670:
469:
worked to determine what qualities make a "good language learner". Some of their common findings are that a good language learner uses positive learning strategies, is an active learner who is constantly searching for meaning. Also a good language learner demonstrates a willingness to practice and use the language in real communication. He also monitors himself and his learning, has a strong drive to communicate, and has a good ear and good listening skills.
306:"recasts", the teacher repeating a student's incorrect utterance with the correct version, are not always the most useful because students do not notice the correction. His studies in 2002 showed that students learn better when teachers help students recognize and correct their own errors. Mackey, Gas and McDonough had similar findings in 2000 and attributed the success of this method to the student's active participation in the corrective processes.
67:
2287:
244:, "Adults proceed through early stages of syntactic and morphological development faster than children (where time and exposure are held constant)". Also, "older children acquire faster than younger children do (again, in early stages of morphological and syntactic development where time and exposure are held constant)". In other words, adults and older children are fast learners when it comes to the initial stage of foreign language education.
252:
to Brian A. Jacob, multicultural education affects students' "relations, attitudes, and behaviors". And as children learn more and more foreign languages, children start to adapt, and get absorbed into the foreign culture that they "undertake to describe themselves in ways that engage with representations others have made". Due to such factors, learning foreign languages at an early age may incur one's perspective of his or her native country.
236:. Before a child goes through puberty, the chemical processes in the brain are more geared towards language and social communication. Whereas after puberty, the ability for learning a language without an accent has been rerouted to function in another area of the brain—most likely in the frontal lobe area promoting cognitive functions, or in the neural system of hormone allocated for reproduction and sexual organ growth.
492:
512:
152:
analysis, stages and order of acquisition, structuralism (approach that looks at how the basic units of language relate to each other according to their common characteristics), 1st language acquisition studies, contrastive analysis (approach where languages are examined in terms of differences and similarities) and inter-language (which describes the L2 learner's language as a rule-governed, dynamic system).
334:
the emotions more when they perceive these emotions by their first language/native language/L1, but feel less emotional when by their second language even though they know the meaning of words clearly. The emotional distinction between L1 and L2 indicates that the "effective valence" of words is processed less immediate in L2 because of the delayed vocabulary/lexical access to these two languages.
538:, a distinction is made between second language and foreign language, the latter is being learned for use in an area where that language is originally from another country and not spoken in the native country of the speakers. And in other words, foreign language is used from the perspective of countries; the second language is used from the perspective of individuals.
42:. A speaker's dominant language, which is the language a speaker uses most or is most comfortable with, is not necessarily the speaker's first language. For example, the Canadian census defines first language for its purposes as "the first language learned in childhood and still spoken", recognizing that for some, the earliest language may be lost, a process known as
322:. And second language learners can do this by applying the rules they learn to the sentence-construction, for example. So learners in both their native and second language have knowledge that goes beyond what they have received, so that people can make correct utterances (phrases, sentences, questions, etc) that they have never learned or heard before.
188:(highly influenced by Krashen's theories). Some of these approaches are more popular than others, and are viewed to be more effective. Most language teachers do not use one singular style, but will use a mix in their teaching. This provides a more balanced approach to teaching and helps students of a variety of learning styles succeed.
287:
end up having the capacity to figure out the grammatical rules. Error correction does not seem to have a direct influence on learning a second language. Instruction may affect the rate of learning, but the stages remain the same. Adolescents and adults who know the rule are faster than those who do not.
362:
For L2 pronunciation, there are two principles that have been put forth by Levis. The first is nativeness which means the speaker's ability to approximately reach the speaking pattern of the second language of speakers; and the second, understanding, refers to the speaker's ability to make themselves
290:
In the learning of a second language the correction of errors remains a controversial topic with many differing schools of thought. Throughout the last century much advancement has been made in research on the correction of students' errors. In the 1950s and 60s, the viewpoint of the day was that all
277:
structures, and the process is relatively very fast because language is a very complex skill. Moreover, if children start to learn a second language when they are seven years old or younger, they will also be fully fluent with their second language in a faster speed comparing to the speed of learning
239:
As far as the relationship between age and eventual attainment in SLA is concerned, Krashen, Long, and
Scarcella, say that people who encounter foreign language in early age, begin natural exposure to second languages and obtain better proficiency than those who learn the second language as an adult.
