Mahayana - Knowledge

3324: 5207: 2137: 6907: 4203: 6005: 2399: 3824: 3468: 3793: 6127: 2388: 7764:"In other words, once nontextual evidence is taken into account the picture changes dramatically. Rather than being datable to the beginning of the common era, this strand of Mahayana Buddhism, at least, appeared to have no visible impact on Indian Buddhist cult practice until the 2nd century, and even then what impact it had was extremely isolated and marginal, and had no lasting or long-term consequences – there were no further references to Amitabha in Indian image inscriptions. Almost exactly the same pattern occurs (concerning Mahayana) on an even broader scale when nontextual evidence is considered." 53: 31: 2928: 3444:. As such, according to Williams, "Mahāyāna is not as such an institutional identity. Rather, it is inner motivation and vision, and this inner vision can be found in anyone regardless of their institutional position." Thus, instead of a specific school or sect, Mahāyāna is a "family term" or a religious tendency, which is united by "a vision of the ultimate goal of attaining full Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings (the 'bodhisattva ideal') and also (or eventually) a belief that Buddhas are still around and can be contacted (hence the possibility of an ongoing revelation)." 5521: 7237: 7751:"What is particularly disconcerting here is the disconnect between expectation and reality: We know from Chinese translations that large numbers of Mahāyāna sutras were being composed in the period between the beginning of the common era and the fifth century. But outside of texts, at least in India, at exactly the same period, very different – in fact seemingly older – ideas and aspirations appear to be motivating actual behavior, and old and established Hinayana groups appear to be the only ones that are patronized and supported., 10210:"Though the Buddha had taught they were not in circulation in the world of men at all for many centuries, there being no competent teachers and no intelligent enough students: the sutras were however preserved in the Dragon World and other non-human circles, and when in the 2nd century AD adequate teachers suddenly appeared in India in large numbers the texts were fetched and circulated. ... However, it is clear that the historical tradition here recorded belongs to North India and for the most part to Nalanda (in Magadha)." AK Warder, 5066:, Madhyamaka claims that while one can speak of things existing in a conventional, relative sense, they do not exist inherently in an ultimate sense. Madhyamaka also argues that emptiness itself is also "empty", it does not have an absolute inherent existence of its own. It is also not to be understood as a transcendental absolute reality. Instead, the emptiness theory is merely a useful concept that should not be clung to. In fact, for Madhyamaka, since everything is empty of true existence, all things are just conceptualizations ( 3809: 3453: 87: 3312: 2810: 5803: 2599: 7725:"The most important evidence – in fact the only evidence – for situating the emergence of the Mahayana around the beginning of the common era was not Indian evidence at all, but came from China. Already by the last quarter of the 2nd century CE, there was a small, seemingly idiosyncratic collection of substantial Mahayana sutras translated into what Erik Zürcher calls 'broken Chinese' by an Indoscythian, whose Indian name has been reconstructed as Lokaksema." 977: 3124: 19495: 14513: 2830: 14524: 4948: 2160: 19505: 2459: 11922: 11909: 2424: 8292:"One of the most frequent assertions about the Mahayana is that it was a lay-influenced, or even lay-inspired and dominated, movement that arose in response to the increasingly closed, cold, and scholastic character of monastic Buddhism. This, however, now appears to be wrong on all counts...much of its program being in fact intended and designed to allow laymen and women and donors the opportunity and means to make religious merit." 2465: 2436: 5506: 2347:

advocate mnemic/oral/aural practices more frequently than they do written ones." Regarding the forest hypothesis, he points out that only a few Mahāyāna sutras directly advocate forest dwelling, while the others either do not mention it or see it as unhelpful, promoting easier practices such as "merely listening to the sutra, or thinking of particular Buddhas, that they claim can enable one to be reborn in special, luxurious '

2430: 1558: 2454: 2443: 6784: 11899: 2449: 3999: 5781: 4345: 1928: 7777:"There are, it seems, very few things that can be said with certainty about Mahayana Buddhism...But apart from the fact that it can be said with some certainty that the Buddhism embedded in China, Korea, Tibet, and Japan is Mahayana Buddhism, it is no longer clear what else can be said with certainty about Mahayana Buddhism itself, and especially about its earlier, and presumably formative, period in India.", 4370: 3640: 6145: 2572: 5001: 7010:. However, historically, most temples, institutions and Buddhist practitioners usually did not belong to any single "sect" (as is common in Japanese Buddhism), but draw from the various different elements of Chinese Buddhist thought and practice. This non-sectarian and eclectic aspect of Chinese Buddhism as a whole has persisted from its historical beginnings into its modern practice. 4959: 2282:). Because of such evidence, scholars like Paul Harrison and Paul Williams argue that the movement was not sectarian and was possibly pan-buddhist. There is no evidence that Mahāyāna ever referred to a separate formal school or sect of Buddhism, but rather that it existed as a certain set of ideals, and later doctrines, for aspiring bodhisattvas. 5385:, and therefore, they can be said to be the word of the Buddha in this sense. This idea that whatever is "well spoken" is the Buddha's word can be traced to the earliest Buddhist texts, but it is interpreted more widely in Mahāyāna. From the Mahāyāna point of view, a teaching is the "word of the Buddha" because it is in accord with the 2868:). According to Walser, "the fifth and sixth centuries appear to have been a watershed for the production of Mahāyāna manuscripts." Likewise it is only in the 4th and 5th centuries CE that epigraphic evidence shows some kind of popular support for Mahāyāna, including some possible royal support at the kingdom of 2339:, states that Mahāyāna arose among a number of loosely connected book worshiping groups of monastics, who studied, memorized, copied and revered particular Mahāyāna sūtras. Schopen thinks they were inspired by cult shrines where Mahāyāna sutras were kept. Schopen also argued that these groups mostly rejected 5360:

Indian Mahāyāna Buddhists faced various criticisms from non-Mahāyānists regarding the authenticity of their teachings. The main critique they faced was that Mahāyāna teachings had not been taught by the Buddha, but were invented by later figures. Numerous Mahāyāna texts discuss this issue and attempt

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explains it as "not grasping at form, not grasping at sensation, perception, volitions and cognition". This includes not grasping or taking up even correct Buddhist ideas or mental signs (such as "not-self", "emptiness", bodhicitta, vows), since these things are ultimately all empty concepts as well.

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population, as well as by other Himalayan peoples in Bhutan, Ladakh and Nepal. Post-1980s though, Northern Buddhism has seen a revival in both Tibet and Mongolia due to more liberal government policies towards religious freedom. Northern Buddhism is also now practiced in the Western world by western

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As noted by Paul Williams, one feature of Mahāyāna sutras (especially earlier ones) is "the phenomenon of laudatory self-reference – the lengthy praise of the sutra itself, the immense merits to be obtained from treating even a verse of it with reverence, and the nasty penalties which will accrue in

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The practice of meditation and visualization of Buddhas has been seen by some scholars as a possible explanation for the source of certain Mahāyāna sutras which are seen traditionally as direct visionary revelations from the Buddhas in their pure lands. Paul Harrison has also noted the importance of

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One idea that Mahāyāna texts put forth is that Mahāyāna teachings were taught later because most people were unable to understand the Mahāyāna sūtras at the time of the Buddha and that people were ready to hear the Mahāyāna only in later times. Certain traditional accounts state that Mahāyāna sutras

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and the bodhisattva vehicle, which are accepted by all early Buddhist schools), these actually are all skillful means which lead to the same place: Buddhahood. Therefore, there really are not three vehicles in an ultimate sense, but one vehicle, the supreme vehicle of the Buddhas, which is taught in

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In the third turning, the Buddha taught similar teachings to the second turning, but for everyone in the three vehicles, including all the śravakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas. These were meant to be completely explicit teachings in their entire detail, for which interpretations would not be

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The idea that Buddhas remain accessible is extremely influential in Mahāyāna and also allows for the possibility of having a reciprocal relationship with a Buddha through prayer, visions, devotion and revelations. Through the use of various practices, a Mahāyāna devotee can aspire to be reborn in a

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Furthermore, Buddhas are active in the world, constantly devising ways to teach and help all sentient beings. According to Paul Williams, in Mahāyāna, a Buddha is often seen as "a spiritual king, relating to and caring for the world", rather than simply a teacher who after his death "has completely

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Regarding religious praxis, David Drewes outlines the most commonly promoted practices in Mahāyāna sutras were seen as means to achieve Buddhahood quickly and easily and included "hearing the names of certain Buddhas or bodhisattvas, maintaining Buddhist precepts, and listening to, memorizing, and

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and bodhisattvas, descriptions of powerful new religious practices, new ideas on the nature of the Buddha, and a range of new philosophical perspectives." These texts present stories of revelation in which the Buddha teaches Mahāyāna sutras to certain bodhisattvas who vow to teach and spread these

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Those who, while walking, sitting, standing, or sleeping, recollect the moon-like Buddha, will always be in Buddha's presence and will attain the vast nirvāṇa. His pure body is the colour of gold, beautiful is the Protector of the World. Whoever visualizes him like this practises the meditation of

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In spite of being a minority in India, Indian Mahāyāna was an intellectually vibrant movement, which developed various schools of thought during what Jan Westerhoff has been called "The Golden Age of Indian Buddhist Philosophy" (from the beginning of the first millennium CE up to the 7th century).

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Schopen, Harrison and Nattier also argue that these communities were probably not a single unified movement, but scattered groups based on different practices and sutras. One reason for this view is that Mahāyāna sources are extremely diverse, advocating many different, often conflicting doctrines

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evidence, Gregory Schopen argues that Indian Mahāyāna remained "an extremely limited minority movement – if it remained at all – that attracted absolutely no documented public or popular support for at least two more centuries." Likewise, Joseph Walser speaks of Mahāyāna's "virtual invisibility in

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c. 783 to 820) which were centers of various branches of scholarship, including Mahāyāna philosophy. The Nalanda complex eventually became the largest and most influential Buddhist center in India for centuries. Even so, as noted by Paul Williams, "it seems that fewer than 50 percent of the monks

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Paul Harrison clarifies that while monastic Mahāyānists belonged to a nikāya, not all members of a nikāya were Mahāyānists. From Chinese monks visiting India, we now know that both Mahāyāna and non-Mahāyāna monks in India often lived in the same monasteries side by side. It is also possible that,

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David Drewes has recently argued against all of the major theories outlined above. He points out that there is no actual evidence for the existence of book shrines, that the practice of sutra veneration was pan-Buddhist and not distinctly Mahāyāna. Furthermore, Drewes argues that "Mahāyāna sutras

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The modern Theravāda school is usually described as belonging to Hīnayāna. Some authors have argued that it should not be considered such from the Mahāyāna perspective. Their view is based on a different understanding of the concept of Hīnayāna. Rather than regarding the term as referring to any

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school, the goal of becoming a teaching Buddha in a future life is viewed as the aim of a small group of individuals striving to benefit future generations after the current Buddha's teachings have been lost, but in the current age there is no need for most practitioners to aspire to this goal.

