Psychology - Knowledge

4328: 2332: 3814:. In Canada and the U.S., practitioners get bachelor's degrees and doctorates; doctoral students in clinical psychology usually spend one year in a predoctoral internship and one year in postdoctoral internship. In Mexico and most other Latin American and European countries, psychologists do not get bachelor's and doctoral degrees; instead, they take a three-year professional course following high school. Clinical psychology is at present the largest specialization within psychology. It includes the study and application of psychology for the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychological distress, dysfunction, and/or 4515:, both of which track the flow of blood through the brain. These technologies provide more localized information about activity in the brain and create representations of the brain with widespread appeal. They also provide insight which avoids the classic problems of subjective self-reporting. It remains challenging to draw hard conclusions about where in the brain specific thoughts originate—or even how usefully such localization corresponds with reality. However, neuroimaging has delivered unmistakable results showing the existence of correlations between mind and brain. Some of these draw on a systemic 1823:. She believed a child should be recognized as their own person with their own right and have each session catered to the child's specific needs. She encouraged drawing, moving freely, and expressing themselves in any way. This helped build a strong therapeutic alliance with child patients, which allows psychologists to observe their normal behavior. She continued her research on the impact of children after family separation, children with socio-economically disadvantaged backgrounds, and all stages of child development from infancy to adolescence. 3891:

feeling, or behaving. Four major theoretical perspectives are psychodynamic, cognitive behavioral, existential–humanistic, and systems or family therapy. There has been a growing movement to integrate the various therapeutic approaches, especially with an increased understanding of issues regarding culture, gender, spirituality, and sexual orientation. With the advent of more robust research findings regarding psychotherapy, there is evidence that most of the major therapies have equal effectiveness, with the key common element being a strong

4478: 6183:(1998), Chapter 4: "Psychology and Race" (pp. 88–110). "Psychology courses often became the vehicles for eugenics propaganda. One graduate of the Record Office training program wrote, 'I hope to serve the cause by infiltrating eugenics into the minds of teachers. It may interest you to know that each student who takes psychology here works up his family history and plots his family tree.' Harvard, Columbia, Brown, Cornell, Wisconsin, and Northwestern were among the leading academic institutions teaching eugenics in psychology courses." 2878: 11322:(2005). "Prevention strategies of late have largely concentrated on community-based interventions, which have been shown to be effective in changing the health of large populations. Behavioral and social scientists, such as psychologists, are helpful in this arena as we are trained to view individuals as belonging to complex and dynamic social systems, including immediate and extended family systems, acquaintance and friendship networks, neighborhood and community systems, and cultural groups (Schneiderman & Spee4, 2001)." 3051: 4375:. For example, in research on the best way to affect reading achievement in the first three grades of school, school administrators may not permit educational psychologists to randomly assign children to phonics and whole language classrooms, in which case the psychologists must work with preexisting classroom assignments. Psychologists will compare the achievement of children attending phonics and whole language classes and, perhaps, statistically adjust for any initial differences in reading level. 1142:, writing that "the empirical doctrine of the soul can also never approach chemistry even as a systematic art of analysis or experimental doctrine, for in it the manifold of inner observation can be separated only by mere division in thought, and cannot then be held separate and recombined at will (but still less does another thinking subject suffer himself to be experimented upon to suit our purpose), and even observation by itself already changes and displaces the state of the observed object." 2454: 2615: 2213:. The IAAP is considered the oldest international psychology association. Today, at least 65 international groups deal with specialized aspects of psychology. In response to male predominance in the field, female psychologists in the U.S. formed the National Council of Women Psychologists in 1941. This organization became the International Council of Women Psychologists after World War II and the International Council of Psychologists in 1959. Several associations including the 17020: 16850: 4339: 3929: 3126:

behavior. As a "third force" in contemporary psychology, it is concerned with topics having little place in existing theories and systems: e.g., love, creativity, self, growth, organism, basic need-gratification, self-actualization, higher values, being, becoming, spontaneity, play, humor, affection, naturalness, warmth, ego-transcendence, objectivity, autonomy, responsibility, meaning, fair-play, transcendental experience, peak experience, courage, and related concepts.

2605: 1213: 16814: 14363:, Volume 5, of University of Notre Dame, Ward-Phillips lectures in English language and literature, University of Chicago Press, 1974, p. 114. Booth is explicitly discussing this experiment. His next sentence is, "His most recent outrage consists of placing monkeys in 'solitary' for twenty days—what he calls a 'vertical chamber apparatus .... designed on an intuitive basis' to produce 'a state of helplessness and hopelessness, sunken in a well of despair. 1182: 3687:, One example of an observational study was run by Arthur Bandura. This observational study focused on children who were exposed to an adult exhibiting aggressive behaviors and their reaction to toys versus other children who were not exposed to these stimuli. The result shows that children who had seen the adult acting aggressively towards a toy, in turn, were aggressive towards their own toy when put in a situation that frustrated them. psychologists 1196: 45: 4431:

study from an experimental standpoint, such as identifying the causes of depression, they conduct longitudinal studies a large group of depression-free people, periodically assessing what is happening in the individuals' lives. In this way psychologists have an opportunity to test causal hypotheses regarding conditions that commonly arise in people's lives that put them at risk for depression. Problems that affect longitudinal studies include

16839: 16918: 15405: 16986: 9084: 17003: 16969: 15125: 3829:, an early advocate for the establishment of psychology as a clinical and academic discipline. In the first part of the twentieth century, most mental health care in the United States was performed by psychiatrists, who are medical doctors. Psychology entered the field with its refinements of mental testing, which promised to improve the diagnosis of mental problems. For their part, some psychiatrists became interested in using 17037: 4694:

implementing, voting for, receiving, or objecting to are producing the intended effects. While program evaluation first focuses on effectiveness, important considerations often include how much the program costs per participant, how the program could be improved, whether the program is worthwhile, whether there are better alternatives, if there are unintended outcomes, and whether the program goals are appropriate and useful.

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rats and other rodents are often used in psychological experiments. Ideally, controlled experiments introduce only one independent variable at a time, in order to ascertain its unique effects upon dependent variables. These conditions are approximated best in laboratory settings. In contrast, human environments and genetic backgrounds vary so widely, and depend upon so many factors, that it is difficult to control important

4574: 4020:, examines the effects of work environments and management styles on worker motivation, job satisfaction, and productivity. Most I/O psychologists work outside of academia, for private and public organizations and as consultants. A psychology consultant working in business today might expect to provide executives with information and ideas about their industry, their target markets, and the organization of their company. 3517: 3651: 2255:, founded in 1951, aspires to promote psychology across the Western Hemisphere. It holds the Interamerican Congress of Psychology and had 1,000 members in year 2000. The European Federation of Professional Psychology Associations, founded in 1981, represents 30 national associations with a total of 100,000 individual members. At least 30 other international organizations represent psychologists in different regions. 3450:, the forces of instinct combine into a single source of energy which exerts a constant influence. Psychoanalysis, like biology, regarded these forces as demands originating in the nervous system. Psychoanalysts believed that these forces, especially the sexual instincts, could become entangled and transmuted within the psyche. Classical psychoanalysis conceives of a struggle between the pleasure principle and the 1505:. After a hiatus for World War I, the Seventh Congress met in Oxford, with substantially greater participation from the war-victorious Anglo-Americans. In 1929, the Congress took place at Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut, attended by hundreds of members of the APA. Tokyo Imperial University led the way in bringing new psychology to the East. New ideas about psychology diffused from Japan into China. 16935: 16826: 1778:. In 1951, the academy created a Psychology Research Office, which in 1956 became the Institute of Psychology. Because most leading psychologists were educated in the United States, the first concern of the academy was the re-education of these psychologists in the Soviet doctrines. Child psychology and pedagogy for the purpose of a nationally cohesive education remained a central goal of the discipline. 1032:. This body of knowledge involves insights drawn from introspection and observation, as well as techniques for focused thinking and acting. It frames the universe in term of a division of physical reality and mental reality as well as the interaction between the physical and the mental. Chinese philosophy also emphasized purifying the mind in order to increase virtue and power. An ancient text known as 2308:

increasingly dominated by a "cult of empiricism", which limits the scope of research because investigators restrict themselves to methods derived from the physical sciences. Feminist critiques have argued that claims to scientific objectivity obscure the values and agenda of (historically) mostly male researchers. Jean Grimshaw, for example, argues that mainstream psychological research has advanced a

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on advertising and referral fees to negotiate the end of an investigation by the Federal Trade Commission. The 1992 incarnation was the first to distinguish between "aspirational" ethical standards and "enforceable" ones. Members of the public have a five-year window to file ethics complaints about APA members with the APA ethics committee; members of the APA have a three-year window.

16890: 3529:. Like Piaget, developmental psychologists originally focused primarily on the development of cognition from infancy to adolescence. Later, developmental psychology extended itself to the study cognition over the life span. In addition to studying cognition, developmental psychologists have also come to focus on affective, behavioral, moral, social, and neural development. 16878: 589: 3560:

that depression risk in an offspring is influenced to some extent by genes passed to the child from the mother. Genes and environment in these simple transmission models are completely confounded. A depressed mother may both carry genes that contribute to depression in her offspring and also create a rearing environment that increases the risk of depression in her child.

4313:. This type of research can involve interviews, questionnaires, and first-hand observation. While hypothesis testing is rare, virtually impossible, in qualitative research, qualitative studies can be helpful in theory and hypothesis generation, interpreting seemingly contradictory quantitative findings, and understanding why some interventions fail and others succeed. 3533:

the child and scientifically useful. Developmental researchers have even devised clever methods to study the mental processes of infants. In addition to studying children, developmental psychologists also study aging and processes throughout the life span, including old age. These psychologists draw on the full range of psychological theories to inform their research.

1281:. Wundt, in turn, came to Leipzig University, where he established the psychological laboratory that brought experimental psychology to the world. Wundt focused on breaking down mental processes into the most basic components, motivated in part by an analogy to recent advances in chemistry, and its successful investigation of the elements and structure of materials. 2009:, and is perhaps best known for her paper, "Kirche, Kuche, Kinder as Scientific Law: Psychology Constructs the Female." Psychology Constructs the Female criticized the field of psychology for centering men and using biology too much to explain gender differences without taking into account social factors. Her work set the stage for further research to be done in 4416:, and checking the validity of experimental manipulations (checking research participants' perception of the condition they were assigned to). Psychologists have commonly used paper-and-pencil surveys. However, surveys are also conducted over the phone or through e-mail. Web-based surveys are increasingly used to conveniently reach many subjects. 4790:

collection or analysis is conducted. In addition, large-scale collaborations among researchers working in multiple labs in different countries have taken place. The collaborators regularly make their data openly available for different researchers to assess. Allen and Mehler estimated that 61 per cent of result-blind studies have yielded

4004:. An influential early study examined workers at Western Electric's Hawthorne plant in Cicero, Illinois from 1924 to 1932. Western Electric experimented on factory workers to assess their responses to changes in illumination, breaks, food, and wages. The researchers came to focus on workers' responses to observation itself, and the term 4496:, the first researcher to use EEG on an unopened skull, quickly found that brains exhibit signature "brain waves": electric oscillations which correspond to different states of consciousness. Researchers subsequently refined statistical methods for synthesizing the electrode data, and identified unique brain wave patterns such as the 3818:. Clinical psychologists also try to promote subjective well-being and personal growth. Central to the practice of clinical psychology are psychological assessment and psychotherapy although clinical psychologists may also engage in research, teaching, consultation, forensic testimony, and program development and administration. 4867:" ("Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic") societies. Henrich et al. found that "96% of psychological samples come from countries with only 12% of the world's population" (p. 63). The article gave examples of results that differ significantly between people from WEIRD and tribal cultures, including the 4346:. The subject believes that for each wrong answer, the learner was receiving actual electric shocks, though in reality there were no such punishments. Being separated from the subject, the confederate set up a tape recorder integrated with the electro-shock generator, which played pre-recorded sounds for each shock level etc. 3287:. However, despite a plethora of research into the various versions of the "Big Five" personality dimensions, it appears necessary to move on from static conceptualizations of personality structure to a more dynamic orientation, acknowledging that personality constructs are subject to learning and change over the lifespan. 3606:, where a large number (on the order of hundreds to thousands) of genetic variants, each of small effect, contribute to individual differences in the behavioral trait or propensity to the disorder. Active research continues to work toward understanding the genetic and environmental bases of behavior and their interaction. 2506:" studies by trapping animals in "puzzle boxes" and rewarding them for escaping. Thorndike wrote in 1911, "There can be no moral warrant for studying man's nature unless the study will enable us to control his acts." From 1910 to 1913 the American Psychological Association went through a sea change of opinion, away from 4217:(OHP) emerged. OHP is a branch of psychology that is interdisciplinary. OHP is concerned with the health and safety of workers. OHP addresses topic areas such as the impact of occupational stressors on physical and mental health, mistreatment of workers (e.g., bullying and violence), work-family balance, the impact of 4016:, Division 14 of the American Psychological Association. One goal of the discipline is to optimize human potential in the workplace. Personnel psychology is a subfield of I/O psychology. Personnel psychologists apply the methods and principles of psychology in selecting and evaluating workers. Another subfield, 1721:(1937). Chinese psychologists were encouraged to focus on education and language learning. Chinese psychologists were drawn to the idea that education would enable modernization. John Dewey, who lectured to Chinese audiences between 1919 and 1921, had a significant influence on psychology in China. Chancellor 10103:

De Moor, Marleen H. M.; Van Den Berg, Stéphanie M.; Verweij, Karin J. H.; Krueger, Robert F.; Luciano, Michelle; Arias Vasquez, Alejandro; Matteson, Lindsay K.; Derringer, Jaime; Esko, Tõnu; Amin, Najaf; Gordon, Scott D.; Hansell, Narelle K.; Hart, Amy B.; Seppälä, Ilkka; Huffman, Jennifer E.; Konte,

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Universities have ethics committees dedicated to protecting the rights (e.g., voluntary nature of participation in the research, privacy) and well-being (e.g., minimizing distress) of research participants. University ethics committees evaluate proposed research to ensure that researchers protect the

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Some observers perceive a gap between scientific theory and its application—in particular, the application of unsupported or unsound clinical practices. Critics say there has been an increase in the number of mental health training programs that do not instill scientific competence. Practices such as

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bias, starting in 2020, researchers of non-human behavior have started to emphasize the need to document the possibility of the STRANGE (Social background, Trappability and self-selection, Rearing history, Acclimation and habituation, Natural changes in responsiveness, Genetic makeup, and Experience)

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Developmental psychology is the scientific study of how and why the thought processes, emotions, and behaviors of humans change over the course of their lives. Some credit Charles Darwin with conducting the first systematic study within the rubric of developmental psychology, having published in 1877

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suggest that contrary to the need-desire-fulfillment cycle of animal instincts, human motivations sometimes obey a "getting begets wanting" rule: the more you get a reward such as self-esteem, love, drugs, or money, the more you want it. They suggest that this principle can even apply to food, drink,

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21.2, May 1985. "Their importance is hard to overestimate. In fact, in the period between 1914 and 1954, the Rockefellers were almost the sole support of sex research in the United States. The decisions made by their scientific advisers about the nature of the research to be supported and how it was

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Animal research is influential in psychology, while still being debated among academics. The testing of animals for research has led to medical breakthroughs in human medicine. Many psychologists argue animal experimentation is essential for human advancement, but must be regulated by the government

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The ethics code of the American Psychological Association originated in 1951 as "Ethical Standards of Psychologists". This code has guided the formation of licensing laws in most American states. It has changed multiple times over the decades since its adoption. In 1989, the APA revised its policies

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Comparative psychology is the scientific study of the behavior and mental processes of non-human animals, especially as these relate to the phylogenetic history, adaptive significance, and development of behavior. Research in this area explores the behavior of many species, from insects to primates.

