Old Chinese - Knowledge

47: 8357: 1514: 1781: 9875: 1163:. Although Old Chinese is by far the earliest attested member of the family, its logographic script does not clearly indicate the pronunciation of words. Other difficulties have included the great diversity of the languages, the lack of inflection in many of them, and the effects of language contact. In addition, many of the smaller languages are poorly described because they are spoken in mountainous areas that are difficult to reach, including several sensitive border zones. 8371: 10525: 1631:'forest' (two trees). About 1,000 of the oracle bone characters, nearly a quarter of the total, are of this type, though 300 of them have not yet been deciphered. Though the pictographic origins of these characters are apparent, they have already undergone extensive simplification and conventionalization. Evolved forms of most of these characters are still in common use today. 546:. Throughout the Old Chinese period, there was a close correspondence between a character and a monosyllabic and monomorphemic word. Although the script is not alphabetic, the majority of characters were created based on phonetic considerations. At first, words that were difficult to represent visually were written using a "borrowed" character for a similar-sounding word ( 1429:. The language written is undoubtedly an early form of Chinese, but is difficult to interpret due to the limited subject matter and high proportion of proper names. Only half of the 4,000 characters used have been identified with certainty. Little is known about the grammar of this language, but it seems much less reliant on 1777:, a dictionary compiled in the 2nd century, 82% of the 9,353 characters are classified as phono-semantic compounds. In the light of the modern understanding of Old Chinese phonology, researchers now believe that most of the characters originally classified as semantic compounds also have a phonetic nature. 3630:. There are no records of the non-Chinese languages formerly spoken in those areas and subsequently displaced by the Chinese expansion. However they are believed to have contributed to the vocabulary of Old Chinese, and may be the source of some of the many Chinese words whose origins are still unknown. 681:

have been identified, including ones for the verbification of nouns, conversion between transitive and intransitive verbs, and formation of causative verbs. Like modern Chinese, it appears to be uninflected, though a pronoun case and number system seems to have existed during the Shang and early Zhou

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period, around 1000 BC, the most important recovered texts are bronze inscriptions, many of considerable length. These texts are found throughout the Zhou area. Although their language changed over time, it was highly uniform across this range at each point in time, suggesting that it reflected

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As in the modern language, localizers (compass directions, 'above', 'inside' and the like) could be placed after nouns to indicate relative positions. They could also precede verbs to indicate the direction of the action. Nouns denoting times were another special class (time words); they usually

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Classifying Old Chinese words is not always straightforward, as words were not marked for function, word classes overlapped, and words of one class could sometimes be used in roles normally reserved for a different class. The task is more difficult with written texts than it would have been for

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Old Chinese morphemes were originally monosyllabic, but during the Western Zhou period many new disyllabic words entered the language. By the classical period, 25–30% of the lexicon was polysyllabic, though monosyllabic words occurred more frequently and made up 80–90% of the text. Disyllabic

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occurred either at the start of the sentence or before the verb, depending on their scope, while duration adjuncts were placed after the verb. Instrumental and place adjuncts were usually placed after the verb phrase. These later moved to a position before the verb, as in the modern language.

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Development and simplification of the script continued during the pre-Classical and Classical periods, with characters becoming less pictorial and more linear and regular, with rounded strokes being replaced by sharp angles. The language developed compound words, though almost all constituent

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attributed some of these alternations to consonant clusters resulting from derivational affixes. Subsequent work has identified several such affixes, some of which appear to have cognates in other Sino-Tibetan languages. A few of these were still productive or transparent in Old Chinese.

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A common case is "derivation by tone change", in which words in the departing tone appear to be derived from words in other tones. If Haudricourt's theory of the origin of the departing tone is accepted, these tonal derivations can be interpreted as the result of a derivational suffix

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These developments were already present in the oracle bone script, possibly implying a significant period of development prior to the extant inscriptions. This may have involved writing on perishable materials, as suggested by the appearance on oracle bones of the character

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but was already in the process of disappearing by the Classical period. Likewise, by the Classical period, most morphological derivations had become unproductive or vestigial, and grammatical relationships were primarily indicated using word order and

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and (toward the end of the period) silk. Although these are perishable materials, a significant number of texts were transmitted as copies, and a few of these survived to the present day as the received classics. Works from this period, including the

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Little is known of the grammar of the language of the Oracular and pre-Classical periods, as the texts are often of a ritual or formulaic nature, and much of their vocabulary has not been deciphered. In contrast, the rich literature of the

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Some scholars hold that the transitive verbs with voiceless initials are basic and the voiced initials reflect a de-transitivizing nasal prefix. Others suggest that the transitive verbs were derived by the addition of a causative prefix

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to a stative verb, causing devoicing of the following voiced initial. Both postulated prefixes have parallels in other Sino-Tibetan languages, in some of which they are still productive. Several other affixes have been proposed.

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dictionary (601 AD), which classifies the reading pronunciation of each character found in texts to that time within a precise, but abstract, phonological system. Scholars have sought to assign phonetic values to these

1459:, also date from the early Zhou period, and closely resemble the bronze inscriptions in vocabulary, syntax, and style. A greater proportion of this more varied vocabulary has been identified than for the oracular period. 1807:

morphemes could also be used as independent words. Hundreds of morphemes of two or more syllables also entered the language, and were written with one phono-semantic compound character per syllable. During the

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Next, words that could not be represented pictorially, such as abstract terms and grammatical particles, were signified by borrowing characters of pictorial origin representing similar-sounding words (the

1860:(early 1st millennium BC) and the shared phonetic components of Chinese characters, some of which are slightly older. More recent efforts have supplemented this method with evidence from Old Chinese 2898:. Modern northern varieties derive the usual negative from the first family, while southern varieties preserve the second. The language had no adverbs of degree until late in the Classical period. 1202:, and is believed to be a Chinese innovation arising from earlier prefixes. Proto-Sino-Tibetan is reconstructed with a six-vowel system as in recent reconstructions of Old Chinese, with the 1441:

the prestige form used by the Zhou elite. Even longer pre-Classical texts on a wide range of subjects have also been transmitted through the literary tradition. The oldest sections of the

677:, although monosyllabic vocabulary was still predominant. Unlike Middle Chinese and the modern Chinese languages, Old Chinese had a significant amount of derivational morphology. Several 1470:) constitute the Chinese classical period in the strict sense. There are many bronze inscriptions from this period, but they are vastly outweighed by a rich literature written in ink on 2351:

is universally accepted, its realization as a palatal glide has been challenged on a number of grounds, and a variety of different realizations have been used in recent constructions.

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Although the relationship was first proposed in the early 19th century and is now broadly accepted, reconstruction of Sino-Tibetan is much less developed than that of families such as

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Besides inversions for emphasis, there were two exceptions to this rule: a pronoun object of a negated sentence or an interrogative pronoun object would be placed before the verb:

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During the Old Chinese period, the word for butterfly was written as 胡蝶. During later centuries, the 'insect' radical (虫) was added to the first character to give the modern 蝴蝶.

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Such phono-semantic compound characters were already used extensively on the oracle bones, and the vast majority of characters created since then have been of this type. In the

1811:, writing became more widespread, with further simplification and variation, particularly in the eastern states. The most conservative script prevailed in the western state of 8753: 1879:

Although many details are still disputed, recent formulations are in substantial agreement on the core issues. For example, the Old Chinese initial consonants recognized by

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A number of bimorphemic syllables appeared in the Classical period, resulting from the fusion of words with following unstressed particles or pronouns. Thus the negatives

669:, with much early borrowing from neighbouring languages. During the Zhou period, the originally monosyllabic vocabulary was augmented with polysyllabic words formed by 9260: 1803:'records'. The character is thought to depict bamboo or wooden strips tied together with leather thongs, a writing material known from later archaeological finds. 1547:, but still written with a single character. The development of characters to signify the words of the language follows the same three stages that characterized 624:, and a few early transliterations of foreign proper names, as well as names for non-native flora and fauna, also provide insights into language reconstruction. 3586:

has enabled the study of the origins of Chinese words (rather than the characters with which they are written). Most researchers trace the core vocabulary to a

10000: 8782: 4670:, based on the availability of documentary evidence of the phonology. Many include the whole Zhou period and often the earliest written evidence from the late 616:

characters, allow most characters attested in Old Chinese to be assigned to one of 30 or 31 rhyme groups. For late Old Chinese of the Han period, the modern

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The derivational affixes lost their productivity towards the end of the Zhou period, and their functions were taken over by forms such as auxiliary verbs.

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Many disyllabic, monomorphemic words, particularly names of insects, birds and plants, and expressive adjectives and adverbs, were formed by varieties of

9807: 9797: 3252:(of shooting at a mark a hundred paces distant) 'That you reach it is owing to your strength, but that you hit the mark is not owing to your strength.' ( 3748:

Other words are believed to have been borrowed from languages to the south of the Chinese area, but it is not clear which was the original source, e.g.

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A common instance of this construction was adjectival modification, since the Old Chinese adjective was a type of verb (as in the modern language), but

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lacks an aspiration distinction on initial stops and affricates. Aspiration in Old Chinese often corresponds to pre-initial consonants in Tibetan and

9802: 9561: 9109: 654:. Most recent reconstructions also describe Old Chinese as a language without tones, but having consonant clusters at the end of the syllable, which 9716: 4964: 4968: 4599:: they could still be used separately. Compounding became more productive during the following Han period and has continued to the present day. 10552: 2846:, like their modern counterparts, did not show tense or aspect; these could be indicated with adverbs or particles if required. Verbs could be 584:

characters was greatly expanded in the following Zhou dynasty. In addition, the rhymes of the earliest recorded poems, primarily those of the

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The notation "*C-" indicates that there is evidence of an Old Chinese consonant before *r, but the particular consonant cannot be identified.

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are much less regular, and prefixal elements vary widely between languages. Some researchers believe that both these phenomena reflect lost

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exhibit a wide variety of forms in Old Chinese texts, possibly due to dialectal variation. There were two groups of first-person pronouns:

1708:'mother'. Later, phonetic loans were systematically disambiguated by the addition of semantic indicators, usually to the less common word: 1493:, have been admired as models of prose style by later generations. As a result, the syntax and vocabulary of Old Chinese was preserved in 527:), which remained the written standard until the early twentieth century, thus preserving the vocabulary and grammar of late Old Chinese. 9883: 9121: 3903:

Chinese philologists have long noted words with related meanings and similar pronunciations, sometimes written using the same character.

3667:) for the Yangtze was later extended to a general word for 'river' in south China. Norman and Mei suggest that the word is cognate with 8510: 4820:

proposed a different, unattested, Tocharian form as the source. Meier and Peyrot recently defended the traditional Tocharian etymology.

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Similarly, adverbial modifiers, including various forms of negation, usually occurred before the verb. As in the modern language, time

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Baxter describes his reconstruction of the palatal initials as "especially tentative, being based largely on scanty graphic evidence".

590:, provide an extensive source of phonological information with respect to syllable finals for the Central Plains dialects during the 9085: 9073: 9097: 8589: 3590:

ancestor language, with much early borrowing from other neighbouring languages. The traditional view was that Old Chinese was an

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The six-vowel system represents a re-analysis of a system proposed by Li and still used by some authors, comprising four vowels

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with a range of functions. As Tibetan has a similar suffix, it may be inherited from Sino-Tibetan. The most common function was

10181: 7792:"Valence-changing prefixes and voicing alternation in Old Chinese and Proto-Sino-Tibetan: reconstructing *s- and *N- prefixes" 714:

spread by diffusion rather than indicating common descent. The most widely accepted hypothesis is that Chinese belongs to the

9420: 8337: 8294: 8266: 8244: 8218: 8199: 8177: 8158: 8139: 8117: 8095: 8076: 7870: 7819: 7759: 7646: 7620: 7593: 7562: 7543: 7524: 2872:

described the scope of a statement or various temporal relationships. They included two families of negatives starting with

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Another alternation involves transitive verbs with an unvoiced initial and passive or stative verbs with a voiced initial:

571: 8194:, Society for the Study of Early China and the Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, pp. 57–84, 2487:

speakers of Old Chinese, because the derivational morphology is often hidden by the writing system. For example, the verb

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Old Chinese phonology has been reconstructed using a unique method relying on textual sources. The starting point is the

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have similar tone systems, syllable structure, grammatical features and lack of inflection, but these are believed to be

453: 566:). For the earliest attested stage of Old Chinese of the late Shang dynasty, the phonetic information implicit in these 2681:

Case distinctions were particularly marked among third-person pronouns. There was no third-person subject pronoun, but

734:. The evidence consists of some hundreds of proposed cognate words, including such basic vocabulary as the following: 7915:"The word for 'honey' in Chinese and its relevance for the study of Indo-European and Sino-Tibetan language contact" 4674:, while some also include the Qin, Han and occasionally even later periods. The ancestor of the oldest layer of the 559: 2694:, came to be used as a third-person object pronoun in the classical period. The possessive pronoun was originally 10153: 2836: 443: 7861:

Herforth, Derek (2003), "A sketch of Late Zhou Chinese grammar", in Thurgood, Graham; LaPolla, Randy J. (eds.),

8860: 8503: 4940: 1828: 360: 243: 10469: 9923: 7536:

New approaches to Chinese word formation: morphology, phonology and the lexicon in modern and ancient Chinese

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As in Modern Chinese, but unlike most Tibeto-Burman languages, the basic word order in a verbal sentence was

257: 222: 191: 10528: 10439: 9963: 8482: 7534:

Baxter, William H.; Sagart, Laurent (1998), "Word formation in Old Chinese", in Packard, Jerome Lee (ed.),

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In the later reading tradition, 予 (when used as a pronoun) is treated as a graphical variant of 余. In the

715: 551: 550:). Later on, to reduce ambiguity, new characters were created for these phonetic borrowings by appending a 502: 8004:

Meier, Kristin; Peyrot, Michaël (2017), "The Word for 'Honey' in Chinese, Tocharian and Sino-Vietnamese",

7829: 4792: 4788: 4784: 4780: 4776: 4772: 4768: 4764: 4760: 4756: 4752: 4739: 4735: 4731: 4727: 4696: 4692: 4639: 4630: 4621: 4612: 4603: 4577: 4562: 4544: 4529: 4502: 4487: 4483: 4479: 4464: 4449: 4445: 4441: 4423: 4408: 4390: 4386: 4371: 4356: 4327: 4312: 4269: 4249: 4229: 4214: 4197: 4182: 4165: 4150: 4128: 4113: 4096: 4081: 4064: 4049: 4038: 4007: 3992: 3975: 3971: 3956: 3939: 3924: 3913: 3867: 3830: 3803: 3799: 3784: 3774: 3752: 3741: 3726: 3720: 3702: 3653: 3463: 3086: 3077: 3065: 2987: 2953: 2944: 2935: 2926: 2917: 2890: 2881: 2877: 2873: 2814: 2805: 2794: 2785: 2774: 2765: 2754: 2745: 2738: 2704: 2695: 2682: 2632: 2623: 2614: 2605: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2566: 2557: 2548: 2538: 2529: 2520: 2511: 2492: 2488: 2444: 2440: 2432: 2428: 2424: 2420: 2416: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2400: 2391: 2386: 2381: 2374: 2369: 2364: 2348: 2344: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2318: 2309: 2304: 2295: 2290: 2285: 2271: 2266: 2257: 2252: 2247: 2211: 2185: 2162: 2157: 2148: 2143: 2127: 2122: 2113: 2108: 2087: 2082: 2075: 2070: 2065: 2047: 2042: 2035: 2030: 2025: 2011: 2006: 2001: 1996: 1989: 1984: 1979: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1133: 1108: 1083: 1054: 1025: 1000: 971: 946: 917: 892: 867: 838: 813: 791: 766: 10444: 10316: 10241: 9898: 7769:——— (2008), "What is Sino-Tibetan? Snapshot of a field and a language family in flux", 3282: 1686:

Sometimes the borrowed character would be modified slightly to distinguish it from the original, as with

1426: 1297: 539: 494: 7603:——— (1999), "Language and Writing", in Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward L. (eds.), 10486: 10459: 10336: 10248: 9995: 9975: 7491:

Aldridge, Edith (2013), "Survey of Chinese historical syntax part I: pre-Archaic and Archaic Chinese",

3853: 1502: 621: 415: 8423: 8328:, in Sybesma, Rint; Behr, Wolfgang; Gu, Yueguo; Handel, Zev; Huang, C.-T. James; Myers, James (eds.), 7791: 4666:

The time interval assigned to Old Chinese varies between authors. Some scholars limit it to the early

627:

Although many of the finer details remain unclear, most scholars agree that Old Chinese differed from

580:

represents the only direct source of phonological data for reconstructing the language. The corpus of

10038: 8736: 8496: 8064: 8025: 3633: 2456: 1849: 339: 8192:

New Sources of Early Chinese History: An Introduction to the Reading of Inscriptions and Manuscripts

4507: 4492: 4469: 4454: 4428: 4413: 4376: 4361: 4274: 2908:

serving a range of purposes. As in the modern language, there were sentence-final particles marking

10412: 10397: 10387: 10101: 8209:

Sun, Jackson T.-S. (2014), "Sino-Tibetan: Rgyalrong", in Lieber, Rochelle; Štekauer, Pavol (eds.),

7810:——— (2015), "Old Chinese Phonology", in S-Y. Wang, William; Sun, Chaofen (eds.), 7572:

Behr, Wolfgang (2017), "The Language of the Bronze Inscriptions", in Shaughnessy, Edward L. (ed.),

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languages is believed to have split off from the other varieties of Chinese during the Han dynasty.