7476:, Kalupahana holds that they endeavored to preserve the early teaching. The Theravādins too refuted the Sarvāstivādins and Sautrāntikas (and other schools) on the grounds that their theories were in conflict with the non-substantialism of the canon. The Theravāda arguments are preserved in the 6759:

Both the Mādhyamikas and the Yogācārins saw themselves as preserving the Buddhist Middle Way between the extremes of nihilism (everything as unreal) and substantialism (substantial entities existing). The Yogācārins criticized the Mādhyamikas for tending towards nihilism, while the Mādhyamikas

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school of Mahāyāna philosophy. He may have arrived at his positions from a desire to achieve a consistent exegesis of the Buddha's doctrine as recorded in the canon. In his eyes, the Buddha was not merely a forerunner, but the very founder of the Mādhyamaka system. Nāgārjuna also referred to a

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similarly argued that while the Mahāyāna sūtras may not have been directly taught by the historical Buddha, the "spirit and central ideas" of Mahāyāna derive from the Buddha. According to Suzuki, Mahāyāna evolved and adapted itself to suit the times by developing new teachings and texts, while

4168:. This doctrine states that, out of compassion, the Buddha adapts his teaching to whomever he is teaching. Because of this, it is possible that the Buddha may teach seemingly contradictory things to different people. This idea is also used to explain the vast textual corpus found in Mahāyāna. 3237:

developed in Shaivism first and that it was then adopted into Buddhism. Davidson points to the difficulties of establishing a chronology for the Shaiva tantric literature and argues that both traditions developed side by side, drawing on each other as well as on local Indian tribal religion.

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In the second turning, the Buddha taught the Mahāyāna teachings to the bodhisattvas, teaching that all phenomena have no-essence, no arising, no passing away, are originally quiescent, and essentially in cessation. This turning is also described as marvelous and wonderful, but requiring

6813:(Vajrayana Buddhism, mainly found in Tibet, Inner Mongolia and elsewhere in Western China, Mongolia, Bhutan, parts of India, Nepal and Russia, also known as "Northern Buddhism". According to Harvey "the number of people belonging to Northern Buddhism totals only around 18.2 million." 5300:, and some of these sutras admit that the use of the term 'Self' is partly done in order to win over non-Buddhist ascetics (in other words, it is a skillful means). According to some scholars, the Buddha-nature discussed in some Mahāyāna sūtras does not represent a substantial self ( 3056:) to bring back Buddhist teachings, especially Mahāyāna works. These figures also wrote about their experiences in India and their work remains invaluable for understanding Indian Buddhism. In some cases Indian Mahāyāna traditions were directly transplanted, as with the case of the 5314:) and represents the potentiality to realize Buddhahood through Buddhist practices. Similarly, Williams thinks that this doctrine was not originally dealing with ontological issues, but with "religious issues of realising one's spiritual potential, exhortation, and encouragement." 3911:. However, these schools held that becoming a bodhisattva required a prediction of one's future Buddhahood in the presence of a living Buddha. In Mahāyāna, the term bodhisattva is applicable to any person from the moment they intend to become a Buddha (i.e. the moment in which 2362:(preachers, reciters of these sutras) in the early Mahāyāna sutras. This figure is widely praised as someone who should be respected, obeyed ('as a slave serves his lord'), and donated to, and it is thus possible these people were the primary agents of the Mahāyāna movement. 5317:

The Buddha-nature genre of sūtras can be seen as an attempt to state Buddhist teachings using positive language while also maintaining the middle way, to prevent people from being turned away from Buddhism by a false impression of nihilism. This is the position taken by the

7790:"It has become increasingly clear that Mahayana Buddhism was never one thing, but rather, it seems, a loosely bound bundle of many, and – like Walt Whitman – was large and could contain, in both senses of the term, contradictions, or at least antipodal elements." 5397:(8th century), who argues that an "inspired utterance" is the Buddha word if it is "connected with the truth", "connected with the Dharma", "brings about renunciation of kleshas, not their increase" and "it shows the laudable qualities of nirvana, not those of samsara". 3827:

The Lotus, especially the puṇḍarīka (white lotus), is used in Mahāyāna to symbolize the nature of bodhisattvas. The lotus is rooted in the earthly mud and yet flowers above the water in the open air. Similarly, the bodhisattva lives in the world but remains unstained by

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and in the meantime, they will help countless beings. After reaching Buddhahood, they do pass on to nirvāṇa (after which they do not return). The second model is the idea that there are two kinds of nirvāṇa, the nirvāṇa of an arhat and a superior type of nirvāṇa called

8207:印順〈雜阿含經部類之整編〉：「宋譯《雜阿含經》，譯出的時代遲了些，而譯者求那跋陀羅，是 – 位唯心大乘師，所以譯文中偶有大乘的名義。......「菩薩摩訶薩」的稱呼，受到了大乘的影響。不過，每成立 – 部派，就有部派所審定集成的經典，在傳承的同 – 宗派中，是不可能大事更張的。《雜阿含經》的「修多羅」部分，與『攝事分』所依經本 – 致，即可以證明。當然，經典在長期流傳中，會因時因地而有多少差別的。求那跋陀羅為唯心大乘師，所譯《雜阿含經》，就偶有 – 二大乘名義，然如依此而說宋譯《雜阿含經》，是大乘佛教時代所完成的，那就誤謬不經了！」 7449:

school of Buddhism that has not accepted the Mahāyāna canon and doctrines, such as those pertaining to the role of the bodhisattva, these authors argue that the classification of a school as "Hīnayāna" should be crucially dependent on the adherence to a specific

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the archaeological record until the fifth century". Schopen also sees this movement as being in tension with other Buddhists, "struggling for recognition and acceptance". Their "embattled mentality" may have led to certain elements found in Mahāyāna texts like

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states that within the defilements is found "the tathagata's wisdom, the tathagata's vision, and the tathagata's body...eternally unsullied, and...replete with virtues no different from my own...the tathagatagarbhas of all beings are eternal and unchanging".

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Warder: "The sudden appearance of large numbers of (Mahayana) teachers and texts (in North India in the second century AD) would seem to require some previous preparation and development, and this we can look for in the South." Warder, A.K. (3rd edn. 1999).

5255:) is important in all modern Mahāyāna traditions, though it is interpreted in many different ways. Broadly speaking, Buddha-nature is concerned with explaining what allows sentient beings to become Buddhas. The earliest sources for this idea may include the 4193:

This doctrine was not accepted in full by all Mahāyāna traditions. The Yogācāra school famously defended an alternative theory that held that not all beings could become Buddhas. This became a subject of much debate throughout Mahāyāna Buddhist history.

9294:, "Introduction". Toh 113 Degé Kangyur, vol. 51 (mdo sde, ja), folios 1.b–180.b. Translated by Peter Alan Roberts under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha. First published 2018. Current version v 1.14.15 (2021). 5965:) along with their Pure Land. This practice could lead the meditator to feel that they were in the presence of the Buddha and in some cases it was held that it could lead to visions of the Buddhas, through which one could receive teachings from them. 7405:. Like perhaps some of the early Mahāyāna forest hermit monks, or the later Buddhist Tantrics, they have become people of power through their meditative achievements. They are widely revered, worshipped, and held to be arhats or (note!) bodhisattvas. 4288:

states that "all phenomena are empty, that is, without characteristic, unproduced, unceased, stainless, not stainless, undiminished, unfilled". The Prajñāpāramitā texts also use various metaphors to describe the nature of things, for example, the

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interpretation and occasioning controversy. Doctrine of the second turning is established in the Prajñāpāramitā teachings, first put into writing around 100 BCE. In Indian philosophical schools, it is exemplified by the Mādhyamaka school of

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describes Huviṣka as having "set forth in the Mahāyāna." Evidence of the name "Mahāyāna" in Indian inscriptions in the period before the 5th century is very limited in comparison to the multiplicity of Mahāyāna writings transmitted from

8620: 3721:. High level bodhisattvas (with eons of practice) are seen as extremely powerful supramundane beings. They are objects of devotion and prayer throughout the Mahāyāna world. Popular bodhisattvas which are revered across Mahāyāna include 3362:

is Mahāyāna Buddhism. Mahāyāna can be described as a loosely bound collection of many teachings and practices (some of which are seemingly contradictory). Mahāyāna constitutes an inclusive and broad set of traditions characterized by

4216:("Transcendent Knowledge" or "Perfection of Wisdom") texts, which are some of the earliest Mahāyāna works. Prajñāpāramitā is a deep knowledge of reality which Buddhas and bodhisattvas attain. It is a transcendent, non-conceptual and 7738:"Certainly, we have for this period an extensive body of inscriptions from virtually all parts of India. ... But nowhere in this extensive body of material is there any reference, prior to the fifth century, to a named Mahāyāna.", 7641:"The Mahayana, 'Great Vehicle' or 'Great Carriage' (for carrying all beings to nirvana), is also, and perhaps more correctly and accurately, known as the Bodhisattvayana, the bodhisattva's vehicle." Warder, A.K. (3rd edn. 1999). 7356:

As with Eastern Buddhism, the practice of northern Buddhism declined in Tibet, China and Mongolia during the communist takeover of these regions (Mongolia: 1924, Tibet: 1959). Tibetan Buddhism continued to be practiced among the

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to a select number of individuals (often through visions or dreams). Some scholars have seen a connection between this idea and Mahāyāna meditation practices which involve the visualization of Buddhas and their Buddha-lands.

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that being who has taken the vow to be reborn, no matter how many times this may be necessary, in order to attain the highest possible goal, that of Complete and Perfect Buddhahood. This is for the benefit of all sentient

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teach an affirmative vision of an eternal, indestructible Buddhic Self. Shenpen Hookham, a western scholar and lama sees Buddha-nature as a True Self that is real and permanent. Similarly, C. D. Sebastian understands the

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The origins of Mahāyāna are still not completely understood and there are numerous competing theories. The earliest Western views of Mahāyāna assumed that it existed as a separate school in competition with the so-called

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in the late 20th century saw a particularly significant increase in the number of converts to Chinese Buddhism, a growth which has been called "extraordinary". Outside of mainland China, Chinese Buddhism is practiced in

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An estimate of the Japanese Mahāyāna Buddhist population is given by Harvey as 52 million and a recent 2018 survey puts the number at 84 million. It should also be noted that many Japanese Buddhists also participate in

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The ideas found in the Buddha-nature literature are a source of much debate and disagreement among Mahāyāna Buddhist philosophers as well as modern academics. Some scholars have seen this as an influence from Brahmanic

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There are two models for the nature of the bodhisattvas, which are seen in the various Mahāyāna texts. One is the idea that a bodhisattva must postpone their awakening until full Buddhahood is attained. This could take

3843:("incalculable eons"), requiring a huge number of lifetimes of practice to complete. However, certain practices are sometimes held to provide shortcuts to Buddhahood (these vary widely by tradition). According to the 1973:(which had earlier been used simply as an epithet for Buddhism itself) was therefore adopted at an early date as a synonym for the path and the teachings of the bodhisattvas. Since it was simply an honorary term for 5380:

Another argument that Indian Buddhists used in favor of the Mahāyāna is that its teachings are true and lead to awakening since they are in line with the Dharma. Because of this, they can be said to be "well said"

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In the centuries before the Arab conquests Buddhism was spread throughout the eastern Iranian world. Buddhist sites have been found in Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan, as well as within Iran

4332:) is "one of the most distinctive virtues of the Mahāyānistic saint." The Prajñāpāramitā texts also claim that this training is not just for Mahāyānists, but for all Buddhists following any of the three vehicles. 6069:

There are also numerous meditative practices that are generally considered to be part of a separate category rather than general or mainstream Mahāyāna meditation. These are the various practices associated with

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Paul Williams refers to the main impulse behind Mahāyāna as the vision which sees the motivation to achieve Buddhahood for sake of other beings as being the supreme religious motivation. This is the way that

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are often given greater authority than the Āgamas. The first of these Mahāyāna-specific writings were written probably around the 1st century BCE or 1st-century CE. Some influential Mahāyāna sutras are the

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There is also a tendency in Mahāyāna sūtras to regard adherence to these sūtras as generating spiritual benefits greater than those that arise from being a follower of the non-Mahāyāna approaches. Thus the

2128:, though scholars like Yin Shun argue that this is a later addition. Some Chinese scholars also argue that the meaning of the term in these earlier texts is different from later ideas of Mahāyāna Buddhism. 9528: 11147:

Bingenheimer, Marcus (2007). "Some Remarks on the Usage of Renjian Fojiao 人間佛教 and the Contribution of Venerable Yinshun to Chinese Buddhist Modernism". In Hsu, Mutsu; Chen, Jinhua; Meeks, Lori (eds.).