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Animal experiments aid in investigating many aspects of human psychology, including perception, emotion, learning, memory, and thought, to name a few. In the 1890s, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov famously used dogs to demonstrate classical conditioning. Non-human primates, cats, dogs, pigeons, and

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Psychologists work with organizations to apply findings from psychological research to improve the health and well-being of employees. Some work as external consultants hired by organizations to solve specific problems, whereas others are full-time employees of the organization. Applications include

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described this shift as a source of "intense competition and role confusion." Graduate programs issuing doctorates in clinical psychology emerged in the 1950s and underwent rapid increase through the 1980s. The PhD degree is intended to train practitioners who could also conduct scientific research.

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Developmental psychologists who study children use a number of research methods. For example, they make observations of children in natural settings such as preschools and engage them in experimental tasks. Such tasks often resemble specially designed games and activities that are both enjoyable for

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Hunger, thirst, fear, sexual desire, and thermoregulation constitute fundamental motivations in animals. Humans seem to exhibit a more complex set of motivations—though theoretically these could be explained as resulting from desires for belonging, positive self-image, self-consistency, truth, love,

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of certain ideas can covertly influence thoughts and behavior. Because of the unreliability of self-reporting, a major hurdle in this type of research involves demonstrating that a subject's conscious mind has not perceived a target stimulus. For this reason, some psychologists prefer to distinguish

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science. Skeptics have suggested that personality, thinking, and emotion cannot be directly measured and are often inferred from subjective self-reports, which may be problematic. Experimental psychologists have devised a variety of ways to indirectly measure these elusive phenomenological entities.

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Dr. Shari Miles-Cohen, a psychologist and political activist has applied a black, feminist, and class lens to all her psychological studies. Aiding progressive and women's issues, she has been the executive director for many NGOs. In 2007 she became the Senior Director of the Women's Programs Office

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and roles they are assigned. As she states in her article, "Variability as related to sex differences in achievement: A Critique", the largest problem women have is the social order that was built due to the assumption women have less interests and abilities than men. To further prove her point, she

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who were also Jewish. The Göring Institute was well-financed throughout the war with a mandate to create a "New German Psychotherapy." This psychotherapy aimed to align suitable Germans with the overall goals of the Reich. As described by one physician, "Despite the importance of analysis, spiritual

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wrote that, "Harry Harlow and his colleagues go on torturing their nonhuman primates decade after decade, invariably proving what we all knew in advance—that social creatures can be destroyed by destroying their social ties." He writes that Harlow made no mention of the criticism of the morality of

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where studies are accepted not on the basis of their findings and after the studies are completed, but before the studies are conducted and upon the basis of the methodological rigor of their experimental designs and the theoretical justifications for their proposed statistical analysis before data

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with random assignment of research participants (sometimes called subjects) to rival conditions allows researchers to make strong inferences about causal relationships. When there are large numbers of research participants, the random assignment (also called random allocation) of those participants

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pioneered the study of occupational mental health, linking industrial working conditions to mental health as well as the spillover of an unsatisfying job into a worker's personal life. Zickar accumulated evidence to show that "no other industrial psychologist of his era was as devoted to advocating

3073:. It emerged in the 1950s as a movement within academic psychology, in reaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis. The humanistic approach seeks to view the whole person, not just fragmented parts of the personality or isolated cognitions. Humanistic psychology also focuses on personal growth, 1675:

promoted psychology as a way to engineer the "New Man" of socialism. Consequently, university psychology departments trained large numbers of students in psychology. At the completion of training, positions were made available for those students at schools, workplaces, cultural institutions, and in

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Research on other animals is governed by university ethics committees. Research on nonhuman animals cannot proceed without permission of the ethics committee, of the researcher's home institution. Ethical guidelines state that using non-human animals for scientific purposes is only acceptable when

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of patients: instructing them in how to follow a medical regimen. Health psychologists can also educate doctors and conduct research on patient compliance. Psychologists in the field of public health use a wide variety of interventions to influence human behavior. These range from public relations

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Psychologists may also work on a diverse set of campaigns known broadly as psychological warfare. Psychological warfare chiefly involves the use of propaganda to influence enemy soldiers and civilians. This so-called black propaganda is designed to seem as if it originates from a source other than

3860:. Although there are similarities between behavior therapy and cognitive-behavior therapy, cognitive-behavior therapy required the application of cognitive constructs. Since the 1970s, the popularity of cognitive-behavior therapy among clinical psychologists increased. A key practice in behavioral 3222:

Personality psychology is concerned with enduring patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion. Theories of personality vary across different psychological schools of thought. Each theory carries different assumptions about such features as the role of the unconscious and the importance of childhood

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Humanistic psychology is primarily an orientation toward the whole of psychology rather than a distinct area or school. It stands for respect for the worth of persons, respect for differences of approach, open-mindedness as to acceptable methods, and interest in exploration of new aspects of human

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has written several bestselling books that combine Western and Eastern psychology. She founded the Insight Meditation Community of Washington in 1998 and co-founded two teaching programs, Banyan, and the Mindfulness Mediation Teacher Training Program. The latter has served people from 74 different

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and Hall (2008) and Morgan-Consoli et al. (2018) view the Western bias in research and theory as a serious problem considering psychologists are increasingly applying psychological principles developed in WEIRD regions in their research, clinical work, and consultation with populations around the

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One example of an observational study was run by Arthur Bandura. This observational study focused on children who were exposed to an adult exhibiting aggressive behaviors and their reaction to toys versus other children who were not exposed to these stimuli. The result shows that children who had

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psychologists collect data on the same sample at two or more points in time. Sometimes the purpose of longitudinal research is to study trends across time such as the stability of traits or age-related changes in behavior. Because some studies involve endpoints that psychologists cannot ethically

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Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. Educational psychologists can be found in preschools, schools of all levels including

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from a depressed mother to her offspring. A theory based on environmental transmission would hold that an offspring, by virtue of their having a problematic rearing environment managed by a depressed mother, is at risk for developing depression. On the other hand, a hereditarian theory would hold

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advanced the idea of vicarious learning. In other words, they advanced the view that a child can learn by observing the immediate social environment and not necessarily from having been reinforced for enacting a behavior, although they did not rule out the influence of reinforcement on learning a

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Psychologists generally consider biology the substrate of thought and feeling, and therefore an important area of study. Behaviorial neuroscience, also known as biological psychology, involves the application of biological principles to the study of physiological and genetic mechanisms underlying

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The provision of psychological health services is generally called clinical psychology in the U.S. Sometimes, however, members of the school psychology and counseling psychology professions engage in practices that resemble that of clinical psychologists. Clinical psychologists typically include

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may also be said to belong to the existential school. Existential psychologists tend to differ from more "humanistic" psychologists in the former's relatively neutral view of human nature and relatively positive assessment of anxiety. Existential psychologists emphasized the humanistic themes of

2431:—the behavior of uncooperative African slaves. After the creation of experimental psychology, "ethnical psychology" emerged as a subdiscipline, based on the assumption that studying primitive races would provide an important link between animal behavior and the psychology of more evolved humans. 4862:

In 2008, Arnett pointed out that most articles in American Psychological Association journals were about U.S. populations when U.S. citizens are only 5% of the world's population. He complained that psychologists had no basis for assuming psychological processes to be universal and generalizing

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involves the systematic collection, analysis, and application of information to answer questions about projects, policies and programs, particularly about their effectiveness. In both the public and private sectors, stakeholders often want to know the extent which the programs they are funding,

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The concept of unconscious processes has remained important in psychology. Cognitive psychologists have used a "filter" model of attention. According to the model, much information processing takes place below the threshold of consciousness, and only certain stimuli, limited by their nature and

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45.4, 2008. "Bringing these people to a right and deep understanding of every German's duty in the New Germany, such as preparatory mental aid and psychotherapy in general and in particular for persons to be sterilized, and for people having been sterilized, is a great, important and rewarding

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Qualitative research is often designed to answer questions about the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of individuals. Qualitative research involving first-hand observation can help describe events as they occur, with the goal of capturing the richness of everyday behavior and with the hope of

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The work performed by clinical psychologists tends to be influenced by various therapeutic approaches, all of which involve a formal relationship between professional and client (usually an individual, couple, family, or small group). Typically, these approaches encourage new ways of thinking,

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in 1917 and then used in World War 1 by industrial and organizational psychologists for large-scale employee testing and selection of military personnel. Mental testing also became popular in the U.S., where it was applied to schoolchildren. The federally created National Intelligence Test was

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Twentieth-century Chinese psychology originally modeled itself on U.S. psychology, with translations from American authors like William James, the establishment of university psychology departments and journals, and the establishment of groups including the Chinese Association of Psychological

1528:, began to provide funding for behavioral research. Rockefeller charities funded the National Committee on Mental Hygiene, which disseminated the concept of mental illness and lobbied for applying ideas from psychology to child rearing. Through the Bureau of Social Hygiene and later funding of 801:

settings. Other psychologists conduct scientific research on a wide range of topics related to mental processes and behavior. Typically the latter group of psychologists work in academic settings (e.g., universities, medical schools, or hospitals). Another group of psychologists is employed in

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While psychological knowledge is often applied to the assessment and treatment of mental health problems, it is also directed towards understanding and solving problems in several spheres of human activity. By many accounts, psychology ultimately aims to benefit society. Many psychologists are

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Ripke, Stephan; Neale, Benjamin M.; Corvin, Aiden; Walters, James T. R.; Farh, Kai-How; Holmans, Peter A.; Lee, Phil; Bulik-Sullivan, Brendan; Collier, David A.; Huang, Hailiang; Pers, Tune H.; Agartz, Ingrid; Agerbo, Esben; Albus, Margot; Alexander, Madeline; Amin, Farooq; Bacanu, Silviu A.;

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Herman, "Psychology as Politics" (1993), p. 288. "Had it come to fruition, CAMELOT would have been the largest, and certainly the most generously funded, behavioral research project in U.S. history. With a $ 4–6 million contract over a period of 3 years, it was considered, and often called, a

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as a score report. Based on his test findings, and reflecting the racism common to that era, Terman concluded that intellectual disability "represents the level of intelligence which is very, very common among Spanish-Indians and Mexican families of the Southwest and also among negroes. Their

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A tenet of behavioral research is that a large part of both human and lower-animal behavior is learned. A principle associated with behavioral research is that the mechanisms involved in learning apply to humans and non-human animals. Behavioral researchers have developed a treatment known as

2494:. They demonstrated that when a biologically potent stimulus (e.g., food that elicits salivation) is paired with a previously neutral stimulus (e.g., a bell) over several learning trials, the neutral stimulus by itself can come to elicit the response the biologically potent stimulus elicits. 2307:

Divisions still exist within the field, with some psychologists more oriented towards the unique experiences of individual humans, which cannot be understood only as data points within a larger population. Critics inside and outside the field have argued that mainstream psychology has become

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and cognitive psychology to simulate behavior. This method has several advantages. Since modern computers process information quickly, simulations can be run in a short time, allowing for high statistical power. Modeling also allows psychologists to visualize hypotheses about the functional

3602:: once a causal gene is discovered biological research can be conducted to understand how that gene influences the phenotype. One major result of genetic association studies is the general finding that psychological traits and psychopathology, as well as complex medical diseases, are highly 1941:

to understand the development of mother-infant relationships. In doing this field research, Ainsworth developed the Strange Situation Procedure, a laboratory procedure meant to study attachment style by separating and uniting a child with their mother several different times under different

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is a situation in which different conditions are being studied, but random assignment to the different conditions is not possible. Investigators must work with preexisting groups of people. Researchers can use common sense to consider how much the nonrandom assignment threatens the study's

3665:. Written exams began during the Han dynasty (202 BC – AD 200). By 1370, the Chinese system required a stratified series of tests, involving essay writing and knowledge of diverse topics. The system was ended in 1906. In Europe, mental assessment took a different approach, with theories of 3337:

found in 1884 that research subjects could choose the minutely heavier of two weights even if consciously uncertain of the difference. Freud popularized the concept of the unconscious mind, particularly when he referred to an uncensored intrusion of unconscious thought into one's speech (a

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also influenced American psychology. In the 1910s and 1920s, eugenics became a standard topic in psychology classes. In contrast to the US, in the UK psychology was met with antagonism by the scientific and medical establishments, and up until 1939, there were only six psychology chairs in

12965:...shifting the dominant conceptual paradigm from Freudian psychoanalytic theory to Big Five research has reduced the chances of being wrong but palpably increased the fact of being boring. In making that transition, personality psychology became more accurate but less broadly interesting. 1978:, asked young children to choose between identical dolls whose only difference was race, and they found that the majority of the children preferred the white dolls and attributed positive traits to them. Repeated over and over again, these tests helped to determine the negative effects of 2470: 2909:

Psychoanalysis is a collection of theories and therapeutic techniques intended to analyze the unconscious mind and its impact on everyday life. These theories and techniques inform treatments for mental disorders. Psychoanalysis originated in the 1890s, most prominently with the work of

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organization of mental events that could not be directly observed in a human. Computational neuroscience uses mathematical models to simulate the brain. Another method is symbolic modeling, which represents many mental objects using variables and rules. Other types of modeling include

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intelligence agency. University of Michigan psychologist Dorwin Cartwright reported that university researchers began large-scale propaganda research in 1939–1941. He observed that "the last few months of the war saw a social psychologist become chiefly responsible for determining the

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Industrial and organizational (I/O) psychology involves research and practices that apply psychological theories and principles to organizations and individuals' work-lives. In the field's beginnings, industrialists brought the nascent field of psychology to bear on the study of

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completed another experiment with infants who have not been influenced by the environment of social norms, like the adult male getting more opportunities than women. She found no difference between infants besides size. After this research proved the original hypothesis wrong,

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of ongoing human social, professional, and family life. Sometimes the participants are aware they are being observed, and other times the participants do not know they are being observed. Strict ethical guidelines must be followed when covert observation is being carried out.