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During the Old Chinese period, Chinese civilization expanded from a compact area around the lower

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forms for the Shang people as a whole. This distinction is largely absent in later texts, and the

10424: 8663: 7988: 7934: 3823: 3641: 1861: 1471: 1378: 1203: 1156: 707: 10417: 10266: 3085:. In the Classical period, nominal predicates were constructed with the sentence-final particle 10358: 10201: 8799: 8229: 4521: 3587: 3274:) of Literary and Modern Chinese dates from the Han period. In Old Chinese the word was a near 1171: 1160: 731: 670: 666: 108: 10353: 10276: 9990: 9968: 8723: 8556: 8187: 3447: 2960: 2916:. Other sentence-final particles expressed a range of connotations, the most important being 2726: 2463: 2235: 1824: 1808: 1467: 1366: 1167: 695: 609: 83: 7706: 2858:

were a special kind of intransitive verb, and a few transitive verbs could also function as

1531:, originally identical to a word. Most scholars believe that these words were monosyllabic. 10547: 10121: 10089: 9918: 9043: 8538: 8105: 3807: 3717: 2983: 2734: 2471: 1845: 1548: 1430: 683: 482: 7715: 7574:

Imprints of Kinship: Studies of Recently Discovered Bronze Inscriptions from Ancient China

4643: 4634: 4625: 4616: 4607: 4234: 4219: 4202: 4187: 4170: 4155: 4118: 4086: 4054: 4012: 3997: 3980: 3961: 3929: 3872: 3835: 3789: 3757: 3731: 3707: 3658: 3264: 3090: 3081: 3072: 3069: 2991: 2939: 2627: 2515: 1794: 1758: 1752: 1732: 1726: 1720: 1699: 1688: 1672: 1651: 1622: 1611: 1600: 1589: 1578: 1567: 1129: 1104: 1079: 1050: 1021: 996: 967: 942: 913: 888: 863: 834: 809: 787: 762: 563: 8: 10365: 10331: 10166: 10133: 9980: 9908: 9825: 9666: 9661: 9415: 9225: 8731: 8017: 7630: 4266: 3826: 3668: 3439: 3431: 2976: 2652:

continued to be used interchangeably until their replacement by the northwestern variant

2230: 2019: 1973: 1967: 1852:

and transcriptions. Next, the phonology of Old Chinese is reconstructed by comparing the

1187: 1179: 632: 10481: 10348: 10311: 10196: 10094: 10028: 10023: 9913: 9903: 9529: 9507: 9400: 9208: 9203: 9126: 9114: 9102: 9090: 9078: 8602: 8254: 8052: 7972: 7849: 7681: 7673: 4958: 4913: 3882: 3591: 2828: 2730: 2436: 1522: 678: 659: 535: 531: 142: 398: 207: 10392: 10382: 10261: 10226: 10081: 10033: 9985: 9752: 9605: 9539: 9395: 9380: 9051: 9028: 8982: 8907: 8833: 8713: 8681: 8635: 8574: 8564: 8529: 8451: 8333: 8321: 8309: 8290: 8262: 8240: 8214: 8195: 8173: 8154: 8135: 8113: 8091: 8072: 7940: 7930: 7910: 7866: 7815: 7782: 7755: 7747:

Handbook of Proto-Tibeto-Burman: System and Philosophy of Sino-Tibetan Reconstruction

7724: 7685: 7642: 7616: 7589: 7558: 7539: 7520: 7512: 4946: 4936: 4817: 3619: 3570: 3056: 2972: 2324: 2173: 1919: 1908: 1903: 1884: 1784: 1532: 1494: 1449: 1443: 1310: 1304: 1175: 723: 643: 636: 586: 524: 323: 315: 113: 24: 8029: 7741: 2399:

Vowels could optionally be followed by the same codas as in Middle Chinese: a glide

449: 10498: 10018: 9893: 9757: 9747: 9732: 9678: 9600: 9551: 9512: 9461: 9375: 9327: 9311: 9191: 9151: 9146: 9033: 8987: 8933: 8928: 8918: 8912: 8741: 8686: 8671: 8547: 8519: 8405: 8376: 8048: 8044: 8013: 7968: 7964: 7896: 7841: 7778: 7710: 7702: 7665: 7608: 7581: 7500: 2901: 2504: 2447:, which developed into the Middle Chinese rising and departing tones respectively. 2059: 1898: 1555: 1373: 1191: 719: 703: 651: 478: 280: 46: 7727:(1980), "A Comparative Study of the Chinese, Tibetan, and Burmese Vowel Systems", 7612: 1887:

are given below, with Baxter's (mostly tentative) additions given in parentheses:

1513: 10449: 10429: 10326: 10286: 10271: 10010: 9860: 9850: 9830: 9787: 9782: 9648: 9612: 9595: 9585: 9524: 9342: 9278: 9220: 9168: 9163: 9065: 8961: 8956: 8865: 8812: 8807: 8787: 8772: 8767: 8708: 8703: 8693: 8676: 8648: 8620: 8597: 8170:

Minimal Old Chinese and Later Han Chinese: A Companion to Grammata Serica Recensa

4285: 3889: 3459: 2913: 2909: 2859: 2847: 1914: 647: 412: 100: 20: 1462:

The four centuries preceding the unification of China in 221 BC (the later

10503: 10493: 10464: 10454: 10171: 10143: 9855: 9840: 9742: 9693: 9688: 9673: 9617: 9556: 9438: 9410: 9390: 9337: 9306: 9283: 9273: 9268: 9230: 9213: 9158: 9023: 9005: 8923: 8897: 8838: 8758: 8746: 8698: 8653: 8643: 8569: 8127: 7880: 7751: 4596: 4042: 3917: 3443: 3254: 2971:

As with English and modern Chinese, Old Chinese sentences can be analysed as a

1841: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1483: 1195: 1183: 628: 513: 301: 132: 9874: 8455: 8409: 7901: 7669: 2948: 2930: 2921: 2894: 2885: 2818: 2809: 2798: 2789: 2778: 2769: 2758: 2749: 2708: 2699: 2686: 2654: 2636: 2618: 2609: 2570: 2561: 2552: 2542: 2533: 2524: 2497: 1248: 501:. The latter part of the Zhou period saw a flowering of literature, including 10541: 10304: 10116: 10111: 9683: 9627: 9622: 9590: 9577: 9453: 9405: 9332: 9288: 9178: 9015: 8938: 8777: 8625: 8612: 8313: 8190:(1997), "Western Zhou bronze inscriptions", in Shaughnessy, Edward L. (ed.), 7984: 4293: 3904: 3430:

An additional noun phrase could be placed before the subject to serve as the

3275: 2905: 2691: 1944: 1773: 1410: 1401:

The earliest known written records of the Chinese language were found at the

1260: 711: 674: 332: 184: 147: 8237:

In Honor of Mei Tsu-Lin: Studies on Chinese Historical Syntax and Morphology

7845: 4950: 10176: 10126: 9502: 9385: 9358: 8902: 8892: 8362: 7952: 7944: 7745: 4667: 3681: 3615: 2851: 2665: 1880: 1437: 1291: 1207: 1199: 617: 591: 498: 388: 287: 79: 52: 3246:*ɡjə *tjits *njəjʔ *C-rjək *ljajʔ *ɡjə *k-ljuŋ *pjəj *njəjʔ *C-rjək *ljajʔ 175: 10321: 10295: 10191: 10138: 10106: 9845: 9835: 9639: 9534: 9519: 9482: 9430: 9251: 9242: 9138: 8977: 8852: 8579: 8385: 8239:, Paris: Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, pp. 223–239, 4675: 3819: 3637: 3458:

In general, Old Chinese modifiers preceded the words they modified. Thus

2863: 2832: 2718:

came to be used as the general third-person pronoun. It survives in some

2669: 1869: 1812: 1559: 1552: 1414: 1392: 1266: 751: 746: 655: 605: 543: 486: 152: 91: 87: 8056: 7976: 7693:

Enfield, N. J. (2005), "Areal Linguistics and Mainland Southeast Asia",

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Downer, G. B. (1959), "Derivation by tone-change in Classical Chinese",

4917: 1218:. The other vowels are preserved by both, with some alternation between 9737: 9711: 9477: 9443: 8948: 8875: 7853: 7504: 6458: 3690:

Haudricourt and Strecker have proposed a number of borrowings from the

3595: 2934:, implying a change. Other particles included the subordination marker 2719: 2589:

forms disappeared during the classical period. In the post-Han period,

2475: 2467: 2098: 490: 75: 7677: 6482: 4808:, however, both pronoun and verb usages of 予 rhyme in the rising tone. 2956: 10186: 9937: 9928: 9656: 9546: 9198: 9186: 8997: 8828: 4935:(2010 reprint ed.). Beijing: Zhonghua shu ju. pp. 302–311. 3771: 3611: 3583: 2855: 2340: 1565:

Some words could be represented by pictures (later stylized) such as

1489: 727: 639: 519: 353: 200: 168: 7832:; Strecker, David (1991), "Hmong–Mien (Miao–Yao) loans in Chinese", 3862: 2347:

is generally accepted. However, although the distinction denoted by

2317:

Various initial clusters have been proposed, especially clusters of

612:. These rhymes, together with clues from the phonetic components of 10476: 10062: 9703: 8884: 8488: 8370: 7914: 7884: 6721: 3623: 3422: 2827:

preceded the subject to specify the time of an action. However the

2439:

found in later stages of the language, but had optional post-codas

1932: 1528: 1477: 1418: 507: 461: 374: 10508: 8325: 8030:"The Austroasiatics in Ancient South China: Some Lexical Evidence" 5950: 1864:, from Chinese varieties preserving distinctions not found in the 1780: 485:. The earliest examples of Chinese are divinatory inscriptions on 10375: 10055: 9942: 9771: 9367: 6557: 4930: 3645: 3644:

loanwords in Old Chinese, possibly from the peoples of the lower

3627: 2722:

dialects, but has been replaced by a variety of forms elsewhere.

1962: 1873: 1455: 1422: 1316: 457: 395: 7885:"The six vowel hypothesis of Old Chinese in comparative context" 570:

characters which are grouped into phonetic series, known as the

10434: 10236: 8230:"Some reflections on the periodization of the Chinese language" 7455: 7229: 7217: 6709: 6644: 5854: 4355:'repeated rhymes'), in which only the final is repeated, as in 4028: 4022: 3866:. The northern neighbours of Chinese contributed such words as 3649: 2982:

Before the Classical period, nominal predicates consisted of a

2869: 1835: 1815:, which would later impose its standard on the whole of China. 1406: 600: 19:"Classic Chinese" redirects here. For the traditional style of 7754:, Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 543–576, 7586:

The origin and early development of the Chinese writing system

7395: 7373: 7371: 7265: 6989: 6733: 6494: 6386: 4528:

qualification of one noun by another (placed in front), as in

2831:

so characteristic of Modern Chinese only became common in the

1527:

Each character of the script represented a single Old Chinese

554:

that conveys a broad semantic category, resulting in compound

9947: 7742:"Appendix A: A Concise Introduction to Old Chinese Phonology" 6769: 6663: 6661: 6659: 6598: 6596: 6506: 6245: 6243: 6241: 6058: 5693: 5552: 4691:

with some graphical substitutions from his more recent work:

4671: 3552:'... the heart that cannot bear the afflictions of others.' ( 2355: 1636: 1402: 665:

Most researchers trace the core vocabulary of Old Chinese to

547: 420: 403: 7277: 7001: 6608: 6547: 6545: 5540: 4576:) 'master of the household' (literally 'manage-horse'), and 4407:'paired initials'), in which the initial is repeated, as in 4311:'repeated words'), in which the syllable is repeated, as in 3462:

were placed before the noun, usually marked by the particle

3076:

is attested in oracle bone inscriptions, and later fused as

2581:

pronouns were used by the king to refer to himself, and the

1501:), the standard for formal writing in China and neighboring 7635:

A Sinologist's Handlist of Sino-Tibetan Lexical Comparisons

7431: 7419: 7407: 7368: 7301: 6977: 6745: 6162: 6160: 5516: 4904:

Pulleyblank, Edwin G. (2000). "Morphology in Old Chinese".

3695: 2843: 2343:

of Middle Chinese, as well as many of its vowel contrasts.

7607:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 74–123, 7037: 7025: 6697: 6673: 6656: 6632: 6620: 6593: 6581: 6569: 6530: 6470: 6410: 6347: 6335: 6325: 6323: 6296: 6284: 6238: 6199: 6189: 6187: 5830: 5734: 5732: 4385:) 'bollworm'. The initial of the second syllable is often 460:

characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see

7467: 7383: 7157: 7013: 6542: 6398: 6274: 6272: 6270: 6147: 6145: 6130: 6106: 6094: 6034: 6022: 5998: 5564: 5504: 5468: 5035: 4987: 4885: 4873: 3249:

its arrive you strength FP its centre NEG you strength FP

2354:

Reconstructions since the 1980s usually propose six

379: 365: 7358: 7356: 7354: 7352: 7241: 6925: 6781: 6446: 6422: 6376: 6374: 6359: 6228: 6226: 6172: 6157: 6046: 5902: 5842: 5768: 5666: 5627: 5011: 4861: 4687:

Reconstructed Old Chinese forms are starred, and follow

3598:, but it has become clear that words could be formed by 2435:. Most scholars now believe that Old Chinese lacked the 2321:

with other consonants, but this area remains unsettled.

1750:'winnowing basket' came to be written with the compound 523:. These works served as models for Literary Chinese (or 8006:

Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft

7576:, Chinese University of Hong Kong Press, pp. 9–32. 7289: 7253: 6757: 6320: 6184: 5962: 5914: 5890: 5729: 5683: 5681: 5654: 5528: 5480: 3698:

cultivation, which began in the middle Yangtze valley:

2601:) came to be used as the general first-person pronoun. 7658:

Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies

7337: 7109: 7049: 6793: 6685: 6308: 6267: 6255: 6211: 6142: 6082: 5974: 5818: 5756: 5744: 5705: 5644: 5642: 5593: 5591: 5576: 4999: 8213:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 630–650, 7553:———; ——— (2014), 7443: 7349: 6953: 6518: 6434: 6371: 6223: 6118: 6070: 6010: 5444: 5418: 5416: 5339: 5337: 5308: 5306: 5224: 5198: 5196: 5194: 5192: 5190: 5188: 5084: 5082: 5080: 5078: 5076: 5074: 5072: 5070: 5068: 5066: 4975: 4699:

and consonants rendered according to IPA conventions.