4980: 3115:, which is mostly dominated by various branches of Mahāyāna Buddhism. Paul Williams has noted that in this tradition in the Far East, primacy has always been given to the study of the Mahāyāna sūtras. 3520:

An important feature of Mahāyāna is the way that it understands the nature of a Buddha, which differs from non-Mahāyāna understandings. Mahāyāna texts not only often depict numerous Buddhas besides

2895:(635–713 CE) were traveling to India, and their writings do describe monasteries which they label 'Mahāyāna' as well as monasteries where both Mahāyāna monks and non-Mahāyāna monks lived together. 8635: 3323: 3430:

described the broad range and doctrinal liberality of Mahāyāna as "a vast ocean where all kinds of living beings are allowed to thrive in a most generous manner, almost verging on a chaos".

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Still, even after the 5th century, the epigraphic evidence which uses the term Mahāyāna is still quite small and is notably mainly monastic, not lay. By this time, Chinese pilgrims, such as

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and Buddha-nature. Tantric Buddhism generally deals with new forms of meditation and ritual which often makes use of the visualization of Buddhist deities (including Buddhas, bodhisattvas,

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Most of the major forms of contemporary Mahāyāna Buddhism are also practiced by Asian immigrant populations in the West and also by western convert Buddhists. For more on this topic see:

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Greatness of attainment (prāpti): because of the attainment of immeasurable and uncountable powers (bala), confidences (vaiśāradya), and dharmas unique to Buddhas ( āveṇika-buddhadharma);

11253: 4590: 7029:"Buddhism for the Human World") has also been influential on Chinese Buddhist leaders and institutions. Chinese Buddhists may also practice some form of religious syncretism with other 2898:

After the fifth century, Mahāyāna Buddhism and its institutions slowly grew in influence. Some of the most influential institutions became massive monastic university complexes such as

5206: 5853:(compiled c. 4th century), which is the most comprehensive Indian treatise on Mahāyāna practice, discusses classic Buddhist numerous meditation methods and topics, including the four 3550:

as a "mere appearance", his death is a show, while in actuality he remains out of compassion to help all sentient beings. Similarly, Guang Xing describes the Buddha in Mahāyāna as an

2642:, ... for the Blessed One, the Buddha Amitābha." There is also some evidence that the Kushan Emperor Huviṣka himself was a follower of Mahāyāna. A Sanskrit manuscript fragment in the 10096: 8567: 5179:

also mentions this doctrine, stating: "whatever belongs to this triple world is nothing but thought . Why is that? It is because however I imagine things, that is how they appear".

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2004. pp. 65–66 "Several scholars have suggested that the Prajñāpāramitā probably developed among the Mahasamghikas in Southern India, in the Andhra country, on the Krishna River."

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not found in East Asian Mahāyāna, Northern Buddhism still considers itself as part of Mahāyāna Buddhism (albeit as one which also contains a more effective and distinct vehicle or

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state. This compassionate commitment to help others is the central characteristic of the Mahāyāna bodhisattva. These vows may be accompanied by certain ethical guidelines called

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The Mahāsāṃghika origins theory has also slowly been shown to be problematic by scholarship that revealed how certain Mahāyāna sutras show traces of having developed among other

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Mahāyāna Buddhist practice is quite varied. A common set of virtues and practices which is shared by all Mahāyāna traditions are the six perfections or transcendent virtues (

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and Paul Williams who argue that at least some Mahāyāna elements developed among Mahāsāṃghika communities (from the 1st century BCE onwards), possibly in the area along the

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Early Buddhist Art of China and Central Asia, Volume 3: The Western Ch'in in Kansu in the Sixteen Kingdoms Period and Inter-relationships with the Buddhist Art of Gandh?ra

5089:"mind only") is another important doctrine promoted by some Mahāyāna sutras which later became the central theory of a major philosophical movement which arose during the 10553:

Zhang, Shengyen; Dan Stevenson (2002). Hoofprint of the Ox: Principles of the Chan Buddhist Path as Taught by a Modern Chinese Master. Oxford University Press, pp. 27–28.

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Boucher, Daniel, Bodhisattvas of the Forest and the Formation of the Mahāyāna: A Study and Translation of the.Rāṣṭrapālaparipṛcchā-sūtra. University of Hawaii Press, 2008

6280: 4304: 4272:). This emptiness or lack of real existence applies even to the apparent arising and ceasing of phenomena. Because of this, all phenomena are also described as unarisen ( 3517:("the Illuminator"). In Mahāyāna, a Buddha is seen as a being that has achieved the highest kind of awakening due to his superior compassion and wish to help all beings. 3379: 36: 8187: 2690:

practices, propounds the possibility of rebirth in a pure land, and enthusiastically recommends the cult of the book, yet seems to know nothing of emptiness theory, the

2213:, which praise lay figures at the expense of monastics. This theory is no longer widely accepted since numerous early Mahāyāna works promote monasticism and asceticism. 6625:

vehicle. It is described as marvelous and wonderful, but requires interpretation and occasioning controversy. The doctrines of the first turning are exemplified in the

6026:

in Japanese) can lead to rebirth in a Buddha's Pure Land, as well as other positive outcomes. In East Asian Buddhism, the most popular Buddha used for this practice is

3919:

promote the bodhisattva path as being universal and open to everyone. Other texts disagree with this and state that only some beings have the capacity for Buddhahood.

2740:. We must be prepared, in other words, to encounter a multiplicity of Mahayanas flourishing even in India, not to mention those that developed in East Asia and Tibet. 5712:

falls under all six. Bhikkhu Bodhi states that the correlations between the two sets show there was a shared core before the Theravada and Mahayana schools split.

7438:

The Mahāvihāravāsins reject the Mahāyāna and practice the Hīnayāna, while the Abhayagirivihāravāsins study both Hīnayāna and Mahāyāna teachings and propagate the

7401:

in Thailand have often been famous outside scholarly circles as well, among the wider populace, as Buddhist meditation masters and sources of miracles and sacred

5552:

Another important class of Mahāyāna Buddhist practice are textual practices that deal with listening to, memorizing, reciting, preaching, worshipping and copying

9525: 4295:

compares phenomena to: "A shooting star, a clouding of the sight, a lamp, an illusion, a drop of dew, a bubble, a dream, a lightning's flash, a thunder cloud."

7964: 6409:

Another feature of some Mahāyāna sutras, especially later ones, is increasing sectarianism and animosity towards non-Mahāyāna practitioners (sometimes called

4125:

is reached once one attains "direct, nonconceptual and nondual insight into emptiness in meditative absorption", which is associated with the path of seeing (

3947:(transcendent or supreme virtues). Sometimes six are outlined: giving, ethical discipline, patient endurance, diligence, meditation and transcendent wisdom. 6383:

accordance with karma to those who denigrate the scripture." Some Mahāyāna sutras also warn against the accusation that they are not the word of the Buddha (

4987: 2314:

which promote ascetic practice in the wilderness as a superior and elite path. These texts criticize monks who live in cities and denigrate the forest life.

11195:

Carter J. Eckert (Author), Ki-Baik Lee, Young Ick Lew, Michael Robinson, Edward W. Wagner (1991). Korea Old And New: A History. Ilchokak Publishers. p. 94.

3870:), which is the wish to become a Buddha in order to help all beings. This is achieved in different ways, such as the meditation taught by the Indian master 6686: 12663: 2840:(dark orange) starting 5th century BCE, to Buddhist majority realm (orange), and historical extent of Buddhism influences (yellow). Mahāyāna (red arrow), 7096:

government remains repressive and ambivalent towards religion, at least 11 percent of the population is considered to be Buddhist according to Williams.

5814:

Mahāyāna Buddhism teaches a vast array of meditation practices. These include meditations which are shared with the early Buddhist traditions, including

2354:

Drewes states that the evidence merely shows that "Mahāyāna was primarily a textual movement, focused on the revelation, preaching, and dissemination of

6906: 2358:, that developed within, and never really departed from, traditional Buddhist social and institutional structures." Drewes points out the importance of 15957: 13578: 12053: 6259:(profound) sutras. These were also not recognized by some individuals in the early Buddhist schools. In other cases, Buddhist communities such as the 3904:, when great compassion and bodhicitta arises in a person's heart, they cease to be an ordinary person and become a "son or daughter of the Buddhas". 3579:), where they can strive towards Buddhahood in the best possible conditions. Depending on the sect, liberation into a buddha-field can be obtained by 8216: 7228:, there has been a revival of the religion since the liberalization period following 1986. There are about 43 million Vietnamese Mahāyāna Buddhists. 5328:(which sounds similar to an atman) in order to help those beings who are attached to the idea of anatman. However, the sutra goes on to say that the 5449: 413: 18448: 3602:) of a Buddha developed to make sense of the transcendental nature of the Buddha. This doctrine holds that the "bodies of magical transformation" ( 2265:

as having ties to the Mahāsāṃghika tradition of Āndhra. However, other scholars have also pointed to different regions as being important, such as

1758:). Mahāyāna Buddhism generally sees the goal of becoming a Buddha through the bodhisattva path as being available to all and sees the state of the 943: 18297: 13582: 11700: 8078: 8065: 7570: 5337: 5263: 4202: 420: 19354: 13806: 11235: 6202:. "Āgama" is the term used by those traditional Buddhist schools in India who employed Sanskrit for their basic canon. These correspond to the 4251:

or inherent nature), and therefore have "no fundamentally real existence". These empty phenomena are also said to be conceptual constructions.

3426:

thought. However, Mahāyāna also adds numerous Mahāyāna texts and doctrines, which are seen as definitive and in some cases superior teachings.

1039: 60:

in Shishoin Temple (Tokyo). A unique feature of Mahāyāna is the belief that there are multiple Buddhas which are currently teaching the Dharma.

10029:, Biblotheca Philologica et Philosophica Buddhica VI, The International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology, Soka University, pp. 82–83 6433:

like later sutras do. Regarding the bodhisattva path, some Mahāyāna sutras promote it as a universal path for everyone, while others like the

6074:(also termed Mantrayāna, Secret Mantra, Buddhist Tantra, and Esoteric Buddhism). This family of practices, which include such varied forms as 5496:

Greatness of deeds (karma): because of willing the performance of the deeds of a Buddha until the end of Saṃsāra by displaying awakening, etc.