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Some psychologists study motivation or the subject of why people or lower animals initiate a behavior at a particular time. It also involves the study of why humans and lower animals continue or terminate a behavior. Psychologists such as William James initially used the term

4466: 1501:(APA) was founded soon after, in 1892. The International Congress continued to be held at different locations in Europe and with wide international participation. The Sixth Congress, held in Geneva in 1909, included presentations in Russian, Chinese, and Japanese, as well as 1272:

challenged Kant's negative view with regard to conducting quantitative research on the mind. Fechner's achievement was to show that "mental processes could not only be given numerical magnitudes, but also that these could be measured by experimental methods." In Heidelberg,

4770:, to assess the extent of the problem found that as many as two-thirds of highly publicized findings in psychology failed to be replicated. Reproducibility has generally been stronger in cognitive psychology (in studies and journals) than social psychology and subfields of 2419:'s four-fold classification of humans classifies Europeans as intelligent and severe, Americans as contented and free, Asians as ritualistic, and Africans as lazy and capricious. Race was also used to justify the construction of socially specific mental disorders such as 3746:

to standardize college admissions. The results of intelligence tests were used to argue for segregated schools and economic functions, including the preferential training of Black Americans for manual labor. These practices were criticized by Black intellectuals such a

2474: 3130:

Existential psychology emphasizes the need to understand a client's total orientation towards the world. Existential psychology is opposed to reductionism, behaviorism, and other methods that objectify the individual. In the 1950s and 1960s, influenced by philosophers

4023:

Organizational behavior (OB) is an allied field involved in the study of human behavior within organizations. One way to differentiate I/O psychology from OB is that I/O psychologists train in university psychology departments and OB specialists, in business schools.

2166:. She was the first person to lead an intervention for Native American children and adolescents that utilized evidence-based suicide prevention. She has spent her career dedicated to aiding racial and ethnic minority youth cope with cultural adjustment and pressures. 4044:, and treatment for post-traumatic stress, as well as provide prevention-related services, for example, smoking cessation. The United States Army's Mental Health Advisory Teams implement psychological interventions to help combat troops experiencing mental problems. 2279:

were major topics at the early International Congresses. But students of these fields were eventually ostracized, and more or less banished from the Congress in 1900–1905. Parapsychology persisted for a time at Imperial University in Japan, with publications such as

2472: 8718: 3328:

Study of the unconscious mind, a part of the psyche outside the individual's awareness but that is believed to influence conscious thought and behavior, was a hallmark of early psychology. In one of the first psychology experiments conducted in the United States,

4191:

Industrial psychology became interested in worker fatigue during World War I, when government ministers in Britain were concerned about the impact of fatigue on workers in munitions factories but not other types of factories. In the U. K. some interest in worker

3960:

in adolescents; and otherwise to promote safe, supportive, and effective learning environments. School psychologists are trained in educational and behavioral assessment, intervention, prevention, and consultation, and many have extensive training in research.

3669:—judgment of character based on the face—described by Aristotle in 4th century BC Greece. Physiognomy remained current through the Enlightenment, and added the doctrine of phrenology: a study of mind and intelligence based on simple assessment of neuroanatomy. 3109:

and the physical expression of gratitude. It is, however, far from clear that positive psychology is effective in making people happier. Positive psychological interventions have been limited in scope, but their effects are thought to be somewhat better than

4116:

The impact of psychology on social change includes the discipline's broad influence on teaching and learning. Research has shown that compared to the "whole word" or "whole language" approach, the phonics approach to reading instruction is more efficacious.

3012:(no claim it made could be proven wrong) and therefore inherently not a scientific discipline, whereas Eysenck advanced the view that psychoanalytic tenets had been contradicted by experimental data. By the end of the 20th century, psychology departments in 2402:

perspective. This perspective suggests that psychological adaptations evolved to solve recurrent problems in human ancestral environments. Evolutionary psychologists attempt to find out how human psychological traits are evolved adaptations, the results of

2161:

In 2002 Dr. Teresa LaFromboise, former president of the Society of Indian Psychologists, received the APA's Distinguished Career Contribution to Research Award from the Society for the Psychological Study of Culture Ethnicity, and Race for her research on

2064:

Babette Rothschild, a clinical social worker, invented Somatic Trauma Therapy. Somatic Trauma Therapy utilizes the body to experience, process, and heal from traumatic experiences. To spread her technique she wrote several books, the most prominent being

4355:

to rival conditions ensures that the individuals in those conditions will, on average, be similar on most characteristics, including characteristics that went unmeasured. In an experiment, the researcher alters one or more variables of influence, called

2295:'s 1962 critique implied psychology overall was in a pre-paradigm state, lacking agreement on the type of overarching theory found in mature hard sciences such as chemistry and physics. Because some areas of psychology rely on research methods such as 4960:(HR 7724). All of these measures encouraged researchers to obtain informed consent from human participants in experimental studies. A number of influential but ethically dubious studies led to the establishment of this rule; such studies included the 2235:

IUPsyS recognizes 66 national psychology associations and at least 15 others exist. The American Psychological Association is the oldest and largest. Its membership has increased from 5,000 in 1945 to 100,000 in the present day. The APA includes

10104:

Bettina; Lahti, Jari; Lee, Minyoung; Miller, Mike; Nutile, Teresa; Tanaka, Toshiko; Teumer, Alexander; Viktorin, Alexander; Wedenoja, Juho; Abecasis, Goncalo R.; Adkins, Daniel E.; Agrawal, Arpana; Allik, Jüri; Appel, Katja; et al. (2015).

4735:. Similarly, Fanelli (2010) found that 91.5% of psychiatry/psychology studies confirmed the effects they were looking for, and concluded that the odds of this happening (a positive result) was around five times higher than in fields such as 2379:

focuses on the physical basis of behavior. Behaviorial neuroscientists use animal models, often relying on rats, to study the neural, genetic, and cellular mechanisms that underlie behaviors involved in learning, memory, and fear responses.

9948:

Begemann, Martin; Belliveau, Richard A.; Bene, Judit; Bergen, Sarah E.; Bevilacqua, Elizabeth; Bigdeli, Tim B.; Black, Donald W.; Bruggeman, Richard; Buccola, Nancy G.; Buckner, Randy L.; Byerley, William; Cahn, Wiepke; et al. (2014).

4992:

Some of the ethical issues considered most important are the requirement to practice only within the area of competence, to maintain confidentiality with the patients, and to avoid sexual relations with them. Another important principle is

2710:

Starting in the 1950s, the experimental techniques developed by Wundt, James, Ebbinghaus, and others re-emerged as experimental psychology became increasingly cognitivist and, eventually, constituted a part of the wider, interdisciplinary

2548:

avoided discussing the inner workings of the mind, especially the unconscious mind, which they considered impossible to assess scientifically. Operant conditioning was first described by Miller and Kanorski and popularized in the U.S. by

10503:(2005). "...it is the disaster psychologist's role to utilize crisis intervention processes with the goal of preventing natural distress due to the critical event from developing into a more harmful, long-term psychological condition." 1688:

and embraced the doctrine of psychoanalysis as an antidote to sexual repression. Although pedology and intelligence testing fell out of favor in 1936, psychology maintained its privileged position as an instrument of the Soviet Union.

11423: 1118:(1646–1716) applied his principles of calculus to the mind, arguing that mental activity took place on an indivisible continuum. He suggested that the difference between conscious and unconscious awareness is only a matter of degree. 4382:

model which involves making predictions before conducting the experiment, then assessing how well the data collected are consistent with the predictions. These predictions are likely to originate from one or more abstract scientific

11196:"; Joint Hearing before the Senate Committee on Intelligence and the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research of the Committee on Human Resources, United States Senate, Ninety Fifth Congress, First Session, 3 August 1997; and 4187:

Interventions that improve climates are a way to address accidents and violence. Interventions that reduce stress at work or provide employees with tools to better manage it can help in areas where stress is an important component.

1664:. With funding from the Rockefeller Foundation, Mitscherlich established the first clinical psychosomatic medicine division at Heidelberg University. In 1970, psychology was integrated into the required studies of medical students. 12774: 3077:, death, aloneness, and freedom. It emphasizes subjective meaning, the rejection of determinism, and concern for positive growth rather than pathology. Some founders of the humanistic school of thought were American psychologists 3672:

When experimental psychology came to Britain, Francis Galton was a leading practitioner. By virtue of his procedures for measuring reaction time and sensation, he is considered an inventor of modern mental testing (also known as

4820:

wrote in 1994 that psychologists routinely confuse statistical significance with practical importance, enthusiastically reporting great certainty in unimportant facts. Some psychologists have responded with an increased use of

4008:

is now used to describe the fact that people's behavior can change when they think they are being observed. Although the Hawthorne research can be found in psychology textbooks, the research and its findings were weak at best.

2170:

of the American Psychological Association. Therefore, she was one of the creators of the APA's "Women in Psychology Timeline" which features the accomplishments of women of color in psychology. She is well known for co-editing

3572:, two designs where genetic and environmental influences can be partially un-confounded. More recently, gene-focused research has contributed to understanding genetic contributions to the development of psychological traits. 13142:; Hamlin, J. Kiley; Hannon, Erin E.; Kline, Melissa; Levelt, Claartje; Lew-Williams, Casey; Nazzi, Thierry; Panneton, Robin; Rabagliati, Hugh; Soderstrom, Melanie; Sullivan, Jessica; Waxman, Sandra; Yurovsky, Daniel (2017). 8359:

Karl Popper, Conjectures and Refutations, London: Routledge and Keagan Paul, 1963, pp. 33–39; from Theodore Schick, ed., Readings in the Philosophy of Science, Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Company, 2000, pp. 9–13.

3147:, which follows from existential psychology, is a therapeutic approach that is based on the idea that a person's inner conflict arises from that individual's confrontation with the givens of existence. Swiss psychoanalyst 2782:

On a broader level, cognitive science is an interdisciplinary enterprise involving cognitive psychologists, cognitive neuroscientists, linguists, and researchers in artificial intelligence, human–computer interaction, and

6327:(1997), pp. 86–87. "For Schultz-Hencke in this 1934 essay, life goals were determined by ideology, not by science. In the case of psychotherapy, he defined health in terms of blood, strong will, proficiency, discipline, ( 4882:

employed WEIRD samples. Moreover, their analysis showed that several studies did not fully disclose the origin of their samples; the authors offered a set of recommendations to editors and reviewers to reduce WEIRD bias.

3778:

of behavior and life outcomes outside of testing situations. Psychological testing is regularly used in forensic contexts to aid legal judgments and decisions. Developments in psychometrics include work on test and scale

1770:) which referred to the interface between individual perceptions and the socially accepted worldview; failure to correspond with party doctrine was "incorrect recognition." Psychology education was centralized under the 2498:—known best for inducing dogs to salivate in the presence of a stimulus previously linked with food—became a leading figure in the Soviet Union and inspired followers to use his methods on humans. In the United States, 3848:, a thoroughly non-psychodynamic model that used behaviorist learning theory to change the actions of patients. A key aspect of behavior therapy is empirical evaluation of the treatment's effectiveness. In the 1970s, 3761:). In the United States, tens of thousands of men and women were sterilized. Setting a precedent that has never been overturned, the U.S. Supreme Court affirmed the constitutionality of this practice in the 1927 case 6766:

Haggbloom, Steven J.; Warnick, Renee; Warnick, Jason E.; Jones, Vinessa K.; Yarbrough, Gary L.; Russell, Tenea M.; Borecky, Chris M.; McGahhey, Reagan; Powell, John L.; Beavers, Jamie; Monte, Emmanuelle (June 2002).

3563:

Behavioral genetics researchers have employed methodologies that help to disentangle this confound and understand the nature and origins of individual differences in behavior. Traditionally the research has involved

2414:

The history of the biological foundations of psychology includes evidence of racism. The idea of white supremacy and indeed the modern concept of race itself arose during the process of world conquest by Europeans.

1749:

the leading social doctrine and Pavlovian conditioning the approved means of behavior change. Chinese psychologists elaborated on Lenin's model of a "reflective" consciousness, envisioning an "active consciousness"

3940:

post secondary institutions, community organizations and learning centers, Government or private research firms, and independent or private consultant. The work of developmental psychologists such as Lev Vygotsky,

1050:(1660–1730), and Wang Qingren (1768–1831). Wang Qingren emphasized the importance of the brain as the center of the nervous system, linked mental disorder with brain diseases, investigated the causes of dreams and 8715: 4147:, which is employee shared perceptions of the behaviors that are encouraged (e.g., wearing safety gear) and discouraged (not following safety rules) at work. Organizations with strong safety climates have fewer 3948:

has been influential in creating teaching methods and educational practices. Educational psychology is often included in teacher education programs in places such as North America, Australia, and New Zealand.