4238: 4223: 4206: 4191: 4174: 4159: 4137: 4122: 4105: 4090: 4073: 4058: 4016: 4001: 3984: 3965: 3948: 3933: 2659: 2596: 2495:'frontier' were both written with the same character 1243:

Timeline of early Chinese history and available texts

320: 306: 292: 8352: 6965: 6913: 5986: 5938: 5878: 5866: 5717: 5678: 5492: 5456: 5277: 5275: 5273: 5271: 5159: 5157: 5023: 2975:(a noun phrase, sometimes understood) followed by a 1787:(c. 300 BC) with transcriptions in modern characters 1649:'tremble' was originally written with the character 530:

Old Chinese was written with several early forms of

8483:

Recent Advances in Old Chinese Historical Phonology

7828: 7814:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 68–79, 6827: 6811: 5926: 5639: 5588: 3594:. Linguists still believe that the language lacked 3566:was usually omitted after monosyllabic adjectives. 2979:, which could be of either nominal or verbal type. 2672:dialects the second-person pronoun is derived from 344: 7729:Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology 5615: 5603: 5413: 5334: 5303: 5185: 5110: 5063: 1413:, and date from about 1250 BC. These are the 1166:Initial consonants generally correspond regarding 604:provides rhyme data for the dialect spoken in the 8330:Encyclopedia of Chinese Languages and Linguistics 6906:405r; Proto-Tocharian and Tocharian B forms from 5268: 5154: 2470:, Old Chinese was heavily reliant on word order, 2431:. Some scholars also allow for a labiovelar coda 1517:Shang dynasty oracle bone script on an ox scapula 10539: 7939:, Stockholm: Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities, 7641:monograph series, vol. 18, Steyler Verlag, 4259: 3671: 2733:with the meanings 'something' or 'nothing'. The 1425:for divinatory purposes, as well as a few brief 477:in older works, is the oldest attested stage of 7993:Mémoires de la Société de Linguistique de Paris 1718:'tremble' was later written with the character 8211:The Oxford Handbook of Derivational Morphology 3106:was retained as the negative form, with which 3054:'I am a young person.' ("Great Announcement", 8504: 8228:Tai, James H-Y.; Chan, Marjorie K.M. (1999), 7989:"Préfixes et dérivation en chinois archaïque" 7963:, translated by Mattos, Gilbert L.: 219–287, 7538:, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, pp. 35–76, 4595:However the components of compounds were not 4586: 4581: 4571: 4566: 4553: 4548: 4538: 4533: 4520:More words, especially nouns, were formed by 4511: 4496: 4473: 4458: 4432: 4417: 4402: 4397: 4380: 4365: 4350: 4345: 4336: 4331: 4321: 4316: 4306: 4301: 4278: 4132: 4100: 4068: 3943: 3876: 3839: 3793: 3761: 3735: 3711: 3662: 3561: 3475: 3466: 3434:. Like the modern language, Old Chinese used 3269: 3107: 3101: 3095: 2713: 2673: 2647: 2641: 2590: 1891:Reconstructed Old Chinese initial consonants 1798: 1762: 1745: 1736: 1713: 1703: 1692: 1677: 1665: 1656: 1644: 1626: 1615: 1604: 1593: 1582: 1571: 262: 248: 10303: 8485:at SOAS, University of London, November 2015 8306:Early Archaic Chinese: A Descriptive Grammar 7552: 7533: 7437: 7425: 7413: 7401: 7377: 7271: 6995: 6739: 6064: 5956: 5699: 5570: 4963:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 4931:Wang, Li, 1900–1986.; 王力, 1900–1986 (1980). 4891: 4478:) 'carefree and happy'. Alternation between 2327:and many later scholars posited the medials 10558:Languages attested from the 13th century BC 8235:, in Peyraube, Alain; Sun, Chaofen (eds.), 8186: 8104: 8003: 7955:(1974–1975), "Studies on Archaic Chinese", 6931: 6667: 6626: 6602: 6563: 6536: 6512: 6353: 6341: 6290: 6249: 5672: 5633: 4903: 4867: 1876:, and from early transcriptions and loans. 694:Middle Chinese and its southern neighbours 10524: 10294: 8511: 8497: 8476: 8458:ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese 8167: 8151:ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese 8148: 7812:The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Linguistics 7389: 7283: 7163: 7103: 7083: 7019: 7007: 6895: 6871: 6839: 6815: 6727: 6575: 6551: 6464: 6392: 6166: 6052: 5968: 5860: 5804: 5802: 5785: 5783: 5558: 5546: 5522: 5041: 4967:) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 3582:The improved understanding of Old Chinese 1856:categories to the rhyming practice of the 1598:'tree, wood', by abstract symbols such as 1543:followed by a full syllable, as in modern 45: 8287:Late Archaic Chinese: A Grammatical Study 8253: 8071:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 8024: 7900: 7714: 7307: 6775: 5836: 5738: 4638:respectively with a third-person pronoun 4543:) 'quince' (literally 'tree-melon'), and 3491: 3442:by adding a sentence-final particle, and 3383: 3202: 3017: 2466:has been extensively analysed. Having no 1844:categories by comparing them with modern 8308:, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 8289:, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 8172:, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 8153:, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 8112:, University of British Columbia Press, 7860: 7490: 7295: 6638: 6329: 6205: 6193: 6151: 4021:) 'silk cloth' (compare Written Tibetan 3920:of verbs, as in the following examples: 3740:) 'unhulled rice' from proto-Hmong–Mien 1779: 1512: 1505:countries until the early 20th century. 10219: 8227: 7983: 7951: 7909: 7707:10.1146/annurev.anthro.34.081804.120406 7692: 6983: 6919: 6088: 5980: 5799: 5780: 4993: 4879: 3347:*mraŋs-*tsjəʔ *kens *C-rjaŋ *wets *wjaŋ 1539:propose that some words consisted of a 726:and many other languages spoken in the 454:question marks, boxes, or other symbols 10540: 8444: 8415: 8398:Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orientale 8126: 8085: 8063: 7809: 7789: 7768: 7739: 7655: 7629: 7605:The Cambridge History of Ancient China 7511: 7473: 7461: 7449: 7362: 7343: 7247: 7235: 7223: 7211: 7195: 7179: 7115: 7099: 7055: 7043: 7031: 6971: 6959: 6943: 6907: 6899: 6879: 6859: 6851: 6831: 6799: 6787: 6751: 6715: 6703: 6691: 6679: 6650: 6614: 6587: 6524: 6500: 6488: 6476: 6452: 6440: 6428: 6416: 6404: 6380: 6365: 6314: 6302: 6278: 6261: 6232: 6217: 6178: 6136: 6124: 6112: 6100: 6076: 6040: 6028: 6016: 6004: 5992: 5944: 5932: 5920: 5896: 5812: 5687: 5660: 5510: 5498: 5486: 5474: 5462: 5450: 5438: 5407: 5391: 5375: 5359: 5328: 5297: 5262: 5246: 5230: 5218: 5179: 5148: 5132: 5104: 5057: 5029: 5017: 5005: 4981: 4767:and three diphthongs. Li's diphthongs 4688: 4620:are viewed as fusions of the negators 4591:) 'scribe' (literally 'make-writing'). 3766:) 'elephant' can be compared with Mon 3652:. For example, the early Chinese name 3648:basin known to ancient Chinese as the 3626:and then south into the valley of the 3526: 3237: 3167: 2703:, replaced in the classical period by 1620:'up', or by composite symbols such as 1417:, short inscriptions carved on turtle 1409:identified as the last capital of the 646:of some sort, and in having voiceless 497:became plentiful during the following 322: 8492: 7865:, London: Routledge, pp. 59–71, 7602: 7580: 6891: 6763: 5908: 5884: 5872: 5848: 5824: 5793: 5774: 5762: 5750: 5723: 5711: 5648: 5597: 5582: 4662: 4660: 3471:(in a role similar to Modern Chinese 2966: 2577:In the oracle bone inscriptions, the 2339:to explain the retroflex and palatal 1895: 8518: 8110:Outline of Classical Chinese Grammar 8018:10.13173/zeitdeutmorggese.167.1.0007 7879: 7723: 7571: 5621: 5609: 5534: 5422: 5343: 5312: 5281: 5202: 5163: 5116: 5088: 2925:, expressing static factuality, and 8208: 8088:Variation and Change in Tocharian B 7517:A Handbook of Old Chinese Phonology 7259: 4702: 4501:) 'rushing (of wind or water)' and 13: 8277: 4657: 4558:) 'noon' (literally 'middle-day'). 3353:'Mencius saw King Hui of Liang.' ( 14: 10569: 8348: 8326:"The Genetic Position of Chinese" 7555:Old Chinese: A New Reconstruction 6828:Haudricourt & Strecker (1991) 6812:Haudricourt & Strecker (1991) 4440:vowel alternation, especially of 4396:alliterative semi-reduplication ( 3844:) 'honey', from proto-Tocharian * 3694:. These include terms related to 3602:, reduplication and compounding. 3420:'The years do not wait for us.' ( 689: 489:from around 1250 BC, in the 481:, and the ancestor of all modern 10523: 10001:Literary and colloquial readings 9873: 8467:Journal of Language Relationship 8369: 8355: 7783:10.1111/j.1749-818x.2008.00061.x 7771:Language and Linguistics Compass 7493:Language and Linguistics Compass 7325: 7313: 7201: 7185: 7169: 7145: 7133: 7121: 7089: 7073: 7061: 6937: 6885: 6865: 6845: 6821: 6805: 4832: 4823: 4811: 4798: 2604:Second-person pronouns included 2491:'to block' and the derived noun 1756:, obtained by adding the symbol 662:distinctions in Middle Chinese. 16:Oldest attested stage of Chinese 7929: 7889:Bulletin of Chinese Linguistics 7331: 7319: 7207: 7191: 7175: 7151: 7139: 7127: 7095: 7079: 7067: 6947: 6903: 6875: 6855: 6835: 6491:, pp. 94, 98–100, 105–106. 5808: 5789: 5434: 5428: 5403: 5397: 5387: 5381: 5371: 5365: 5355: 5349: 5324: 5318: 5293: 5287: 5258: 5252: 5242: 5236: 5214: 5208: 5175: 5169: 5144: 5138: 5128: 5122: 5100: 5094: 5053: 5047: 4745: 4720: 4711: 4681: 3453: 2943:and the nominalizing particles 2837:Northern and Southern dynasties 2481: 1670:was written with the character 1664:The pronoun and modal particle 620:languages, the oldest layer of 421: 404: 380: 366: 345: 8304:——— (1962), 8168:——— (2009), 8049:10.1080/02549948.1976.11731121 7969:10.1080/02549948.1974.11731100 7790:——— (2012), 7735:(3), Academia Sinica: 455–489. 7716:11858/00-001M-0000-0013-167B-C 7483: 4924: 4906:Journal of Chinese Linguistics 4897: 4838:All examples are found in the 4642: 4633: 4624: 4615: 4606: 4582: 4567: 4549: 4534: 4506: 4491: 4468: 4453: 4427: 4412: 4403: 4375: 4360: 4351: 4332: 4317: 4307: 4273: 4233: 4218: 4201: 4186: 4169: 4154: 4133: 4117: 4101: 4085: 4069: 4053: 4011: 3996: 3979: 3960: 3944: 3928: 3871: 3834: 3788: 3756: 3730: 3706: 3657: 3562: 3476: 3467: 3263: 3108: 3102: 3096: 3089: 3080: 3068: 2990: 2938: 2626: 2514: 1829:Reconstructions of Old Chinese 1793: 1757: 1751: 1744:The less common original word 1731: 1725: 1724:, formed by adding the symbol 1719: 1698: 1687: 1671: 1650: 1621: 1610: 1599: 1588: 1577: 1566: 1128: 1103: 1078: 1049: 1020: 995: 966: 941: 912: 887: 862: 833: 808: 786: 761: 321: 307: 293: 263: 249: 1: 10553:Subject–verb–object languages 8259:Chinese History: A New Manual 8134:, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 7695:Annual Review of Anthropology 7613:10.1017/CHOL9780521470308.004 7588:, American Oriental Society, 7519:, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 4849: 4561:verb–object compounds, as in 4260:Reduplication and compounding 3898: 3798:) 'chicken' versus proto-Tai 3577: 2963:could join nouns or clauses. 2854:. As in the modern language, 2725:There were demonstrative and 1279: 10529:List of varieties of Chinese 8261:, Harvard University Press, 6467:, pp. 172–173, 518–519. 4854: 4344:rhyming semi-reduplication ( 4029: 4023: 3822:was occupied by speakers of 3605: 3546:*pjə *njənʔ *njin *tjə *sjəm 1818: 716:Sino-Tibetan language family 7: 7557:, Oxford University Press, 4587: 4572: 4554: 4539: 4512: 4497: 4474: 4459: 4433: 4418: 4398: 4381: 4370:) 'elegant, beautiful' and 4366: 4346: 4337: 4322: 4302: 4279: 4239: 4224: 4207: 4192: 4175: 4160: 4138: 4123: 4106: 4091: 4074: 4059: 4017: 4002: 3985: 3966: 3949: 3934: 3877: 3840: 3794: 3762: 3736: 3712: 3663: 3549:NEG endure person REL heart 3532: 3519: 3508: 3497: 3484: 3450:for the requested element. 