5487:

Greatness of energy (vīrya): from devotion to many hundreds of thousands of difficult tasks during three incalculable great aeons (mahākalpa);

3857:, the central defining feature of a bodhisattva's path is the universal aspiration to end suffering for themselves and all other beings, i.e. 11838: 7927: 7186:

is strongly influenced by the Chinese tradition. It is a synthesis of numerous practices and ideas. Vietnamese Mahāyāna draws practices from

5335:

A different view is defended by various modern scholars like Michael Zimmermann. This view is the idea that Buddha-nature sutras such as the

4434: 6417:' (the 'inferior way') who refuse to accept the 'superior way' of the Mahāyāna. As noted by Paul Williams, earlier Mahāyāna sutras like the 5214:(wish fulfilling jewel). Buddha nature texts often use the metaphor of a jewel (i.e. buddha-nature) which all beings have but are unaware of 19306: 16659: 12023: 10024: 5032:. This philosophical tradition focuses on refuting all theories which posit any kind of substance, inherent existence or intrinsic nature ( 2398: 8531: 6004: 11042:

Analayo "The Luminous Mind in Theravāda and Dharmaguptaka Discourses" Journal of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies, 2017, 13: 10–51;

9022: 6605:

is a classification of the corpus of Buddhism into three categories, based on ways of understanding the nature of reality, known as the "

5986:

states that through mindfulness of the Buddha meditation one may be able to meet this Buddha in a vision or a dream and learn from them.

5549:, the universal currency of the Buddhist world, a vast quantity of which was believed to be necessary for the attainment of Buddhahood". 5427:

According to disciples' grades, the Dharma is classified as inferior and superior. For example, the inferior was taught to the merchants

3866:

The bodhisattva's spiritual path is traditionally held to begin with the revolutionary event called the "arising of the Awakening Mind" (

3167:(8th century–12th century CE), during which it grew to dominate Indian Buddhism. Possibly led by groups of wandering tantric yogis named 2351:' where one will be able to make easy and rapid progress on the bodhisattva path and attain Buddhahood after as little as one lifetime." 5961:

A very popular Mahāyāna practice from very early times involved the visualization of a Buddha while practicing mindfulness of a Buddha (

2519:. These are some of the earliest known Mahāyāna texts. Study of these texts by Paul Harrison and others show that they strongly promote 18342: 18269: 15482: 14583: 12131: 11799: 8091: 6398:(the evil tempter). Some of these Mahāyāna sutras also warn those who would denigrate Mahāyāna sutras or those who preach it (i.e. the 5838:, these five practices are known as the "five methods for stilling or pacifying the mind" and support the development of the stages of 5070:), including the theory of emptiness, and all concepts must ultimately be abandoned in order to truly understand the nature of things. 3837:

In most classic Mahāyāna sources (as well as in non-Mahāyāna sources on the topic), the bodhisattva path is said to take three or four

2619:

formally, Mahāyāna would have been understood as a group of monks or nuns within a larger monastery taking a vow together (known as a "

11866: 11656: 11592: 10751: 10729: 10584: 2797:(30–375 CE), a period that saw great missionary and literary activities by Buddhists. This is supported by the works of the historian 2245:) nature of the Buddha is sometimes seen as a precursor to Mahāyāna views of the Buddha. Some scholars also see Mahāyāna figures like 1754:

striving to become a fully awakened Buddha for the benefit of all sentient beings, and is thus also called the "Bodhisattva Vehicle" (

86: 18147: 14561: 11888: 10524: 3147:(c. 3rd century CE–575 CE) period a new movement began to develop which drew on previous Mahāyāna doctrine as well as new Pan-Indian 18593: 10690: 6294: 5969: 3986:(transcendent knowledge or wisdom) is arguably the most important virtue of the bodhisattva. This refers to an understanding of the 1879:, and other Himalayan regions. It has also been traditionally present elsewhere in Asia as a minority among Buddhist communities in 19534: 18433: 18307: 18292: 7485:

Some contemporary Theravādin figures have indicated a sympathetic stance toward the Mahāyāna philosophy found in texts such as the

3785:(non-abiding, not-established) that allows a Buddha to remain forever engaged in the world. As noted by Paul Williams, the idea of 2296:) wing of the Buddhist Order", who were attempting to imitate the Buddha's forest living. This has been defended by Paul Harrison, 2029:) dating between the 1st century BCE and the 1st century CE. Seishi Karashima has suggested that the term first used in an earlier 6944:. This group is the largest population of Buddhists in the world. There are between 228 and 239 million Mahāyāna Buddhists in the 6734:(MA 190). A passage there (which the discourse itself emphasizes) is often quoted in later Yogācāra texts as a true definition of 3558:"endowed with numerous supernatural attributes and qualities". Mahayana Buddhologies have often been compared to various types of 3194:) and the use of mantras. Most of these practices are esoteric and require ritual initiation or introduction by a tantric master ( 2966:, indicating the importance of this region for the spread of Mahāyāna. Central Asian Mahāyāna scholars were very important in the 14398: 13850: 6871:

which are strongly influenced by Mahāyāna Buddhism, though they may not be considered as being "Buddhist" per se. These include:

3823: 3534:

famously describes the lifespan of the Buddha as immeasurable and states that he actually achieved Buddhahood countless of eons (

1981:

and its application to Bodhisattvayāna did not represent a significant turning point in the development of a Mahāyāna tradition.

9823:"Chiasmus in the Early Prajñāpāramitā: Literary Parallelism Connecting Criticism & Hermeneutics in an Early Mahāyāna Sūtra", 6673:

school, regard the second turning as the highest teaching, because of their particular interpretation of Yogācāra doctrine. The

14053: 12033: 9875:"Chiasmus in the Early Prajñāpāramitā: Literary Parallelism Connecting Criticism & Hermeneutics in an Early Mahāyāna Sūtra" 9862:"Chiasmus in the Early Prajñāpāramitā: Literary Parallelism Connecting Criticism & Hermeneutics in an Early Mahāyāna Sūtra" 5484:

Greatness of understanding (jñāna): from understanding the absence of self in persons and phenomena (pudgala-dharma-nairātmya);

3269:. Esoteric elements are also an important part of East Asian Buddhism where it is referred to by various terms. These include: 10078: 6209:

The surviving Āgamas in Chinese translation belong to at least two schools. Most of the Āgamas were never translated into the

19544: 18453: 11793: 11484: 11443: 11383: 11157: 11124: 10921: 10597: 10503: 10476: 10446: 10422: 10389: 10248: 10101:. In: Jamie Hubbard (ed.), Pruning the Bodhi Tree: The Storm Over Critical Buddhism, Univ of Hawaii Press 1997, pp. 174–179. 9743: 9512: 9426: 9270: 9239: 9159: 9128: 9060: 9016: 8600: 8561: 8505: 7937: 7902: 6606: 5170: 429: 201: 8676:

Harrison, Paul 'Who Gets to Ride in the Great Vehicle? Self-image and Identity Among the Followers of Early Mahayana.' 1987.

4186:

different ways depending on the faculties of individuals. Even those beings who think they have finished the path (i.e. the

3752:, the term "bodhisattva" can technically refer to those who follow any of the three vehicles, since all are working towards 19554: 18918: 15952: 12216: 12058: 9287: 4973: 1725:

but also recognizes various doctrines and texts that are not accepted by Theravada Buddhism as original. These include the

936: 6730:, the other prominent Mahāyāna school in dialectic with the Mādhyamaka school, gave a special significance to the canon's 6631:. This turning represents the earliest phase of the Buddhist teachings and the earliest period in the history of Buddhism. 5041:

In his writings, Nagarjuna attempts to show that any theory of intrinsic nature is contradicted by the Buddha's theory of

4164:, and refers to any effective method or technique that is conducive to spiritual growth and leads beings to awakening and 19036: 18317: 17918: 14393: 6515:

Mahāyāna Buddhist tradition also relies on numerous non-Mahayana commentaries (śāstra), a very influential one being the

7209:(Tiantai). New Mahāyāna movements have also developed in the modern era, perhaps the most influential of which has been 19246: 18976: 18858: 18312: 16897: 14846: 14290: 13840: 11935: 8068:, Annual Report of The International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University 4, p. 170 (note 115) 7601: 7557: 2967: 2833: 1588: 1034: 991: 11736: 10366:

Drewes, David, Mahayana Sutras, forthcoming in Blackwell Companion to South and Southeast Asian Buddhism, Updated 2016

8344:"The south (of India) was then vigorously creative in producing Mahayana Sutras" – Warder, A.K. (3rd edn. 1999). 8146: 7457:

school, which was the primary object of Mahāyāna criticism, the Theravāda does not claim the existence of independent

466: 19296: 18122: 15367: 12136: 11723: 11650: 11200: 10899: 10873: 10106: 9711: 9662: 9183: 9101: 8661: 8032: 6247:

as valid, Mahāyāna Buddhism maintains large collections of sūtras that are not recognized as authentic by the modern

4740: 3888:

beings have been our close relatives or friends in past lives. This contemplation leads to the arising of deep love (

3749: 1645: 14383: 8163: 7973: 6649:

as early as the 1st or 2nd century CE. In the Indian philosophical schools, the third turning is exemplified by the

6032:

East Asian Mahāyāna Buddhism also teaches numerous unique meditation methods, including the Chan (Zen) practices of

5147:

When this flow of mentality is seen as being empty of the subject-object duality we impose upon it, one reaches the

19349: 16907: 14068: 13813: 7698:("inferior knowledge")." Karashima, Seishi (2001). Some features of the Language of the Saddharma-puṇḍarīka-sūtra, 6848:

which either see themselves as Mahāyāna or are strongly influenced by Mahāyāna Buddhism. Examples of these include

5684:, who describes it as a categorization of the same ten perfections of Theravada Buddhism. According to Dhammapala, 5481:

Greatness of practice (pratipatti): the comprehensive practice for the benefit of self and others (sva-para-artha);

3334:

Few things can be said with certainty about Mahāyāna Buddhism in general other than that the Buddhism practiced in

3241:

Whatever the case, this new tantric form of Mahāyāna Buddhism became extremely influential in India, especially in

785: 4810: 3915:

arises in their mind) and without the requirement of a living Buddha being present. Some Mahāyāna sūtras like the

3111:

Forms of Mahāyāna Buddhism which are mainly based on the doctrines of Indian Mahāyāna sutras are still popular in

2856:"Silk Roads" were interlinked and complementary, forming what scholars have called the "great circle of Buddhism". 245: 19311: 19206: 18332: 18327: 18283: 17913: 16757: 16016: 15001: 14460: 14450: 12279: 7077:, with a rough population of about 10.9 million Buddhists. There are also some minor Korean schools, such as the 6367:

and knowledge necessary to become a Buddha in as little as one lifetime." Another widely recommended practice is

5978: 5175: 4328:

the highest spiritual wisdom. According to Edward Conze, the "patient acceptance of the non-arising of dharmas" (

4059:

associate the beginning of the bodhisattva practice with what is called the "path of accumulation" or equipment (

3566:) by different scholars, though there is disagreement among scholars regarding this issue as well on the general 1762:

as incomplete. Mahāyāna also includes numerous Buddhas and bodhisattvas that are not found in Theravada (such as

929: 5723: 5563:

affiliated with Mahayana groups tend to focus on the importance of "the concepts of reincarnation and nirvana".