2258:

In some places, governments legally regulate who can provide psychological services or represent themselves as a "psychologist." The APA defines a psychologist as someone with a doctoral degree in psychology.

14286:

Sherwin, C.M.; Christionsen, S.B.; Duncan, I.J.; Erhard, H.W.; Lay Jr., D.C.; Mench, J.A.; O'Connor, C.E.; Petherick, J.C. (2003). "Guidelines for the Ethical use of animals in the applied ethology studies".

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Tirumalaraju, Vaishali; Suchting, Robert; Evans, Jonathan; Goetzl, Laura; Refuerzo, Jerrie; Neumann, Alexander; Anand, Deepa; Ravikumar, Rekha; Green, Charles E.; Cowen, Philip J.; Selvaraj, Sudhakar (2020).

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Boyle, G.J. (2011). Changes in personality traits in adulthood. In D. Westen, L. Burton, & R. Kowalski (Eds.), Psychology: Australian and New Zealand 3rd edition (pp. 448–449). Milton, Queensland: Wiley.

8107: 3493:—an important factor causing the experience of hunger—but also on circadian rhythms, food availability, food palatability, and cost. Abstract motivations are also malleable, as evidenced by such phenomena as 3470:. Meanwhile, behaviorist researchers used simple dichotomous models (pleasure/pain, reward/punishment) and well-established principles such as the idea that a thirsty creature will take pleasure in drinking. 6331:), community, heroic bearing, and physical fitness. Schultz-Hencke also took the opportunity in 1934 to criticize psychoanalysis for providing an unfortunate tendency toward the exculpation of the criminal." 2364:, individual people with mental deficits traceable to physical brain damage have inspired new discoveries in this area. Modern behavioral neuroscience could be said to originate in the 1870s, when in France 14313:

Blum 1994, p. 95, Blum 2002, pp. 218–219. Blum 1994, p. 95: "... the most controversial experiment to come out of the Wisconsin laboratory, a device that Harlow insisted on calling the 'pit of despair.

4997:, the idea that a patient or research subject must understand and freely choose a procedure they are undergoing. Some of the most common complaints against clinical psychologists include sexual misconduct. 3100:

opened up humanistic themes to scientific study. Positive psychology is the study of factors which contribute to human happiness and well-being, focusing more on people who are currently healthy. In 2010,

2787:. The discipline of cognitive science covers cognitive psychology as well as philosophy of mind, computer science, and neuroscience. Computer simulations are sometimes used to model phenomena of interest. 12489: 4785:(conducting a large number of statistical tests on a great many variables but restricting reporting to the results that were statistically significant), 295 psychology and medical journals have adopted 4761:

in psychology has emerged. Many notable findings in the field have not been replicated. Some researchers were even accused of publishing fraudulent results. Systematic efforts, including efforts by the

2209:

created a new applied psychology organization called the International Congress of Psychotechnics Applied to Vocational Guidance, later called the International Congress of Psychotechnics and then the

2271:, which in the late nineteenth century enjoyed popularity (including the interest of scholars such as William James). Some people considered parapsychology to be part of "psychology." Parapsychology, 4627: 4426:

observational studies, psychologists collect data at a single point in time. The goal of many cross-sectional studies is the assess the extent factors are correlated with each other. By contrast, in

12258:, Fig. 2, p. 347 Harlow, John Martyn (1868). "Recovery from the Passage of an Iron Bar through the Head." Publications of the Massachusetts Medical Society 2:327–347 (Republished in Macmillan 2000). 1701:, and Aron Zalkind, were denounced; Ivan Pavlov (posthumously) and Stalin himself were celebrated as heroes of Soviet psychology. Soviet academics experienced a degree of liberalization during the 3555:, to varying degrees. These two sources of influence are often confounded in observational research of individuals and families. An example of this confounding can be shown in the transmission of 7454: 5006:

the harm (physical or psychological) done to animals is outweighed by the benefits of the research. Psychologists can use certain research techniques on animals that could not be used on humans.

11772:

Schonfeld, I.S., & Mazzola, J.J. (2013). Strengths and limitations of qualitative approaches to research in occupational health psychology. In R. Sinclair, M. Wang, & L. Tetrick (Eds.),

11468:

Nixon, A. E., Mazzola, J. J., Bauer, J., Krueger, J. R., & Spector, P. E. (2011). "Can work make you sick? A meta-analysis of the relationships between job stressors and physical symptoms".

4644:

methods include interviews, first-hand observation, and participant observation. Creswell (2003) identified five main possibilities for qualitative research, including narrative, phenomenology,

13089:"Raising Awareness for the Replication Crisis in Clinical Psychology by Focusing on Inconsistencies in Psychotherapy Research: How Much Can We Rely on Published Findings from Efficacy Trials?" 5386:(Steven Blankaart, p. 13) as quoted in "psychology n." A Dictionary of Psychology. Edited by Andrew M. Colman. Oxford University Press 2009. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. 1553:

week-by-week-propaganda policy for the United States Government." Cartwright also wrote that psychologists had significant roles in managing the domestic economy. The Army rolled out its new

9516:(2008). "In short, then, the studies presented above indicate that humans are keen to act on the goals of other social beings that are implied in behavioral scenarios or scripts." Also see: 3679:). James McKeen Cattell, a student of Wundt and Galton, brought the idea of psychological testing to the United States, and in fact coined the term "mental test". In 1901, Cattell's student 940:

as "the science of mental life, both of its phenomena and their conditions." This definition enjoyed widespread currency for decades. However, this meaning was contested, notably by radical

13674: 4633:

survived an accident in which a large iron rod was driven completely through his head, destroying much of his brain's left frontal lobe, but the injury altered his personality and behavior.

2471: 3952:

School psychology combines principles from educational psychology and clinical psychology to understand and treat students with learning disabilities; to foster the intellectual growth of

3525:

a short paper detailing the development of innate forms of communication based on his observations of his infant son. The main origins of the discipline, however, are found in the work of

3283:) emerged as an important trait theory of personality. Dimensional models of personality are receiving increasing support, and a version of dimensional assessment has been included in the 1853:

in her research. She recorded both women and men performances on tasks (cognitive, perceptual, and motor) for three months. No evidence was found of decreased performance due to a woman's

4130:

campaigns and outreach to governmental laws and policies. Psychologists study the composite influence of all these different tools in an effort to influence whole populations of people.

4774:. Other subfields of psychology have also been implicated in the replication crisis, including clinical psychology, developmental psychology, and a field closely related to psychology, 2049: 1017:

had physical rather than supernatural causes. In 387 BCE, Plato suggested that the brain is where mental processes take place, and in 335 BCE Aristotle suggested that it was the heart.

4342:

The experimenter (E) orders the teacher (T), the subject of the experiment, to give what the latter believes are painful electric shocks to a learner (L), who is actually an actor and

4036:

has been to evaluate and counsel soldiers and other personnel. In the U.S., this function began during World War I, when Robert Yerkes established the School of Military Psychology at

14458:

Herman, Ellen. "Psychology as Politics: How Psychological Experts Transformed Public Life in the United States 1940–1970." Doctoral dissertation accepted by Brandeis University, 1993.

2150:

founded the Self Compassion Scale, a tool for therapists to use to measure their compassion for themselves. In addition to this, she has written several books the most relevant being

13282: 6841:"Psychology Constructs the Female; or the Fantasy Life of the Male Psychologist (with Some Attention to the Fantasies of his Friends, the Male Biologist and the Male Anthropologist)" 3586:

technologies allows researchers to measure participant DNA variation directly, and test whether individual genetic variants within genes are associated with psychological traits and

3231:

have developed taxonomies of personality constructs in describing personality in terms of key traits. Trait theorists have often employed statistical data-reduction methods, such as

3156:

death, free will, and meaning, suggesting that meaning can be shaped by myths and narratives; meaning can be deepened by the acceptance of free will, which is requisite to living an

1324:, was a 19th-century contributor to the field. He pioneered the experimental study of memory and developed quantitative models of learning and forgetting. In the early 20th century, 6129:

Hans Pols, "The World as Laboratory: Strategies of Field Research Developed by Mental Hygiene Psychologists in Toronto, 1920–1940" in Theresa Richardson & Donald Fisher (eds.),

2392:

is a cross-disciplinary, holistic model that concerns the ways in which interrelationships of biological, psychological, and socio-environmental factors affect health and behavior.

1873:

The first half of the 1900s was filled with new theories and it was a turning point for women's recognition within the field of psychology. In addition to the contributions made by

1348:

thoughts and behavior into smaller component elements, as in structuralism, the Gestaltists maintained that whole of experience is important, and differs from the sum of its parts.

8391: 1997:

As the field of psychology developed throughout the latter half of the 20th century, women in the field advocated for their voices to be heard and their perspectives to be valued.

1857:

cycle. She also challenged the belief intelligence is inherited and women here are intellectually inferior to men. She stated that women do not reach positions of power due to the

1548:

During World War II and the Cold War, the U.S. military and intelligence agencies established themselves as leading funders of psychology by way of the armed forces and in the new

15147: 3695:

developed and elaborated a new test of intelligence in 1905–1911. They used a range of questions diverse in their nature and difficulty. Binet and Simon introduced the concept of

10513:

Leichsenring, Falk; Leibing, Eric (2003). "The effectiveness of psychodynamic therapy and cognitive behavior therapy in the treatment of personality disorders: A meta-analysis".

9850: 4107:. These two African American psychologists studied segregation's adverse psychological impact on Black children. Their research findings played a role in the desegregation case 14939:

Peterson, Roger L.; Peterson, Donald R.; Abrams, Jules C.; Stricker, George; Ducheny, Kelly (2015). "Training in Clinical Psychology in the United States: Practitioner Model".

3810:

people who have graduated from doctoral programs in clinical psychology. In Canada, some of the members of the abovementioned groups usually fall within the larger category of

11240: 7349:

Irmingard Staeuble, "Psychology in the Eurocentric Order of the Social Sciences: Colonial Constitution, Cultural Imperialist Expansion, Postcolonial Critique" in Brock (ed.),

5414: 2348:

is the scientific study of the behavior and mental processes of non-human animals. A leading question in behavioral neuroscience has been whether and how mental functions are

12810: 7483: 4921:, may be dubious or even dangerous, despite their popularity. These practices, however, are outside the mainstream practices taught in clinical psychology doctoral programs. 1994:

decision, leading to the end of legal segregation across the nation. Clark went on to be an influential figure in psychology, her work continuing to focus on minority youth.

1693:

took a heavy toll and instilled a climate of fear in the profession, as elsewhere in Soviet society. Following World War II, Jewish psychologists past and present, including

4270:

as well. Other research psychologists rely on statistical methods to glean knowledge from population data. The statistical methods research psychologists employ include the

952:, the theoretical goal of which "is the prediction and control of behavior." Since James defined "psychology", the term more strongly implicates scientific experimentation. 14413:

Cina, Carol. "Social Science for Whom? A Structural History of Social Psychology." Doctoral dissertation, accepted by the State University of New York at Stony Brook, 1981.

13607: 4731:

In 1959, statistician Theodore Sterling examined the results of psychological studies and discovered that 97% of them supported their initial hypotheses, implying possible

4610:. Research in comparative psychology sometimes appears to shed light on human behavior, but some attempts to connect the two have been quite controversial, for example the 3683:

published discouraging results, suggesting that mental testing of Columbia and Barnard students failed to predict academic performance. In response to 1904 orders from the

8761:

Cattell, Raymond B.; Nichols, K. Ernest (1972). "An Improved Definition, from 10 Researchers, of Second Order Personality Factors in Q Data (with Cross-Cultural Checks)".

5390: 4221:

on physical and mental health, the influence of psychosocial factors on safety and accidents, and interventions designed to improve/protect worker health. OHP grew out of

5189:"The mission of the APA is to advance the creation, communication and application of psychological knowledge to benefit society and improve people's lives"; APA (2010). 2590:

is the term used for the application of the principles of operant conditioning to change socially significant behavior (it supersedes the term, "behavior modification").

13345:"Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching" 11217: 4863:

research findings to the rest of the global population. In 2010, Henrich, Heine, and Norenzayan reported a bias in conducting psychology studies with participants from "

1709:

emerged. The field involved the study of the mental aspects of complex jobs (such as pilot and cosmonaut). Interdisciplinary studies became popular and scholars such as

10005:

Lee, S Hong; Decandia, Teresa R.; Ripke, Stephan; Yang, Jian; Sullivan, Patrick F.; Goddard, Michael E.; Keller, Matthew C.; Visscher, Peter M.; Wray, Naomi R. (2012).

8895:

Cattell, Raymond B.; Boyle, Gregory J.; Chant, David (2002). "Enriched behavioral prediction equation and its impact on structured learning and the dynamic calculus".

4876:

world. In 2018, Rad, Martingano, and Ginges showed that nearly a decade after Henrich et al.'s paper, over 80% of the samples used in studies published in the journal

2579:

used by rats to guess at the location of food at the end of a maze. Skinner's behaviorism did not die, in part because it generated successful practical applications.

11707:

Tetrick, L.E., & Quick, J.C. (2011). Overview of occupational health psychology: Public health in occupational settings. In J.C. Quick & L.E. Tetrick (Eds.),

11422:

Brown, A. D., Schultebraucks, K., Qian, M., Li, M., Horesh, D., Siegel, C., Brody, Y., Amer, A. M., Lev-Ari, R. K., Mas, F., Marmar, C. R., & Farmer, J. (2020). "

9116: 8417: 8087: 4961: 4781:

Focus on the replication crisis has led to other renewed efforts in the discipline to re-test important findings. In response to concerns about publication bias and

3770:

Today mental testing is a routine phenomenon for people of all ages in Western societies. Modern testing aspires to criteria including standardization of procedure,

1958:

was another woman in psychology that changed the field with her research. She was one of the first African-Americans to receive a doctoral degree in psychology from

2843:

involves research on the nature of leadership, organizational communication, and related phenomena. In recent years, social psychologists have become interested in

1625:

guidance and the active cooperation of the patient represent the best way to overcome individual mental problems and to subordinate them to the requirements of the

12764: 5242: 4040:

in Georgia. The school provided psychological training for military staff. Today, U.S. Army psychologists perform psychological screening, clinical psychotherapy,

1588:

In Germany after World War I, psychology held institutional power through the military, which was subsequently expanded along with the rest of the military during

11132: 8478: 12481: 11447:

Amiri, S., & Behnezhad, S. (2020). "Is job strain a risk factor for musculoskeletal pain? A systematic review and meta-analysis of 21 longitudinal studies".