3400: 3389: 3376: 3365: 3333: 3322: 3311: 3300: 3289: 3270: 3230: 3219: 3208: 3195: 3184: 3173: 3160: 3149: 3138: 3127: 3116: 3034: 3023: 3010: 2999: 2995:followed by a noun phrase: 2660: 2597: 1799: 1763: 1746: 1737: 1714: 1704: 1693: 1678: 1666: 1657: 1645: 1627: 1616: 1605: 1594: 1583: 1572: 10: 10574: 10487:Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols 7863:The Sino-Tibetan languages 7438:Baxter & Sagart (1998) 7426:Baxter & Sagart (1998) 7414:Baxter & Sagart (1998) 7402:Baxter & Sagart (1998) 7378:Baxter & Sagart (1998) 7272:Baxter & Sagart (1998) 6996:Baxter & Sagart (2014) 6740:Baxter & Sagart (1998) 6065:Baxter & Sagart (2014) 5957:Baxter & Sagart (2014) 5700:Baxter & Sagart (2014) 5571:Baxter & Sagart (2014) 4892:Baxter & Sagart (2014) 4726:The vowel here written as 4422:) 'irregular, uneven' and 3350:Mencius see Liang Hui king 2712:. In the post-Han period, 2454: 2450: 1822: 1767:'bamboo' to the character. 1520: 622:Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary 18: 10521: 10405: 10374: 10285: 10210: 10152: 10072: 10047: 10009: 9956: 9882: 9871: 9818: 9770: 9725: 9702: 9647: 9638: 9576: 9495: 9470: 9452: 9429: 9366: 9357: 9320: 9297: 9259: 9250: 9241: 9177: 9137: 9064: 9042: 9014: 8996: 8970: 8947: 8883: 8874: 8851: 8821: 8798: 8722: 8662: 8634: 8611: 8588: 8555: 8546: 8537: 8526: 8422:Schuessler, Axel (2000), 8410:10.1163/19606028-90000092 8285:Dobson, W.A.C.H. (1959), 8149:Schuessler, Axel (2007), 7902:10.1163/2405478X-90000100 7670:10.1017/s0041977x00068701 6932:Meier & Peyrot (2017) 4783:respectively, while Li's 3048:*ljaʔ *wjij *sjewʔ *tsjəʔ 2947: 2929: 2920: 2893: 2884: 2817: 2808: 2797: 2788: 2777: 2768: 2757: 2748: 2714: 2707: 2698: 2685: 2674: 2668:period. However, in some 2653: 2648: 2642: 2635: 2617: 2608: 2591: 2569: 2560: 2551: 2541: 2532: 2523: 2496: 2457:Classical Chinese grammar 2229: 2172: 2097: 1961: 1918: 1913: 1907: 1902: 1897: 1850:Sino-Xenic pronunciations 1508: 1210:of the mid-central vowel 596:Spring and Autumn periods 440: 436: 432: 411: 394: 387: 373: 359: 352: 338: 331: 314: 300: 286: 279: 274: 270: 256: 242: 237: 233: 229: 215: 198: 182: 166: 161: 129: 97: 71: 63: 44: 39: 34: 8456:"Axel Schuessler : 8435:Language and Linguistics 8426:The Roots of Old Chinese 8392:The Roots of Old Chinese 8132:The Roots of Old Chinese 8086:Peyrot, Michaël (2008), 7799:Language and Linguistics 7464:, pp. 112–117, 156. 7238:, pp. 63–64, 70–71. 7226:, pp. 63–64, 68–69. 6730:, pp. xi, 1–5, 7–8. 6718:, pp. 103, 130–131. 6653:, pp. 90–91, 98–99. 4650: 4045:, as in these examples: 3860:), cognate with English 3414:*swjats *pjə *ŋajʔ *ljaʔ 1697:'don't', a borrowing of 1676:originally representing 1464:Spring and Autumn period 1433:than Classical Chinese. 1335:Spring and Autumn period 1237: 244:Traditional Chinese 8390:"Laurent Sagart : 8028:; Mei, Tsu-lin (1976), 7936:Grammata Serica Recensa 7846:10.1163/156853291X00073 7740:Handel, Zev J. (2003), 6776:Norman & Mei (1976) 6503:, pp. 94, 106–108. 4326:) 'tall and grand' and 4283:) 'butterfly' from the 3716:) 'rice seedling' from 3600:derivational affixation 1862:derivational morphology 1472:bamboo and wooden slips 1204:Tibeto-Burman languages 258:Simplified Chinese 8188:Shaughnessy, Edward L. 8090:, Amsterdam: Rodopoi, 5959:, pp. 3–4, 30–37. 4795:in different contexts. 4341:) 'happy and at ease'. 4265:morphemes include the 4110:) 'to wear, to clothe' 3818:In ancient times, the 3672: 3640:have identified early 3094:instead of the copula 2727:interrogative pronouns 2690:, originally a distal 1788: 1518: 1172:manner of articulation 732:Southeast Asian Massif 442:This article contains 58:(late 11th century BC) 8106:Pulleyblank, Edwin G. 7830:Haudricourt, André G. 6617:, pp. 10–11, 96. 6566:, pp. 16–18, 22. 5863:, pp. 31–32, 35. 4880:Tai & Chan (1999) 4742:by different authors. 4486:also occurred, as in 3618:eastwards across the 3448:interrogative pronoun 3243:其至爾力也其中非爾力也 2735:distributive pronouns 2472:grammatical particles 2464:Warring States period 1825:Old Chinese phonology 1809:Warring States period 1783: 1516: 1468:Warring States period 1431:grammatical particles 1367:Warring States period 1271:isolated inscriptions 1206:distinguished by the 684:grammatical particles 610:Warring States period 84:Warring States period 6830:, pp. 338–339; 6754:, pp. 4, 16–17. 4300:full reduplication ( 3970:) 'to bring in' and 3938:) 'to transmit' and 3692:Hmong–Mien languages 2335:and the combination 1846:varieties of Chinese 1549:Egyptian hieroglyphs 1190:as reconstructed by 483:varieties of Chinese 381:Soeng6-gu2 hon3-jyu5 211: Shanggu Hanyu 8255:Wilkinson, Endymion 7262:, pp. 638–640. 7046:, pp. 315–317. 7034:, pp. 258–259. 6986:, pp. 323–324. 6842:, pp. 207–208. 6818:, pp. 556–557. 6778:, pp. 280–283. 6706:, pp. 103–104. 6682:, pp. 104–105. 6590:, pp. 125–126. 6479:, pp. 94, 127. 6419:, pp. 115–116. 6395:, pp. 70, 457. 6305:, pp. 89, 118. 6139:, pp. 181–183. 6115:, pp. 556–557. 6103:, pp. 253–256. 6043:, pp. 235–236. 6031:, pp. 222–232. 6007:, pp. 188–215. 5911:, pp. 171–172. 5851:, pp. 147–149. 5777:, pp. 114–118. 5561:, pp. 110–117. 5537:, pp. 476–479. 5513:, pp. 425–426. 5477:, pp. 434–436. 4996:, pp. 186–193. 4882:, pp. 225–233. 4228:) 'to stretch' and 4211:) 'mixed, confused' 4041:suffix also formed 3881:) 'calf' – compare 3827:Tocharian languages 3802:, proto-Hmong–Mien 3446:by substituting an 3438:questions, forming 3283:subject–verb–object 3064:The negated copula 2835:and the subsequent 2737:were formed with a 2731:indefinite pronouns 1892: 1682:'winnowing basket'. 1427:bronze inscriptions 1351:bronze inscriptions 1298:bronze inscriptions 1283: 1046 BC 1252: 1250 BC 1244: 1188:Proto-Tibeto-Burman 642:but having initial 495:Bronze inscriptions 51:Inscription on the 10482:Cantonese Bopomofo 10349:Chinese characters 10277:Written Sichuanese 8861:Zhangjiakou–Hohhot 8452:Starostin, Georgiy 8322:Jacques, Guillaume 7931:Karlgren, Bernhard 7911:Jacques, Guillaume 7725:Gong, Hwang-cherng 7513:Baxter, William H. 7505:10.1111/lnc3.12006 7476:, pp. 85, 98. 6668:Pulleyblank (1996) 6627:Pulleyblank (1996) 6603:Pulleyblank (1996) 6564:Pulleyblank (1996) 6537:Pulleyblank (1996) 6513:Pulleyblank (1996) 6407:, pp. 91, 94. 6354:Pulleyblank (1996) 6342:Pulleyblank (1996) 6291:Pulleyblank (1996) 6250:Pulleyblank (1996) 5673:Pulleyblank (1996) 5634:Pulleyblank (1996) 5549:, pp. 2, 105. 5020:, pp. 35–164. 4868:Shaughnessy (1997) 3856:; cf. Tocharian B 3592:isolating language 2967:Sentence structure 1890: 1789: 1523:Chinese characters 1519: 1436:From early in the 1242: 644:consonant clusters 608:region during the 532:Chinese characters 143:Oracle bone script 10535: 10534: 10517: 10516: 10344: 10343: 10262:Written Cantonese 10257: 10256: 10039:Classical grammar 10034:Cantonese grammar 9869: 9868: 9766: 9765: 9572: 9571: 9491: 9490: 9353: 9352: 9060: 9059: 8847: 8846: 8737:Chengdu–Chongqing 8530:Sinitic languages 8477:Schuessler (2007) 8339:978-90-04-18643-9 8296:978-0-8020-7003-6 8268:978-0-674-06715-8 8246:978-2-910216-02-3 8220:978-0-19-165177-9 8201:978-1-55729-058-8 8179:978-0-8248-3264-3 8160:978-0-8248-2975-9 8141:978-90-272-3690-6 8119:978-0-7748-0541-4 8097:978-90-420-2401-4 8078:978-0-521-29653-3 7872:978-0-7007-1129-1 7821:978-0-19-985633-6 7761:978-0-520-09843-5 7648:978-3-87787-208-6 7622:978-0-521-47030-8 7595:978-0-940490-78-9 7564:978-0-19-994537-5 7545:978-3-11-015109-1 7526:978-3-11-012324-1 7404:, pp. 65–66. 7390:Schuessler (2007) 7310:, pp. 22–23. 7286:, pp. 38–50. 7284:Schuessler (2007) 7274:, pp. 45–64. 7250:, pp. 65–68. 7164:Schuessler (2007) 7104:Schuessler (2007) 7084:Schuessler (2007) 7020:Schuessler (2007) 7010:, pp. 14–22. 7008:Schuessler (2007) 6998:, pp. 53–60. 6896:Schuessler (2007) 6872:Schuessler (2007) 6840:Schuessler (2007) 6816:Schuessler (2007) 6790:, pp. 17–18. 6766:, pp. 75–76. 6742:, pp. 35–36. 6728:Schuessler (2007) 6641:, pp. 66–67. 6576:Schuessler (2007) 6552:Schuessler (2007) 6515:, pp. 13–14. 6465:Schuessler (2007) 6455:, pp. 97–98. 6431:, pp. 91–94. 6393:Schuessler (2007) 6368:, pp. 90–91. 6208:, pp. 41–42. 6181:, pp. 87–88. 6167:Schuessler (2007) 6067:, pp. 68–71. 6053:Schuessler (2007) 5969:Schuessler (2009) 5923:, pp. 62–63. 5899:, pp. 61–62. 5861:Schuessler (2009) 5839:, pp. 36–37. 5827:, pp. 67–72. 5765:, pp. 59–62. 5753:, pp. 52–57. 5714:, pp. 52–72. 5702:, pp. 50–53. 5663:, pp. 83–84. 5585:, pp. 88–89. 5559:Schuessler (2007) 5547:Schuessler (2007) 5525:, pp. 58–63. 5523:Schuessler (2007) 5489:, pp. 15–16. 5042:Schuessler (2007) 5008:, pp. 12–13. 4006:) 'to weave' and 3620:North China Plain 3262:The copular verb 3057:Book of Documents 2860:modal auxiliaries 2753:'which one' from 2658:(modern Mandarin 2595:(modern Mandarin 2505:Personal pronouns 2397: 2396: 2325:Bernhard Karlgren 2315: 2314: 2280: 2242: 2206: 2180: 2140: 2105: 2062: 2022: 1976: 1957: 1952: 1947: 1940: 1935: 1928: 1858:Classic of Poetry 1785:Guodian Chu Slips 1490:Commentary of Zuo 1450:Classic of Poetry 1444:Book of Documents 1405:site near modern 1399: 1398: 1153: 1152: 598:. Similarly, the 587:Classic of Poetry 525:Classical Chinese 468: 467: 450:rendering support 446:phonetic symbols. 428: 427: 422:Ziên-gou hang-ghe 367:Seuhng-gú hon-yúh 361:Yale Romanization 281:Standard Mandarin 25:Classical Chinese 10565: 10527: 10526: 10499:Taiwanese Hangul 10388:Mainland Chinese 10301: 10300: 10292: 10291: 10217: 10216: 9894:Standard Chinese 9877: 9645: 9644: 9364: 9363: 9257: 9256: 9248: 9247: 9130: 9118: 9106: 9094: 9082: 8881: 8880: 8553: 8552: 8544: 8543: 8520:Chinese language 8513: 8506: 8499: 8490: 8489: 8474: 8464: 8442: 8432: 8413: 8379: 8377:Languages portal 8374: 8373: 8365: 8360: 8359: 8358: 8343: 8317: 8300: 8272: 8250: 8234: 8224: 8205: 8183: 8164: 8145: 8123: 8101: 8082: 8060: 8037:Monumenta Serica 8034: 8021: 8000: 7980: 7957:Monumenta Serica 7948: 7926: 7906: 7904: 7876: 7857: 7840:(4–5): 335–342, 7825: 7806: 7796: 7786: 7765: 7736: 7720: 7718: 7689: 7664:(1/3): 258–290, 7652: 7639:Monumenta Serica 7631:Coblin, W. South 7626: 7599: 7577: 7568: 7549: 7530: 7508: 7477: 7471: 7465: 7459: 7453: 7447: 7441: 7435: 7429: 7423: 7417: 7411: 7405: 7399: 7393: 7387: 7381: 7375: 7366: 7360: 7347: 7341: 7335: 7329: 7323: 7317: 7311: 7308:Wilkinson (2012) 7305: 7299: 7293: 7287: 7281: 7275: 7269: 7263: 7257: 7251: 7245: 7239: 7233: 7227: 7221: 7215: 7205: 7199: 7189: 7183: 7173: 7167: 7161: 7155: 7149: 7143: 7137: 7131: 7125: 7119: 7113: 7107: 7093: 7087: 7077: 7071: 7065: 7059: 7053: 7047: 7041: 7035: 7029: 7023: 7017: 7011: 7005: 6999: 6993: 6987: 6981: 6975: 6969: 6963: 6957: 6951: 6941: 6935: 6929: 6923: 6917: 6911: 6889: 6883: 6869: 6863: 6849: 6843: 6825: 6819: 6809: 6803: 6797: 6791: 6785: 6779: 6773: 6767: 6761: 6755: 6749: 6743: 6737: 6731: 6725: 6719: 6713: 6707: 6701: 6695: 6689: 6683: 6677: 6671: 6665: 6654: 6648: 6642: 6636: 6630: 6624: 6618: 6612: 6606: 6600: 6591: 6585: 6579: 6573: 6567: 6561: 6555: 6549: 6540: 6534: 6528: 6522: 6516: 6510: 6504: 6498: 6492: 6486: 6480: 6474: 6468: 6462: 6456: 6450: 6444: 6438: 6432: 6426: 6420: 6414: 6408: 6402: 6396: 6390: 6384: 6378: 6369: 6363: 6357: 6351: 6345: 6339: 6333: 6327: 6318: 6312: 6306: 6300: 6294: 6288: 6282: 6276: 6265: 6259: 6253: 6247: 6236: 6230: 6221: 6215: 6209: 6203: 6197: 6191: 6182: 6176: 6170: 6164: 6155: 6149: 6140: 6134: 6128: 6122: 6116: 6110: 6104: 6098: 6092: 6086: 6080: 6074: 6068: 6062: 6056: 6050: 6044: 6038: 6032: 6026: 6020: 6014: 6008: 6002: 5996: 5990: 5984: 5978: 5972: 5966: 5960: 5954: 5948: 5942: 5936: 5930: 5924: 5918: 5912: 5906: 5900: 5894: 5888: 5882: 5876: 5870: 5864: 5858: 5852: 5846: 5840: 5837:Wilkinson (2012) 5834: 5828: 5822: 5816: 5806: 5797: 5787: 5778: 5772: 5766: 5760: 5754: 5748: 5742: 5739:Wilkinson (2012) 5736: 5727: 5721: 5715: 5709: 5703: 5697: 5691: 5685: 5676: 5670: 5664: 5658: 5652: 5646: 5637: 5631: 5625: 5619: 5613: 5607: 5601: 5595: 5586: 5580: 5574: 5568: 5562: 5556: 5550: 5544: 5538: 5532: 5526: 5520: 5514: 5508: 5502: 5496: 5490: 5484: 5478: 5472: 5466: 5460: 5454: 5448: 5442: 5432: 5426: 5420: 5411: 5401: 5395: 5385: 5379: 5369: 5363: 5353: 5347: 5341: 5332: 5322: 5316: 5310: 5301: 5291: 5285: 5279: 5266: 5256: 5250: 5240: 5234: 5228: 5222: 5212: 5206: 5200: 5183: 5173: 5167: 5161: 5152: 5142: 5136: 5126: 5120: 5114: 5108: 5098: 5092: 5086: 5061: 5051: 5045: 5039: 5033: 5027: 5021: 5015: 5009: 5003: 4997: 4991: 4985: 4984:, pp. 8–12. 