124:
Research in SLA "...focuses on the developing knowledge and use of a language by children and adults who already know at least one other language... a knowledge of second-language acquisition may help educational policy makers set more realistic goals for programmes for both foreign language courses
112:
a language is a conscious one. In the former, the student needs to partake in natural communicative situations. In the latter, error correction is present, as is the study of grammatical rules isolated from natural language. Not all educators in second language agree to this distinction; however, the
333:
has been an advantage to today's world and being bilingual gives the opportunity to understand and communicate with people with different cultural backgrounds. However, a study done by Optiz and Degner in 2012 shows that sequential bilinguals (i.e. learn their L2 after L1) often relate themselves to
305:
The 1990s brought back the familiar idea that explicit grammar instruction and error correction was indeed useful for the SLA process. At this time, more research started to be undertaken to determine exactly which kinds of corrections are the most useful for students. In 1998, Lyster concluded that
286:
In the first language, children do not respond to systematic correction. Furthermore, children who have limited input still acquire the first language, which is a significant difference between input and output. Children are exposed to a language environment of errors and lack of correction but they
251:
As for the fluency, it is better to do foreign language education at an early age, but being exposed to a foreign language since an early age causes a "weak identification". Such issue leads to a "double sense of national belonging," that makes one not sure of where they belong to because, according
301:
In the 1980s, the strict grammar and corrective approach of the 1950s became obsolete. Researchers asserted that correction was often unnecessary and that instead of furthering students' learning it was hindering them. The main concern at this time was relieving student stress and creating a warm
468:
Being successful in learning a second language is often found to be challenging for some individuals. Research has been done to look into why some students are more successful than others. Stern, Rubin and Reiss are just a few of the researchers who have dedicated time to this subject. They have
247:
Gauthier and
Genesee have done research which mainly focuses on the second language acquisition of internationally adopted children and results show that early experiences of one language of children can affect their ability to acquire a second language, and usually children learn their second
151:
Other dominant theories and points of research include 2nd language acquisition studies (which examine if L1 findings can be transferred to L2 learning), verbal behaviour (the view that constructed linguistic stimuli can create a desired speech response), morpheme studies, behaviourism, error
476:
and second language acquisition. They looked at four types of motivations—intrinsic (inner feelings of learner), extrinsic (reward from outside), integrative (attitude towards learning), and instrumental (practical needs). According to the test results, the intrinsic part has been the main
713:
George H. J. Weber, a Swiss businessman and independent scholar, founder of the
Andaman Association and creator of the encyclopedic andaman.org Web site, made a report in December 1997 about the number of secondary speakers of the world's leading languages. Weber used the
297:
In 1977, Terrell"s studies showing that there were more factors to be considered in the classroom than the cognitive processing of the students. He contested that the affective side of students and their self-esteem were equally important to the teaching process.
346:
be successful in both measurements. It is inevitable that all people will learn a first language and with few exceptions, they will be fully successful. For second language learners, success is not guaranteed. For one, learners may become fossilized or
718:
of 1986 as his primary and only source for the L2-speakers data, in preparing the data in the following table. These numbers are here compared with those referred to by
Ethnologue, a popular source in the linguistics field. See below Table 1.
477:
motivation for these student who learn
English as their second language. However, students report themselves being strongly instrumentally motivated. In conclusion, learning a second language and being successful depend on every individual.
229:(AO). Later, Hyltenstam & Abrahamsson modified their age cut-offs to argue that after childhood, in general, it becomes more and more difficult to acquire native-like-ness, but that there is no cut-off point in particular.
224:
but their language would, while consisting of few actual errors, have enough errors to set them apart from the L1 group. The inability of some subjects to achieve native-like proficiency must be seen in relation to the
208:
or used by its speaker after puberty. In most cases, people never achieve the same level of fluency and comprehension in their second languages as in their first language. These views are closely associated with the
318:, children will bridge the gap between input and output by their innate grammar because the input (utterances they hear) is so poor but all children end up having complete knowledge of grammar. Chomsky calls it the
155:
These theories have all influenced second-language teaching and pedagogy. There are many different methods of second-language teaching, many of which stem directly from a particular theory. Common methods are the
294:
In the 1970s, Dulay and Burt's studies showed that learners acquire grammar forms and structures in a pre-determined, inalterable order, and that teaching or correcting styles would not change that.
1864:
Johnson, Jacqueline; Newport, Elissa (January 1989). "Critical period effects in second language learning: The influence of maturational state on the acquisition of
English as a second language".
640:
due to the lack of opportunities for use, such as historical links, media, conversation between people, and common vocabulary. Likewise, French would be considered a foreign language in
1523:
597:, although French is not an official language in any of them. In practice, French is widely used in a variety of contexts in these countries, and signs are normally printed in both
269:
in it, although with practice considerable fluency can be achieved. However, children by around the age of 5 have more or less mastered their first language with the exception of
2057:
355:
occurs when language errors become a permanent feature.) The difference between learners may be significant. As noted elsewhere, L2 learners rarely achieve complete
889:
Collecting the number of second language speakers of every language is extremely difficult and even the best estimates contain guess work. The data below are from
265:
Acquiring a second language can be a lifelong learning process for many. Despite persistent efforts, most learners of a second language will never become fully
1767:
Gauthier, Karine; Genesee, Fred (March 2011). "Language
Development in Internationally Adopted Children: A Special Case of Early Second Language Learning".