9680: 6032:

Cecilia Taiana, "Transatlantic Migration of the Disciplines of Mind: Examination of the Reception of Wundt's and Freud's Theories in Argentina", in Brock (ed.),

1433:, an expansive approach to psychology that underlined the Darwinian idea of a behavior's usefulness to the individual. In 1890, James wrote an influential book, 12610: 4331:

Flowchart of the four phases, enrollment, intervention allocation, follow-up, and data analysis, of a parallel randomized trial of two groups modified from the

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in laboratory settings, such research can only assess a limited range of short-term phenomena. Some psychologists rely on less rigorously controlled, but more

3446:

in European philosophy. With the steady rise of Darwinian and Freudian thinking, instinct also came to be seen as a primary source of motivation. According to

2819:, and the social environment influence human interactions. Social psychologists study such topics as the influence of others on an individual's behavior (e.g. 2559:

published an influential critique of radical behaviorism on the grounds that behaviorist principles could not adequately explain the complex mental process of

5025:. Harlow also devised what he called a "rape rack", to which the female isolates were tied in normal monkey mating posture. In 1974, American literary critic 3864:

cognitive-behavioral therapy is exposing patients to things they fear, based on the premise that their responses (fear, panic, anxiety) can be deconditioned.

5489: 4200:

and his National Institute of Industrial Psychology (NIIP) during the inter-War years. In the U. S. during the mid-twentieth century industrial psychologist

4072:(IO). Psychologists have sometimes been involved in assisting the interrogation and torture of suspects, staining the records of the psychologists involved. 3410:

before the mind becomes aware of them. The influence of unconscious forces on people's choices bears on the philosophical question of free will. John Bargh,

2839:

fuses elements of social and cognitive psychology for the purpose of understanding how people process, remember, or distort social information. The study of

1443:." James's ideas interested many American students in the emerging discipline. Dewey integrated psychology with societal concerns, most notably by promoting 4174:: These are injuries in bones, nerves and tendons due to overexertion and repetitive strain. They have been linked to job satisfaction and workplace stress. 1042:

balance, and analyzes mental disorder in terms of physiological and social disequilibria. Chinese scholarship that focused on the brain advanced during the

10549: 9763:

Polderman, Tinca J C.; Benyamin, Beben; De Leeuw, Christiaan A.; Sullivan, Patrick F.; Van Bochoven, Arjen; Visscher, Peter M.; Posthuma, Danielle (2015).

4013: 2241: 1450:

A different strain of experimentalism, with a greater connection to physiology, emerged in South America, under the leadership of Horacio G. Piñero at the

12151: 12102: 11986: 11028:

Steven Williams, "Executive Management: Helping Executives Manage Their Organizations through Organizational and Market Research" in Morgan et al. (ed.),

4457:

is the technique research psychologists use to integrate results from many studies of the same variables and arriving at a grand average of the findings.

1558: 12885: 10239: 2237: 12326: 11154: 9695:

Hunnius, S., & Bekkering, H. (2010). The early development of object knowledge: A study of infants' visual anticipations during action observation.

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conducted, as well as the topics eligible for research support, shaped the whole field of sex research and, in many ways, still continue to support it."

9260: 6960: 5667: 5620: 4271: 2228:. Psychology departments have since proliferated around the world, based primarily on the Euro-American model. Since 1966, the Union has published the 1775: 13399: 11189: 10727: 7756: 3755:. Eugenicists used mental testing to justify and organize compulsory sterilization of individuals classified as mentally retarded (now referred to as 1653:, prominently advocated sterilization and euthanasia of men considered genetically undesirable, and devised techniques for facilitating this process. 14013:

Morgan-Consoli, M. L.; Inman, A. G.; Bullock, M.; Nolan, S. A. (2018). "Framework for competencies for U.S. psychologists engaging internationally".

13571: 12632:

Sterling, Theodore D. (March 1959). "Publication decisions and their possible effects on inferences drawn from tests of significance—or vice versa".

11298:

Robiner, W. N., & Seime, R. J. (2008). Psychologists in academic health centers: Traditions and innovations in education, science, and practice.

8983:

Goldberg, Lewis R.; Johnson, John A.; Eber, Herbert W.; Hogan, Robert; Ashton, Michael C.; Cloninger, C. Robert; Gough, Harrison G. (February 2006).

11898: 10916:

Parsons, H. M. (1974). "What happened at Hawthorne?: New evidence suggests the Hawthorne effect resulted from operant reinforcement contingencies".

8231: 7451: 5173: 5094: 2855:

have applied to the study of psychiatric disorders, concepts such as the social role, sick role, social class, life events, culture, migration, and

10701: 13660: 9307:

Soon, Chun Siong; Brass, Marcel; Heinze, Hans-Jochen; Haynes, John-Dylan (2008). "Unconscious determinants of free decisions in the human brain".

6344: 13028:

Leichsenring, F.; Abbass, A.; Hilsenroth, M. J.; Leweke, F.; Luyten, P.; Keefe, J. R.; Midgley, N.; Rabung, S.; Salzer, S.; Steinert, C. (2017).

9666:

Schonfeld, I. S. (1986). The Genevan and Cattell-Horn conceptions of intelligence compared: The early implementation of numerical solution aids.

9512:

Hank Aarts, Ap Dijksterhuis, & Giel Dik, "Goal Contagion: Inferring goals from others' actions—and what it leads to", in Shah & Gardner,

7363: 3840:

Psychotherapy as conducted by psychiatrists blurred the distinction between psychiatry and psychology, and this trend continued with the rise of

2583: 2210: 1849:

worked to prove differences were not from male genetic superiority, but from culture. She also included the concept of women's impairment during

7835:

Miller, S.; Konorski, J. (1928). "Sur une forme particulière des reflexes conditionels" [On a particular form of conditional reflexes].

3867:

Mental health care today involves psychologists and social workers in increasing numbers. In 1977, National Institute of Mental Health director

3058:

in 1943 posited that humans have a hierarchy of needs, and it makes sense to fulfill the basic needs first before higher-order needs can be met.

981:

The ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China, India, and Persia all engaged in the philosophical study of psychology. In Ancient Egypt the

9221: 8381: 4439:

seen the adult acting aggressively towards a toy, in turn, were aggressive towards their own toy when put in a situation that frustrated them.

1866:

was able to show there is no difference between the physiological and psychological traits of men and women, and women are not impaired during

10812: 5712:

Anand C. Paranjpe, "From Tradition through Colonialism to Globalization: Reflections on the History of Psychology in India", in Brock (ed.),

4930: 9611: 3356:

advanced the idea of a subconscious mind, which could contain autonomous mental elements unavailable to the direct scrutiny of the subject.

2368:

traced production of speech to the left frontal gyrus, thereby also demonstrating hemispheric lateralization of brain function. Soon after,

1585:, an effort which enlisted psychologists and anthropologists to analyze the plans and policies of foreign countries for strategic purposes. 13441: 13272: 4985:

rights and well-being of participants; an investigator's research project cannot be conducted unless approved by such an ethics committee.

2221: 1490: 619: 13665: 9634:"Supplemental Material for Observer-Rated Environmental Sensitivity Moderates Children's Response to Parenting Quality in Early Childhood" 2139:

of African American women. She founded the organization Rise Sally Rise which helps Black women cope with anxiety. She published her work

12345:

Shackman, Gene; The Global Social Change Research Project (2017). "What is Program Evaluation? A Beginners Guide (Presentation Slides)".

11492:"Workplace mistreatment climate and potential employee and organizational outcomes: A meta-analytic review from the target's perspective" 10399:

Rodriguez, A., Reise, S. P., & Haviland, M. G. (2016). Evaluating bifactor models: Calculating and interpreting statistical indices.

6251: 5158:

counsel their clients to become aware of maladaptive thought patterns, the nature of which the clients previously had not been conscious.

4743:. Fanelli argued that this is because researchers in "softer" sciences have fewer constraints to their conscious and unconscious biases. 3303: 6424: 6198: 5266:

Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2010–11 Edition, Psychologists, on the Internet at

4929:

Ethical standards in the discipline have changed over time. Some famous past studies are today considered unethical and in violation of

4656:. Qualitative researchers sometimes aim to enrich our understanding of symbols, subjective experiences, or social structures. Sometimes 1244:

believed that the human mind was open to scientific investigation, even if the science is in some ways inexact. Mill proposed a "mental

8616:

Singal, J. (2021, June 7). Positive psychology goes to war: How the Army adopted an untested, evidence-free approach to fighting PTSD.

6103:

Nancy Tomes, "The Development of Clinical Psychology, Social Work, and Psychiatric Nursing: 1900–1980s", in Wallace & Gach (eds.),

4332: 2217:

and the Asian American Psychological Association have arisen to promote the inclusion of non-European racial groups in the profession.

2036:

The latter half of the 20th century further diversified the field of psychology, with women of color reaching new milestones. In 1962,

1417:" psychology. The idea behind structuralism was to analyze and classify different aspects of the mind, primarily through the method of 14116: 12208: 1645:

melded psychology with the Nazi theory of biology and racial origins, criticizing psychoanalysis as a study of the weak and deformed.

16193: 13935: 12947: 10407: 9285: 8170:

Mandler, G. (2007). A history of modern experimental psychology: From James and Wundt to cognitive science. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

7387:

Judy E. Hall and George Hurley, "North American Perspectives on Education, Training, Licensing, and Credentialing", in Weiner (ed.),

5588: 4139:

conducting surveys to identify issues and designing interventions to make work healthier. Some of the specific health areas include:

12800: 11237: 9131: 6733: 6288:

veritable Manhattan Project for the behavioral sciences, at least by many of the intellectuals whose services were in heavy demand."

2741:

used experimental methods to link psychological phenomena to the structure and function of the brain. The rise of computer science,

15498: 6149:

Sol Cohen, "The Mental Hygiene Movement, the Development of Personality and the School: The Medicalization of American Education";

4226: 4065: 3970: 3520:

Developmental psychologists engage a child with a book and then make observations based on how the child interacts with the object.

3475: 1153:. At the end of the Napoleonic era, Prussian authorities discontinued the Old University of Münster. Having consulted philosophers 803: 329: 14831:

Knowland, Victoria C.P.; Purser, Harry; Thomas, Michael S.C. (2015). "Cross-Sectional Methodologies in Developmental Psychology".

9017: 5955: 13597: 10274: 5290: 4435:, the type of problem in which bias is introduced when a certain type of research participant disproportionately leaves a study. 3684: 14248: 12731: 10638:

Clarkson, P. (1996). The eclectic and integrative paradigm: Between the Scylla of confluence and the Charybdis of confusion. In

10106:"Meta-analysis of Genome-wide Association Studies for Neuroticism, and the Polygenic Association with Major Depressive Disorder" 8973:

Gough, H.G. (1987) California Psychological Inventory Administrator's Guide. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc.

4445:

includes a variety of practices that researchers use to reduce a great many variables to a small number overarching factors. In

4327: 1289:

soon created another influential laboratory at Leipzig, a psychology-related lab, that focused more on experimental psychiatry.

16102: 15593: 13817: 13637: 9566:, "Can Satisfaction Reinforce Wanting? A new theory about long-term changes in strength of motivation", in Shah & Gardner, 8364: 8133: 5935: 4602:

for human subjects. There are pitfalls, however, in generalizing findings from animal studies to humans through animal models.

4250: 4069: 3722: 2224:(IUPsyS) is the world federation of national psychological societies. The IUPsyS was founded in 1951 under the auspices of the 2098:"Best Doctors in the United States" is a lecturer, psychologist, and writer. She is known for her vast modern contributions to 1925:

Women in the second half of the 20th century continued to do research that had large-scale impacts on the field of psychology.

1760:) able to transcend material conditions through hard work and ideological struggle. They developed a concept of "recognition" ( 1656:

After the war, new institutions were created although some psychologists, because of their Nazi affiliation, were discredited.

1355:, an American who studied with Wundt, founded a psychology lab that became internationally influential. The lab was located at 884: 556: 11214: 5645: 5365: 4492:(EEG), a technique using amplified electrodes on a person's scalp to measure voltage changes in different parts of the brain. 3239:'s early biologically based model suggests at least three major trait constructs are necessary to describe human personality, 1344:. The approach of Gestalt psychology is based upon the idea that individuals experience things as unified wholes. Rather than 17072: 15072: 15045: 15018: 14983: 14956: 14929: 14902: 14875: 14848: 14821: 14794: 14767: 14740: 14713: 14686: 14659: 14539: 14522: 14508: 14473: 14463: 14408: 14394: 14154: 13997: 13969: 13659:

Chartier, Chris; Kline, Melissa; McCarthy, Randy; Nuijten, Michele; Dunleavy, Daniel J.; Ledgerwood, Alison (December 2018).

13395: 12585: 12309: 11660:

Houdmont, J., & Leka, S. (2010). An introduction to occupational health psychology. In S. Leka & J. Houdmont (Eds.).

11557:

Kreis, S. (1995). Early experiments in British scientific management: the Health of Munitions Workers' Committee, 1915-1920.