3941:. Numerous sutras also state that a key part of the bodhisattva path is the practice of a set of virtues called 349: 19166: 18991: 18264: 17283: 17224: 17111: 16990: 16922: 15345: 14983: 14902: 14405: 14058: 13860: 13751: 13696: 12269: 11728:

Schopen, G. "The inscription on the Kusan image of Amitabha and the character of the early Mahayana in India",

8109: 7251:

in 2004. Due to his charisma, the Dalai Lama has become the international face of contemporary Tibetan Buddhism

6888: 17403: 17278: 8081:, Annual Report of The International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University 18, 163–196 3792: 19316: 18731: 18468: 18132: 17981: 17903: 17325: 16367: 15915: 14554: 14375: 14073: 13756: 12048: 11881: 6435: 6419: 5453:

claims that the Buddha said that devotion to Mahāyāna is inherently superior in its virtues to following the

5271:

refers to "a sacred nature that is the basis for becoming buddhas", and it also describes it as the 'Self' (

3467: 3328: 3172: 2306: 1517: 1212: 11854: 8711:

Guang Xing. The Concept of the Buddha: Its Evolution from Early Buddhism to the Trikaya Theory. 2004. p. 115

8079:

Vehicle (yāna) and Wisdom (jñāna) in the Lotus Sutra – the Origin of the Notion of yāna in Mahayāna Buddhism

6476:

Mahāyāna Buddhism also developed a massive commentarial and exegetical literature, many of which are called

6126: 5372:

Similarly, some sources also state that Mahāyāna teachings were revealed by other Buddhas, bodhisattvas and

5320: 4158:) is another important virtue and doctrine in Mahāyāna Buddhism. The idea is most famously expounded in the 3182:

Philosophically, Vajrayāna Buddhist thought remained grounded in the Mahāyāna Buddhist ideas of Madhyamaka,

374: 161: 19374: 19176: 16389: 15134: 13958: 13830: 13801: 13503: 11860: 7258:

derives from the Indian Vajrayana Buddhism that was adopted in medieval Tibet. Though it includes numerous

6217:

or Āgamas. However, these basic doctrines are contained in Tibetan translations of later works such as the

5474:

Greatness of support (ālambana): the path of the bodhisatva is supported by the limitless teachings of the

4893: 4477: 4353: 3026: 2766: 2702:) propounds the ten bhumis and focuses exclusively on the path of the bodhisattva, but never discusses the 1796: 1462: 1237: 1197: 17413: 7108: 6517: 6218: 2715: 2626:

The earliest stone inscription containing a recognizably Mahāyāna formulation and a mention of the Buddha

480: 19384: 19096: 19091: 18863: 17386: 17347: 16902: 16816: 16384: 14751: 13649: 13558: 13028: 12673: 12186: 12081: 11249: 6972: 6910: 6857: 6328: 5432: 3880:

called "equalising self and others and exchanging self and others". Other Indian masters like Atisha and

3876: 2500:. Instead, Nattier writes that in the earliest sources, "Mahāyāna" referred to the rigorous emulation of 2387: 459: 406: 295: 17418: 17408: 13193: 10350:

Werner, Karel; Samuels, Jeffrey; Bhikkhu Bodhi; Skilling, Peter; Bhikkhu Anālayo, McMahan, David (2013)

3538:) ago and has been teaching the Dharma through his numerous avatars for an unimaginable period of time. 2960: 2204: 2012:

can be deceptive, as the two terms were not actually formed in relation to one another in the same era.

1807:

thrived between the 7th and 12th centuries. In the course of its history, Mahāyāna Buddhism spread from

18162: 18107: 17803: 16543: 16060: 14746: 14688: 14498: 13978: 13454: 12940: 12063: 11896: 11634: 8984:

Snellgrove, David. (1987) Indo-Tibetan Buddhism: Indian Buddhists and their Tibetan successors. pp 125.

6627: 6050:

method). Indo-Tibetan Buddhism also includes numerous unique forms of Mahāyāna contemplations, such as

5283:

explains this concept as the base or support for the practice of the path, and thus it is the "cause" (

5257: 5155:), which is nirvana. This doctrine is developed through various theories, the most important being the 4220:

kind of knowledge into the true nature of things. This wisdom is also associated with insight into the

4040: 2496:

use the term "Mahāyāna", yet there is no doctrinal difference between Mahāyāna in this context and the

2325:

path as a 'supremely difficult enterprise' of elite monastic forest asceticism. Boucher's study on the

16141: 13388: 11693: 10050:

Williams, Paul, Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition, 2002, pp. 103, 108.

7210: 4923: 4908: 3907:

The idea of the bodhisattva is not unique to Mahāyāna Buddhism and it is found in Theravada and other

2207:

were particularly important in the development of Mahāyāna and is partly based on some texts like the

1795:

While initially a small movement in India, Mahāyāna eventually grew to become an influential force in

830: 19539: 19409: 19198: 19056: 18508: 17396: 17175: 16806: 16436: 15996: 15128: 14880: 14717: 14672: 14388: 14201: 14191: 14063: 13046: 12626: 12387: 12362: 11779:

Karel Werner; Jeffrey Samuels; Bhikkhu Bodhi; Peter Skilling; Bhikkhu Anālayo; David McMahan (2013).

11051:

Harvey, Peter (1989). Consciousness Mysticism in the Discourses of the Buddha. In Werner, Karel ed.,

9285:(Saddharmapuṇḍarīkanāmamahāyānasūtra, dam pa'i chos pad ma dkar po zhes bya ba theg pa chen po'i mdo) 7450: 7301: 7007: 6941: 6213:, which according to Hirakawa, only contains a few translations of early sutras corresponding to the 6107: 5419: 5148: 4217: 4012: 3754: 3489:(beings on their way to Buddhahood) are central elements of Mahāyāna. Mahāyāna has a vastly expanded 3271: 2971: 2959:

became heavily influenced by Mahāyāna and it was a major source for Chinese Buddhism. Mahāyāna works

2552:

adhering to the Mahāyāna formally belonged to one of the early Buddhist schools. Membership in these

2527:, and do not show any attempt to establish a new sect or order. A few of these texts often emphasize 2512: 2224: 1337: 595: 17514: 12412: 9971:

Williams, Paul, Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition, 2002, pp. 85, 91.

8219:《印度大乘佛教思想的特色》：「『阿含經』用「大乘」之名，大扺指佛的教法，而含有尊崇之意。這「大乘」自不同於爾後大乘佛教的「大乘」，但亦非全不相通。大乘佛教自有其發展，但其基本教理，並不遠離佛的本意。」 5140:) and that seemingly "external" objects (or "internal" subjects) do not really exist apart from the 2919:

encountered by Xuanzang (Hsüan-tsang; c. 600–664) on his visit to India actually were Mahāyānists."

2030: 1147: 146: 18913: 18873: 18828: 18618: 18608: 18413: 18167: 17992: 17928: 17898: 17788: 17553: 17462: 17430: 17391: 17303: 16210: 15462: 15398: 14868: 14853: 14547: 14493: 13845: 13659: 13637: 13630: 13533: 13066: 12686: 12502: 12447: 12068: 11874: 9962:

Williams, Paul, Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition, 2002, pp. 89–91.

7468:

Adherents of Mahāyāna Buddhism disagreed with the substantialist thought of the Sarvāstivādins and

7259: 6987: 6075: 5946: 5929: 5602: 4064: 3418: 3413: 3065: 2956: 2732: 1342: 1292: 17: 15905: 6983: 6574: 5490:

Greatness of resourcefulness (upāyakauśalya): because of not taking a stand in Saṃsāra or Nirvāṇa;

4775: 3057: 136: 19364: 19301: 19251: 19211: 19156: 18791: 18786: 18676: 18623: 18513: 18443: 18239: 18050: 17965: 17170: 17148: 16947: 16769: 16294: 15947: 15874: 15558: 14929: 14729: 14638: 14430: 14410: 13741: 13721: 13478: 13208: 12452: 9254: 8621:"The Inscription on the Kuṣān Image of Amitābha and the Charakter of the Early Mahāyāna in India" 8543: 7848: 7282: 7038: 6803: 6335:

According to David Drewes, Mahāyāna sutras contain several elements besides the promotion of the

5891:), and classic Buddhist meditations such as the contemplation of unattractiveness, impermanence ( 4913: 4785: 4487: 3789:

may have taken some time to develop and is not obvious in some of the early Mahāyāna literature.

3688:). Mahāyāna Buddhists generally hold that pursuing only the personal release from suffering i.e. 3497:, with various Buddhas and powerful bodhisattvas residing in different worlds and buddha-fields ( 3222: 2853: 1713:

onwards). It is considered one of the three main existing branches of Buddhism, the others being

1502: 780: 52: 11413: 10059:

Williams, Paul, Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition, 2002, p. 109.

7434:), and the monks of the Abhayagiri Vihara as the "Mahāyāna Sthaviras". Xuanzang further writes: 6106:, are very important in Tibetan Buddhism as well as in some forms of East Asian Mantrayāna like 5545:

A central practice advocated by numerous Mahāyāna sources is focused around "the acquisition of

5195: 4389: 2052:(great knowing). At a later stage when the early Prakrit word was converted into Sanskrit, this 1726: 30: 19231: 19126: 19086: 19066: 18923: 18898: 18803: 18776: 18726: 18696: 18686: 18603: 18568: 18553: 18538: 18493: 18428: 18102: 18033: 17938: 17933: 17674: 17597: 17359: 17241: 17165: 16962: 16952: 16811: 16779: 16717: 16688: 16205: 16200: 16011: 15892: 15852: 15637: 14978: 14973: 14953: 14949: 14440: 14280: 13948: 13918: 13691: 13642: 13483: 13431: 13426: 13188: 13009: 12906: 12658: 12653: 12402: 10568:

The Buddhist Yogācārabhūmi Treatise and Its Adaptation in India, East Asia, and Tibet, Volume 1

9052: 7535: 7214: 7148: 6845: 6244: 6210: 6199: 5827: 5510: 5141: 5042: 4780: 4512: 4492: 4298:

Prajñāpāramitā is also associated with not grasping, not taking a stand on or "not taking up" (

4177:). This teaching states that even though the Buddha is said to have taught three vehicles (the 3981: 3908: 3397: 2927: 2631: 2497: 2366: 1722: 1581: 1317: 1302: 1282: 1207: 1202: 1117: 1024: 12770: 11834: 9004: 8886: 4760: 4439: 2860:

The Mahāyāna movement (or movements) remained quite small until it experienced much growth in

1695: 755: 381: 19472: 19417: 19334: 19286: 19261: 19061: 18883: 18878: 18746: 18736: 18558: 18234: 18177: 17997: 17943: 17364: 17342: 17261: 17202: 16868: 16307: 16168: 15325: 14924: 14836: 14445: 14415: 13996: 13928: 13761: 13676: 13671: 13595: 13590: 13508: 12038: 11433: 11415:

Buddhism in Its Connexion with Brāhmanism and Hindūism: And in Its Contrast with Christianity

10381: 8590: 8552: 7843: 7160: 6968: 6964: 6960: 6715:(SA 301) by name, and may be an extended commentary on that work. Nāgārjuna systematized the 6645: 6601: 6322: 6260: 6183: 6087: 5439:

were taught to bodhisattvas, and are superior in eliminating conceptually imagined forms. -