2175:
2002:
Mollica, A.; Neussel, F. (1997). "The good language learner and the good language teacher: A review of the literature and classroom applications".
1746:
196:
The defining difference between a first language (L1) and a second language (L2) is the age the person learned the language. For example, linguist
232:
As we are learning more and more about the brain, there is a hypothesis that when a child is going through puberty, that is the time that accents
1531:
291:
errors must be corrected at all costs. Little thought went to students' feelings or self-esteem in regards to this constant correction.
1901:
Krashen, Stephen D.; Long, Michael A.; Scarcella, Robin C. (1979). "Age, Rate and
Eventual Attainment in Second Language Acquisition".
1598:
1572:
884:
1694:
61:
1333:
473:
1553:
573:
is considered a second language by many of its speakers, because they learn it young and use it regularly; indeed in parts of
1481:
1417:
1244:
2016:
1110:
1953:
1709:
Canale, M.; Swain, M. (1980). "Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing".
2245:
1813:
1804:
Hyltenstam, K.; Abrahamsson, N. (2003). "Maturational
Constraints in SLA". In Doughty, C. J.; Long, M. H. (eds.).
144:
of sorts in the brain contains innate knowledge. Many psychological theories, on the other hand, hypothesize that
181:
38:(L1). A second language may be a neighbouring language, another language of the speaker's home country, or a
2215:
Selinker, Larry; Lamendella, John T. (1978). "Two perspectives on fossilization in interlanguage learning".
1105:
1100:
2160:
342:
Success in language learning can be measured in two ways: likelihood and quality. First language learners
302:
environment for them. Stephen
Krashen was a big proponent in this hands-off approach to error correction.
216:
In acquiring an L2, Hyltenstam found that around the age of six or seven seemed to be a cut-off point for
1624:
352:
241:
177:
55:
2161:"Corrective feedback, over a decade of research since Lyster and Ranta (1997): Where do we stand today?"
2277:
1944:
Mitchell, Rosamond; Myles, Florence (2004). "The recent history of second language learning research".
210:
157:
1931:
161:
1977:
2236:
Spada, Nina; Lightbown, Patsy M. (2010) . "Second Language Acquisition". In Norbert Schmitt (ed.).
1590:
Fig 6. "number of secondary speakers" is based on a table given in Fischer Weltalamanach [
1963:
Levis, John (Autumn 2005). "Changing Contexts and Shifting Paradigms in Pronunciation Teaching".
472:Ă–zgĂĽr and Griffiths have designed an experiment in 2013 about the relationship between different
319:
145:
20:
1972:
185:
1740:
78:
2035:
1602:
1576:
715:
688:
205:
165:
1651:"National Identity and Attitude Toward Foreigners in a Multinational State: A Replication"
46:. This can happen when young children start school or move to a new language environment.
8:
1825:"Defining Culture in a Multicultural Environment: An Ethnography of Heritage High School"
835:
765:
89:
2224:
2147:
2111:
2047:
1990:
1918:
1889:
1852:
1844:
1792:
1690:
1670:
1120:
602:
520:
74:
43:
255:
2307:
2241:
2039:
1949:
1881:
1877:
1856:
1809:
1784:
1780:
863:
649:
578:
125:
and the learning of the majority language by minority language children and adults."
1893:
1337:
2264:
2203:
2139:
2088:
2052:
2031:
1982:
1910:
1873:
1836:
1796:
1776:
1726:
1718:
1662:
1557:
807:
779:
751:
737:
622:
566:
542:
535:
516:
504:
496:
486:
39:
168:(clearly influenced by audio-lingual research and the behaviourist approach), the
2291:
2207:
2093:
2076:
849:
821:
793:
653:
598:
582:
500:
217:
97:
2255:
Stern, H. H. (March 1975). "What Can We Learn from the Good Language Learner?".
197:
101:
35:
2301:
524:
173:
1666:
507:(30 million learners) are the three most commonly studied foreign languages.
2043:
1788:
1722:
330:
315:
82:
2268:
1885:
220:
to achieve native-like proficiency. After that age, L2 learners could get
570:
562:
2228:
2115:
2103:
2151:
1994:
1922:
1848:
1824:
1731:
1674:
1650:
626:
618:
614:
610:
574:
558:
270:
169:
133:
129:
70:
1268:
1266:
66:
2130:
Rubin, Joan (1975). "What the "Good Language Learner" Can Teach Us".
1115:
633:
554:
85:
2143:
1986:
1914:
1290:
278:
by adults who start to learn a second language later in their life.