11545: 11285:

Marilu Price Berry, "Interdisciplinary Medical Setting: The Multiple Roles of a Health Psychologist" in Morgan et al. (ed.),

11074: 11053: 10179: 9488: 9237: 9203: 8883: 8831: 8605: 8561: 8513: 8318: 8206: 7679: 7643: 7618: 7512: 7274: 7222: 7195: 7168: 7141: 7114: 7029: 6706: 6459: 6116:

Franz Samuelson, "Organizing for the Kingdom of Behavior: Academic Battles and the Organizational Policies in the Twenties";

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was established because of Nazi abuses of experimental subjects. Later, most countries (and scientific journals) adopted the

4937:). The American Psychological Association has advanced a set of ethical principles and a code of conduct for the profession. 4508: 3013: 2608: 2510:

and towards "behavioralism." In 1913, John B. Watson coined the term behaviorism for this school of thought. Watson's famous

2045: 1657: 12043: 7892: 7370: 5855: 4677:

studied chimpanzee social and family life by careful observation of chimpanzee behavior in the field, psychologists conduct

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Physical health symptoms: Occupational stress has been linked to physical symptoms such as digestive distress and headache.

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mostly had marginalized Freudian theory, dismissing it as a "desiccated and dead" historical artifact. Researchers such as

2586:

was founded in 1974 and by 2003 had members from 42 countries. The field has gained a foothold in Latin America and Japan.

1497:

celebrating the centennial of the French Revolution. William James was one of three Americans among the 400 attendees. The

1440: 1351:

Psychologists in Germany, Denmark, Austria, England, and the United States soon followed Wundt in setting up laboratories.

11987:"From Single-Channel Recordings to Brain-Mapping Devices: The Impact of Electroencephalography on Experimental Psychology" 9088: 4309:

Although this type of psychological research is much less abundant than quantitative research, some psychologists conduct

3875:

Some clinical psychologists focus on the clinical management of patients with brain injury. This subspecialty is known as

2331: 1489:

in France, which lasted from 1885 to 1893. The first meeting of the International Congress of Psychology sponsored by the

16906: 16030: 15661: 14203: 10902:

Yeh Hsueh, "The Hawthorne experiments and the introduction of Jean Piaget in American industrial psychology, 1929–1932";

10482:

W. Edward Craighead & Linda Wilcoxon Craighead, "Behavioral and Cognitive-Behavioral Psychotherapy" in Weiner (ed.),

5018: 4813: 4255: 3311: 2700: 2252: 2245: 2018: 1837:

because employers were less likely to hire them due to the belief they would be incapable of working for 1 week a month.

774: 10835: 5214: 4012:

The name industrial and organizational psychology emerged in the 1960s. In 1973, it became enshrined in the name of the

2388:

conduct psychological assessments to determine how an individual's behavior and cognition are related to the brain. The

1532:, Rockefeller foundations helped establish research on sexuality in the U.S. Under the influence of the Carnegie-funded 15656: 13349: 13255: 13221: 12983: 12926: 11366:

Clays, Els; De Bacquer, Dirk; Delanghe, Joris; Kittel, France; Van Renterghem, Lieve; De Backer, Guy (September 2005).

11130: 10599:

Jensen, J.P.; Bergin, A.E.; Greaves, D.W. (1990). "The meaning of eclecticism: New survey and analysis of components".

10298:"Forensic psychology and correctional psychology: Distinct but related subfields of psychological science and practice" 9591: 8482: 8101: 7987:

Overmier J.B.; Seligman M.E.P. (1967). "Effects of inescapable shock upon subsequent escape and avoidance responding".

5730: 5617:

T.L. Brink. (2008) Psychology: A Student Friendly Approach. "Unit One: The Definition and History of Psychology." pp 9

4641: 4068:(PSYOP) until 2010, when these activities were reclassified as Military Information Support Operations (MISO), part of 3739: 3632:

Psychology encompasses many subfields and includes different approaches to the study of mental processes and behavior.

3307: 2704: 2214: 2182:(Published in 2018), and co-authoring the award-winning "APA Handbook of the Psychology of Women" (published in 2019). 1498: 9678: 9248:

S. Doyen, O. Klein, C. L. Pichon and A. Cleeremans. (2012). Behavioral priming: it's all in the mind, but whose mind?

5746:

Schwarz, Katharina A.; Pfister, Roland (2016). "Scientific psychology in the 18th century: A historical rediscovery".

4786: 4125:

Medical facilities increasingly employ psychologists to perform various roles. One aspect of health psychology is the

2977:. These individuals ensured that psychoanalysis would evolve into diverse schools of thought. Among these schools are 1079:

texts that formed the foundations of Hinduism was the distinction between a person's transient mundane self and their

14625: 14611: 14597: 14583: 14569: 14555: 14487: 14453: 14439: 14425: 14336: 14228: 12602: 12289: 10647: 10451: 8585: 8540: 8454: 7585: 6397: 6267: 6138: 5423: 4523: 4259: 2675:

The Stroop effect is the fact that naming the color of the first set of words is easier and quicker than the second.

2349: 1966:. Her master's thesis, "The Development of Consciousness in Negro Pre-School Children," argued that black children's 11882: 11673:

Everly, G.S., Jr. (1986). An introduction to occupational health psychology. In P.A. Keller & L.G. Ritt (Eds.),

11318:

Monica L. Baskin, "Public Health: Career Opportunities for Psychologists in Public Health", in Morgan et al. (ed.),

10499:

Teri L. Elliott, "Disaster Psychology: Keep Clients out of Your Office—Get into the Field!" in Morgan et al. (ed.),

7893:"The long good-bye: why B.F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior is alive and well on the 50th anniversary of its publication" 5063: 4618:. Animal models are often used to study neural processes related to human behavior, e.g. in cognitive neuroscience. 16830: 16082: 12945:(September 2016). "Charting the future of social psychology on stormy seas: Winners, losers, and recommendations". 11645: 11152: 11147:

Genderson, M.R., Schonfeld, I.S., Kaplan, M.S., & Lyons, M.J. (2009).Suicide associated with military service.

10991: 8822:

Boyle, G.J. (2008). Critique of Five-Factor Model (FFM). In G.J. Boyle, G. Matthews, & D.H. Saklofske. (Eds.),

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Clinical psychology is the practice of psychology, especially as a means of furthering human welfare and knowledge.

2196: 1554: 1055: 612: 536: 15129: 12836: 12388:; Simonovits, Gabor (1 January 2016). "Underreporting in Psychology Experiments: Evidence From a Study Registry". 11692: 10961:"Was There Really a Hawthorne Effect at the Hawthorne Plant? An Analysis of the Original Illumination Experiments" 8313:

Moore, B.E.; Fine, B.D. (1968), A Glossary of Psychoanalytic Terms and Concepts, Amer Psychoanalytic Assn, p. 78,

5456: 4446: 2937:

Psychoanalytic theory is not monolithic. Other well-known psychoanalytic thinkers who diverged from Freud include

2764:, for example, is the tendency to overestimate the importance of something which happens to come readily to mind. 2563:

and language use. The review, which was scathing, did much to reduce the status of behaviorism within psychology.

16766: 15089: 13065: 9633: 9415:

Forgas, Williams, & Laham, "Social Motivation: Introduction and Overview", in Forgas, Williams, & Laham,

5196: 4910: 3841: 3591: 3295: 3199: 2733:

Technological advances also renewed interest in mental states and mental representations. English neuroscientist

1601: 1525: 1173:

and the response to social problems including alcoholism, violence, and the country's crowded "lunatic" asylums.

16854: 16155: 13764: 12198:

Ron Sun, (2008). The Cambridge Handbook of Computational Psychology. Cambridge University Press, New York. 2008.

10577: 6586: 5981:

Ludy T. Benjamin, Jr., and David B. Baker, "The Internationalization of Psychology: A History", in Baker (ed.),

5270: 4638:

discovering and understanding phenomena that might have been missed if only more cursory examinations are made.

2240:, which since 1960 have steadily proliferated to include more specialties. Some of these divisions, such as the 16723: 16377: 16218: 16077: 15528: 15001:

Spinath, Frank M.; Spinath, Birgit; Borkenau, Peter (2015). "Developmental Behavioral Genetics and Education".

14050:"Toward a psychology of Homo sapiens: Making psychological science more representative of the human population" 12182: 12133: 12017: 10869: 7452:"Subjective and objective research in positive psychology: A biological characteristic is linked to well-being" 5155: 4379: 4214: 4089: 3752: 3619: 3082: 1845:

theory, that women have lesser psychological and physical traits than men and were simply mediocre, incorrect.

1087:

have challenged this hierarchy of selves, but have all emphasized the importance of reaching higher awareness.

876: 531: 359: 16924: 16135: 12323: 11774:

Research methods in occupational health psychology: State of the art in measurement, design, and data analysis

10231: 4183:: Violence prevention climate is related to being physically assaulted and psychologically mistreated at work. 1974:. She and her husband conduced research building off her thesis throughout the 1940s. These tests, called the 1557:

to assess the ability of millions of soldiers. The Army also engaged in large-scale psychological research of

17067: 16330: 16186: 16107: 15990: 15292: 13144:"A Collaborative Approach to Infant Research: Promoting Reproducibility, Best Practices, and Theory-Building" 12979:"A critical review of the first 10 years of candidate gene-by-environment interaction research in psychiatry" 11602:

Zickar, M. J. (2003). Remembering Arthur Kornhauser: Industrial psychology's advocate for worker well-being.

6814: 5154:, all of which are understood either to bypass or to occur outside of conscious effort or attention. Indeed, 4949: 3456: 3291: 3272: 3240: 2927: 2802: 1718: 1633: 1541: 1494: 1454:. In Russia, too, researchers placed greater emphasis on the biological basis for psychology, beginning with 1154: 1138:

as a discipline, with psychology an important subdivision. Kant, however, explicitly rejected the idea of an

1119: 561: 128: 11186: 8253:

Allport, G. W (1985). "The Historical Background of Social Psychology". In G. Lindzey and E. Aronson (ed.).

5618: 2532:, and others did much to help behaviorism become a widely used paradigm. A new method of "instrumental" or " 786: 16671: 16581: 16117: 15739: 13388: 10762: 4578: 4512: 4363:. Prototypical experimental research is conducted in a laboratory with a carefully controlled environment. 4291: 4287: 3792: 3343: 2986: 2768: 2300: 1549: 1435: 1364: 571: 484: 13532: 11490:

Yang, Liu-Qin; Caughlin, David E.; Gazica, Michele W.; Truxillo, Donald M.; Spector, Paul E. (July 2014).

4969: 4940:

The most important contemporary standards include informed and voluntary consent. After World War II, the

3497:: the adoption of goals, sometimes unconsciously, based on inferences about the goals of others. Vohs and 16223: 16145: 13181: 12482:"This research group seeks to expose weaknesses in science—and they'll step on some toes if they have to" 11895: 8223: 6614: 4484:

with two layers, an interconnected group of nodes, akin to the vast network of neurons in the human brain

4109: 3834: 3771: 3260: 3152: 2772: 2719:

because it rejected the anti-mentalist dogma of behaviorism as well as the strictures of psychoanalysis.

2384:, by using neural imaging tools, investigate the neural correlates of psychological processes in humans. 1991: 1771: 1570: 1508:

American psychology gained status upon the U.S.'s entry into World War I. A standing committee headed by

1202:(seated), a German psychologist, with colleagues in his psychological laboratory, the first of its kind, 605: 20: 16140: 11344:

Beus, J. M., McCord, M. A., & Zohar, D. (2016). "Workplace safety:A review and research synthesis".

10660: 6681: 6642: 3879:. In many countries, clinical psychology is a regulated mental health profession. The emerging field of 3314:, which is in the public domain, has become a source of scales that can be used personality assessment. 2851:

models, and the interaction of person and social factors in accounting for behavior. Some concepts that

2619: 2518:(aversions to other stimuli) in an infant human, although such a conclusion was likely an exaggeration. 16868: 15940: 15238: 12918: 4953: 4817: 4279: 3849: 3306:(MMPI), despite its name, is more a dimensional measure of psychopathology than a personality measure. 2784: 2622:. Psychologists make inferences about mental processes from shared phenomena such as optical illusions. 1819:. She stated it is important focus on the child's environment, support their development, and prevent 1451: 1414: 1296: 746: 730: 75: 15113: 13030:"Biases in research: Risk factors for non-replicability in psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy research" 9038:

Deber, James A; Jacoby, Larry L. (1994). "Unconscious Perception: Attention, Awareness, and Control".

5537:

The term "folk psychology" is itself contentious: see Daniel D. Hutto & Matthew Ratcliffe (eds.),

3406:, although there has been dispute with regard to replication. Some experimental data suggest that the 2725:

helped along the transition in psychology from behaviorism to cognitive psychology. Bandura and other

2575:

advanced a hybrid "cognitive behavioral" model, most notably with his 1948 publication discussing the

1169:. However, this discipline did not yet embrace experimentation. In England, early psychology involved 16485: 16213: 16072: 16064: 15694: 15428: 15304: 13247: 8824:

ThBy coe SAGE handbook of personality theory and assessment: Vol. 1 – Personality theories and models

7290: 7160:

Soothe Your Nerves: The Black Woman's Guide to Understanding and Overcoming Anxiety, Panic, and Fearz

4906: 4857: 4752: 4723:. These findings have led to calls for reform from within and from outside the scientific community. 4707:

Metascience involves the application of scientific methodology to study science itself. The field of

4481: 4442: 4367: 4017: 3896: 3407: 3157: 2994: 2844: 2587: 2514:

in 1920 was at first thought to demonstrate that repeated use of upsetting loud noises could instill

2444: 1874: 1863: 1846: 1838: 1677: 1646: 1399: 1166: 1115: 1038:

identifies the brain as the nexus of wisdom and sensation, includes theories of personality based on

526: 517: 439: 259: 140: 14224:

American Psychological Association. (2016). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct.

14184: 11112:

Joshua N. Friedlander, "Military Psychology: An Army Clinical Psychologist" in Morgan et al. (ed.),

10680: 9716:

Finkel, Deborah; Reynolds, Chandra A.; McArdle, John J.; Gatz, Margaret; Pedersen, Nancy L. (2003).