5165: 5156: 5109: 5099: 4735: 4665: 4082:) on the path to Buddhahood. The various texts disagree on the number of stages however, the 4028: 3339: 2236: 2220: 2164: 1522: 1512: 1467: 910: 695: 445: 396: 16188: 16136: 13061: 9151: 9044: 8095: 6771:

also use language parallel to passages in the canon containing the Buddha's description of "

5854: 5839: 5663: 4182: 3684: 3587:. Faith-based devotional practices focused on rebirth in pure lands are common in East Asia 3226: 745: 19462: 19452: 19437: 19344: 19271: 19241: 19216: 19181: 19141: 19136: 19111: 18981: 18903: 18853: 18833: 18823: 18711: 18658: 18633: 18483: 18478: 18458: 18423: 18408: 18352: 18127: 18060: 18028: 17908: 17843: 17709: 17587: 17440: 17320: 17219: 17131: 17099: 17094: 16942: 16674: 15964: 15548: 15308: 14919: 14863: 14814: 14799: 14652: 14468: 14435: 14420: 13938: 13835: 13781: 13666: 13605: 13573: 13568: 13553: 13538: 13528: 13493: 13406: 13098: 13021: 12324: 12264: 12013: 11980: 11930: 11829: 11628: 11600: 11375: 10748: 10726: 8497: 7497: 7187: 6956: 6948:. This does not include the Tibetan and Mongolian Buddhists who practice Tibetan Buddhism. 6895: 6884: 6868: 6744: 6707: 6699: 6492: 6444: 6225: 6163: 6008:

An 18th century Mongolian miniature which depicts a monk generating a tantric visualization

5922: 5913: 5848: 5634: 5520: 5466: 5428: 4828: 4088: 3938: 3604: 3422:(aids to awakening). Mahāyāna Buddhism further accepts some of the ideas found in Buddhist 3405: 3372: 3266: 2915: 2507:

Some important evidence for early Mahāyāna Buddhism comes from the texts translated by the

2492: 2321:(2003) argues that this sutra represents the earliest form of Mahāyāna, which presents the 2189:" schools. Some of the major theories about the origins of Mahāyāna include the following: 1532: 1492: 1487: 1452: 1297: 1177: 1085: 1070: 1014: 986: 915: 905: 900: 557: 171: 15161: 14308: 12923: 12792: 12718: 12594: 12332: 10519: 10495:

The Discourse on the All-embracing Net of Views: The Brahmajāla Sutta and Its Commentaries

10468:

The Discourse on the All-embracing Net of Views: The Brahmajāla Sutta and Its Commentaries

9810:"Illusion" a Prajñāpāramitā Creation? The Birth and Death of a Buddhist Cognitive Metaphor 7236: 6251:

school. The earliest of these sutras do not call themselves 'Mahāyāna', but use the terms

5831: 5352:

view of this topic as a transcendental self that is "the unique essence of the universe".

5348: 3845: 3440: 2061: 8: 19467: 19442: 19422: 19399: 19326: 19276: 19256: 19171: 19161: 19116: 19076: 19031: 19026: 19016: 19006: 19001: 18996: 18986: 18971: 18966: 18961: 18956: 18951: 18928: 18838: 18813: 18691: 18681: 18643: 18613: 18598: 18583: 18573: 18563: 18528: 18523: 18473: 18418: 18393: 18337: 18194: 18182: 18070: 18065: 18055: 17923: 17724: 17637: 17582: 17558: 17445: 17330: 17288: 17083: 16932: 16560: 16352: 16237: 16033: 15830: 15715: 15643: 15533: 15454: 15281: 14934: 14758: 14604: 14275: 14154: 13988: 13963: 13953: 13913: 13890: 13773: 13746: 13706: 13625: 13615: 13543: 13470: 12901: 12758: 12539: 12517: 12469: 12289: 12089: 11945: 11925: 11780: 7591: 7552: 7525: 7458: 7398: 7183: 7014: 6799: 6788: 6191: 5590: 5280: 5116: 5063: 5045:, since anything that has an independent existence cannot be dependently originated. The 4928: 4537: 4532: 4361: 4268: 3567: 3506: 3364: 3343: 3112: 3101: 2864:. Very few manuscripts have been found before the fifth century (the exceptions are from 2736:) may delve into the particulars of the trikaya doctrine while eschewing the doctrine of 2121: 1903: 1699: 1542: 1497: 1435: 1375: 1312: 1257: 1252: 1007: 996: 875: 365: 356: 141: 19549: 12249: 12176: 11749: 9589:, forthcoming in Blackwell Companion to South and Southeast Asian Buddhism, Updated 2016 6951:

Harvey gives the East Asian Mahāyāna Buddhist population in other countries as follows:

6721: 6195: 5413:

Mahāyāna often sees itself as penetrating further and more profoundly into the Buddha's

5302: 5273: 4178: 4120: 4110: 4077: 4076:

as well as other texts also outline a series of bodhisattva levels or spiritual stages (

3678: 3610: 3389: 2691: 2125: 290: 181: 19447: 19427: 19394: 19291: 19281: 19226: 19221: 19151: 19131: 19121: 19106: 19101: 19081: 19051: 19046: 19021: 19011: 18943: 18908: 18893: 18798: 18771: 18761: 18721: 18706: 18701: 18653: 18648: 18588: 18543: 18503: 18398: 18385: 18172: 18097: 17970: 17793: 17467: 17425: 17266: 17234: 17209: 17136: 17116: 16937: 16885: 16873: 16851: 16443: 16401: 16274: 16109: 16104: 16099: 15925: 15709: 15685: 15064: 14988: 14736: 14682: 14338: 14243: 14085: 14048: 14043: 13973: 13923: 13870: 13865: 13736: 13731: 13726: 13716: 13701: 13686: 13681: 13620: 13600: 13563: 13488: 13293: 12994: 12918: 12796: 12738: 12579: 12479: 12407: 12382: 12028: 11958: 9356: 9250: 7966:

The World's Religions in Figures: An Introduction to International Religious Demography

7586: 7546: 6999: 6952: 6929: 6340: 6308: 6171: 6155: 6013: 5819: 4585: 4567: 4562: 4502: 4409: 4024: 3703: 3689: 3588: 3490: 3355: 3085: 2963: 2643: 2635: 2607: 2568:. Therefore, Mahāyāna was never a separate monastic sect outside of the early schools. 2348: 2145: 1527: 1507: 1447: 1442: 1330: 1232: 1225: 1152: 1142: 1049: 895: 860: 522: 452: 16555: 16114: 15737: 15467: 14137: 11778: 2990:

seems to have been a particularly important place for the study of Mahāyāna Buddhism.

2200: 1739:. Vajrayāna or Mantra traditions are a subset of Mahāyāna which makes use of numerous 57: 19529: 19504: 19498: 19432: 19389: 19379: 19369: 19359: 19266: 19186: 19146: 19071: 19041: 18933: 18888: 18868: 18843: 18818: 18781: 18766: 18741: 18716: 18628: 18578: 18533: 18518: 18498: 18488: 18463: 18403: 18347: 18112: 17888: 17484: 17455: 17379: 17374: 17335: 17273: 17229: 17214: 17197: 17192: 17187: 17126: 16861: 16747: 16513: 16483: 16463: 16284: 16089: 16070: 16065: 16006: 15969: 15690: 15605: 15528: 15426: 15416: 15384: 15372: 15340: 15317: 15299: 15195: 15050: 14958: 14944: 14907: 14895: 14724: 14643: 14595: 14516: 14478: 14174: 14159: 14122: 14107: 13880: 13796: 13711: 13548: 13513: 13498: 13225: 13215: 12896: 12743: 12728: 12599: 12522: 12442: 12377: 12309: 12196: 11953: 11789: 11719: 11646: 11480: 11439: 11379: 11196: 11153: 11130: 11120: 10917: 10895: 10869: 10664: 10593: 10499: 10472: 10442: 10418: 10385: 10254: 10244: 10102: 9739: 9707: 9658: 9508: 9360: 9266: 9235: 9179: 9155: 9145: 9124: 9097: 9056: 9045: 9012: 8657: 8596: 8557: 8501: 8471: 8281: 7933: 7908: 7898: 7540: 7520: 7423: 7124: 7112: 7104: 7030: 6614: 6591:

Later Tibetan and Chinese Buddhists continued the tradition of writing commentaries.

6403: 6301: 6187: 6167: 6063: 5991: 5423:, gives a classification of teachings according to the capabilities of the audience: 4963: 4883: 4522: 4032: 3698:"), because it lacks the wish and resolve to liberate all other sentient beings from 3580: 3409: 3401: 3359: 3105: 2208: 1670: 1658: 1574: 1472: 1457: 1262: 1137: 1080: 1044: 1029: 960: 885: 870: 865: 848: 527: 438: 388: 68: 16967: 16565: 16225: 15974: 13460: 12254: 12154: 11499:

Swearer, Donald (2006). Theravada Buddhist Societies. In: Juergensmeyer, Mark (ed.)

8039:; in: "Gems of Buddhist Wisdom", Buddhist Missionary Society, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 6817:

There are also some minor Mahāyāna traditions practiced by minority groups, such as

6643:

necessary, and controversy would not occur. These teachings were established by the

4394: 3900:) for others, and thus bodhicitta is generated. According to the Indian philosopher 3745:, but they reject this goal and remain in saṃsāra to help others out of compassion. 3722: 3643: 265: 19457: 19339: 19236: 18848: 18808: 18756: 18751: 18668: 18638: 18548: 18438: 18302: 18254: 18249: 17813: 17778: 17751: 17509: 17494: 17369: 17293: 17143: 17121: 17029: 16890: 16669: 16632: 16488: 16473: 16421: 16215: 16195: 16163: 16158: 16129: 16124: 16048: 16038: 15862: 15826: 15818: 15789: 15702: 15622: 15617: 15580: 15570: 15496: 15434: 15276: 15113: 14963: 14621: 14164: 14117: 14112: 13968: 13933: 13908: 13903: 13654: 13610: 13523: 13198: 12854: 12847: 12631: 12621: 12507: 12171: 12043: 11638: 10660: 10082: 9346: 9005:"The Śaiva Age: The Rise and Dominance of Śaivism during the Early Medieval Period" 8547: 8467: 8307:

The Concept of the Buddha: Its Evolution from Early Buddhism to the Trikaya Theory.

8277: 7674:) had stood in these places ... I have assumed, further, that the Mahāyānist terms 7616: 7596: 7358: 7255: 7128: 7047: 7018: 6921: 6880: 6810: 6681: 6669:

to be the third turning of the Dharma Wheel. Tibetan teachers, particularly of the

6662: 6364: 6315: 6111: 5835: 5717: 5546: 4888: 4730: 4620: 4547: 4116: 4094: 4072: 3952: 3494: 3472: 3351: 3335: 3292: 3276: 3258: 3233:. However, other scholars such as Ronald M. Davidson question the idea that Indian 3210: 3176: 3132: 3073: 2565: 2561: 2077: 1607: 1537: 1482: 1412: 1402: 1267: 880: 853: 720: 537: 517: 341: 305: 17106: 13243: 11849: 11579:

The Madman's Middle Way: Reflections on Reality of the Tibetan Monk Gendun Chopel.