2286:
1840:
1263:
550:
531:
256:
Similarities and differences between learned and native proficiency
459:
rarely fully successful (if learning starts after Critical Period)
1251:
652:, Romania's historical links to France, and all being members of
645:
641:
606:
594:
590:
586:
581:
of the courts, government and business. The same can be said for
491:
274:
1196:
511:
240:
However, when it comes to the relationship between age and rate
1220:
1616:
1493:
1491:
637:
546:
1754:
Doggett, G (1994). "Eight Approaches to Language Teaching".
1145:
890:
248:
language slower and weaker even during the critical period.
148:, responsible for much of human learning, process language.
1278:
96:
The distinction between acquiring and learning was made by
2017:"Emotionality in a second language: It's a matter of time"
1503:
1488:
1351:
1592:
515:
Spanish taught as a second language to a class of native
1157:
1649:
Beerten, Roeland; Billiet, Jaak; Maddens, Bart (2003).
1388:
1933:
Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition
1378:
1376:
1374:
1372:
1370:
1368:
1366:
2275:
1803:
1648:
1296:
1257:
1232:
1202:
1900:
1302:
1272:
1226:
897:
The world's most spoken language by native speakers
1363:
1314:
1186:
1184:
992:The world's most spoken language by total speakers
625:can be considered a second language, and there are
16:
Language spoken in addition to one's first language
2214:
2075:Ă–zgĂĽr, Burcu; Griffiths, Carol (25 January 2013).
1427:
1169:
1133:
1469:
1457:
1445:
1433:
1336:. globe1234.com. January 17, 2012. Archived from
2299:
1208:
1181:
2168:Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching
1766:
1284:
367:Similarities and differences between L2 and L1
128:SLA has been influenced by both linguistic and
2235:
2074:
2001:
1863:
1509:
1497:
1357:
1151:
636:, English is considered a foreign language in
49:
2015:Opitz, Bertram; Degner, Juliane (July 2012).
1943:
1655:International Society of Political Psychology
1524:"The world's languages, in 7 maps and charts"
1243:sfn error: no target: CITEREFHyltenstam1992 (
1163:
1745:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of June 2024 (
1522:Noack, Rick; Gamio, Lazaro (23 April 2015).
108:of a language is a natural process; whereas
34:) is a language spoken in addition to one's
2196:International Review of Applied Linguistics
2014:
1835:(4). University of Chicago Press: 339–376.
1806:The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition
1708:
1573:"The World's 10 most influential Languages"
1416:harv error: no target: CITEREFJohnson1992 (
1407:
1394:
648:, even though both French and Romanian are
601:and French. A similar phenomenon exists in
436:more emotional when perceiving words by L1
1554:"The World's Most Widely Spoken Languages"
1521:
1238:
433:less emotional when perceiving words by L2
2092:
2081:Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences
2051:
1976:
1730:
2193:
1480:sfn error: no target: CITEREFReiss1985 (
1423:
885:Lists of languages by number of speakers
669:
510:
490:
65:
2158:
1929:
1753:
1411:
1382:
1175:
1139:
1126:
77:shows students' efforts at placing the
62:Theories of second-language acquisition
2300:
2238:An Introduction to Applied Linguistics
2194:Selinker, L. (1972). "Interlanguage".
2110:. Modern Language Association: 33–40.
2036:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.04.021
351:as it were with ungrammatical items. (
2254:
2129:
2101:
1962:
1822:
1475:
1463:
1451:
1439:
1320:
1308:
1214:
1190:
730:
727:
309:
1808:. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell.
663:
1601:. 1986. p. 910. Archived from
1297:Beerten, Billiet & Maddens 2003
1203:Beerten, Billiet & Maddens 2003
1111:Computer-assisted language learning
480:
13:
2181:from the original on 20 April 2017
1688:
1273:Krashen, Long & Scarcella 1979
1227:Krashen, Long & Scarcella 1979
731:L2 speakers (Ethnologue.com 2023)
495:A German student learning French.
113:study of how a second language is
14:
2319:
1946:Second Language Learning Theories
1258:Hyltenstam & Abrahamsson 2003
708:
399:systematic stages of development
2285:
1948:(2 ed.). Hodder Education.
1781:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01578.x
668:
396:systematic stages of development
359:control of the second language.
191:
2257:Canadian Modern Language Review
2063:from the original on 2020-08-06
1697:from the original on 2022-01-20
1642:
1627:from the original on 2019-03-24
1609:
1584:
1565:
1546:
1515:
1400:
1326:
728:L2 speakers (Weltalmanach 1986)
325:
206:a language consciously acquired
2217:Interlanguage Studies Bulletin
1428:Selinker & Lamendella 1978
182:Total Physical Response method
132:theories. One of the dominant
1:
1829:American Journal of Education
878:
385:slower than acquisition of L1
281:
136:theories hypothesizes that a
2208:10.1515/iral.1972.10.1-4.209
2094:10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.01.165
2077:"Second Language Motivation"
1878:10.1016/0010-0285(89)90003-0
1581:(reference for entire table)
1562:(reference for entire table)
1106:Foreign language reading aid
1101:Foreign language writing aid
679:appears to contradict itself
627:large Russophone communities
104:. According to Krashen, the
7:
1617:"The most spoken languages"
1285:Gauthier & Genesee 2011
1094:
178:community language learning
119:second-language acquisition
56:Second-language acquisition
50:Second-language acquisition
10:
2324:
2159:Russell, Victoria (2009).
2104:"Arts of the Contact Zone"
1510:Ă–zgĂĽr & Griffiths 2013
1498:Mollica & Neussel 1997
1358:Johnson & Newport 1989
1152:Spada & Lightbown 2010
882:
503:(82 million learners) and
484:
425:beyond the level of input
337:
211:critical period hypothesis
158:grammar-translation method
59:
53:
19:For the album by XXX, see
18:
1823:Jacob, Brian (Aug 1995).
1164:Mitchell & Myles 2004
683:on the number of speakers
444:not inevitable (possible
422:beyond the level of input
519:speakers at an American
499:(1.5 billion learners),
260:
1725:(inactive 2024-06-10).
1667:10.1111/0162-895X.00327
1599:"Fischer Weltalamanach"
1408:Canale & Swain 1980
1395:Opitz & Degner 2012
659:
21:Second Language (album)
1930:Krashen, S.D. (1982).
527:
508:
186:communicative approach
93:
2269:10.3138/cmlr.31.4.304
691:for more information.
545:in countries such as
514:
494:
388:acquisition is rapid
222:near-native-like-ness
69:
60:Further information:
2240:. Hodder Education.
2102:Pratt, Mary (1991).
1866:Cognitive Psychology
1723:10.1093/applin/1.1.1
1127:Notes and references
716:Fischer Weltalmanach
166:audio-lingual method
146:cognitive mechanisms
1939:. Oxford: Pergamon.
1711:Applied Linguistics
1528:The Washington Post
1000:speakers (million)
993:
905:Speakers (million)
898:
632:However, unlike in
419:Depth of knowledge
368:
320:Poverty of Stimulus
90:Spanish orthography
1121:Language education
991:
896:
603:post-Soviet states
528:
509:
366:
310:Depth of knowledge
117:is referred to as
94:
44:language attrition
1769:Child Development
1092:
1091:
989:
988:
893:as of June 2013.
876:
875:
706:
705:
650:Romance languages
579:official language
466:
465:
404:Error correction
73:used in class at
2315:
2290:
2289:
2281:
2272:
2251:
2232:
2211:
2202:(1–4): 209–241.
2190:
2188:
2186:
2180:
2165:
2155:
2126:
2124:
2122:
2098:
2096:
2071:
2069:
2068:
2062:
2055:
2030:(8): 1961–1967.
2024:Neuropsychologia
2021:
2011:
1998:
1980:
1959:
1940:
1938:
1926:
1897:
1860:
1819:
1800:
1763:
1750:
1744:
1736:
1734:
1705:
1703:
1702:
1685:
1683:
1681:
1636:
1635:
1633:
1632:
1613:
1607:
1606:
1588:
1582:
1580:
1575:. Archived from
1569:
1563:
1561:
1556:. Archived from
1550:
1544:
1543:
1541:
1539:
1530:. Archived from
1519:
1513:
1507:
1501:
1495:
1486:
1485:
1473:
1467:
1461:
1455:
1449:
1443:
1437:
1431:
1421:
1404:
1398:
1392:
1386:
1380:
1361:
1355:
1349:
1348:
1346:
1345:
1330:
1324:
1318:
1312:
1306:
1300:
1294:
1288:
1282:
1276:
1270:
1261:
1255:
1249:
1248:
1236:
1230:
1224:
1218:
1212:
1206:
1200:
1194:
1188:
1179:
1173:
1167:
1161:
1155:
1149:
1143:
1137:
1069:Malay/Indonesian
1061:Bengali/Sylhetti
994:
990:
899:
895:
722:
721:
701:
698:
692:
672:
671:
664:
567:Nordic countries
536:sociolinguistics
487:Foreign language
481:Foreign language
369:
365:
115:learned/acquired
40:foreign language
2323:
2322:
2318:
2317:
2316:
2314:
2313:
2312:
2298:
2297:
2296:
2284:
2276:
2248:
2184:
2182:
2178:
2163:
2144:10.2307/3586011
2132:TESOL Quarterly
2120:
2118:
2066:
2064:
2060:
2019:
1987:10.2307/3588485
1978:10.1.1.466.9352
1965:TESOL Quarterly
1956:
1936:
1915:10.2307/3586451
1903:TESOL Quarterly
1816:
1738:
1737:
1700:
1698:
1679:
1677:
1645:
1640:
1639:
1630:
1628:
1615:
1614:
1610:
1597:
1589:
1585:
1571:
1570:
1566:
1552:
1551:
1547:
1537:
1535:
1534:on 12 July 2015
1520:
1516:
1508:
1504:
1496:
1489:
1479:
1474:
1470:
1462:
1458:
1450:
1446:
1438:
1434:
1415:
1405:
1401:
1393:
1389:
1381:
1364:
1356:
1352:
1343:
1341:
1332:
1331:
1327:
1319:
1315:
1307:
1303:
1295:
1291:
1283:
1279:
1271:
1264:
1256:
1252:
1242:
1239:Hyltenstam 1992
1237:
1233:
1225:
1221:
1213:
1209:
1201:
1197:
1189:
1182:
1174:
1170:
1162:
1158:
1150:
1146:
1138:
1134:
1129:
1097:
887:
881:
866:
711:
702:
696:
693:
687:Please see the
686:
673:
662:
654:la Francophonie
489:
483:
340:
328:
312:
284:
263:
258:
202:second language
194:
100:as part of his
98:Stephen Krashen
64:
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28:second language
24:
17:
12:
11:
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2321:
2311:
2310:
2295:
2294:
2274:
2273:
2263:(4): 304–318.
2252:
2246:
2233:
2223:(2): 143–191.
2212:
2191:
2156:
2127:
2099:
2072:
2012:
1999:
1971:(3): 369–377.
1960:
1955:978-0340807668
1954:
1941:
1927:
1909:(4): 573–582.
1898:
1861:
1841:10.1086/444107
1820:
1814:
1801:
1775:(3): 887–901.
1764:
1751:
1706:
1686:
1661:(2): 241–257.
1644:
1641:
1638:
1637:
1608:
1605:on 2013-05-07.
1583:
1579:on 2013-05-07.
1564:
1560:on 2013-12-31.
1545:
1514:
1502:
1487:
1468:
1456:
1444:
1432:
1399:
1387:
1362:
1350:
1334:"Good Accents"
1325:
1313:
1311:, p. 364.
1301:
1299:, p. 241.
1289:
1277:
1275:, p. 573.
1262:
1250:
1231:
1219:
1207:
1195:
1180:
1168:
1156:
1154:, p. 108.
1144:
1131:
1130:
1128:
1125:
1124:
1123:
1118:
1113:
1108:
1103:
1096:
1093:
1090:
1089:
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1081:
1078:
1074:
1073:
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1062:
1058:
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1050:
1049:
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1042:
1041:
1038:
1034:
1033:
1030:
1026:
1025:
1022:
1018:
1017:
1014:
1010:
1009:
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987:
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979:
978:
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970:
967:
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954:
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935:
931:
930:
927:
923:
922:
919:
915:
914:
911:
907:
906:
903:
891:ethnologue.com
880:
877:
874:
873:
870:
867:
859:
858:
855:
852:
845:
844:
841:
838:
831:
830:
827:
824:
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813:
810:
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802:
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796:
789:
788:
785:
782:
775:
774:
771:
768:
761:
760:
757:
754:
747:
746:
745:1.077 billion
743:
740:
733:
732:
729:
726:
710:
709:Weber's report
707:
704:
703:
676:
674:
667:
661:
658:
521:private school
485:Main article:
482:
479:
464:
463:
460:
457:
453:
452:
449:
442:
438:
437:
434:
431:
427:
426:
423:
420:
416:
415:
412:
405:
401:
400:
397:
394:
390:
389:
386:
383:
379:
378:
375:
372:
339:
336:
327:
324:
311:
308:
283:
280:
262:
259:
257:
254:
198:Eric Lenneberg
193:
190:
102:Monitor Theory
54:Main article:
51:
48:
36:first language
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2320:
2309:
2306:
2305:
2303:
2293:
2288:
2283:
2282:
2279:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2253:
2249:
2247:9780340984475
2243:
2239:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2192:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2162:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2128:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2100:
2095:
2090:
2087:: 1109–1114.
2086:
2082:
2078:
2073:
2059:
2054:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2018:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1979:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1961:
1957:
1951:
1947:
1942:
1935:
1934:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1821:
1817:
1815:1-4051-3281-7
1811:
1807:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1752:
1748:
1742:
1733:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1707:
1696:
1692:
1687:
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1672:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1656:
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1647:
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1626:
1622:
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1612:
1604:
1600:
1595:
1594:
1587:
1578:
1574:
1568:
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1533:
1529:
1525:
1518:
1511:
1506:
1499:
1494:
1492:
1483:
1477:
1472:
1465:
1460:
1453:
1448:
1441:
1436:
1429:
1425:
1424:Selinker 1972
1419:
1413:
1409:
1403:
1396:
1391:
1384:
1379:
1377:
1375:
1373:
1371:
1369:
1367:
1359:
1354:
1340:on 2013-10-05
1339:
1335:
1329:
1323:, p. 35.
1322:
1317:
1310:
1305:
1298:
1293:
1286:
1281:
1274:
1269:
1267:
1259:
1254:
1246:
1240:
1235:
1228:
1223:
1216:
1211:
1204:
1199:
1192:
1187:
1185:
1177:
1172:
1165:
1160:
1153:
1148:
1141:
1136:
1132:
1122:
1119:
1117:
1114:
1112:
1109:
1107:
1104:
1102:
1099:
1098:
1087:
1084:
1083:
1079:
1076:
1075:
1071:
1068:
1067:
1063:
1060:
1059:
1055:
1052:
1051:
1047:
1044:
1043:
1039:
1036:
1035:
1031:
1028:
1027:
1023:
1020:
1019:
1015:
1012:
1011:
1007:
1004:
1003:
999:
996:
995:
984:
981:
980:
976:
973:
972:
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964:
960:
957:
956:
952:
949:
948:
944:
941:
940:
936:
933:
932:
928:
925:
924:
920:
917:
916:
912:
909:
908:
904:
901:
900:
894:
892:
886:
871:
868:
865:
861:
860:
856:
853:
851:
847:
846:
842:
839:
837:
833:
832:
828:
825:
823:
819:
818:
814:
811:
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805:
804:
800:
797:
795:
791:
790:
786:
783:
781:
777:
776:
772:
769:
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763:
762:
758:
755:
753:
749:
748:
744:
741:
739:
735:
734:
724:
723:
720:
717:
700:
697:December 2021
690:
684:
680:
677:This section
675:
666:
665:
657:
655:
651:
647:
643:
639:
635:
630:
628:
624:
620:
616:
612:
608:
604:
600:
596:
592:
588:
584:
580:
576:
572:
568:
564:
560:
556:
552:
548:
544:
541:For example,
539:
537:
533:
526:
525:Massachusetts
522:
518:
513:
506:
502:
498:
493:
488:
478:
475:
470:
461:
458:
455:
454:
450:
447:
446:fossilization
443:
440:
439:
435:
432:
430:Emotionality
429:
428:
424:
421:
418:
417:
414:not involved
413:
410:
406:
403:
402:
398:
395:
392:
391:
387:
384:
381:
380:
376:
373:
371:
370:
364:
360:
358:
354:
353:Fossilization
350:
345:
335:
332:
323:
321:
317:
314:According to
307:
303:
299:
295:
292:
288:
279:
276:
272:
268:
253:
249:
245:
243:
237:
235:
230:
228:
223:
219:
214:
212:
207:
203:
199:
192:Effect of age
189:
187:
183:
179:
175:
174:Suggestopedia
171:
167:
163:
162:direct method
159:
153:
149:
147:
143:
139:
135:
131:
130:psychological
126:
122:
120:
116:
111:
107:
103:
99:
91:
87:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
63:
57:
47:
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
22:
2260:
2256:
2237:
2220:
2216:
2199:
2195:
2183:. Retrieved
2174:(1): 21–31.
2171:
2167:
2138:(1): 41–51.
2135:
2131:
2119:. Retrieved
2107:
2084:
2080:
2065:. Retrieved
2027:
2023:
2007:
2003:
1968:
1964:
1945:
1932:
1906:
1902:
1872:(1): 60–99.
1869:
1865:
1832:
1828:
1805:
1772:
1768:
1759:
1755:
1741:cite journal
1714:
1710:
1699:. Retrieved
1678:. Retrieved
1658:
1654:
1643:Bibliography
1629:. Retrieved
1620:
1611:
1603:the original
1591:
1586:
1577:the original
1567:
1558:the original
1548:
1536:. Retrieved
1532:the original
1527:
1517:
1505:
1471:
1459:
1447:
1435:
1412:Johnson 1992
1402:
1390:
1383:Russell 2009
1353:
1342:. Retrieved
1338:the original
1328:
1316:
1304:
1292:
1280:
1253:
1234:
1222:
1210:
1198:
1176:Doggett 1994
1171:
1159:
1147:
1140:Krashen 1982
1135:
888:
872:0.2 million
829:274 million
815:108 million
801:229 million
773:266 million
759:199 million
712:
694:
682:
678:
631:
540:
529:
471:
467:
456:Success (2)
445:
441:Success (1)
408:
363:understood.
361:
356:
348:
343:
341:
331:Bilingualism
329:
326:Emotionality
316:Noam Chomsky
313:
304:
300:
296:
293:
289:
285:
266:
264:
250:
246:
238:
233:
231:
227:age of onset
226:
221:
215:
201:
195:
154:
150:
141:
137:
127:
123:
118:
114:
109:
105:
95:
83:acute accent
31:
27:
25:
1732:11059/14798
1717:(1): 1–47.
1689:Canale, M.
857:58 million
843:27 million
812:125 million
798:270 million
787:74 million
770:150 million
742:190 million
571:Netherlands
563:Philippines
474:motivations
462:successful
451:inevitable
411:influential
357:native-like
275:grammatical
267:native-like
106:acquisition
2108:Profession
2067:2019-09-24
2010:(3): 1–16.
1762:(2): 8–12.
1701:2019-05-16
1691:"Canale M"
1680:4 February
1631:2013-06-30
1621:Ethnologue
1476:Reiss 1985
1464:Rubin 1975
1452:Stern 1975
1440:Levis 2005
1344:2013-08-23
1321:Pratt 1991
1309:Jacob 1995
1215:Jacob 1995
1191:Pratt 1991
1077:Portuguese
1021:Hindi-Urdu
958:Portuguese
934:Hindi-Urdu
883:See also:
879:Later data
854:80 million
840:28 million
836:Portuguese
826:21 million
784:20 million
766:Hindi-Urdu
756:20 million
619:Kazakhstan
615:Kyrgyzstan
611:Uzbekistan
577:it is the
575:South Asia
559:Bangladesh
282:Correction
273:and a few
271:vocabulary
218:bilinguals
184:, and the
170:Silent Way
134:linguistic
86:diacritics
71:Blackboard
2121:11 August
1973:CiteSeerX
1857:143732020
1116:Diglossia
869:8 million
689:talk page
634:Hong Kong
555:Sri Lanka
79:diaeresis
2308:Language
2302:Category
2292:Language
2229:43136004
2176:Archived
2116:25595469
2058:Archived
2044:22569217
1894:15842890
1789:21413938
1695:Archived
1625:Archived
1426:), and (
1095:See also
1085:Japanese
1013:Mandarin
997:Language
982:Javanese
974:Japanese
910:Mandarin
902:Language
864:Japanese
752:Mandarin
725:Language
621:, where
605:such as
569:and the
551:Pakistan
532:pedagogy
409:directly
204:to mean
110:learning
88:used in
2152:3586011
2053:1625668
1995:3588485
1923:3586451
1886:2920538
1849:1085750
1797:8903620
1675:3792350
1596:].
1037:Russian
1029:Spanish
1005:English
966:Russian
942:Bengali
926:English
918:Spanish
808:Russian
780:Spanish
738:English
646:Moldova
642:Romania
623:Russian
607:Ukraine
595:Tunisia
591:Morocco
587:Algeria
543:English
517:English
505:Chinese
497:English
393:Stages
338:Success
121:(SLA).
75:Harvard
2278:Portal
2244:
2227:
2185:23 May
2150:
2114:
2050:
2042:
2004:Mosaic
1993:
1975:
1952:
1921:
1892:
1884:
1855:
1847:
1812:
1795:
1787:
1756:Mosaic
1673:
1538:9 June
1053:Arabic
1045:French
950:Arabic
850:German
822:Arabic
794:French
681:
599:Arabic
583:French
565:, the
561:, the
501:French
382:Speed
180:, the
164:, the
160:, the
142:module
138:device
2225:JSTOR
2179:(PDF)
2164:(PDF)
2148:JSTOR
2112:JSTOR
2061:(PDF)
2048:S2CID
2020:(PDF)
1991:JSTOR
1937:(PDF)
1919:JSTOR
1890:S2CID
1853:S2CID
1845:JSTOR
1831:. 4.
1793:S2CID
1671:JSTOR
1657:. 2.
1406:See (
1016:1116
1008:1132
985:84.3
638:China
547:India
349:stuck
261:Speed
234:start
200:used
2242:ISBN
2187:2017
2123:2018
2040:PMID
1950:ISBN
1882:PMID
1810:ISBN
1785:PMID
1747:link
1682:2023
1540:2015
1482:help
1418:help
1410:), (
1245:help
1088:130
1080:200
1072:200
1064:250
1056:250
1048:300
1040:320
1032:550
1024:600
977:122
969:162
961:202
953:223
945:230
937:330
929:335
921:476
913:918
862:10.
660:Data
644:and
617:and
593:and
534:and
407:not
344:will
81:and
2265:doi
2204:doi
2140:doi
2089:doi
2032:doi
1983:doi
1911:doi
1874:doi
1837:doi
1833:103
1777:doi
1727:hdl
1719:doi
1663:doi
1593:sic
1422:, (
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834:8.
820:7.
806:6.
792:5.
778:4.
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2006:.
1989:.
1981:.
1969:39
1967:.
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