4979: 4973: 4972: 4962: 4954: 4928: 4922: 4921: 4901: 4895: 4889: 4883: 4877: 4871: 4865: 4843: 4836: 4830: 4827: 4821: 4815: 4809: 4802: 4796: 4794: 4790: 4786: 4782: 4778: 4774: 4770: 4766: 4762: 4758: 4754: 4749: 4743: 4741: 4737: 4733: 4729: 4724: 4718: 4715: 4709: 4706: 4700: 4698: 4694: 4685: 4679: 4664: 4646: 4641: 4637: 4632: 4628: 4623: 4619: 4614: 4610: 4605: 4590: 4585: 4584: 4579: 4575: 4570: 4569: 4564: 4557: 4552: 4551: 4546: 4542: 4537: 4536: 4531: 4515: 4510: 4504: 4500: 4495: 4489: 4485: 4481: 4477: 4472: 4466: 4462: 4457: 4451: 4447: 4443: 4436: 4431: 4425: 4421: 4416: 4410: 4409:*tsʰrjum-tsʰrjaj 4406: 4405: 4401: 4392: 4388: 4384: 4379: 4373: 4369: 4364: 4358: 4354: 4353: 4349: 4340: 4335: 4334: 4329: 4325: 4320: 4319: 4314: 4310: 4309: 4305: 4282: 4277: 4271: 4251: 4242: 4237: 4231: 4227: 4222: 4216: 4210: 4205: 4199: 4195: 4190: 4184: 4178: 4173: 4167: 4163: 4158: 4152: 4141: 4136: 4135: 4130: 4126: 4121: 4115: 4109: 4104: 4103: 4098: 4095:) 'clothes' and 4094: 4089: 4083: 4077: 4072: 4071: 4066: 4062: 4057: 4051: 4040: 4032: 4026: 4020: 4015: 4009: 4005: 4000: 3994: 3988: 3983: 3977: 3973: 3969: 3964: 3958: 3952: 3947: 3946: 3941: 3937: 3932: 3926: 3915: 3880: 3875: 3869: 3843: 3838: 3832: 3829:, the source of 3808:proto-Viet–Muong 3805: 3801: 3797: 3792: 3786: 3776: 3765: 3760: 3754: 3743: 3739: 3734: 3728: 3722: 3718:proto-Hmong–Mien 3715: 3710: 3704: 3675: 3666: 3661: 3655: 3565: 3564: 3528: 3493: 3479: 3478: 3470: 3469: 3465: 3460:relative clauses 3440:yes–no questions 3417:year NEG me wait 3385: 3273: 3267: 3239: 3204: 3169: 3111: 3110: 3105: 3104: 3099: 3098: 3093: 3088: 3084: 3079: 3075: 3067: 3051:I BE small child 3019: 2994: 2989: 2955: 2951: 2946: 2942: 2937: 2933: 2928: 2924: 2919: 2914:yes/no questions 2897: 2892: 2888: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2821: 2816: 2812: 2807: 2801: 2796: 2792: 2787: 2781: 2776: 2773:'each one' from 2772: 2767: 2761: 2756: 2752: 2747: 2740: 2717: 2716: 2711: 2706: 2702: 2697: 2689: 2684: 2677: 2676: 2663: 2657: 2651: 2650: 2645: 2644: 2639: 2634: 2630: 2625: 2621: 2616: 2612: 2607: 2600: 2594: 2593: 2588: 2584: 2580: 2573: 2568: 2564: 2559: 2555: 2550: 2545: 2540: 2536: 2531: 2527: 2522: 2518: 2513: 2500: 2494: 2490: 2446: 2442: 2434: 2430: 2426: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2406: 2402: 2393: 2388: 2383: 2376: 2371: 2366: 2361: 2360: 2350: 2346: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2320: 2311: 2306: 2297: 2292: 2287: 2278: 2273: 2268: 2259: 2254: 2249: 2240: 2213: 2204: 2187: 2178: 2164: 2159: 2150: 2145: 2138: 2129: 2124: 2115: 2110: 2103: 2089: 2084: 2077: 2072: 2067: 2058: 2049: 2044: 2037: 2032: 2027: 2018: 2013: 2008: 2003: 1998: 1991: 1986: 1981: 1972: 1955: 1950: 1943: 1938: 1931: 1926: 1893: 1889: 1802: 1797: 1766: 1761: 1755: 1749: 1740: 1735: 1729: 1723: 1717: 1707: 1702: 1696: 1691: 1681: 1675: 1669: 1660: 1654: 1648: 1630: 1625: 1619: 1614: 1608: 1603: 1597: 1592: 1586: 1581: 1575: 1570: 1556:cuneiform script 1495:Literary Chinese 1284: 1281: 1253: 1245: 1241: 1233: 1229: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1135: 1132: 1110: 1107: 1085: 1082: 1056: 1053: 1027: 1024: 1002: 999: 973: 970: 948: 945: 919: 916: 894: 891: 869: 866: 840: 837: 815: 812: 793: 790: 768: 765: 737: 736: 718:, together with 424: 423: 407: 406: 405:Siōng-kó͘ hàn-gú 383: 382: 369: 368: 348: 347: 327: 326: 325: 310: 309: 296: 295: 272: 271: 266: 265: 252: 251: 225: 210: 194: 178: 171: 135: 103: 49: 32: 31: 10573: 10572: 10568: 10567: 10566: 10564: 10563: 10562: 10538: 10537: 10536: 10531: 10513: 10450:Tongyong Pinyin 10430:Gwoyeu Romatzyh 10418:Dungan Cyrillic 10401: 10370: 10340: 10281: 10272:Written Hokkien 10253: 10212: 10206: 10182:Middle Mandarin 10148: 10068: 10043: 10005: 9952: 9885: 9878: 9865: 9814: 9762: 9721: 9698: 9634: 9568: 9487: 9466: 9448: 9425: 9349: 9316: 9293: 9237: 9173: 9133: 9124: 9112: 9100: 9088: 9076: 9056: 9038: 9010: 8992: 8966: 8943: 8870: 8843: 8817: 8794: 8718: 8658: 8630: 8607: 8584: 8533: 8522: 8517: 8462: 8450: 8430: 8421: 8384: 8375: 8368: 8361: 8356: 8354: 8351: 8346: 8340: 8320: 8303: 8297: 8284: 8280: 8278:Further reading 8275: 8269: 8247: 8232: 8221: 8202: 8180: 8161: 8142: 8128:Sagart, Laurent 8120: 8098: 8079: 8032: 7881:Hill, Nathan W. 7873: 7822: 7794: 7762: 7752:Matisoff, James 7649: 7623: 7596: 7565: 7546: 7527: 7486: 7481: 7480: 7472: 7468: 7460: 7456: 7448: 7444: 7436: 7432: 7424: 7420: 7412: 7408: 7400: 7396: 7388: 7384: 7376: 7369: 7361: 7350: 7342: 7338: 7330: 7326: 7318: 7314: 7306: 7302: 7296:Aldridge (2013) 7294: 7290: 7282: 7278: 7270: 7266: 7258: 7254: 7246: 7242: 7234: 7230: 7222: 7218: 7206: 7202: 7190: 7186: 7174: 7170: 7162: 7158: 7150: 7146: 7138: 7134: 7126: 7122: 7114: 7110: 7102:, p. 178; 7094: 7090: 7078: 7074: 7066: 7062: 7054: 7050: 7042: 7038: 7030: 7026: 7018: 7014: 7006: 7002: 6994: 6990: 6982: 6978: 6970: 6966: 6958: 6954: 6942: 6938: 6930: 6926: 6918: 6914: 6902:, p. 191; 6898:, p. 383; 6890: 6886: 6874:, p. 292; 6870: 6866: 6850: 6846: 6834:, p. 753; 6826: 6822: 6814:, p. 338; 6810: 6806: 6798: 6794: 6786: 6782: 6774: 6770: 6762: 6758: 6750: 6746: 6738: 6734: 6726: 6722: 6714: 6710: 6702: 6698: 6690: 6686: 6678: 6674: 6666: 6657: 6649: 6645: 6639:Herforth (2003) 6637: 6633: 6625: 6621: 6613: 6609: 6601: 6594: 6586: 6582: 6574: 6570: 6562: 6558: 6550: 6543: 6535: 6531: 6523: 6519: 6511: 6507: 6499: 6495: 6487: 6483: 6475: 6471: 6463: 6459: 6451: 6447: 6439: 6435: 6427: 6423: 6415: 6411: 6403: 6399: 6391: 6387: 6379: 6372: 6364: 6360: 6352: 6348: 6340: 6336: 6330:Aldridge (2013) 6328: 6321: 6313: 6309: 6301: 6297: 6289: 6285: 6277: 6268: 6260: 6256: 6248: 6239: 6231: 6224: 6216: 6212: 6206:Aldridge (2013) 6204: 6200: 6194:Herforth (2003) 6192: 6185: 6177: 6173: 6165: 6158: 6152:Herforth (2003) 6150: 6143: 6135: 6131: 6123: 6119: 6111: 6107: 6099: 6095: 6087: 6083: 6075: 6071: 6063: 6059: 6051: 6047: 6039: 6035: 6027: 6023: 6015: 6011: 6003: 5999: 5991: 5987: 5979: 5975: 5967: 5963: 5955: 5951: 5943: 5939: 5931: 5927: 5919: 5915: 5907: 5903: 5895: 5891: 5883: 5879: 5871: 5867: 5859: 5855: 5847: 5843: 5835: 5831: 5823: 5819: 5807: 5800: 5788: 5781: 5773: 5769: 5761: 5757: 5749: 5745: 5737: 5730: 5722: 5718: 5710: 5706: 5698: 5694: 5686: 5679: 5671: 5667: 5659: 5655: 5647: 5640: 5632: 5628: 5620: 5616: 5608: 5604: 5596: 5589: 5581: 5577: 5569: 5565: 5557: 5553: 5545: 5541: 5533: 5529: 5521: 5517: 5509: 5505: 5497: 5493: 5485: 5481: 5473: 5469: 5461: 5457: 5449: 5445: 5433: 5429: 5421: 5414: 5402: 5398: 5386: 5382: 5370: 5366: 5354: 5350: 5342: 5335: 5323: 5319: 5311: 5304: 5292: 5288: 5280: 5269: 5257: 5253: 5241: 5237: 5229: 5225: 5213: 5209: 5201: 5186: 5174: 5170: 5162: 5155: 5143: 5139: 5127: 5123: 5115: 5111: 5099: 5095: 5087: 5064: 5052: 5048: 5040: 5036: 5028: 5024: 5016: 5012: 5004: 5000: 4992: 4988: 4980: 4976: 4956: 4955: 4943: 4929: 4925: 4902: 4898: 4890: 4886: 4878: 4874: 4866: 4862: 4857: 4852: 4847: 4846: 4837: 4833: 4828: 4824: 4816: 4812: 4803: 4799: 4750: 4746: 4725: 4721: 4716: 4712: 4707: 4703: 4686: 4682: 4665: 4658: 4653: 4597:bound morphemes 4262: 4196:) 'to mix' and 4164:) 'to see' and 4043:denominal verbs 4033:'woven, cloth') 4027:'to weave' and 3901: 3608: 3580: 3558: 3541: 3530: 3517: 3506: 3495: 3456: 3428: 3409: 3398: 3387: 3374: 3359: 3342: 3331: 3320: 3309: 3298: 3260: 3241: 3228: 3217: 3206: 3193: 3182: 3171: 3158: 3147: 3136: 3125: 3062: 3043: 3032: 3021: 3008: 2969: 2793:'someone' from 2484: 2474:, and inherent 2459: 2453: 2234: 1966: 1911: 1831: 1823:Main articles: 1821: 1730:, a variant of 1525: 1511: 1393:Qin unification 1383: 1379:excavated texts 1354: 1322: 1305:Shu (Documents) 1282: 1274: 1251: 1240: 1184:minor syllables 692: 548:rebus principle 503:classical works 475:Archaic Chinese 448:Without proper 346:Song-gu hon-ngi 308:Shang-ku han-yü 221: 206: 190: 187: 174: 167: 157: 136: 131: 125: 104: 101:Language family 99: 59: 40:Archaic Chinese 28: 21:written Chinese 17: 12: 11: 5: 10571: 10561: 10560: 10555: 10550: 10533: 10532: 10522: 10519: 10518: 10515: 10514: 10512: 10511: 10506: 10501: 10496: 10494:Taiwanese kana 10491: 10490: 10489: 10484: 10474: 10473: 10472: 10467: 10465:Lessing-Othmer 10462: 10457: 10452: 10447: 10442: 10437: 10432: 10422: 10421: 10420: 10409: 10407: 10403: 10402: 10400: 10395: 10390: 10385: 10380: 10378: 10372: 10371: 10369: 10368: 10363: 10362: 10361: 10356: 10345: 10342: 10341: 10339: 10334: 10329: 10324: 10319: 10314: 10309: 10307: 10298: 10289: 10283: 10282: 10280: 10279: 10274: 10269: 10267:Written Dungan 10264: 10258: 10255: 10254: 10252: 10251: 10246: 10245: 10244: 10239: 10234: 10223: 10221: 10214: 10208: 10207: 10205: 10204: 10199: 10194: 10189: 10184: 10179: 10174: 10172:Middle Chinese 10169: 10164: 10158: 10156: 10150: 10149: 10147: 10146: 10141: 10139:Wubi (Wang Ma) 10136: 10131: 10130: 10129: 10124: 10119: 10109: 10104: 10099: 10098: 10097: 10087: 10084: 10078: 10076: 10070: 10069: 10067: 10066: 10059: 10051: 10049: 10045: 10044: 10042: 10041: 10036: 10031: 10026: 10021: 10015: 10013: 10007: 10006: 10004: 10003: 9998: 9993: 9988: 9983: 9978: 9973: 9972: 9971: 9960: 9958: 9954: 9953: 9951: 9950: 9945: 9940: 9935: 9934: 9933: 9932: 9931: 9926: 9916: 9911: 9906: 9901: 9890: 9888: 9880: 9879: 9872: 9870: 9867: 9866: 9864: 9863: 9858: 9856:Xiangnan Tuhua 9853: 9848: 9843: 9841:Shaozhou Tuhua 9838: 9833: 9828: 9822: 9820: 9816: 9815: 9813: 9812: 9811: 9810: 9805: 9800: 9792: 9791: 9790: 9785: 9776: 9774: 9768: 9767: 9764: 9763: 9761: 9760: 9755: 9750: 9745: 9740: 9735: 9729: 9727: 9723: 9722: 9720: 9719: 9714: 9708: 9706: 9700: 9699: 9697: 9696: 9691: 9686: 9681: 9676: 9671: 9670: 9669: 9664: 9653: 9651: 9642: 9636: 9635: 9633: 9632: 9631: 9630: 9625: 9620: 9610: 9609: 9608: 9598: 9593: 9588: 9582: 9580: 9574: 9573: 9570: 9569: 9567: 9566: 9565: 9564: 9559: 9554: 9544: 9543: 9542: 9532: 9527: 9522: 9517: 9516: 9515: 9510: 9499: 9497: 9493: 9492: 9489: 9488: 9486: 9485: 9480: 9474: 9472: 9468: 9467: 9465: 9464: 9458: 9456: 9450: 9449: 9447: 9446: 9441: 9435: 9433: 9427: 9426: 9424: 9423: 9418: 9413: 9408: 9403: 9398: 9393: 9388: 9383: 9378: 9372: 9370: 9361: 9355: 9354: 9351: 9350: 9348: 9347: 9346: 9345: 9340: 9330: 9324: 9322: 9318: 9317: 9315: 9314: 9309: 9303: 9301: 9295: 9294: 9292: 9291: 9286: 9281: 9276: 9271: 9265: 9263: 9254: 9245: 9239: 9238: 9236: 9235: 9234: 9233: 9223: 9218: 9217: 9216: 9211: 9206: 9196: 9195: 9194: 9183: 9181: 9175: 9174: 9172: 9171: 9166: 9161: 9156: 9155: 9154: 9143: 9141: 9135: 9134: 9132: 9131: 9119: 9107: 9095: 9083: 9070: 9068: 9062: 9061: 9058: 9057: 9055: 9054: 9048: 9046: 9040: 9039: 9037: 9036: 9031: 9026: 9020: 9018: 9012: 9011: 9009: 9008: 9002: 9000: 8994: 8993: 8991: 8990: 8985: 8980: 8974: 8972: 8968: 8967: 8965: 8964: 8959: 8953: 8951: 8945: 8944: 8942: 8941: 8936: 8931: 8926: 8921: 8916: 8910: 8905: 8900: 8895: 8889: 8887: 8878: 8872: 8871: 8869: 8868: 8863: 8857: 8855: 8849: 8848: 8845: 8844: 8842: 8841: 8836: 8831: 8825: 8823: 8819: 8818: 8816: 8815: 8810: 8804: 8802: 8796: 8795: 8793: 8792: 8791: 8790: 8780: 8775: 8770: 8765: 8764: 8763: 8762: 8761: 8754:Renshou–Fushun 8751: 8750: 8749: 8739: 8728: 8726: 8720: 8719: 8717: 8716: 8711: 8706: 8701: 8696: 8691: 8690: 8689: 8679: 8674: 8668: 8666: 8664:Central Plains 8660: 8659: 8657: 8656: 8651: 8646: 8640: 8638: 8632: 8631: 8629: 8628: 8623: 8617: 8615: 8609: 8608: 8606: 8605: 8600: 8594: 8592: 8586: 8585: 8583: 8582: 8577: 8572: 8567: 8561: 8559: 8550: 8541: 8535: 8534: 8527: 8524: 8523: 8516: 8515: 8508: 8501: 8493: 8487: 8486: 8480: 8448: 8424:"Book Review: 8419: 8404:(2): 257–268, 8381: 8380: 8366: 8350: 8349:External links 8347: 8345: 8344: 8338: 8318: 8301: 8295: 8281: 8279: 8276: 8274: 8273: 8267: 8251: 8245: 8225: 8219: 8206: 8200: 8184: 8178: 8165: 8159: 8146: 8140: 8124: 8118: 8102: 8096: 8083: 8077: 8061: 8022: 8001: 7985:Maspero, Henri 7981: 7949: 7927: 7907: 7877: 7871: 7858: 7826: 7820: 7807: 7787: 7777:(3): 422–441, 7766: 7760: 7737: 7721: 7690: 7653: 7647: 7627: 7621: 7600: 7594: 7582:Boltz, William 7578: 7569: 7563: 7550: 7544: 7531: 7525: 7509: 7487: 7485: 7482: 7479: 7478: 7466: 7454: 7442: 7430: 7418: 7406: 7394: 7382: 7367: 7348: 7346:, p. 411. 7336: 7324: 7312: 7300: 7288: 7276: 7264: 7252: 7240: 7228: 7216: 7214:, p. 324. 7200: 7198:, p. 801. 7194:1166a, 1167e; 7184: 7182:, p. 218. 7168: 7156: 7144: 7132: 7120: 7118:, p. 316. 7108: 7088: 7072: 7060: 7058:, p. 315. 7048: 7036: 7024: 7012: 7000: 6988: 6984:Maspero (1930) 6976: 6964: 6952: 6946:, p. 18; 6936: 6924: 6920:Jacques (2014) 6912: 6894:, p. 87; 6884: 6882:, p. 578. 6878:876n; OC from 6864: 6862:, p. 206. 6858:728a; OC from 6854:, p. 19; 6844: 6820: 6804: 6802:, p. 573. 6792: 6780: 6768: 6756: 6744: 6732: 6720: 6708: 6696: 6694:, p. 105. 6684: 6672: 6655: 6643: 6631: 6619: 6607: 6592: 6580: 6578:, p. 232. 6568: 6556: 6541: 6529: 6517: 6505: 6493: 6481: 6469: 6457: 6445: 6433: 6421: 6409: 6397: 6385: 6370: 6358: 6346: 6334: 6319: 6317:, p. 143. 6307: 6295: 6283: 6281:, p. 118. 6266: 6264:, p. 805. 6254: 6237: 6222: 6220:, p. 136. 6210: 6198: 6183: 6171: 6156: 6141: 6129: 6127:, p. 291. 6117: 6105: 6093: 6091:, p. 247. 6089:Li (1974–1975) 6081: 6079:, p. 180. 6069: 6057: 6045: 6033: 6021: 6019:, p. 203. 6009: 5997: 5985: 5983:, p. 237. 5981:Li (1974–1975) 5973: 5961: 5949: 5937: 5925: 5913: 5901: 5889: 5887:, p. 107. 5877: 5875:, p. 110. 5865: 5853: 5841: 5829: 5817: 5798: 5796:, p. 119. 5779: 5767: 5755: 5743: 5728: 5726:, p. 109. 5716: 5704: 5692: 5677: 5665: 5653: 5638: 5626: 5614: 5602: 5587: 5575: 5563: 5551: 5539: 5527: 5515: 5503: 5491: 5479: 5467: 5455: 5453:, p. 422. 5443: 5441:, p. 520. 5427: 5412: 5410:, p. 407. 5396: 5394:, p. 771. 5380: 5378:, p. 209. 5364: 5362:, p. 768. 5348: 5333: 5331:, p. 756. 5317: 5302: 5300:, p. 777. 5286: 5267: 5265:, p. 785. 5251: 5249:, p. 774. 5235: 5233:, p. 201. 5223: 5221:, p. 795. 5207: 5184: 5182:, p. 785. 5168: 5153: 5151:, p. 317. 5137: 5121: 5109: 5107:, p. 453. 5093: 5062: 5060:, p. 208. 5046: 5044:, p. 122. 5034: 5022: 5010: 4998: 4994:Enfield (2005) 4986: 4974: 4941: 4933:Han yu shi gao 4923: 4896: 4884: 4872: 4859: 4858: 4856: 4853: 4851: 4848: 4845: 4844: 4831: 4822: 4810: 4797: 4775:correspond to 4744: 4730:is treated as 4719: 4710: 4701: 4680: 4655: 4654: 4652: 4649: 4593: 4592: 4559: 4518: 4517: 4450:*tsʰjek-tsʰjok 4438: 4394: 4342: 4261: 4258: 4245: 4244: 4212: 4180: 4144: 4143: 4111: 4079: 4035: 4034: 3990: 3954: 3918:nominalization 3900: 3897: 3816: 3815: 3782: 3746: 3745: 3724: 3607: 3604: 3579: 3576: 3531: 3518: 3507: 3496: 3483: 3482: 3455: 3452: 3444:open questions 3399: 3388: 3375: 3364: 3363: 3332: 3321: 3310: 3299: 3288: 3287: 3229: 3218: 3207: 3194: 3183: 3172: 3159: 3148: 3137: 3126: 3115: 3114: 3112:was optional: 3033: 3022: 3009: 2998: 2997: 2968: 2965: 2906:function words 2824: 2823: 2813:'no-one' from 2803: 2783: 2763: 2575: 2574: 2546: 2483: 2480: 2452: 2449: 2395: 2394: 2389: 2384: 2378: 2377: 2372: 2367: 2313: 2312: 2307: 2302: 2300: 2298: 2293: 2288: 2283: 2281: 2275: 2274: 2269: 2264: 2262: 2260: 2255: 2250: 2245: 2243: 2238: 2227: 2226: 2224: 2222: 2220: 2218: 2216: 2214: 2209: 2207: 2201: 2200: 2198: 2196: 2194: 2192: 2190: 2188: 2183: 2181: 2176: 2170: 2169: 2167: 2165: 2160: 2155: 2153: 2151: 2146: 2141: 2135: 2134: 2132: 2130: 2125: 2120: 2118: 2116: 2111: 2106: 2101: 2095: 2094: 2092: 2090: 2085: 2080: 2078: 2073: 2068: 2063: 2055: 2054: 2052: 2050: 2045: 2040: 2038: 2033: 2028: 2023: 2015: 2014: 2009: 2004: 1999: 1994: 1992: 1987: 1982: 1977: 1970: 1959: 1958: 1953: 1948: 1941: 1936: 1929: 1923: 1922: 1917: 1912: 1906: 1901: 1896: 1885:William Baxter 1842:Middle Chinese 1820: 1817: 1769: 1768: 1742: 1684: 1683: 1662: 1541:minor syllable 1537:Laurent Sagart 1533:William Baxter 1521:Main article: 1510: 1507: 1397: 1396: 1389: 1385: 1384: 1382: 1381: 1376: 1370: 1362: 1360: 1356: 1355: 1353: 1352: 1349: 1338: 1330: 1328: 1324: 1323: 1321: 1320: 1300: 1295: 1287: 1285: 1276: 1275: 1273: 1272: 1269: 1264: 1256: 1254: 1239: 1236: 1226:, and between 1151: 1150: 1141: 1136: 1126: 1122: 1121: 1116: 1111: 1101: 1097: 1096: 1091: 1086: 1076: 1072: 1071: 1066: 1057: 1047: 1043: 1042: 1033: 1028: 1018: 1014: 1013: 1008: 1003: 993: 989: 988: 986:maññ < *miŋ 983: 974: 964: 960: 959: 954: 949: 939: 935: 934: 925: 920: 910: 906: 905: 900: 895: 885: 881: 880: 875: 870: 860: 856: 855: 846: 841: 831: 827: 826: 821: 816: 806: 802: 801: 796: 794: 784: 780: 779: 774: 769: 759: 755: 754: 749: 744: 741: 712:areal features 691: 690:Classification 688: 629:Middle Chinese 562:) characters ( 560:phono-semantic 473:, also called 466: 465: 452:, you may see 438: 437: 434: 433: 430: 429: 426: 425: 418: 409: 408: 401: 392: 391: 385: 384: 377: 371: 370: 363: 357: 356: 354:Yue: Cantonese 350: 349: 342: 336: 335: 329: 328: 318: 312: 311: 304: 298: 297: 290: 284: 283: 277: 276: 275:Transcriptions 268: 267: 260: 254: 253: 246: 240: 239: 235: 234: 231: 230: 227: 226: 219: 213: 212: 204: 196: 195: 188: 183: 180: 179: 172: 164: 163: 162:Language codes 159: 158: 156: 155: 150: 145: 139: 137: 133:Writing system 130: 127: 126: 124: 123: 122: 121: 107: 105: 98: 95: 94: 73: 69: 68: 65: 64:Native to 61: 60: 50: 42: 41: 37: 36: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10570: 10559: 10556: 10554: 10551: 10549: 10546: 10545: 10543: 10530: 10520: 10510: 10507: 10505: 10502: 10500: 10497: 10495: 10492: 10488: 10485: 10483: 10480: 10479: 10478: 10475: 10471: 10468: 10466: 10463: 10461: 10458: 10456: 10453: 10451: 10448: 10446: 10443: 10441: 10438: 10436: 10433: 10431: 10428: 10427: 10426: 10423: 10419: 10416: 10415: 10414: 10413:Cyrillization 10411: 10410: 10408: 10404: 10399: 10396: 10394: 10391: 10389: 10386: 10384: 10381: 10379: 10377: 10373: 10367: 10364: 10360: 10357: 10355: 10352: 10351: 10350: 10347: 10346: 10338: 10335: 10333: 10330: 10328: 10325: 10323: 10320: 10318: 10315: 10313: 10310: 10308: 10306: 10305:Script styles 10302: 10299: 10297: 10293: 10290: 10288: 10284: 10278: 10275: 10273: 10270: 10268: 10265: 10263: 10260: 10259: 10250: 10247: 10243: 10240: 10238: 10235: 10233: 10230: 10229: 10228: 10225: 10224: 10222: 10218: 10215: 10209: 10203: 10200: 10198: 10195: 10193: 10190: 10188: 10185: 10183: 10180: 10178: 10175: 10173: 10170: 10168: 10165: 10163: 10160: 10159: 10157: 10155: 10151: 10145: 10142: 10140: 10137: 10135: 10132: 10128: 10125: 10123: 10120: 10118: 10115: 10114: 10113: 10110: 10108: 10105: 10103: 10100: 10096: 10093: 10092: 10091: 10088: 10085: 10083: 10080: 10079: 10077: 10075: 10071: 10065: 10064: 10060: 10058: 10057: 10053: 10052: 10050: 10046: 10040: 10037: 10035: 10032: 10030: 10027: 10025: 10022: 10020: 10017: 10016: 10014: 10012: 10008: 10002: 9999: 9997: 9994: 9992: 9989: 9987: 9984: 9982: 9979: 9977: 9974: 9970: 9967: 9966: 9965: 9962: 9961: 9959: 9955: 9949: 9946: 9944: 9941: 9939: 9936: 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9473: 9469: 9463: 9460: 9459: 9457: 9455: 9451: 9445: 9442: 9440: 9437: 9436: 9434: 9432: 9428: 9422: 9419: 9417: 9414: 9412: 9409: 9407: 9404: 9402: 9399: 9397: 9394: 9392: 9389: 9387: 9384: 9382: 9379: 9377: 9374: 9373: 9371: 9369: 9365: 9362: 9360: 9356: 9344: 9341: 9339: 9336: 9335: 9334: 9331: 9329: 9326: 9325: 9323: 9319: 9313: 9310: 9308: 9305: 9304: 9302: 9300: 9296: 9290: 9287: 9285: 9282: 9280: 9277: 9275: 9272: 9270: 9267: 9266: 9264: 9262: 9258: 9255: 9253: 9249: 9246: 9244: 9240: 9232: 9229: 9228: 9227: 9224: 9222: 9219: 9215: 9212: 9210: 9207: 9205: 9202: 9201: 9200: 9197: 9193: 9190: 9189: 9188: 9185: 9184: 9182: 9180: 9176: 9170: 9167: 9165: 9162: 9160: 9157: 9153: 9150: 9149: 9148: 9145: 9144: 9142: 9140: 9136: 9128: 9123: 9120: 9116: 9111: 9108: 9104: 9099: 9096: 9092: 9087: 9084: 9080: 9075: 9072: 9071: 9069: 9067: 9063: 9053: 9050: 9049: 9047: 9045: 9041: 9035: 9032: 9030: 9027: 9025: 9022: 9021: 9019: 9017: 9013: 9007: 9004: 9003: 9001: 8999: 8995: 8989: 8986: 8984: 8981: 8979: 8976: 8975: 8973: 8969: 8963: 8960: 8958: 8955: 8954: 8952: 8950: 8946: 8940: 8937: 8935: 8932: 8930: 8927: 8925: 8922: 8920: 8917: 8914: 8911: 8909: 8906: 8904: 8901: 8899: 8896: 8894: 8891: 8890: 8888: 8886: 8882: 8879: 8877: 8873: 8867: 8864: 8862: 8859: 8858: 8856: 8854: 8850: 8840: 8837: 8835: 8832: 8830: 8827: 8826: 8824: 8820: 8814: 8811: 8809: 8806: 8805: 8803: 8801: 8797: 8789: 8786: 8785: 8784: 8781: 8779: 8776: 8774: 8771: 8769: 8766: 8760: 8757: 8756: 8755: 8752: 8748: 8745: 8744: 8743: 8740: 8738: 8735: 8734: 8733: 8730: 8729: 8727: 8725: 8721: 8715: 8712: 8710: 8707: 8705: 8702: 8700: 8697: 8695: 8692: 8688: 8685: 8684: 8683: 8680: 8678: 8675: 8673: 8670: 8669: 8667: 8665: 8661: 8655: 8652: 8650: 8647: 8645: 8642: 8641: 8639: 8637: 8633: 8627: 8624: 8622: 8619: 8618: 8616: 8614: 8610: 8604: 8601: 8599: 8596: 8595: 8593: 8591: 8587: 8581: 8578: 8576: 8573: 8571: 8568: 8566: 8563: 8562: 8560: 8558: 8554: 8551: 8549: 8545: 8542: 8540: 8536: 8532: 8531: 8525: 8521: 8514: 8509: 8507: 8502: 8500: 8495: 8494: 8491: 8484: 8481: 8478: 8472: 8468: 8461: 8459: 8453: 8449: 8446: 8445:Sagart (1999) 8441:(2): 257–267. 8440: 8436: 8429: 8427: 8420: 8417: 8416:Sagart (1999) 8411: 8407: 8403: 8399: 8395: 8393: 8387: 8383: 8382: 8378: 8372: 8367: 8364: 8353: 8341: 8335: 8331: 8327: 8323: 8319: 8315: 8311: 8307: 8302: 8298: 8292: 8288: 8283: 8282: 8270: 8264: 8260: 8256: 8252: 8248: 8242: 8238: 8231: 8226: 8222: 8216: 8212: 8207: 8203: 8197: 8193: 8189: 8185: 8181: 8175: 8171: 8166: 8162: 8156: 8152: 8147: 8143: 8137: 8133: 8129: 8125: 8121: 8115: 8111: 8107: 8103: 8099: 8093: 8089: 8084: 8080: 8074: 8070: 8066: 8065:Norman, Jerry 8062: 8058: 8054: 8050: 8046: 8042: 8038: 8031: 8027: 8026:Norman, Jerry 8023: 8019: 8015: 8011: 8007: 8002: 7999:(5): 313–327. 7998: 7995:(in French), 7994: 7990: 7986: 7982: 7978: 7974: 7970: 7966: 7962: 7958: 7954: 7953:Li, Fang-Kuei 7950: 7946: 7942: 7938: 7937: 7932: 7928: 7924: 7920: 7916: 7912: 7908: 7903: 7898: 7894: 7890: 7886: 7882: 7878: 7874: 7868: 7864: 7859: 7855: 7851: 7847: 7843: 7839: 7835: 7831: 7827: 7823: 7817: 7813: 7808: 7804: 7800: 7793: 7788: 7784: 7780: 7776: 7772: 7767: 7763: 7757: 7753: 7749: 7748: 7743: 7738: 7734: 7730: 7726: 7722: 7717: 7712: 7708: 7704: 7700: 7696: 7691: 7687: 7683: 7679: 7675: 7671: 7667: 7663: 7659: 7654: 7650: 7644: 7640: 7636: 7632: 7628: 7624: 7618: 7614: 7610: 7606: 7601: 7597: 7591: 7587: 7583: 7579: 7575: 7570: 7566: 7560: 7556: 7551: 7547: 7541: 7537: 7532: 7528: 7522: 7518: 7514: 7510: 7506: 7502: 7498: 7494: 7489: 7488: 7475: 7474:Norman (1988) 7470: 7463: 7462:Norman (1988) 7458: 7452:, p. 86. 7451: 7450:Norman (1988) 7446: 7440:, p. 68. 7439: 7434: 7428:, p. 67. 7427: 7422: 7416:, p. 66. 7415: 7410: 7403: 7398: 7392:, p. 24. 7391: 7386: 7380:, p. 65. 7379: 7374: 7372: 7365:, p. 87. 7364: 7363:Norman (1988) 7359: 7357: 7355: 7353: 7345: 7344:Baxter (1992) 7340: 7333: 7328: 7321: 7316: 7309: 7304: 7298:, p. 42. 7297: 7292: 7285: 7280: 7273: 7268: 7261: 7256: 7249: 7248:Handel (2012) 7244: 7237: 7236:Handel (2012) 7232: 7225: 7224:Handel (2012) 7220: 7213: 7212:Baxter (1992) 7209: 7204: 7197: 7196:Baxter (1992) 7193: 7188: 7181: 7180:Baxter (1992) 7177: 7172: 7166:, p. 49. 7165: 7160: 7153: 7148: 7141: 7136: 7129: 7124: 7117: 7116:Baxter (1992) 7112: 7106:, p. 16. 7105: 7101: 7100:Baxter (1992) 7097: 7092: 7086:, p. 45. 7085: 7081: 7076: 7069: 7064: 7057: 7056:Baxter (1992) 7052: 7045: 7044:Baxter (1992) 7040: 7033: 7032:Downer (1959) 7028: 7022:, p. 17. 7021: 7016: 7009: 7004: 6997: 6992: 6985: 6980: 6973: 6972:Sagart (1999) 6968: 6962:, p. 76. 6961: 6960:Handel (2015) 6956: 6949: 6945: 6944:Norman (1988) 6940: 6933: 6928: 6921: 6916: 6910:, p. 56. 6909: 6908:Peyrot (2008) 6905: 6901: 6900:Baxter (1992) 6897: 6893: 6888: 6881: 6880:Baxter (1992) 6877: 6873: 6868: 6861: 6860:Baxter (1992) 6857: 6853: 6852:Norman (1988) 6848: 6841: 6837: 6833: 6832:Baxter (1992) 6829: 6824: 6817: 6813: 6808: 6801: 6800:Baxter (1992) 6796: 6789: 6788:Norman (1988) 6784: 6777: 6772: 6765: 6760: 6753: 6752:Norman (1988) 6748: 6741: 6736: 6729: 6724: 6717: 6716:Norman (1988) 6712: 6705: 6704:Norman (1988) 6700: 6693: 6692:Norman (1988) 6688: 6681: 6680:Norman (1988) 6676: 6670:, p. 62. 6669: 6664: 6662: 6660: 6652: 6651:Norman (1988) 6647: 6640: 6635: 6629:, p. 13. 6628: 6623: 6616: 6615:Norman (1988) 6611: 6605:, p. 14. 6604: 6599: 6597: 6589: 6588:Norman (1988) 6584: 6577: 6572: 6565: 6560: 6554:, p. 14. 6553: 6548: 6546: 6539:, p. 22. 6538: 6533: 6527:, p. 95. 6526: 6525:Norman (1988) 6521: 6514: 6509: 6502: 6501:Norman (1988) 6497: 6490: 6489:Norman (1988) 6485: 6478: 6477:Norman (1988) 6473: 6466: 6461: 6454: 6453:Norman (1988) 6449: 6443:, p. 94. 6442: 6441:Norman (1988) 6437: 6430: 6429:Norman (1988) 6425: 6418: 6417:Norman (1988) 6413: 6406: 6405:Norman (1988) 6401: 6394: 6389: 6383:, p. 91. 6382: 6381:Norman (1988) 6377: 6375: 6367: 6366:Norman (1988) 6362: 6356:, p. 80. 6355: 6350: 6344:, p. 79. 6343: 6338: 6332:, p. 43. 6331: 6326: 6324: 6316: 6315:Sagart (1999) 6311: 6304: 6303:Norman (1988) 6299: 6293:, p. 77. 6292: 6287: 6280: 6279:Norman (1988) 6275: 6273: 6271: 6263: 6262:Baxter (1992) 6258: 6252:, p. 76. 6251: 6246: 6244: 6242: 6235:, p. 89. 6234: 6233:Norman (1988) 6229: 6227: 6219: 6218:Baxter (1992) 6214: 6207: 6202: 6196:, p. 60. 6195: 6190: 6188: 6180: 6179:Norman (1988) 6175: 6169:, p. 12. 6168: 6163: 6161: 6154:, p. 59. 6153: 6148: 6146: 6138: 6137:Baxter (1992) 6133: 6126: 6125:Baxter (1992) 6121: 6114: 6113:Handel (2003) 6109: 6102: 6101:Baxter (1992) 6097: 6090: 6085: 6078: 6077:Baxter (1992) 6073: 6066: 6061: 6055:, p. 95. 6054: 6049: 6042: 6041:Baxter (1992) 6037: 6030: 6029:Baxter (1992) 6025: 6018: 6017:Baxter (1992) 6013: 6006: 6005:Baxter (1992) 6001: 5995:, p. 46. 5994: 5993:Norman (1988) 5989: 5982: 5977: 5970: 5965: 5958: 5953: 5947:, p. 10. 5946: 5945:Sagart (1999) 5941: 5934: 5933:Sagart (1999) 5929: 5922: 5921:Norman (1988) 5917: 5910: 5905: 5898: 5897:Norman (1988) 5893: 5886: 5881: 5874: 5869: 5862: 5857: 5850: 5845: 5838: 5833: 5826: 5821: 5815:, p. 60. 5814: 5813:Norman (1988) 5810: 5805: 5803: 5795: 5791: 5786: 5784: 5776: 5771: 5764: 5759: 5752: 5747: 5741:, p. 36. 5740: 5735: 5733: 5725: 5720: 5713: 5708: 5701: 5696: 5690:, p. 58. 5689: 5688:Norman (1988) 5684: 5682: 5674: 5669: 5662: 5661:Norman (1988) 5657: 5651:, p. 90. 5650: 5645: 5643: 5635: 5630: 5624:, p. 13. 5623: 5618: 5612:, p. 12. 5611: 5606: 5600:, p. 89. 5599: 5594: 5592: 5584: 5579: 5572: 5567: 5560: 5555: 5548: 5543: 5536: 5531: 5524: 5519: 5512: 5511:Handel (2008) 5507: 5501:, p. 11. 5500: 5499:Coblin (1986) 5495: 5488: 5487:Norman (1988) 5483: 5476: 5475:Handel (2008) 5471: 5465:, p. 14. 5464: 5463:Norman (1988) 5459: 5452: 5451:Handel (2008) 5447: 5440: 5439:Baxter (1992) 5436: 5431: 5425:, p. 51. 5424: 5419: 5417: 5409: 5408:Baxter (1992) 5405: 5400: 5393: 5392:Baxter (1992) 5389: 5384: 5377: 5376:Baxter (1992) 5373: 5368: 5361: 5360:Baxter (1992) 5357: 5352: 5346:, p. 15. 5345: 5340: 5338: 5330: 5329:Baxter (1992) 5326: 5321: 5315:, p. 12. 5314: 5309: 5307: 5299: 5298:Baxter (1992) 5295: 5290: 5283: 5278: 5276: 5274: 5272: 5264: 5263:Baxter (1992) 5260: 5255: 5248: 5247:Baxter (1992) 5244: 5239: 5232: 5231:Baxter (1992) 5227: 5220: 5219:Baxter (1992) 5216: 5211: 5205:, p. 27. 5204: 5199: 5197: 5195: 5193: 5191: 5189: 5181: 5180:Baxter (1992) 5177: 5172: 5165: 5160: 5158: 5150: 5149:Baxter (1992) 5146: 5141: 5135:, p. 47. 5134: 5133:Baxter (1992) 5130: 5125: 5119:, p. 48. 5118: 5113: 5106: 5105:Baxter (1992) 5102: 5097: 5091:, p. 46. 5090: 5085: 5083: 5081: 5079: 5077: 5075: 5073: 5071: 5069: 5067: 5059: 5058:Baxter (1992) 5055: 5050: 5043: 5038: 5032:, p. 13. 5031: 5030:Norman (1988) 5026: 5019: 5018:Coblin (1986) 5014: 5007: 5006:Norman (1988) 5002: 4995: 4990: 4983: 4982:Norman (1988) 4978: 4970: 4966: 4960: 4952: 4948: 4944: 4938: 4934: 4927: 4919: 4915: 4911: 4907: 4900: 4894:, p. 33. 4893: 4888: 4881: 4876: 4870:, p. 61. 4869: 4864: 4860: 4841: 4835: 4826: 4819: 4814: 4807: 4801: 4748: 4723: 4714: 4705: 4690: 4689:Baxter (1992) 4684: 4677: 4673: 4669: 4663: 4661: 4656: 4648: 4645: 4636: 4627: 4618: 4609: 4600: 4598: 4589: 4574: 4560: 4556: 4541: 4527: 4526: 4525: 4524:, including: 4523: 4514: 4509: 4499: 4494: 4476: 4471: 4463:) 'busy' and 4461: 4456: 4439: 4437:) 'to crawl'. 4435: 4430: 4420: 4415: 4400: 4395: 4383: 4378: 4368: 4363: 4348: 4343: 4339: 4324: 4304: 4299: 4298: 4297: 4295: 4294:reduplication 4290: 4288: 4287: 4281: 4276: 4268: 4257: 4254: 4241: 4236: 4226: 4221: 4213: 4209: 4204: 4194: 4189: 4181: 4179:) 'to appear' 4177: 4172: 4162: 4157: 4149: 4148: 4147: 4140: 4127:) 'king' and 4125: 4120: 4112: 4108: 4093: 4088: 4080: 4076: 4061: 4056: 4048: 4047: 4046: 4044: 4031: 4025: 4019: 4014: 4004: 3999: 3991: 3987: 3982: 3968: 3963: 3955: 3951: 3936: 3931: 3923: 3922: 3921: 3919: 3909: 3906: 3905:Henri Maspero 3896: 3894: 3891: 3887: 3884: 3879: 3874: 3865: 3864: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3847: 3842: 3837: 3828: 3825: 3824:Indo-European 3821: 3813: 3809: 3796: 3791: 3783: 3780: 3773: 3769: 3764: 3759: 3751: 3750: 3749: 3738: 3733: 3725: 3719: 3714: 3709: 3701: 3700: 3699: 3697: 3693: 3688: 3686: 3683: 3679: 3674: 3670: 3665: 3660: 3651: 3647: 3643: 3642:Austroasiatic 3639: 3635: 3631: 3629: 3625: 3621: 3617: 3613: 3603: 3601: 3597: 3593: 3589: 3585: 3575: 3572: 3567: 3557: 3555: 3550: 3547: 3544: 3540: 3537: 3534: 3529: 3524: 3521: 3516: 3513: 3510: 3505: 3502: 3499: 3494: 3489: 3486: 3481: 3474: 3461: 3451: 3449: 3445: 3441: 3437: 3433: 3427: 3425: 3424: 3418: 3415: 3412: 3408: 3405: 3402: 3397: 3394: 3391: 3386: 3381: 3378: 3373: 3370: 3367: 3362: 3358: 3356: 3351: 3348: 3345: 3341: 3338: 3335: 3330: 3327: 3324: 3319: 3316: 3313: 3308: 3305: 3302: 3297: 3294: 3293:*mraŋs-*tsjəʔ 3291: 3286: 3284: 3279: 3277: 3276:demonstrative 3272: 3266: 3259: 3257: 3256: 3250: 3247: 3244: 3240: 3235: 3232: 3227: 3224: 3221: 3216: 3213: 3210: 3205: 3200: 3197: 3192: 3189: 3186: 3181: 3178: 3175: 3170: 3165: 3162: 3157: 3154: 3151: 3146: 3143: 3140: 3135: 3132: 3129: 3124: 3121: 3118: 3113: 3092: 3083: 3074: 3071: 3061: 3059: 3058: 3052: 3049: 3046: 3042: 3039: 3036: 3031: 3028: 3025: 3020: 3015: 3012: 3007: 3004: 3001: 2996: 2993: 2985: 2980: 2978: 2974: 2964: 2962: 2958: 2950: 2941: 2932: 2923: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2903: 2899: 2896: 2887: 2871: 2867: 2865: 2861: 2857: 2853: 2849: 2845: 2840: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2822:'there is no' 2820: 2811: 2804: 2800: 2791: 2784: 2780: 2771: 2764: 2760: 2751: 2744: 2743: 2742: 2736: 2732: 2728: 2723: 2721: 2710: 2701: 2693: 2692:demonstrative 2688: 2679: 2671: 2667: 2662: 2656: 2638: 2629: 2620: 2611: 2602: 2599: 2572: 2563: 2554: 2547: 2544: 2535: 2526: 2517: 2510: 2509: 2508: 2506: 2502: 2499: 2479: 2477: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2458: 2448: 2438: 2390: 2385: 2380: 2379: 2373: 2368: 2363: 2362: 2359: 2357: 2352: 2342: 2326: 2322: 2308: 2303: 2301: 2299: 2294: 2289: 2284: 2282: 2277: 2276: 2270: 2265: 2263: 2261: 2256: 2251: 2246: 2244: 2239: 2237: 2232: 2228: 2225: 2223: 2221: 2219: 2217: 2215: 2210: 2208: 2203: 2202: 2199: 2197: 2195: 2193: 2191: 2189: 2184: 2182: 2177: 2175: 2171: 2168: 2166: 2161: 2156: 2154: 2152: 2147: 2142: 2137: 2136: 2133: 2131: 2126: 2121: 2119: 2117: 2112: 2107: 2102: 2100: 2096: 2093: 2091: 2086: 2081: 2079: 2074: 2069: 2064: 2061: 2057: 2056: 2053: 2051: 2046: 2041: 2039: 2034: 2029: 2024: 2021: 2017: 2016: 2010: 2005: 2000: 1995: 1993: 1988: 1983: 1978: 1975: 1971: 1969: 1964: 1960: 1954: 1949: 1946: 1942: 1937: 1934: 1930: 1925: 1924: 1921: 1916: 1910: 1905: 1900: 1894: 1888: 1886: 1882: 1877: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1859: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1838: 1837: 1830: 1826: 1816: 1814: 1810: 1804: 1801: 1796: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1776: 1775: 1774:Shuowen Jiezi 1765: 1760: 1754: 1748: 1743: 1739: 1734: 1728: 1722: 1716: 1711: 1710: 1709: 1706: 1701: 1695: 1690: 1680: 1674: 1668: 1663: 1659: 1653: 1647: 1642: 1641: 1640: 1638: 1632: 1629: 1624: 1618: 1613: 1607: 1602: 1596: 1591: 1587:'person' and 1585: 1580: 1574: 1569: 1563: 1561: 1557: 1554: 1550: 1546: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1524: 1515: 1506: 1504: 1500: 1496: 1492: 1491: 1486: 1485: 1480: 1479: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1460: 1458: 1457: 1452: 1451: 1446: 1445: 1439: 1434: 1432: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1411:Shang dynasty 1408: 1404: 1395: 1394: 1390: 1387: 1386: 1380: 1377: 1375: 1374:classic texts 1371: 1369: 1368: 1364: 1363: 1361: 1358: 1357: 1350: 1348: 1344: 1343: 1339: 1337: 1336: 1332: 1331: 1329: 1326: 1325: 1319: 1318: 1313: 1312: 1307: 1306: 1301: 1299: 1296: 1294: 1293: 1289: 1288: 1286: 1278: 1277: 1270: 1268: 1265: 1263: 1262: 1258: 1257: 1255: 1250: 1247: 1246: 1235: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1185: 1181: 1177: 1173: 1169: 1164: 1162: 1158: 1157:Indo-European 1149: 1145: 1142: 1140: 1137: 1131: 1127: 1124: 1123: 1120: 1117: 1115: 1112: 1106: 1102: 1099: 1098: 1095: 1092: 1090: 1087: 1081: 1077: 1074: 1073: 1070: 1067: 1065: 1061: 1058: 1052: 1048: 1045: 1044: 1041: 1037: 1034: 1032: 1029: 1023: 1019: 1016: 1015: 1012: 1009: 1007: 1004: 998: 994: 991: 990: 987: 984: 982: 978: 975: 969: 965: 962: 961: 958: 955: 953: 950: 944: 940: 937: 936: 933: 929: 926: 924: 921: 915: 911: 908: 907: 904: 901: 899: 896: 890: 886: 883: 882: 879: 876: 874: 871: 865: 861: 858: 857: 854: 850: 847: 845: 842: 836: 832: 829: 828: 825: 822: 820: 817: 811: 807: 804: 803: 800: 797: 795: 789: 785: 782: 781: 778: 775: 773: 770: 764: 760: 757: 756: 753: 750: 748: 745: 742: 739: 738: 735: 733: 729: 725: 721: 717: 713: 709: 708:Austroasiatic 705: 701: 697: 687: 685: 680: 676: 675:reduplication 672: 668: 663: 661: 657: 653: 649: 645: 641: 638: 634: 630: 625: 623: 619: 615: 611: 607: 603: 602: 597: 593: 589: 588: 583: 579: 576: 574: 569: 565: 561: 557: 553: 549: 545: 541: 537: 533: 528: 526: 522: 521: 516: 515: 510: 509: 504: 500: 496: 492: 488: 484: 480: 476: 472: 463: 459: 455: 451: 447: 445: 439: 435: 431: 419: 417: 414: 410: 402: 400: 397: 393: 390: 386: 378: 376: 372: 364: 362: 358: 355: 351: 343: 341: 337: 334: 330: 324: 319: 317: 313: 305: 303: 299: 294:Shànggǔ hànyǔ 291: 289: 285: 282: 278: 273: 269: 261: 259: 255: 247: 245: 241: 236: 232: 228: 224: 220: 218: 214: 209: 205: 203: 202: 197: 193: 189: 186: 185:Linguist List 181: 177: 173: 170: 165: 160: 154: 151: 149: 148:Bronze script 146: 144: 141: 140: 138: 134: 128: 120: 117: 116: 115: 112: 111: 110: 106: 102: 96: 93: 89: 85: 81: 77: 74: 70: 67:Ancient China 66: 62: 57: 56: 48: 43: 38: 33: 30: 26: 22: 10435:Hanyu Pinyin 10425:Romanization 10332:Semi-cursive 10177:Old Mandarin 10161: 10134:Stroke count 10061: 10054: 9976:Old National 9819:Unclassified 8724:Southwestern 8557:Northeastern 8539:Major groups 8528: 8470: 8466: 8457: 8438: 8434: 8425: 8401: 8397: 8391: 8386:Miyake, Marc 8363:China portal 8329: 8305: 8286: 8258: 8236: 8210: 8191: 8169: 8150: 8131: 8109: 8087: 8068: 8040: 8036: 8009: 8005: 7996: 7992: 7960: 7956: 7935: 7922: 7918: 7892: 7888: 7862: 7837: 7833: 7811: 7802: 7798: 7774: 7770: 7746: 7732: 7728: 7698: 7694: 7661: 7657: 7638: 7634: 7604: 7585: 7573: 7554: 7535: 7516: 7499:(1): 39–57, 7496: 7492: 7469: 7457: 7445: 7433: 7421: 7409: 7397: 7385: 7339: 7327: 7315: 7303: 7291: 7279: 7267: 7255: 7243: 7231: 7219: 7203: 7187: 7171: 7159: 7147: 7135: 7123: 7111: 7091: 7075: 7063: 7051: 7039: 7027: 7015: 7003: 6991: 6979: 6974:, p. 1. 6967: 6955: 6939: 6927: 6915: 6892:Boltz (1999) 6887: 6867: 6847: 6823: 6807: 6795: 6783: 6771: 6764:Boltz (1999) 6759: 6747: 6735: 6723: 6711: 6699: 6687: 6675: 6646: 6634: 6622: 6610: 6583: 6571: 6559: 6532: 6520: 6508: 6496: 6484: 6472: 6460: 6448: 6436: 6424: 6412: 6400: 6388: 6361: 6349: 6337: 6310: 6298: 6286: 6257: 6213: 6201: 6174: 6132: 6120: 6108: 6096: 6084: 6072: 6060: 6048: 6036: 6024: 6012: 6000: 5988: 5976: 5971:, p. x. 5964: 5952: 5940: 5935:, p. 9. 5928: 5916: 5909:Boltz (1994) 5904: 5892: 5885:Boltz (1999) 5880: 5873:Boltz (1999) 5868: 5856: 5849:Boltz (1994) 5844: 5832: 5825:Boltz (1994) 5820: 5794:Boltz (1999) 5775:Boltz (1999) 5770: 5763:Boltz (1994) 5758: 5751:Boltz (1994) 5746: 5724:Boltz (1999) 5719: 5712:Boltz (1994) 5707: 5695: 5675:, p. 3. 5668: 5656: 5649:Boltz (1999) 5636:, p. 4. 5629: 5617: 5605: 5598:Boltz (1999) 5583:Boltz (1999) 5578: 5573:, p. 1. 5566: 5554: 5542: 5530: 5518: 5506: 5494: 5482: 5470: 5458: 5446: 5430: 5399: 5383: 5367: 5351: 5320: 5289: 5284:, p. 9. 5254: 5238: 5226: 5210: 5171: 5166:, p. 8. 5140: 5124: 5112: 5096: 5049: 5037: 5025: 5013: 5001: 4989: 4977: 4932: 4926: 4912:(1): 26–51. 4909: 4905: 4899: 4887: 4875: 4863: 4839: 4834: 4825: 4813: 4805: 4800: 4747: 4722: 4713: 4704: 4683: 4601: 4594: 4578:*tsak-tsʰrek 4519: 4516:) 'cricket'. 4503:*srjit-srjut 4291: 4284: 4263: 4255: 4246: 4145: 4063:) 'cap' and 4036: 3953:) 'a record' 3910: 3902: 3892: 3885: 3861: 3857: 3849: 3845: 3817: 3811: 3778: 3777:and Burmese 3767: 3747: 3689: 3684: 3677: 3634:Jerry Norman 3632: 3616:Yellow River 3609: 3588:Sino-Tibetan 3581: 3568: 3559: 3553: 3551: 3548: 3545: 3542: 3538: 3535: 3525: 3522: 3514: 3511: 3503: 3500: 3490: 3487: 3472: 3457: 3454:Modification 3435: 3429: 3421: 3419: 3416: 3413: 3410: 3406: 3403: 3395: 3392: 3382: 3379: 3371: 3368: 3360: 3354: 3352: 3349: 3346: 3343: 3339: 3336: 3328: 3325: 3317: 3314: 3306: 3303: 3295: 3292: 3280: 3261: 3253: 3251: 3248: 3245: 3242: 3236: 3233: 3225: 3222: 3214: 3211: 3201: 3198: 3190: 3187: 3179: 3176: 3166: 3163: 3155: 3152: 3144: 3141: 3133: 3130: 3122: 3119: 3063: 3055: 3053: 3050: 3047: 3044: 3040: 3037: 3029: 3026: 3016: 3013: 3005: 3002: 2981: 2970: 2961:Conjunctions 2952:(agent) and 2900: 2868: 2864:prepositions 2852:intransitive 2842:Old Chinese 2841: 2825: 2724: 2680: 2640:. The forms 2603: 2576: 2503: 2485: 2482:Word classes 2476:word classes 2460: 2419:, or a stop 2398: 2353: 2323: 2316: 1881:Li Fang-Kuei 1878: 1865: 1857: 1853: 1834: 1832: 1805: 1790: 1772: 1770: 1685: 1639:strategy"): 1633: 1609:'three' and 1564: 1553:Mesopotamian 1526: 1498: 1488: 1482: 1476: 1461: 1454: 1448: 1442: 1438:Western Zhou 1435: 1415:oracle bones 1400: 1391: 1365: 1346: 1340: 1333: 1315: 1311:Shi (Poetry) 1309: 1303: 1292:Western Zhou 1290: 1267:oracle bones 1259: 1200:Lolo-Burmese 1165: 1161:Austronesian 1154: 1147: 1143: 1138: 1118: 1113: 1093: 1088: 1068: 1063: 1059: 1039: 1035: 1030: 1010: 1005: 985: 980: 976: 956: 951: 931: 927: 922: 902: 897: 877: 872: 852: 848: 843: 823: 818: 798: 776: 771: 743:Old Chinese 693: 667:Sino-Tibetan 664: 626: 618:Southern Min 613: 599: 592:Western Zhou 585: 581: 577: 572: 567: 555: 544:seal scripts 534:, including 529: 518: 512: 506: 505:such as the 499:Zhou dynasty 487:oracle bones 474: 470: 469: 441: 389:Southern Min 340:Romanization 288:Hanyu Pinyin 238:Chinese name 217:Linguasphere 199: 118: 109:Sino-Tibetan 54: 29: 10548:Old Chinese 10504:Xiao'erjing 10366:Punctuation 10359:Traditional 10312:Oracle bone 10296:Logographic 10192:Proto-Hakka 10167:Eastern Han 10162:Old Chinese 10024:Classifiers 9991:Northern Wu 9919:Singaporean 9125: [ 9113: [ 9101: [ 9089: [ 9077: [ 8475:(review of 8443:(review of 8414:(review of 8043:: 274–301, 8012:(1): 7–22, 7895:(2): 1–69, 7805:(1): 61–82. 7701:: 181–206, 7484:Works cited 5622:Behr (2017) 5610:Behr (2017) 5535:Gong (1980) 5423:Hill (2012) 5344:Hill (2012) 5313:Hill (2012) 5282:Hill (2012) 5203:Hill (2012) 5164:Hill (2012) 5117:Hill (2012) 5089:Hill (2012) 4545:*trjuŋ-njit 4522:compounding 4399:shuāngshēng 4142:) 'be king' 3854:palatalized 3820:Tarim Basin 3638:Mei Tsu-lin 3614:and middle 3426:17.1/47/23) 3258:10.1/51/13) 2910:imperatives 2829:classifiers 2236:approximant 1661:'chestnut'. 1560:Maya script 1388:221 BC 1359:476 BC 1327:771 BC 752:Old Burmese 747:Old Tibetan 671:compounding 631:in lacking 536:oracle bone 471:Old Chinese 456:instead of 153:Seal script 119:Old Chinese 35:Old Chinese 10542:Categories 10455:Wade–Giles 10354:Simplified 10249:Vernacular 10242:in Vietnam 10095:Simplified 10082:Biaoxingma 10029:Honorifics 9964:Historical 9909:Philippine 9899:Sichuanese 9826:Badong Yao 9530:Shao–Jiang 9401:Philippine 9209:Xiangxiang 9204:Shuangfeng 8949:Taizhou Wu 8732:Sichuanese 8473:: 155–162. 7925:: 111–116. 7834:T'oung Pao 7260:Sun (2014) 4942:7101015530 4850:References 4488:*pjit-pjut 4465:*ɡreʔ-ɡroʔ 4357:*ʔiwʔ-liwʔ 4313:*ʔjuj-ʔjuj 4078:) 'to cap' 3989:) 'inside' 3899:Affixation 3669:Vietnamese 3596:inflection 3578:Vocabulary 3344:孟子見梁惠王 3278:('this'). 2959:(object). 2880:, such as 2856:adjectives 2848:transitive 2833:Han period 2802:'there is' 2468:inflection 2455:See also: 2407:, a nasal 2341:obstruents 1956:labialized 1945:labialized 1868:, such as 1503:Sinosphere 1261:Late Shang 1180:aspiration 706:branch of 700:Hmong–Mien 640:obstruents 517:, and the 491:Late Shang 302:Wade–Giles 76:Late Shang 10393:Taiwanese 10383:Cantonese 10227:Classical 10187:Proto-Min 10122:Microsoft 9981:Cantonese 9957:Phonology 9938:Cantonese 9929:Singdarin 9914:Malaysian 9904:Taiwanese 9808:Rongjiang 9798:Yongjiang 9794:Southern 9779:Northern 9753:Luo–Guang 9662:Hong Kong 9657:Guangzhou 9613:Taiwanese 9606:Changting 9540:Zhanjiang 9454:Zhongshan 9421:Malaysian 9416:Singapore 9381:Zhangzhou 9333:Zhongshan 9226:Yong–Quan 9122:Jing-Zhan 9052:Xuancheng 9029:Jiangshan 8908:Changzhou 8829:Junjiahua 8682:Guanzhong 8565:Changchun 8332:, BRILL, 8314:186653632 7686:122377268 4959:cite book 4855:Citations 4563:*sjə-mraʔ 4530:*mok-kʷra 3883:Mongolian 3772:proto-Tai 3687:'river'. 3612:Wei River 3606:Loanwords 3584:phonology 3556:3.6/18/4) 3543:不忍人之心 3066:*pjə-wjij 2986:particle 2977:predicate 2902:Particles 2729:, but no 2664:) in the 2241:voiceless 2231:Fricative 2179:voiceless 2104:voiceless 1974:voiceless 1968:affricate 1920:Laryngeal 1819:Phonology 1712:The word 1643:The word 1419:plastrons 1372:received 1125:'poison' 1075:'bitter' 728:Himalayas 656:developed 633:retroflex 614:xingsheng 582:xingsheng 568:xingsheng 556:xingsheng 520:Zuo Zhuan 201:Glottolog 169:ISO 639-3 53:Kang Hou 10477:Bopomofo 10406:Phonetic 10398:Two-cell 10327:Clerical 10237:in Japan 10232:Adoption 10220:Official 10211:Literary 10086:Boshiamy 10063:Xiehouyu 10019:Numerals 9996:Mandarin 9924:Standard 9884:Standard 9758:Qin–Lian 9748:Yong–Xun 9733:Gao–Yang 9679:Jiujiang 9667:Malaysia 9601:Tingzhou 9552:Wenchang 9513:Jianyang 9503:Northern 9462:Sanxiang 9376:Quanzhou 9359:Southern 9328:Manjiang 9192:Changsha 9152:Nanchang 9147:Chang–Du 9044:Xuanzhou 9034:Qingtian 8988:Wencheng 8934:Jiangyin 8929:Jinxiang 8919:Shaoxing 8913:Hangzhou 8893:Shanghai 8834:Qinjiang 8742:Minjiang 8714:Xinjiang 8672:Dongping 8636:Jiaoliao 8575:Shenyang 8548:Mandarin 8454:(2009), 8388:(2001), 8324:(2016), 8257:(2012), 8130:(1999), 8108:(1996), 8067:(1988), 8057:40726203 7987:(1930), 7977:40726172 7933:(1957), 7913:(2014), 7883:(2012), 7633:(1986), 7584:(1994), 7515:(1992), 7210:721h,a; 7178:241a,e; 7082:695h,e; 4951:17030714 4918:23754003 4787:becomes 4448:, as in 4424:*ba-bjək 4382:mínglíng 4372:*meŋ-reŋ 4328:*ljo-ljo 4286:Zhuangzi 4243:) 'long' 3848:(where * 3624:Shandong 3571:adjuncts 3423:Analects 3357:1.1/1/3) 3226:strength 3156:strength 2741:suffix: 2020:aspirate 1933:sibilant 1741:'heart'. 1558:and the 1529:morpheme 1487:and the 1478:Analects 1466:and the 1453:and the 1423:scapulae 1345:, later 1196:Matisoff 1192:Benedict 1017:'joint' 859:'three' 740:Meaning 730:and the 702:and the 573:xiesheng 508:Analects 493:period. 462:Help:IPA 375:Jyutping 223:79-AAA-a 208:shan1294 10376:Braille 10337:Cursive 10287:Scripts 10154:History 10144:ZhengMa 10090:Cangjie 10056:Chengyu 10011:Grammar 9986:Hokkien 9943:Hokkien 9851:Waxiang 9831:Danzhou 9803:Guandao 9788:Younian 9783:Tongdao 9772:Pinghua 9712:Taishan 9628:Raoping 9596:Huizhou 9586:Meixian 9562:Banqiao 9535:Leizhou 9525:Pu–Xian 9520:Central 9508:Jian'ou 9483:Longyan 9431:Teochew 9368:Hokkien 9343:Nanlang 9299:Fu–Ning 9279:Changle 9261:Houguan 9252:Eastern 9199:Loushao 9187:Changyi 9169:Da–Tong 9164:Ying–Yi 9110:Yanzhou 8978:Wenzhou 8971:Oujiang 8962:Tiantai 8957:Taizhou 8866:Zhi–Yan 8813:Nantong 8808:Nanjing 8783:Gui–Liu 8773:Nanping 8768:Kunming 8694:Luoyang 8649:Qingdao 8621:Tianjin 8598:Beijing 8590:Beijing 8069:Chinese 7945:1999753 7919:*Wékwos 7854:4528539 6838:1078h; 5437:1016a; 5245:1032a; 4840:Shijing 4818:Jacques 4806:Shijing 4555:zhōngrì 4513:xīshuài 4367:yǎotiǎo 4270:*ɡa-lep 3940:*drjons 3676:(from * 3646:Yangtze 3628:Yangtze 3554:Mencius 3436:in situ 3411:歲不我與 3369:*swjats 3355:Mencius 3315:*C-rjaŋ 3296:Mencius 3255:Mencius 3223:*C-rjək 3188:*k-ljuŋ 3153:*C-rjək 3045:予惟小子 2984:copular 2973:subject 2870:Adverbs 2539:*lrjəmʔ 2451:Grammar 2174:Lateral 1909:Palatal 1874:Waxiang 1576:'sun', 1484:Mencius 1456:I Ching 1421:and ox 1317:I Ching 1176:voicing 1046:'fish' 963:'name' 918:*C-rjuk 884:'five' 724:Tibetan 720:Burmese 696:Kra–Dai 679:affixes 652:liquids 637:palatal 552:radical 514:Mencius 479:Chinese 458:Unicode 416:Peng'im 413:Teochew 396:Hokkien 114:Sinitic 10445:Postal 10440:MPS II 10317:Bronze 10197:Ba–Shu 10117:Google 10112:Pinyin 10048:Idioms 9861:Yeheni 9743:Wu–Hua 9738:Goulou 9717:Xinhui 9694:Dapeng 9689:Weitou 9674:Xiguan 9649:Yuehai 9618:Sixian 9557:Haikou 9547:Hainan 9478:Zhenan 9444:Haklau 9439:Swatow 9411:Penang 9396:Taiwan 9391:Chawan 9338:Longdu 9307:Ningde 9284:Gutian 9274:Fuqing 9269:Fuzhou 9231:Qiyang 9214:Wugang 9159:Yi–Liu 9086:Xiu-Yi 9074:Ji-She 9024:Quzhou 9016:Chu–Qu 9006:Jinhua 8998:Wuzhou 8983:Rui'an 8924:Ningbo 8898:Suzhou 8788:Wuming 8759:Zigong 8747:Leshan 8709:Lanyin 8704:Dungan 8699:Xuzhou 8677:Gangou 8654:Weihai 8644:Dalian 8603:Taiwan 8570:Harbin 8336: 8312: 8293: 8265: 8243: 8217: 8198: 8176: 8157: 8138: 8116: 8094: 8075: 8055: 7975: 7943: 7869: 7852: 7818: 7758: 7684: 7678:609429 7676: 7645: 7619: 7592: 7561: 7542: 7523: 7098:920f; 7070:943a'. 6950:1023l. 5406:319d; 5358:399e; 5327:981a; 5296:826a; 5261:404a; 5178:648a; 5147:564a; 5131:103a; 4949: 4939: 4916: 4475:xièhòu 4347:diéyùn 4323:wēiwēi 4267:famous 4230:*drjaŋ 4215:*trjaŋ 4129:*wjaŋs 4097:*ʔjəjs 4008:*tjəks 3925:*drjon 3893:tuqšan 3890:Manchu 3846:ḿət(ə) 3753:*zjaŋʔ 3742:*mblau 3680:) and 3515:person 3504:endure 3501:*njənʔ 3234:*ljajʔ 3212:*njəjʔ 3191:centre 3164:*ljajʔ 3142:*njəjʔ 3134:arrive 3131:*tjits 3100:, but 3038:*tsjəʔ 3027:*sjewʔ 2954:*srjaʔ 2862:or as 2615:*njəjʔ 2356:vowels 2279:voiced 2205:voiced 2139:voiced 2060:voiced 1904:Dental 1899:Labial 1866:Qieyun 1854:Qieyun 1836:Qieyun 1509:Script 1499:wenyan 1481:, the 1447:, the 1407:Anyang 1342:Annals 1302:early 1208:merger 1174:, but 1109:*srjat 1100:'kill' 1031:tshigs 992:'ear' 938:'sun' 932:*khruk 909:'six' 839:*njijs 830:'two' 805:'not' 783:'you' 704:Vietic 648:nasals 601:Chu Ci 575:series 542:, and 540:bronze 511:, the 23:, see 10509:Nüshu 10213:forms 10127:Sogou 10074:Input 9948:Hakka 9886:forms 9726:Other 9684:Shiqi 9623:Hailu 9591:Wuhua 9578:Hakka 9496:Other 9471:Other 9406:Pedan 9321:Other 9312:Fu'an 9289:Matsu 9221:Ji–Xu 9179:Xiang 9129:] 9117:] 9105:] 9098:Qi-De 9093:] 9081:] 8939:Shadi 8885:Taihu 8839:Gyami 8822:Other 8778:Wuhan 8687:Xi'an 8626:Jinan 8463:(PDF) 8431:(PDF) 8233:(PDF) 8053:JSTOR 8033:(PDF) 7973:JSTOR 7850:JSTOR 7795:(PDF) 7750:, by 7682:S2CID 7674:JSTOR 7334:633h. 7322:49a'. 7154:160a. 7142:550a. 7130:160a. 5811:952; 5792:403; 5390:49u; 5374:79a; 5217:58a; 5103:94j; 5056:58f; 4914:JSTOR 4672:Shang 4651:Notes 4613:*mjut 4604:*pjut 4588:zuòcè 4540:mùguā 4419:cēncī 4303:diézì 4280:húdié 4240:cháng 4225:zhāng 4198:*ɡraw 4183:*kraw 4166:*ɡens 4151:*kens 4114:*wjaŋ 4082:*ʔjəj 4065:*kons 4030:thags 4024:ʼthag 3993:*tjək 3976:*nups 3974:< 3972:*nuts 3950:zhuàn 3935:chuán 3886:tuɣul 3831:*mjit 3763:xiàng 3703:*ʔjaŋ 3678:krong 3664:jiāng 3654:*kroŋ 3539:heart 3536:*sjəm 3512:*njin 3432:topic 3404:*ljaʔ 3393:*ŋajʔ 3337:*wjaŋ 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