11369: 6551:

is also credited with numerous highly influential commentaries. In East Asia, the

4750: 4414: 4282:), "beyond coming and going" in the Prajñāpāramitā literature. Most famously, the 3808: 3452: 2778: 2240: 585: 19508: 18137: 18117: 17607: 17499: 17489: 17158: 16826: 16617: 16597: 16528: 16493: 16426: 16146: 16119: 16094: 16043: 16021: 15809: 15752: 15523: 15040: 14841: 14767: 14707: 14662: 14631: 14528: 14473: 14425: 14353: 14223: 14021: 14001: 13943: 13855: 13518: 13416: 13263: 12999: 12982: 12967: 12945: 12497: 12367: 12201: 12181: 11704: 11150:

Development and Practice of Humanitarian Buddhism: Interdisciplinary Perspectives

10861: 10755: 10733: 10699: 10528: 10493: 10466: 10436: 9532: 9291: 9118: 8036: 7576: 7244: 7175:

practices, such as visiting shrines, collecting amulets and attending festivals.

7093: 7058: 6802:

traditions of China, Korea, Japan and Vietnam, also known as "Eastern Buddhism".

6674: 6584: 6425: 6267: 6238: 5935: 5887: 5749: 5743: 5553: 5373: 5013: 4952: 4933: 4918: 4858: 4765: 4482: 4230: 4134: 4102: 4056: 3964: 3923: 3881: 3730: 3664: 3368: 3347: 3254: 3097: 3061: 2983: 2979: 2975: 2821:, a major center for the study of Mahāyāna Buddhism from the fifth century CE to 2408: 2355: 2336: 2141: 1562: 1477: 1277: 1187: 1132: 825: 760: 600: 318: 300: 285: 176: 156: 13273: 12427: 12417: 9384:

The Three Bodies of the Buddha: The Origin and Development of the Trikaya Theory

9321:

The Three Bodies of the Buddha: The Origin and Development of the Trikaya Theory

9281: 9047:

The holy land reborn: pilgrimage & the Tibetan reinvention of Buddhist India

7606: 6735: 4655: 4517: 4384: 4221: 3987: 3622: 2720: 1776: 1127: 620: 18259: 18152: 18092: 17808: 17783: 17568: 17472: 17354: 17298: 17251: 16664: 16612: 16508: 16478: 16458: 16453: 16448: 16431: 16327: 16247: 16230: 16183: 16173: 15212: 14875: 14858: 14677: 14657: 14626: 14483: 14186: 14036: 13818: 13398: 13378: 13298: 12987: 12977: 12911: 12748: 12234: 12097: 9011:. Tokyo: Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo. pp. 144–145. 7386:

Theravada texts do, however, hold that this is a more perfectly virtuous goal.

7331: 7225: 7073:. Korean Seon also includes some Pure Land practice. It is mainly practiced in 6818: 6739: 6565: 6461: 6273: 6132: 5905: 5867: 5756: 5672: 5609: 5458: 5390: 4878: 4853: 4838: 4705: 4212: 3970: 3838: 3543: 3521: 3311: 3217:

and that it developed as a result of royal courts sponsoring both Buddhism and

3191: 2837: 2809: 2746: 2508: 2501: 2246: 2196: 1939: 1892: 1816: 1734: 1422: 1352: 1307: 1165: 890: 805: 562: 326: 225: 126: 16220: 15477: 11134: 10978:

Dharma Publishing: p. 322. Lindtner says that Nāgārjuna is referencing the DN.

10570:

Harvard University, Department of South Asian studies, 2013, pp. 51, 60 - 230.

10258: 9890:

Philosophy East and West Vol.3 (1953) pp. 117-129, University of Hawaii Press.

9838:, Philosophy East and West Vol.3 (1953) PP.117-129, University of Hawaii Press 9351: 9334: 7654:

Karashima: "I have assumed that, in the earliest stage of the transmission of

6849: 6698:

Scholars have noted that many key Mahāyāna ideas are closely connected to the

6530: 4399: 3804:, c. 1340. The three carts at the top which are symbolic of the three vehicles 3699: 2490:. Jan Nattier has noted that some of the earliest Mahāyāna texts, such as the 2254: 2004:

is comparatively rare in the earliest sources. The presumed dichotomy between

19523: 18187: 17741: 17622: 17014: 17009: 16957: 16794: 16732: 16627: 16518: 16416: 16347: 16279: 16269: 16242: 16178: 16075: 16053: 15986: 15882: 15845: 15764: 15672: 15123: 15074: 14779: 14253: 14102: 13411: 13313: 13171: 12972: 12950: 12886: 12557: 12352: 12347: 12239: 11908: 11709:

Annual Report of the International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology

11114: 10937:

Genealogies of Mahayana Buddhism: Emptiness, Power and the question of Origin

10692:

The Treasury of Blessings: A Practice of Buddha Śākyamuni by Mipham Rinpoche.

10651:

Drewes, David (2010). "Early Indian Mahayana Buddhism II: New Perspectives".

10580: 9536:, Paper presented at the XVIII the IABS Congress, Toronto 2017, Updated 2019. 7912: 7893:

Woodhead, Linda; Partridge, Christopher Hugh; Kawanami, Hiroko, eds. (2016).

7515: 7440: 7140: 7116: 7003: 6925: 6772: 6768: 6150: 5577: 5538: 5234: 5219: 5160: 4903: 4863: 4805: 4790: 4770: 4557: 4291: 4235: 3942: 3510: 3230: 3136: 3089: 2907: 2892: 2794: 2758: 2703: 2557: 2544:

or ordination lineage from the early schools of Buddhism, and therefore each

2416: 2279: 2274: 2232: 2149: 1823:. Various Mahāyāna traditions are the predominant forms of Buddhism found in 1788: 1703: 1247: 1242: 1182: 790: 775: 715: 547: 507: 250: 191: 131: 116: 16856: 12711: 12701: 12073: 6016:, it is widely held that the practice of reciting the Buddha's name (called 5802: 5198:

which also criticized Madhyamaka, in effect claiming it fell into nihilism.

4755: 4640: 3896: 3815:(Avalokiteśvara) with multiple arms symbolizing upaya and great compassion, 3616: 1387: 1192: 18322: 18224: 18085: 17773: 17768: 17746: 17736: 17617: 17049: 16984: 16927: 16912: 16878: 16503: 16411: 15444: 15335: 15330: 15181: 15151: 15025: 14993: 14741: 14712: 14699: 14343: 14328: 14298: 14248: 14238: 14080: 13875: 13368: 13203: 13081: 12869: 12864: 12691: 12562: 12437: 11898: 11435:

Theravāda Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo

10521:

A Study of the Meditation Methods in the DESM and Other Early Chinese Texts

10068:

Shiro Matsumoto, Critiques of Tathagatagarbha Thought and Critical Buddhism

8142: 7838: 7454: 7274: 7248: 7132: 7082: 6853: 6822: 6569: 6526: 6509: 6395: 6385: 5940: 5893: 5878: 5795: 5454: 5401: 5132: 5090: 4873: 4833: 4670: 4610: 3777: 3669: 3647: 3627: 3427: 3250: 3144: 3053: 2940: 2911: 2903: 2683: 2648: 2598: 2301: 1804: 1770:). Mahāyāna Buddhist philosophy also promotes unique theories, such as the 1287: 1172: 1090: 976: 815: 800: 640: 16550: 15232: 13126: 13111: 13071: 12768: 12432: 12008: 8027: 5642: 5575:

genre, teach the practice of the six transcendent virtues or perfections (

5226: 4660: 4115:

systems are merged and this is the progressive path model that is used in

1860: 1718: 1714: 630: 426: 394: 362: 339: 18244: 18219: 18043: 18011: 18002: 17948: 17878: 17863: 17756: 17647: 17308: 17256: 17044: 16762: 16742: 16582: 16523: 16261: 16257: 16080: 15595: 15543: 15513: 15350: 15204: 15096: 15020: 14885: 14821: 14772: 14313: 14142: 13283: 13268: 13051: 12859: 12787: 12567: 12397: 12299: 12146: 12018: 9089: 8159: 7563: 7487: 7478: 7469: 7297: 7221: 7156: 7089: 7074: 7070: 7066: 7062: 6861: 6579: 6552: 6336: 6287: 6162:

Mahāyāna Buddhism takes the basic teachings of the Buddha as recorded in

5815: 5182:

The most influential thinkers in this tradition were the Indian brothers

4650: 4635: 4630: 4404: 4284: 4160: 4007: 3990:

of all phenomena, arising from study, deep consideration and meditation.

3797: 3758:(awakening) and hence the technical term for a Mahāyāna bodhisattva is a 3718: 3651: 3551: 3530: 3486: 3246: 3164: 3038: 2932: 2861: 2687: 2664: 2659: 2603: 2576: 2531:

practices, forest dwelling, and deep states of meditative concentration (

2520: 2322: 2297: 2262: 2239:

region of southern India. The Mahāsāṃghika doctrine of the supramundane (

2228: 2172: 2168: 2021: 1986: 1962: 1950: 1932: 1848: 1751: 1357: 675: 650: 635: 332: 275: 218: 101: 17563: 17504: 16607: 16028: 15857: 15406: 14303: 12763: 8494:

Buddhism: An Introduction to the Buddha's Life, Teachings, and Practices

7430:. He refers to the monks of the Mahāvihara as the "Hīnayāna Sthaviras" ( 7269:

Contemporary Northern Buddhism is traditionally practiced mainly in the

6876: 6339:

ideal, including "expanded cosmologies and mythical histories, ideas of

6027: 4240:) without exception have "no essential unchanging core" (i.e. they lack 4086:

giving ten for example (and mapping each one to the ten paramitas), the

4003: 3766:. According to Paul Williams, a Mahāyāna bodhisattva is best defined as: 3502: 3457: 3123: 3052:(c. 337–422 CE) had also begun to travel to India (now dominated by the 2627: 2592: 2258: 2060:, possibly because of what may have been a double meaning in the famous 1763: 230: 18210: 18205: 18080: 18075: 18038: 18016: 17873: 17853: 17848: 17689: 17679: 17642: 17246: 17024: 16972: 16712: 16357: 16337: 15910: 15835: 15774: 15538: 15518: 15439: 15091: 15059: 15030: 14809: 14804: 14789: 14258: 14216: 14092: 13898: 13823: 13437: 13421: 13383: 13363: 13258: 13233: 13141: 13076: 13056: 12802: 12733: 12604: 12487: 12457: 12392: 12342: 12000: 11990: 11963: 11741: 11642: 7419: 7241: 6834: 6764: 6753: 6716: 6654: 6536: 6522: 6505: 6501: 6468:, which is designated as the collection of teachings for bodhisattvas. 6344: 6046: 5917: 5807: 5681: 5598: 5582: 5470:

gives the following seven reasons for the "greatness" of the Mahayana:

5394: 5187: 5021: 5009: 4898: 4795: 4675: 4615: 4552: 4527: 4497: 4424: 4036: 3922:

The generation of bodhicitta may then be followed by the taking of the

3912: 3901: 3871: 3859: 3713: 3482: 3423: 3393: 3168: 2786: 2750: 2728: 2707: 2634:, and dated to around 180 CE. Remains of a statue of a Buddha bear the 2630:(an important Mahāyāna figure) was found in the Indian subcontinent in 2528: 2487: 2289: 1966: 1808: 1771: 1744: 1362: 1122: 1019: 795: 705: 690: 615: 610: 487: 235: 214: 111: 106: 17054: 15930: 13278: 12274: 11477:

Rebuilding Buddhism: The Theravada Movement in Twentieth-Century Nepal

9427:

The Perfection of Wisdom in eight thousand lines and its verse summary

7389:

Paul Williams writes that some modern Theravada meditation masters in

4645: 4173: 4127: 2790: 2737: 2159: 2120:. The term appeared in some of the earliest Mahāyāna texts, including 1898:

As of 2010, the Mahāyāna tradition was the largest major tradition of

625: 166: 18157: 17953: 17868: 17858: 17729: 17684: 17669: 17602: 17450: 16917: 16839: 16799: 16789: 16752: 16727: 16707: 16602: 16468: 16322: 16312: 16084: 15937: 15747: 15732: 15697: 15680: 15662: 15575: 15355: 15271: 15250: 15245: 15222: 15217: 15176: 15171: 15108: 15045: 14968: 14939: 14890: 14831: 14784: 14233: 14206: 13373: 13248: 12960: 12876: 12753: 12643: 12616: 12609: 12572: 12529: 12492: 12259: 12224: 12191: 12166: 12121: 11017:

Routledge, 2002, p. 44, note 5. Lusthaus draws attention to Rahula's

8130:

A few good men: the Bodhisattva path according to the Inquiry of Ugra

8015:

A few good men: the Bodhisattva path according to the Inquiry of Ugra

8002:

A few good men: the Bodhisattva path according to the Inquiry of Ugra

7581: 7427: 7382: 7371: 7270: 7136: 6830: 6806:

estimates that there are about 360 million Eastern Buddhists in Asia.