9532: 9321: 9218: 9052: 7956: 7804: 3774:, output of an interpretable score, statistical norms describing population outcomes, and, ideally, 1149:

and gave lectures on scientific psychology, though these developments were soon overshadowed by the

16941: 16818: 16666: 16656: 16453: 16179: 15314: 15282: 15218: 15186: 13138:

Frank, Michael C.; Bergelson, Elika; Bergmann, Christina; Cristia, Alejandrina; Floccia, Caroline;

10007:"Estimating the proportion of variation in susceptibility to schizophrenia captured by common SNPs" 9374: 9028:

3, 17 October 1884; cited in William P. Banks & Ilya Farber, "Consciousness", in Weiner (ed.),

6341: 5139: 4853: 4678: 4516: 4218: 4171: 4037: 3892: 3876: 3780: 3743: 3511: 2923: 2918:, and clinical observation. It became very well known, largely because it tackled subjects such as 2757: 2696: 2511: 2141:

Soothe Your Nerves: The Black Woman's Guide to Understanding and Overcoming Anxiety, Panic and Fear

1951: 1902: 1356: 1158: 1009:

treatise), addressed the workings of the mind. As early as the 4th century BC, the Greek physician

860:, which means "study" or "research". The word psychology was first used in the Renaissance. In its 807: 750: 150: 118: 15103: 13842:

Arnett, J. J. (2008). "The neglected 95%: Why American psychology needs to become less American".

11853: 10804: 9764: 5922:

Fechner, G. T. (1860). Elemente der Psychophysik. Breitkopf u. Härtel. (Elements of Psychophysics)

16849: 16628: 16516: 16411: 16097: 15704: 15626: 15384: 15349: 15334: 15329: 15319: 15268: 13633: 11424:

Mental health disorders and utilization of mental healthcare services in United Nations personnel

10550:"The common factors, empirically validated treatments, and recovery models of therapeutic change" 9603: 8984: 7214:

Fierce Self-Compassion: How Women Can Harness Kindness to Speak Up, Claim Their Power, and Thrive

4945: 4914: 4771: 4767: 4763: 4582: 4553: 4539: 4504: 4423: 4158: 3974: 3953: 3811: 3757: 3627: 3402:

and others involves the ideas of automaticity and unconscious processing in our understanding of

3259:

at the primary-factor level and up to eight broader second-stratum factors. Since the 1980s, the

3090: 2820: 2746: 2522:, a close collaborator with Watson, examined biological manifestations of learning in the brain. 2427: 2395: 2376: 2232:. IAAP and IUPsyS agreed in 1976 each to hold a congress every four years, on a staggered basis. 1963: 1742: 1705:. The topics of cybernetics, linguistics, and genetics became acceptable again. The new field of 1605: 1372: 1165:

established psychology as a mandatory discipline in its rapidly expanding and highly influential

1139: 551: 449: 220: 185: 170: 165: 155: 104: 64: 12577: 12571: 11331:

Zohar, D. (2010). "Thirty years of safety climate research: Reflections and future directions".

8788:

Block, Jack (1995). "A contrarian view of the five-factor approach to personality description".

8179:

Bandura, A. (1973). Aggression: A social learning analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

6131:

The Development of the Social Sciences in the United States and Canada: The Role of Philanthropy

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lends itself to the statistical testing of hypotheses. Although the field makes abundant use of

4213:

As interest in the worker health expanded toward the end of the twentieth century, the field of

2156:

Fierce Self-Compassion: How Women Can Harness Kindness to Speak Up, Claim Their Power and Thrive

929:

from which the term psychology is derived, is commonly associated with the field of psychology.

679:. As social scientists, psychologists aim to understand the behavior of individuals and groups. 16738: 16458: 16286: 16112: 15915: 15754: 15631: 15611: 15558: 15468: 15423: 15394: 15369: 15299: 15287: 15253: 14179: 13213: 13207: 11848: 10675: 9851:"Risk of Depression in the Adolescent and Adult Offspring of Mothers with Perinatal Depression" 9718:"Latent growth curve analyses of accelerating decline in cognitive abilities in late adulthood" 9527: 9369: 9316: 9047: 8930:

Boyle, Gregory J. (1995). "Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI): Some Psychometric Limitations".

7951: 7799: 6707:"Ainsworth, Mary D. Salter - Psychologists and Their Theories for Students | HighBeam Research" 5131: 4838: 4711:

has revealed problems in psychological research. Some psychological research has suffered from

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Motivation can be modulated or manipulated in many different ways. Researchers have found that

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Women in the early 1900s started to make key findings within the world of psychology. In 1923,

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Kwiatkowski, R., Duncan, D. C., & Shimmin, S. (2006). "What have we forgotten - and why?"

9446:

Bill P. Godsil, Matthew R. Tinsley, & Michael S. Fanselow, "Motivation", in Weiner (ed.),

9113: 8985:"The international personality item pool and the future of public-domain personality measures" 6248: 6193: 3323: 16661: 16651: 16613: 16586: 16548: 16521: 16431: 16340: 16259: 16249: 16092: 16087: 15772: 15714: 15666: 15493: 15458: 15433: 15324: 15213: 11125:

Thomas, J.L. (2008). OHP Research and Practice in the US Army: Mental Health Advisory Teams.

10263:"From Involuntary Sterilization to Genetic Enhancement: The Unsettled Legacy of Buck v. Bell" 8738:

Carver, C., & Scheier, M. (2004). Perspectives on Personality (5th ed.). Boston: Pearson.

8701: 6421: 5362:"Classics in the History of Psychology – Marko Marulic – The Author of the Term "Psychology"" 4957: 4878: 4849: 4419: 4405: 4230: 3981: 3726: 3615: 3467: 3062: 3045: 2828: 2695:, and problem solving. Researchers in the field of cognitive psychology are sometimes called 2484: 2389: 2179: 1979: 1971: 1710: 1642: 1641:, the leadership of the mind, to integrate people into the new vision of a German community. 1574: 1444: 1430: 1274: 1265: 969: 782: 663:. Psychology is an academic discipline of immense scope, crossing the boundaries between the 546: 541: 459: 324: 289: 264: 160: 59: 54: 17009: 11368:"Associations between dimensions of job stress and biomarkers of inflammation and infection" 9277: 7776: 6934: 6768: 3352:

catalogs hundreds of everyday events that Freud explains in terms of unconscious influence.

16992: 16608: 16448: 16421: 16416: 16313: 15699: 15636: 15538: 15448: 15278: 15263: 14061: 12684: 12444: 12212: 11788:"CONSORT 2010 Statement: updated guidelines for reporting parallel group randomised trials" 10786:

Peter E. Nathan & James Langenbucher, "Diagnosis and Classification", in Weiner (ed.),

10056:"Genetic architectures of psychiatric disorders: The emerging picture and its implications" 9961: 9194:

Also see: John A. Bargh, "The Automaticity of Everyday Life", in Robert S. Wyer Jr. (ed.),

9098: 6840: 6505: 5135: 4803: 4775: 4720: 4489: 4470: 4427: 4356: 4310: 4275: 4197: 4060:, involving techniques such as hypnosis, torture, and covert involuntary administration of 3825:, who established his practice in Philadelphia in 1896. Another modern psychotherapist was 3788: 3662: 3542: 3362: 3029: 3017: 2974: 2931: 2716: 2599: 2568: 2560: 2533: 2499: 2091: 2017:. Other women in the field also continued advocating for women in psychology, creating the 1998: 1812: 1746: 1745:

gained control of the country, the Stalinist Soviet Union became the major influence, with

1458:'s 1873 essay, "Who Is to Develop Psychology and How?" Sechenov advanced the idea of brain 1388: 1321: 1305: 1292: 1185: 1111: 687: 444: 369: 279: 114: 99: 13914: 13886: 5585: 5215:"To petition to join APA as a section of Division 12, the Division of Clinical Psychology" 4099:

An example of the contribution of psychologists to social change involves the research of

3132: 694:. Some psychologists attempt to understand the role of mental functions in individual and 8: 17062: 16788: 16782: 16708: 16623: 16568: 16443: 16308: 16254: 15543: 15533: 15518: 15483: 15478: 15463: 15443: 15438: 15309: 15248: 15179: 15152: 14143: 13304:

Makel, Matthew C.; Plucker, Jonathan A. (2014). "Facts Are More Important Than Novelty".

12796: 10205:

Myers, D. G., & DeWall, C. N. (2023). *Psychology in everyday life* (6th ed.). Worth.

9198:, Advances in Social Cognition, Volume X; Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1997; 9128: 9094: 8716:"A Trojan Horse: Logotherapeutic Transcendence and its Secular Implications for Theology" 6214:

Dorwin Cartwright, "Social Psychology in the United States During the Second World War",

5725:

PT Raju (1985), Structural Depths of Indian Thought, State University of New York Press,

5513: 5022: 4965: 4845: 4666: 4599: 4432: 4283: 4263: 4165: 4033: 3907: 3884: 3804: 3709:

put the Binet-Simon scale to work and introduced classifications of mental level such as

3418: 3380: 3299: 3144: 3097: 2734: 2545: 2448: 2132: 2014: 1959: 1954:. Because of her work, Ainsworth became one of the most cited psychologists of all time. 1882: 1734: 1300: 986: 841: 815: 778: 374: 364: 349: 314: 309: 294: 274: 269: 145: 84: 14065: 13962:

Transnational Psychology of Women: Expanding International and Intersectional Approaches

12688: 12448: 9965: 9765:"Meta-analysis of the heritability of human traits based on fifty years of twin studies" 5338: 5311: 3223:

experience. According to Freud, personality is based on the dynamic interactions of the

2756:, or irrational thought. Psychologists (and economists) have classified and described a 1368: 1080: 16733: 16298: 16010: 15890: 15724: 15671: 15583: 15578: 15513: 15453: 15413: 15339: 15064: 15037: 15010: 14989: 14975: 14948: 14921: 14894: 14867: 14840: 14813: 14786: 14759: 14750:

Demetriou, Andreas (2015). "Intelligence in Cultural, Social and Educational Context".

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Cascio, Wayne F. (2015). "Industrial–Organizational Psychology: Science and Practice".

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Shettleworth, S.J. (2010) Cognition, Evolution and Behavior (2nd Ed), New York: Oxford.

12125: 12071: 11874: 11812: 11787: 11755: 11383: 10983: 10941: 10569: 10343: 10297: 10130: 10105: 10080: 10055: 10031: 10006: 9982: 9949: 9924: 9899: 9875: 9830: 9795: 9395: 9342: 9185: 9014: 8943: 8386: 8055: 8012: 7912: 6868: 6796: 6567: 6559: 6066:

Windholz, G. (1997). "Ivan P. Pavlov: An overview of his life and psychological work".

5952: 5779: 5151: 4973: 4872: 4807: 4758: 4690: 4562: 4527: 4401: 4360: 4180: 4104: 4041: 3957: 3845: 3623: 3595: 3579: 3552: 3070: 2487:, which is used to help individuals replace undesirable behaviors with desirable ones. 2163: 1983: 1955: 1668: 1650: 1521: 1410: 1360: 1337: 1317: 762: 469: 414: 409: 344: 284: 245: 175: 16130: 14300: 12255: 11785: 10262: 9866: 8843:

Lucas, Richard E.; Baird, Brendan M. (2004). "Extraversion and Emotional Reactivity".

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Bright-sided: How the relentless promotion of positive thinking has undermined America

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Brenner, C. (1974). An elementary textbook of psychoanalysis. Garden City, NY: Anchor.

7052: 5287: 2898: 2771:, a form of psychotherapy modified from techniques developed by American psychologist 1597: 1260:

in the 1830s. He articulated the principle that human perception of a stimulus varies

16894: 16882: 16703: 16698: 16686: 16681: 16553: 16543: 16463: 16406: 16350: 16035: 16025: 15950: 15925: 15606: 15563: 15488: 15389: 15374: 15258: 15223: 15068: 15041: 15014: 14993: 14979: 14952: 14925: 14898: 14871: 14844: 14817: 14790: 14763: 14736: 14709: 14682: 14655: 14621: 14607: 14593: 14579: 14565: 14551: 14535: 14518: 14504: 14483: 14469: 14449: 14435: 14421: 14404: 14390: 14342: 14332: 14244: 14150: 14097: 14079: 14034: 13993: 13965: 13931: 13919: 13859: 13749: 13737: 13719: 13555: 13513: 13464: 13459: 13436: 13325: 13251: 13217: 13173: 13120: 13049: 13010: 12922: 12881: 12869: 12712: 12581: 12552: 12534: 12462: 12417: 12405: 12366: 12358: 12305: 12285: 12174: 12121: 12063: 12009: 11866: 11817: 11759: 11541: 11519: 11511: 11405: 11397: 11070: 11049: 10933: 10865: 10754: 10693: 10643: 10573: 10530: 10447: 10335: 10327: 10185: 10175: 10135: 10121: 10085: 10036: 9987: 9929: 9880: 9799: 9787: 9745: 9737: 9717: 9649: 9587: 9563: 9545: 9484: 9387: 9383: 9334: 9233: 9199: 9065: 8912: 8879: 8860: 8827: 8805: 8694: 8601: 8581: 8557: 8536: 8509: 8450: 8314: 8202: 8097: 8047: 8004: 7969: 7817: 7675: 7639: 7614: 7591: 7581: 7518: 7508: 7329:

Wade Pickren & Raymond D. Fowler, "Professional Organizations", in Weiner (ed.),

7270: 7266:

Eliminating Inequities for Women with Disabilities: An Agenda for Health and Wellness

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are most typically associated with theories about the unconscious mind. By contrast,

4450: 4413: 4267: 4222: 4201: 4081: 3923: 3645: 3583: 3556: 3451: 3442: 3360:

number, make their way through the filter. Much research has shown that subconscious

3294:, constructed during World War I. The popular, although psychometrically inadequate, 3268: 3148: 3106: 2856: 2796: 2712: 2416: 2404: 2296: 2172:

Eliminating Inequities for Women with Disabilities: An Agenda for Health and Wellness

2121: 2117: 2010: 1947: 1943: 1930: 1834: 1800: 1726: 1380: 1096: 1066: 1047: 811: 798: 758: 754: 691: 593: 394: 319: 225: 210: 94: 16160: 16150: 13871: 13813: 13629: 13567: 13389:

Foundations for Success: The Final Report of the National Mathematics Advisory Panel

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Bargh, John A.; Chartrand, Tanya L. (1999). "The unbearable automaticity of being".

8447:

The emotional brain: The mysterious underpinnings of emotional life (Touchstone ed.)

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Richard F. Thompson & Stuart M. Zola, "Biological Psychology", in Weiner (ed.),

6656: 4626: 4477: 3692: 2877: 1593: 16718: 16563: 16538: 16345: 16335: 16325: 16045: 16040: 15905: 15900: 15800: 15621: 15568: 15523: 15508: 15503: 15379: 15354: 15060: 15033: 15006: 14971: 14944: 14917: 14890: 14863: 14836: 14809: 14782: 14755: 14728: 14701: 14674: 14647: 14544: 14296: 14087: 14069: 14022: 13909: 13901: 13851: 13786: 13756: 13727: 13709: 13547: 13503: 13476: 13454: 13428: 13362: 13313: 13277: 13163: 13155: 13110: 13100: 13061: 13041: 13000: 12996: 12992: 12956: 12859: 12851: 12769: 12702: 12692: 12641: 12542: 12524: 12452: 12397: 12350: 12170: 12166: 12152:"Great expectations: What can fMRI research tell us about psychological phenomena?" 12117: 12055: 12001: 11858: 11807: 11799: 11747: 11607: 11583: 11562: 11503: 11473: 11452: 11431: 11387: 11379: 11349: 11303: 11169: 11085: 10975: 10925: 10746: 10685: 10608: 10561: 10522: 10462: 10317: 10309: 10125: 10117: 10075: 10067: 10026: 10018: 9977: 9969: 9919: 9911: 9870: 9862: 9834: 9822: 9779: 9729: 9700: 9671: 9641: 9537: 9399: 9379: 9346: 9326: 9189: 9177: 9057: 8996: 8939: 8904: 8852: 8797: 8770: 8276: 8194: 8129: 8039: 7996: 7961: 7904: 7809: 7768: 7671: 7667: 7431: 7367: 7238: 6993: 6899: 6852: 6780: 6543: 6483: 6260:

Inventing the Psychological: Toward a Cultural History of Emotional Life in America

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Epistemology of the Bunker: The Brainwashed and Other New Subjects of Permanent War

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published a special issue devoted to positive psychological interventions, such as

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Beyerstein, Barry L. (Spring 2001). "Fringe Psychotherapies: The Public at Risk".

13798: 9257: 8774: 6710: 6218:

1.3, June 1948, p. 340; quoted in Cina, "Social Science For Whom?" (1981), p. 269.

4343: 3795:, and bifactor analysis have helped in strengthening test and scale construction. 3733:

Following the Army Alpha and Army Beta tests, which was developed by psychologist

2135:

views psychology through a Black lens and dedicated her career to focusing on the

2056:. Harriet McAdoo was appointed to the White House Conference on Families in 1979. 1733:

who received a PhD at the University of California, Berkeley, became President of

1402:. Witmer focused on the mental testing of children; Scott, on employee selection. 879: 738: 16728: 16495: 16490: 16303: 16015: 15980: 15920: 15870: 15359: 15142: 15108: 14480:

Life After Graduate School in Psychology: Insider's Advice from New Psychologists

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The somatic marker hypothesis and the possible functions of the prefrontal cortex

8368: 7876: 7487: 7478: 7458: 7264: 7212: 7185: 7158: 7131: 7104: 7019: 6428: 6348: 6255: 6202: 5959: 5939: 5836: 5624: 5592: 5394: 5294: 5274: 5200: 5177: 5168: 5143: 5098: 5089: 4716: 4653: 4630: 4558: 4351: 4126: 3822: 3718: 3661:

Psychological testing has ancient origins, dating as far back as 2200 BC, in the

3599: 3587: 3403: 3375: 3369: 3252: 3232: 2919: 2749:

underlined the value of comparing information processing in humans and machines.

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As a discipline, psychology has long sought to fend off accusations that it is a

2104: 2095: 2041: 2026: 2022: 2002: 1886: 1854: 1702: 1698: 1684:

became prominent in the field of child development. The Bolsheviks also promoted

1578: 1566: 1384: 1352: 1325: 1261: 1150: 1034: 1014: 953: 949: 695: 682:

A professional practitioner or researcher involved in the discipline is called a

664: 195: 13790: 11263:(1998), Chapter 7: "Production of Black Psychologists in America" (pp. 155–213). 11089: 10750: 10526: 9518:

Aarts; Hassin; Gollwitzer (2004). "Goal Contagion: Perceiving is for Pursuing".

8908: 8801: 7920: 7870: 4205:

management and labor practices that would improve the lives of working people."

3895:. Because of this, more training programs and psychologists are now adopting an 3050: 836: 16843: 16691: 16603: 16598: 16355: 16276: 16271: 16202: 16055: 15975: 15970: 15935: 15910: 15880: 15875: 15860: 15855: 15835: 15830: 15810: 15601: 14527: 13990:

Global promise: Quality assurance and accountability in professional psychology

13855: 12960: 12942: 12736: 11836: 11611: 11456: 10689: 10612: 9915: 9813:

Turkheimer, Eric (2000). "Three Laws of Behavior Genetics and What They Mean".

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Cattell, R.B. (1995). "The fallacy of five factors in the personality sphere".

8466:

Sacks, O. (1984). A leg to stand on. New York: Summit Books/Simon and Schuster.

8072:

Ruben Ardila, "Behavior Analysis in an International Context", in Brock (ed.),

7813: 7779:

on 3 August 2012 – via History & Theory of Psychology Eprint Archive.

7772: 6079: 5452: 5328: 5119: 5026: 5014: 4941: 4934: 4547: 4148: 4144: 3830: 3815: 3654: 3569: 3498: 3334: 3228: 3180: 3078: 3055: 3009: 2978: 2872: 2868: 2840: 2753: 2738: 2722: 2680: 2357: 2268: 2030: 1938: 1926: 1914: 1804: 1621: 1582: 1395: 1329: 1286: 1249: 1248:" in which elementary thoughts could combine into ideas of greater complexity. 945: 922: 703: 668: 17026: 14199: 13905: 13366: 13045: 11950:

John T. Behrens and Chong-Ho Yu, "Exploratory Data Analysis" in Weiner (ed.),

11751: 11566: 11307: 9541: 9000: 8956:

Leslie C. Morey, "Measuring Personality and Psychopathology" in Weiner (ed.),

8280: 8198: 6784: 6657:"Karen Horney | German Psychoanalyst & Feminist Psychologist | Britannica" 5951:

Wozniak, R.H. (1999). Introduction to memory: Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885/1913).

4606:

It is closely related to other disciplines that study animal behavior such as

3821:

Credit for the first psychology clinic in the United States typically goes to

2490:

Early behavioral researchers studied stimulus–response pairings, now known as

2453: 17056: 16794: 16750: 16713: 16643: 16618: 16528: 16426: 16372: 16367: 15960: 15945: 15930: 15885: 15850: 15815: 15795: 15785: 15780: 15759: 15719: 15651: 15553: 15548: 15137: 14885:

McWilliams, Spencer A. (2015). "Psychology, History of (Twentieth Century)".

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Alasuutari, Pertti (2010). "The rise and relevance of qualitative research".

11515: 11401: 11353: 11197: 11045: 10862:

Psychology and work: Perspectives on industrial and organizational psychology

10839: 10331: 10189: 9898:

Visscher, Peter M.; Brown, Matthew A.; McCarthy, Mark I.; Yang, Jian (2012).

9741: 9653: 9093:

at Wikisource, a faithful copy of the third edition translated in English by

7522: 7474: 6972: 6911: 6864: 6856: 6792: 6745: 6555: 5767: 5759: 5409: 5238: 4782: 4736: 4454: 4295: 4085: 3984:

techniques for improving workplace efficiency. The field was at first called

3945: 3826: 3784: 3775: 3734: 3680: 3675: 3641: 3411: 3339: 3276: 3193: 3168: 3025: 3008:

sharply criticized psychoanalysis. Popper argued that psychoanalysis was not

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Early practitioners of experimental psychology distinguished themselves from

1898: 1808: 1796: 1730: 1613: 1529: 1509: 1455: 1418: 1391:

worked on developing tests of mental ability. Cattell, who also studied with

1310: 1282: 1278: 1253: 1199: 1189: 1131: 982: 933: 847: 794: 644: 504: 464: 384: 379: 16975: 14346: 14268:

Stanley E. Jones, "Ethical Issues in Clinical Psychology", in Weiner (ed.),

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George Stricker & Thomas A. Widiger, "Volume Preface", in Weiner (ed.),

9826: 9645: 8433:

The feeling of what happens: Body and emotion in the making of consciousness

8130:"American Psychological Association (2013). Glossary of psychological terms" 7535:

Michela Gallagher & Randy J. Nelson, "Volume Preface", in Weiner (ed.),

6407: 5909: 4488:

A classic and popular tool used to relate mental and neural activity is the

2614: 2567:

and his colleagues discovered that they could condition in dogs a state of "

2044:, the first Native American woman to get a Ph.D. in psychology, founded the 1277:

conducted parallel research on sensory perception, and trained physiologist

16593: 16533: 16281: 16239: 16005: 16000: 15995: 15965: 15955: 15895: 15865: 15845: 15744: 15641: 15344: 15228: 14101: 13923: 13863: 13741: 13559: 13517: 13468: 13340: 13241: 13177: 13124: 13053: 13014: 12910: 12873: 12716: 12556: 12178: 12067: 12044:"Functional Neuroimaging and Psychology: What Have You Done for Me Lately?" 12013: 11870: 11821: 11523: 11491: 11409: 10937: 10534: 10339: 10139: 10089: 10040: 9991: 9933: 9884: 9791: 9749: 9549: 9391: 9338: 8916: 8864: 8051: 7821: 7715:(1998), Chapter 5: "The Psychology of Survival and Education" (pp. 113–134) 6919: 6887: 5775: 5571: 5433: 5347: 5147: 5010: 4674: 4611: 4543: 4409: 4396: 4057: 3853: 3763: 3688: 3565: 3447: 3415: 3395: 3353: 3248: 3236: 3171:

drew evidence of meaning's therapeutic power from reflections upon his own

3074: 3021: 3001: 2958: 2946: 2938: 2914:. Freud's psychoanalytic theory was largely based on interpretive methods, 2894: 2556: 2550: 2519: 2421: 2353: 2336: 2288: 2206: 2147: 2006: 1906: 1890: 1867: 1850: 1830: 1694: 1681: 1617: 1589: 1537: 1467: 1345: 1135: 1076: 1043: 1039: 1020:

In China, psychological understanding grew from the philosophical works of

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Badcock, Christopher R. (2015). "Nature-Nurture Controversy, History of".

14015:

International Perspectives in Psychology: Research, Practice, Consultation

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John A. Schinka & Wayne F. Velicer, "Volume Preface" in Weiner (ed.),

11392: 11238:

US torture report: psychologists should no longer aid military, group says

10885:

Laura L. Koppes, "Industrial-Organizational Psychology", in Weiner (ed.),

10805:"What Does An Educational Psychologist Do | Touro University | Psychology" 10758: 10697: 10322: 9069: 8809: 8008: 7973: 7633: 7595: 6469: 4233:. OHP has also been informed by disciplines outside psychology, including 3298:

was developed to assess individuals' "personality types" according to the

3065:, which has been influenced by existentialism and phenomenology, stresses 2767:

Elements of behaviorism and cognitive psychology were synthesized to form

2299:

in surveys and questionnaires, critics asserted that psychology is not an

1909:. These great discoveries and contributions were made during struggles of 1885:

invented the paired associates technique of studying memory and developed

989:

and thought disorders. Historians note that Greek philosophers, including

956:

is the understanding of the mental states and behaviors of people held by

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Project MKULTRA, the CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification

8258: 7942:

Seligman M.E.P.; Maier S.F. (1967). "Failure to escape traumatic shock".

7573: 6815:"Featured Psychologists: Mamie Phipps Clark, PhD, and Kenneth Clark, PhD" 6195:

Measurement in Psychology: A Critical History of a Methodological Concept

5312:"The origin of the phrase comparative psychology: an historical overview" 5127: 4918: 4822: 4791: 4708: 4661: 4657: 4645: 4615: 4586: 4493: 3941: 3666: 3526: 3490: 3462: 3330: 3280: 3244: 3176: 3086: 3005: 2966: 2962: 2742: 2495: 2440: 2309: 2292: 2226:

United Nations Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization (UNESCO)

1967: 1934: 1858: 1738: 1722: 1470: 1463: 1426: 1363:, who brought experimental psychology, emphasizing psychophysics, to the 1341: 1333: 1217: 1212: 1104: 1010: 1004: 941: 911: 770: 761:. They also consider the unconscious mind. Research psychologists employ 643:. Its subject matter includes the behavior of humans and nonhumans, both 404: 109: 12864: 11643: 11435: 10979: 10960: 10833: 10404: 9973: 9432:(2013), Chapter 2, "The Psychoanalytic Theory of Motivation" (pp. 9–84). 7436: 7419: 5050: 5021:

in the 1970s. The aim of the research was to produce an animal model of

4794:, in contrast to an estimated 5 to 20 per cent in traditional research. 4338: 3928: 855: 16799: 16638: 16480: 16382: 15985: 15820: 15616: 15473: 15364: 15166: 14026: 13698:"Open science challenges, benefits and tips in early career and beyond" 13159: 12653: 11711:(2nd ed., pp. 3–20). Washington DC: American Psychological Association. 11690: 10565: 10313: 8631:

American association for humanistic psychology, Articles of association

8230:(Winter 2020 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 7908: 7837:

Comptes Rendus des Séances de la Société de Biologie et de Ses Filiales

7021:

The Body Remembers: The Psychophysiology of Trauma and Trauma Treatment

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Irina Sirotkina and Roger Smith, "Russian Federation", in Baker (ed.),

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were expelled and persecuted under the anti-Jewish policies of the

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explored distinctions in types of awareness. A central idea of the

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