4845:Simplified
4832:Biaoxingma
4779:Honorifics
4714:Historical
4659:Philippine
4649:Sichuanese
4576:Badong Yao
4280:Shao–Jiang
4151:Philippine
3959:Xiangxiang
3954:Shuangfeng
3699:Taizhou Wu
3482:Sichuanese
1910:References
1906:appeared.
1117:labiovelar
623:Huai River
589:Hangu Pass
546:Zheng Xuan
471:Zheng Xuan
101:Early form
5748:Liu Xiang
5728:Ding Huan
5695:Silk Road
5562:Old Texts
5532:Huainanzi
5493:Sima Qian
5143:Taiwanese
5133:Cantonese
4977:Classical
4937:Proto-Min
4872:Microsoft
4731:Cantonese
4707:Phonology
4688:Cantonese
4679:Singdarin
4664:Malaysian
4654:Taiwanese
4558:Rongjiang
4548:Yongjiang
4544:Southern
4529:Northern
4503:Luo–Guang
4412:Hong Kong
4407:Guangzhou
4363:Taiwanese
4356:Changting
4290:Zhanjiang
4204:Zhongshan
4171:Malaysian
4166:Singapore
4131:Zhangzhou
4083:Zhongshan
3976:Yong–Quan
3872:Jing-Zhan
3802:Xuancheng
3779:Jiangshan
3658:Changzhou
3579:Junjiahua
3432:Guanzhong
3315:Changchun
3112:469563424
1915:Citations
1673:'people';
1651:'place',
1629:'house',
1582:'mourn',
1265:contrast.
1263:tenseness
1251:Pan Wuyun
1121:laryngeal
1022:Proto-Min
942:voiceless
937:fricative
870:voiceless
749:voiceless
743:affricate
731:Laryngeal
678:Phonology
481:An Shigao
149:Glottolog
137:ISO 639-3
5763:Sima Tan
5723:Cai Yong
5601:Ban Chao
5593:military
5556:Yiwu Zhi
5434:Chengjia
5227:Bopomofo
5156:Phonetic
5148:Two-cell
5077:Clerical
4987:in Japan
4982:Adoption
4970:Official
4961:Literary
4836:Boshiamy
4813:Xiehouyu
4769:Numerals
4746:Mandarin
4674:Standard
4634:Standard
4508:Qin–Lian
4498:Yong–Xun
4483:Gao–Yang
4429:Jiujiang
4417:Malaysia
4351:Tingzhou
4302:Wenchang
4263:Jianyang
4253:Northern
4212:Sanxiang
4126:Quanzhou
4109:Southern
4078:Manjiang
3942:Changsha
3902:Nanchang
3897:Chang–Du
3794:Xuanzhou
3784:Qingtian
3738:Wencheng
3684:Jiangyin
3679:Jinxiang
3669:Shaoxing
3663:Hangzhou
3643:Shanghai
3584:Qinjiang
3492:Minjiang
3464:Xinjiang
3422:Dongping
3386:Jiaoliao
3325:Shenyang
3298:Mandarin
3154:40726441
3102:(1959),
3042:(1999),
3020:(1988),
2993:(2008),
2926:40726240
2882:(2014),
2859:(1992),
1757:'this',
1721:period.
1491:Shandong
1187:He Xiu (
1162:chongniu
790:aspirate
716:Sibilant
587:east of
556:Dialects
485:Sanskrit
477:Buddhism
398:and the
156:late1251
5818:Fangyan
5753:Liu Xin
5738:Hua Tuo
5718:Cai Lun
5683:Coinage
5675:Economy
5611:Emperor
5606:Ma Yuan
5328:History
5126:Braille
5087:Cursive
5037:Scripts
4904:History
4894:ZhengMa
4840:Cangjie
4806:Chengyu
4761:Grammar
4736:Hokkien
4693:Hokkien
4601:Waxiang
4581:Danzhou
4553:Guandao
4538:Younian
4533:Tongdao
4522:Pinghua
4462:Taishan
4378:Raoping
4346:Huizhou
4336:Meixian
4312:Banqiao
4285:Leizhou
4275:Pu–Xian
4270:Central
4258:Jian'ou
4233:Longyan
4181:Teochew
4118:Hokkien
4093:Nanlang
4049:Fu–Ning
4029:Changle
4011:Houguan
4002:Eastern
3949:Loushao
3937:Changyi
3919:Da–Tong
3914:Ying–Yi
3860:Yanzhou
3728:Wenzhou
3721:Oujiang
3712:Tiantai
3707:Taizhou
3616:Zhi–Yan
3563:Nantong
3558:Nanjing
3533:Gui–Liu
3523:Nanping
3518:Kunming
3444:Luoyang
3399:Qingdao
3371:Tianjin
3348:Beijing
3340:Beijing
3201:: 1–31.
3022:Chinese
1709:'then'.
1687:'all',
1621:shězhái
1544:Grammar
1225:Gao You
932:Lateral
721:Palatal
633:Luoyang
593:Yangtze
576:Fangyan
567:Fangyan
550:Gao You
542:Wang Yi
537:Mencius
532:Zhao Qi
500:Shiming
489:Prakrit
450:Xu Shen
445:Shiming
422:of the
412:Sources
82:Chinese
77:Sinitic
5743:Liu An
5733:Du Shi
5488:Ban Gu
5321:topics
5195:Postal
5190:MPS II
5067:Bronze
4947:Ba–Shu
4867:Google
4862:Pinyin
4798:Idioms
4611:Yeheni
4493:Wu–Hua
4488:Goulou
4467:Xinhui
4444:Dapeng
4439:Weitou
4424:Xiguan
4399:Yuehai
4368:Sixian
4307:Haikou
4297:Hainan
4228:Zhenan
4194:Haklau
4189:Swatow
4161:Penang
4146:Taiwan
4141:Chawan
4088:Longdu
4057:Ningde
4034:Gutian
4024:Fuqing
4019:Fuzhou
3981:Qiyang
3964:Wugang
3909:Yi–Liu
3836:Xiu-Yi
3824:Ji-She
3774:Quzhou
3766:Chu–Qu
3756:Jinhua
3748:Wuzhou
3733:Rui'an
3674:Ningbo
3648:Suzhou
3538:Wuming
3509:Zigong
3497:Leshan
3459:Lanyin
3454:Dungan
3449:Xuzhou
3427:Gangou
3404:Weihai
3394:Dalian
3353:Taiwan
3320:Harbin
3222:
3152:
3110:
3088:
3069:
3050:
3028:
3006:
2960:
2941:
2924:
2890:
2867:
1690:shēnzì
1665:rénmín
1654:xíngtǐ
1643:chùsuǒ
1632:zhīshì
1607:fādòng
1596:shūhǎo
1585:huānxǐ
1574:bēi'āi
1479:Sagart
1475:Baxter
1270:Vowels
1246:huǎnqì
977:voiced
904:voiced
828:voiced
711:Dental
706:Labial
684:glides
656:Guo Pu
628:Qieyun
469:, and
405:Qieyun
349:Tâi-lô
304:晚期上古汉语
290:晚期上古漢語
261:Tâi-lô
216:东汉上古汉语
202:東漢上古漢語
5788:Texts
5645:Kings
5429:Lulin
5259:Nüshu
4963:forms
4877:Sogou
4824:Input
4698:Hakka
4636:forms
4476:Other
4434:Shiqi
4373:Hailu
4341:Wuhua
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