6703: 6690:

which they use to organize the sometimes bewildering array of texts.

6666: 6650: 6636: 6540: 6497: 6486:(commentaries). Philosophical texts were also written in verse form ( 6360: 6353: 6248: 6083: 6071: 5628: 5525: 5514: 5306:) which the Buddha critiqued; rather, it is a positive expression of 5211: 5191: 5094: 5029: 5005: 4868: 4600: 4429: 4258:(things, phenomena), even the Buddha's Teaching, the Buddha himself, 4206:

Prajñāpāramitā is often personified by a female deity in Buddhist art

4048: 3930:) to "lead to Nirvana the whole immeasurable world of beings" as the 3726: 3575: 3563: 3514: 3476: 3461: 3316: 3206: 3152: 2952: 2948: 2849: 2841: 2829: 2798: 2770: 2724: 2711: 2677: 2588: 2584: 2549: 2458: 2423: 1911: 1907: 1888: 1852: 1840: 1820: 1812: 1782: 1767: 1407: 1382: 820: 580: 532: 270: 260: 255: 240: 186: 15627: 15156: 14006: 12842: 12696: 12462: 12244: 12113: 12105: 11824: 11540:

Abhidhamma Studies: Buddhist Explorations of Consciousness and Time.

9812:, Fo Guang University, Journal of Buddhist Philosophy, Vol. 2, 2016. 8462:

Drewes, David, Early Indian Mahayana Buddhism II: New Perspectives,

6684:

traditions have different schemes of doctrinal periodization called

6214: 6203: 6136:

Manuscript. Prajñaparamita and Scenes from the Buddha's Life (top),

5823: 5028:'the emptiness theory') was founded by the second-century figure of 4507: 4190:) are actually not done, and they will eventually reach Buddhahood. 3890: 3384: 3296: 2483: 750: 680: 17960: 17704: 17694: 17549: 17039: 17019: 16846: 16722: 16577: 16151: 15900: 15840: 15759: 15654: 15632: 15612: 15590: 15585: 15565: 15505: 15472: 15411: 15255: 15240: 15118: 15079: 15035: 14826: 14763: 14667: 14570: 14523: 14363: 14318: 14263: 14228: 14132: 13791: 13358: 13353: 13303: 13238: 13156: 13121: 13116: 12777: 12648: 12636: 12206: 11903: 10037: 10035: 9981: 9979: 9977: 9795: 9793: 9791: 9721: 9719: 7530: 7415: 7390: 7345: 7337: 7325: 7307: 7164: 7152: 7107:

is divided into numerous traditions which include various sects of

7078: 6978:

Chinese Buddhism can be divided into various different traditions (

6727: 6677:

teachings are normally included in the third turning of the wheel.

6622: 6618: 6477: 6414: 6356: 6179: 6137: 6079: 5614:, and a large number of other Mahāyāna texts list six perfections: 5560: 5505: 5307: 5297: 5248: 5056: 5050: 5034: 4947: 4848: 4690: 4680: 4605: 4595: 4542: 4459: 4320: 4274: 4242: 4044: 4016: 3734: 3694: 3555: 3547: 3218: 3214: 3183: 3128: 3069: 3045:, and eventually, Indonesian Mahāyāna traditions made it to China. 3042: 3022: 2987: 2888: 2869: 2774: 2754: 2639: 2611: 2580: 2516: 2464: 2435: 2429: 2412: 2407:

Inscribed pedestal with the first known occurrence of the name of "

2266: 2186: 2000: 1943: 1935: 1899: 1884: 1872: 1856: 1786:("the doctrine of consciousness" also called "mind-only"), and the 1691: 1417: 1397: 1272: 968: 740: 665: 590: 542: 492: 280: 45: 13348: 13338: 13323: 13146: 13016: 12284: 11830:

Comparison of Buddhist Traditions (Mahayana – Therevada – Tibetan)

11773:

Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition.

9505:

The Lotus Sutra: A Contemporary Translation of a Buddhist Classic,

9232:

Scripture of the Lotus Blossom of the Fine Dharma: The Lotus Sutra

9077:

Indian Esoteric Buddhism: A Social History of the Tantric Movement

8194:者，我無此辯說。禪智解脫辯，憶本天眼通，能盡苦原本，我無此辯說。』爾時，須深女人便說此偈：『善逝有此智，質直無瑕穢，勇猛有所伏，求於 7144: 6512:

wrote commentaries on this work as well as their own verse works.

6429:

do not present any antagonism towards the hearers or the ideal of

5968:

This meditation is taught in numerous Mahāyāna sūtras such as the

5748:: vow, resolution, aspiration, determination, this related to the 5654: 5361:

to defend the truth and authenticity of Mahāyāna in various ways.

5097:. The primary sutra associated with this school of thought is the 4745: 4725: 4720: 4147: 4106: 3854: 3435: 3319:

which depicts his body as being composed of numerous other Buddhas

2448: 2124:'s translation of the Lotus Sutra. It also appears in the Chinese 770: 735: 725: 685: 18229: 17833: 17798: 17719: 17632: 17573: 17477: 17180: 17034: 16784: 16737: 16622: 16498: 16317: 15779: 15742: 15553: 15103: 15069: 14912: 14613: 14268: 14211: 14196: 13343: 13333: 13308: 13183: 13178: 13136: 13106: 13038: 13004: 12891: 12832: 12827: 12681: 12584: 12422: 12372: 12159: 11985: 11538:

Nyanaponika, Nyaponika Thera, Nyanaponika, Bhikkhu Bodhi (1998).

11527:

Indian Philosophy: An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Thought.

8960:

Indestructible Truth: The Living Spirituality of Tibetan Buddhism

8874:

Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture,

8861:

Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture,

8845:

Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture,

8790:

Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture,

8777:

Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture,

8761:

Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture,

8735:

Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture,

8722:

Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition

8381:

Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture,

7473: 6991: 6933: 6783: 6749: 6561: 6457: 6175: 6166:

as the starting point of its teachings, such as those concerning

6103: 6095: 6052: 6033: 5954: 5873: 5860: 5641: 4800: 4444: 4314: 4259: 4248: 4165: 3812: 3717:

and someone who engages in this path to complete buddhahood is a

3711:

This wish to help others by entering the Mahāyāna path is called

3595: 3242: 3077: 3018: 3014: 2998: 2899: 2877: 2814: 2695: 2545: 2533: 2453: 2442: 2250: 2153: 2033: 1844: 1800: 1097: 730: 660: 655: 552: 497: 196: 151: 41: 12955: 12723: 11759:

Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture

11115:

Charles S. Prebish; Kenneth Ken'ichi Tanaka (15 November 2023).

10866:

The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture

10032: 9974: 9788: 9716: 8628:

The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies

8124: 8122: 8120: 8118: 6413:, "hearers") which are sometimes depicted as being part of the ' 5785: 5780: 5619: 5366: 3998: 2540:

Indian Mahāyāna never had nor ever attempted to have a separate

1927: 18142: 18021: 18006: 17825: 17714: 17699: 17657: 17435: 17313: 16587: 16342: 16332: 15981: 15942: 15784: 15392: 15362: 15086: 14348: 14333: 14169: 14031: 14011: 13786: 13448: 13328: 13318: 13253: 12881: 12837: 12822: 12812: 12782: 12706: 12589: 12357: 12229: 11973: 11968: 11844: 11730:

Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 10

11400:

A History of Indian Buddhism: From Śākyamuni to Early Mahāyāna.

10780:

Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993).

8539: 7611: 7402: 7397:

Cholvijarn observes that prominent figures associated with the

7349: 7319: 7293: 7289: 7172: 7120: 7043: 7034: 7022: 6995: 6937: 6914: 6838: 6548: 6547:(conscious construction only). The Yogacara school philosopher 6449: 6115: 6091: 6058: 6018: 5899: 5790: 5414: 5386: 5183: 4710: 4700: 4685: 4625: 4449: 4369: 4344: 4171:

A closely related teaching is the doctrine of the One Vehicle (

3816: 3801: 3639: 3584: 3559: 3300: 3262: 3234: 3187: 3148: 3081: 3049: 3034: 3002: 2884: 2873: 2865: 2845: 2782: 2541: 2486:("discourses", scriptures) originating around the beginning of 2091: 1876: 1864: 1836: 1740: 1557: 1112: 1107: 1102: 1065: 765: 700: 670: 605: 502: 16533: 11845:

The Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra: complete text and analysis

11630:

A History of Indian Buddhism: From Śākyamuni to Early Mahāyāna

10749:

A History of Indian Buddhism: From Śākyamuni to Early Mahāyāna

10727:

A History of Indian Buddhism: From Śākyamuni to Early Mahāyāna

10438:

The Six Perfections: Buddhism and the Cultivation of Character

10143:. State University of New York Press: p. 104, p. 353 8814:

Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993.

8331:

Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993.

8228:

Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993.

8053:

Buddhism. Vol. 3. The origins and nature of Mahāyāna Buddhism.

7256:

Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism or "Northern" Buddhism

6760:

criticized the Yogācārins for tending towards substantialism.

6371:, or rejoicing in the good deeds of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. 6144: 5806:

Zen master Bodhidharma meditating, Ukiyo-e woodblock print by

3209:

remain a subject of debate among scholars. Some scholars like

2571: 2523:(contra the lay origin theory), acknowledge the legitimacy of 2056:, being phonetically ambivalent, may have been converted into 17838: 17612: 17592: 17577: 17153: 16979: 16774: 16637: 16592: 16572: 15769: 15166: 15012: 14794: 14488: 14323: 14181: 14147: 14127: 14097: 14026: 13443: 13288: 13166: 13161: 13131: 13086: 12933: 12928: 12807: 12512: 12337: 12304: 12294: 11688: