1322:, it came to be understood "more as a doctrine, or position, The principle of cultural relativity does not mean that because the members of some savage tribe are allowed to behave in a certain way that this fact gives intellectual warrant for such behavior in all groups. Cultural relativity means, on the contrary, that the appropriateness of any positive or negative custom must be evaluated with regard to how this habit fits with other group habits. While breeding a healthy scepticism as to the eternity of any value prized by a particular people, anthropology does not as a matter of theory deny the existence of moral absolutes. Rather, the use of the comparative method provides a scientific means of discovering such absolutes. If all surviving societies have found it necessary to impose some of the same restrictions upon the behavior of their members, this makes a strong argument that these aspects of the moral code are indispensable.
1210:
see the tremendous range of its variations. From that, they commenced to envisage it as a totality, as no historian of one period or of a single people was likely to do, nor any analyst of his own type of civilization alone. They became aware of culture as a "universe", or vast field in which we of today and our own civilization occupy only one place of many. The result was a widening of a fundamental point of view, a departure from unconscious ethnocentricity toward relativity. This shift from naive self-centeredness in one's own time and spot to a broader view based on objective comparison is somewhat like the change from the original geocentric assumption of astronomy to the
Copernican interpretation of the solar system and the subsequent still greater widening to a universe of galaxies.
1688:
being offered a choice of worries. What the relativists – so-called – want us to worry about is provincialism – the danger that our perceptions will be dulled, our intellects constricted, and our sympathies narrowed by the overlearned and overvalued acceptances of our own society. What the anti-relativists – self-declared – want us to worry about, and worry about and worry about, as though our very souls depended on it, is a kind of spiritual entropy, a heat death of the mind, in which everything is as significant, and thus as insignificant, as everything else: anything goes, to each his own, you pays your money and you takes your choice, I know what I like, not in the couth,
1619:
scientific research may have political consequences, and the
Boasians saw no conflict between their scientific attempts to understand other cultures, and the political implications of critiquing their own culture. For anthropologists working in this tradition, the doctrine of cultural relativism as a basis for moral relativism was anathema. For politicians, moralists, and many social scientists (but few anthropologists) who saw science and human interests as necessarily independent or even opposed, however, the earlier Boasian principle of cultural relativism was anathema. Thus, cultural relativism came under attack, but from opposing sides and for opposing reasons.
1169:: to compare and contrast as wide a range of cultures as possible, in a systematic and even-handed manner. In the late nineteenth century, this study occurred primarily through the display of material artifacts in museums. Curators typically assumed that similar causes produce similar effects; therefore, in order to understand the causes of human action, they grouped similar artifacts together—regardless of provenance. Their aim was to classify artifacts, like biological organisms, according to families, genera, and species. Thus organized museum displays would illustrate the evolution of civilization from its crudest to its most refined forms.
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intolerant of relativism: they should be, if there is only one truth and that is theirs. I admit that hatred of the intolerant for relativism does not suffice to make relativism true. But most of us are human enough for our belief in relativism to be somewhat reinforced just by that fact. At any rate, it would seem that the world has come far enough so that it is only by starting from relativism and its tolerations that we may hope to work out a new set of absolute values and standards, if such are attainable at all or prove to be desirable.
1349:—i.e., passage through past and future), are products of the prevailing societal norms and conditions of their respective historical periods. Therefore, any moral or ethical judgments, made during the present, regarding past cultures' belief systems or societal practices must be firmly grounded and informed by these norms and conditions to be intellectually useful. Vertical relativism also accounts for the possibility that cultural values and norms will necessarily change as influencing norms and conditions change in the future.
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Dahomys, that the world being so full of a number of things, rushing to judgement is more than a mistake, it is a crime. Similarly, Kroeber's and
Kluckholn's verities – Kroeber's were mostly about messy creatural matters like delirium and menstruation, Kluckholn's were mostly about messy social ones like lying and killing within the in-group, turn out not to be just the arbitrary personal obsessions they so much look like, but the expression of a much vaster concern, caused by thinking a lot about
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acquire the categories and standards of their culture." This observation, which echoes the arguments about culture that originally led Boas to develop the principle, suggests that the use of cultural relativism in debates of rights and morals is not substantive but procedural. That is, it does not require a relativist to sacrifice his or her values. But it does require anyone engaged in a consideration of rights and morals to reflect on how their own enculturation has shaped their views:
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fields like the study of cacti or termites or the nature of nebulae, the necessary method of study is to group the relevant material and to take note of all possible variant forms and conditions. In this way we have learned all that we know of the laws of astronomy, or of the habits of the social insects, let us say. It is only in the study of man himself that the major social sciences have substituted the study of one local variation, that of
Western civilization.
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Relativism is self-critical only in the abstract. Nor does it lead to engagement. It only converts the anthropologist into a shadowy figure, prone to newsworthy and shallow pronouncements about the cosmic condition of the human race. It has the effect of mystifying the profession, so that the very term
1097:, but also having contrasts that did not exist in English. He then argued the case that Native Americans had been pronouncing the word in question the same way, consistently, and the variation was only perceived by someone whose own language distinguishes those two sounds. Boas's student, the linguist
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The supposed conflict between
Benedict's and Herskovits's call for tolerance and the untolerant passion with which they called for it turns out not to be the simple contradiction so many amateur logicians have held it to be, but the expression of a perception, caused by thinking a lot about Zunis and
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The debates over the "Statement on Human Rights", then, was not merely over the validity of cultural relativism, or the question of what makes a right universal. It forced anthropologists to confront the question of whether anthropological research is relevant to non-anthropologists. Although
Steward
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Steward and others argued that any attempt to apply the principle of cultural relativism to moral problems would only end in contradiction: either a principle that seems to stand for tolerance ends up being used to excuse intolerance, or the principle of tolerance is revealed to be utterly intolerant
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Today the problem is complicated by the fact that the
Declaration must be of world-wide applicability. It must embrace and recognize the validity of many different ways of life. It will not be convincing to the Indonesian, the African, the Chinese, if it lies on the same plane as like documents of an
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It was James
Lawrence Wray-Miller who provided an additional clarification tool, or caveat, of the theoretical underpinnings of cultural relativism by dividing it into two binary, analytical continuums: vertical and horizontal cultural relativism. Ultimately, these two analytical continuums share the
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The study of custom can be profitable only after certain preliminary propositions have been violently opposed. In the first place any scientific study requires that there be no preferential weighting of one or another items in the series it selects for its consideration. In all the less controversial
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In this context, cultural relativism is an attitude that is of fundamental methodological importance, because it calls attention to the importance of the local context in understanding the meaning of particular human beliefs and activities. Thus, in 1948 Virginia Heyer wrote: "Cultural relativity, to
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The problem is thus to formulate a statement of human rights that will do more than phrase respect for the individual as individual. It must also take into full account the individual as a member of a social group of which he is part, whose sanctioned modes of life shape his behavior, and with whose
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in time—i.e., the present period of the culture) are products of the prevailing norms and conditions developed as a result of their unique geographies, histories, and environmental influences. Therefore, moral or ethical judgments, made during the present, regarding a current culture's belief system
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There is an ambiguity in
Kluckhohn's formulation that would haunt anthropologists in the years to come. It makes it clear that one's moral standards make sense in terms of one's culture. He waffles, however, on whether the moral standards of one society could be applied to another. Four years later
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Although
Kluckhohn was using language that was popular at the time (e.g. "savage tribe") but which is now considered antiquated and coarse by most anthropologists, his point was that although moral standards are rooted in one's culture, anthropological research reveals that the fact that people have
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Benedict was adamant that she was not romanticizing so-called primitive societies; she was emphasizing that any understanding of the totality of humanity must be based on as wide and varied a sample of individual cultures as possible. Moreover, it is only by appreciating a culture that is profoundly
1209:
Now while some of the interest in (so called solial culture science) anthropology in its earlier stages was in the exotic and the out-of-the-way, yet even this antiquarian motivation ultimately contributed to a broader result. Anthropologists became aware of the diversity of culture. They began to
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is the position that there is no universal standard to measure cultures by, and that all cultural values and beliefs must be understood relative to their cultural context, and not judged based on outside norms and values. Proponents of cultural relativism also tend to argue that the norms and values
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recovers from; it is not experienced as an authentic redefinition of the personality but as a testing of its tolerance ... The tendency of relativism, which it never quite achieves, is to detach the anthropologist from all particular cultures. Nor does it provide him with a moral center, only a job.
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Boas and his students understood anthropology to be a historical, or human science, in that it involves subjects (anthropologists) studying other subjects (humans and their activities), rather than subjects studying objects (such as rocks or stars). Under such conditions, it is fairly obvious that
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The other promise of anthropology, one less fully distinguished and attended to than the first, has been to serve as a form of cultural critique for ourselves. In using portraits of other cultural patterns to reflect self-critically on our own ways, anthropology disrupts common sense and makes us
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was the first to link to the annihilation of prejudice, is reduced to the experience of culture shock, a phrase used by both anthropologists and the State Department to account for the disorientation that usually follows an encounter with an alien way of life. But culture shock is a condition one
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Renteln faults philosophers for disregarding the heuristic and critical functions of cultural relativism. Her main argument is that in order to understand the principle of cultural relativism, one must recognize the extent to which it is based on enculturation: "the idea that people unconsciously
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This view of culture confronts anthropologists with two problems: first, how to escape the unconscious bonds of one's own culture, which inevitably bias our perceptions of and reactions to the world, and second, how to make sense of an unfamiliar culture. The principle of cultural relativism thus
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Geertz concludes this discussion by commenting, "As I have already suggested, I myself find provincialism altogether the more real concern so far as what actually goes on in the world." Geertz' defense of cultural relativism as a concern which should motivate various inquiries, rather than as an
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in general, that if something isn't anchored everywhere nothing can be anchored anywhere. Theory here – if that is what these earnest advices about how we must look at things if we are to be accounted as decent should be called – is more an exchange of warnings than an analytical debate. We are
1415:
Even where political systems exist that deny citizens the right of participation in their government, or seek to conquer weaker peoples, underlying cultural values may be called on to bring the peoples of such states to a realization of the consequences of the acts of their governments, and thus
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languages pronounced the same word with different sounds indiscriminately. They thought that this meant that the languages were unorganized and lacked strict rules for pronunciation, and they took it as evidence that the languages were more primitive than their own. Boas, however, noted that the
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Renteln thus bridges the gap between the anthropologist as scientist (whom Steward and Barnett felt had nothing to offer debates on rights and morality) and as private individual (who has every right to make value judgements). The individual keeps this right, but the scientist requires that the
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Although this formulation clearly echoes the kinds of example anthropologists used in elaborating cultural relativism, Renteln believes that it misses the spirit of the principle. Accordingly, she supports a different formulation: "there are or can be no value judgements that are true, that is,
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It is only since the development of the evolutional theory that it became clear that the object of study is the individual, not abstractions from the individual under observation. We have to study each ethnological specimen individually in its history and in its medium.... By regarding a single
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The term became common among anthropologists after Boas' death in 1942, to express their synthesis of a number of ideas he had developed. Boas believed that the sweep of cultures, to be found in connection with any subspecies, is so vast and pervasive that there cannot be a relationship between
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Marcus and Fischer's attention to anthropology's refusal to accept Western culture's claims to universality implies that cultural relativism is a tool not only in cultural understanding, but in cultural critique. This points to the second front on which they believe anthropology offers people
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If anyone, no matter who, were given the opportunity of choosing from amongst all the nations in the world the set of beliefs which he thought best, he would inevitably—after careful considerations of their relative merits—choose that of his own country. Everyone without exception
1705:
Obviously, relativism poses certain problems when from trying merely to understand the world we pass on to taking action in the world: and right decisions are not always easy to find. However, it is also obvious that authoritarians who know the complete answers beforehand will necessarily be
1639:
Relativism is the bad faith of the conqueror, who has become secure enough to become a tourist. Cultural relativism is a purely intellectual attitude; it does not inhibit the anthropologist from participating as a professional in his own milieu; on the contrary, it rationalizes that milieu.
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As Marcus and Fischer point out, however, this use of relativism can be sustained only if there is ethnographic research in the United States comparable to the research conducted in Samoa. Although every decade has witnessed anthropologists conducting research in the United States, the very
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Boas argued that although similar causes produce similar effects, different causes may also produce similar effects. Consequently, similar artifacts found in distinct and distant places may be the products of distinct causes. Against the popular method of drawing analogies in order to reach
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This is most obvious in the case of language. Although language is commonly thought of as a means of communication, Boas called attention especially to the idea that it is also a means of categorizing experiences, hypothesizing that the existence of different languages suggests that people
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20th century social and cultural anthropology has promised its still largely Western readership enlightenment on two fronts. The one has been the salvaging of distinct cultural forms of life from a process of apparent global Westernization. With both its romantic appeal and its scientific
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earlier period. The rights of Man in the Twentieth Century cannot be circumscribed by the standards of any single culture, or be dictated by the aspirations of any single people. Such a document will lead to frustration, not realization of the personalities of vast numbers of human beings.
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hat is right or good for one individual or society is not right or good for another, even if the situations are similar, meaning not merely that what is thought right or good by one is not thought right or good by another...but that what is really right or good in one case is not so in
1022:
he totality of the mental and physical reactions and activities that characterize the behavior of the individuals composing a social group collectively and individually in relation to their natural environment, to other groups, to members of the group itself, and of each individual to
1570:
and Barnett seemed to be suggesting that anthropology as such should restrict itself to purely academic affairs, people within and without the academy have continued to debate the ways non-anthropologists have used this principle in public policy concerning ethnic minorities or in
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believes his own native customs, and the religion he was brought up in, to be the best; and that being so, it is unlikely that anyone but a madman would mock at such things. There is abundant evidence that this is the universal feeling about the ancient customs of one's country.
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implement outside of its surroundings, outside of other inventions of the people to whom it belongs, and outside of other phenomena affecting that people and its productions, we cannot understand its meanings.... Our objection...is, that classification is not explanation.
1067:
Thus, although all people perceive visible radiation the same way, in terms of a continuum of color, people who speak different languages slice up this continuum into discrete colors in different ways. Some languages have no word that corresponds to the English word
1018:, argued that one's culture may mediate and thus limit one's perceptions in less obvious ways. Boas understood "culture" to include not only certain tastes in food, art, and music, or beliefs about religion; he assumed a much broader notion of culture, defined as:
1087:
Boas pointed out that scientists grow up and work in a particular culture, and are thus necessarily ethnocentric. He provided an example of this in his 1889 article "On Alternating Sounds". A number of linguists at Boas's time had observed that speakers of some
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variant pronunciations were not an effect of lack of organization of sound patterns, but an effect of the fact that these languages organized sounds differently from English. The languages grouped sounds that were considered distinct in English into a single
1444:"Either we tolerate everything, and keep hands off, or we fight intolerance and conquest—political and economic as well as military—in all their forms." Similarly, he questioned whether the second principle means that anthropologists "approve the social
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It is my opinion that the main object of ethnological collections should be the dissemination of the fact that civilization is not something absolute, but that it is relative, and that our ideas and conceptions are true only so far as our civilization
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claimed that the critics of cultural relativism did not really understand, and were not really responding to, the ideas of Benedict, Herskovits, Kroeber and Kluckhohn. Consequently, the various critics and proponents of cultural relativism were
1600:
There is no reason why the relativist should be paralyzed, as critics have often asserted. But a relativist will acknowledge that the criticism is based on his own ethnocentric standards and realizes also that the condemnation may be a form of
1656:
summarized this view with the observation that "Cultural relativism, which had buttressed the attack against racialism, be perceived as a sort of neo-racialism justifying the backward techno-economic status of once colonized peoples."
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Boas and his students realized that, if they were to conduct scientific research in other cultures, they would need to employ methods that would help them escape the limits of their own ethnocentrism. One such method is that of
1394:
The bulk of this statement emphasizes concern that the Declaration of Human Rights was being prepared primarily by people from Western societies, and would express values that, far from being universal, are really Western:
1214:
This conception of culture, and principle of cultural relativism, were for Kroeber and his colleagues the fundamental contribution of anthropology, and what distinguished anthropology from similar disciplines such as
1440:, was situated firmly in the Boasian lineage) suggested that the first claim "may have been a loophole to exclude Germany from the advocated tolerance", but that it revealed the fundamental flaw in moral relativism:
1419:
Worldwide standards of freedom and justice, based on the principle that man is free only when he lives as his society defines freedom, that his rights are those he recognizes as a member of his society, must be
1101:, later noted also that English speakers pronounce sounds differently even when they think they are pronouncing the same sound. For example, few English speakers realize that the sounds written with the letter
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phrase it in starkest abstraction, states the relativity of the part to the whole. The part gains its cultural significance by its place in the whole, and cannot retain its integrity in a different situation."
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and the other unaspirated; a speaker of a language where this contrast is meaningful would instantly perceive them as different sounds and tend not to see them as different realizations of a single phoneme.
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has argued that most debates over moral relativism misunderstand the importance of cultural relativism. Most philosophers understand the Benedictine–Herskovitz formulation of cultural relativism to mean:
1153:: basically, they advocated living with people of another culture for an extended period of time, so that they could learn the local language and be enculturated, at least partially, into that culture.
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By the 1980s many anthropologists had absorbed the Boasian critique of moral relativism, and were ready to reevaluate the origins and uses of cultural relativism. In a distinguished lecture before the
1306:. By contrasting the ease and freedom enjoyed by Samoan teenagers, Mead called into question claims that the stress and rebelliousness that characterize American adolescence is natural and inevitable.
1229:, another of Boas's students, also argued that an appreciation of the importance of culture and the problem of ethnocentrism demands that the scientist adopt cultural relativism as a method. Her book,
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stance is a matter of debate. Cultural relativism became popularized after World War II in reaction to historical events such as "Nazism, and to colonialism, ethnocentrism and racism more generally."
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On the one hand, many anthropologists began to criticize the way moral relativism, in the guise of cultural relativism, is used to mask the effects of Western colonialism and imperialism. Thus,
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of any society that seems to lack the (arguably, Western) value of tolerance. They concluded that anthropologists must stick to science, and engage in debates over values only as individuals.
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individual acknowledge that these judgements are neither self-evident universals, nor entirely personal (and idiosyncratic), but rather took form in relation to the individual's own culture.
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different from our own, that we can realize the extent to which our own beliefs and activities are culture-bound, rather than natural or universal. In this context, cultural relativism is a
837:... our ideas and conceptions are true only so far as our civilization goes". However, Boas did not use the phrase "cultural relativism". The concept was spread by Boas' students, such as
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moral standards is a universal. He was especially interested in deriving specific moral standards that are universal, although few if any anthropologists think that he was successful.
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Ankerl, Guy. 2000. Global Communication without Universal Civilization. vol.I: Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. Geneva: INU PRESS,
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Although this statement could be read as making a procedural point (that the Commission must involve people of diverse cultures, especially cultures that had been or are still under
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same basic conclusion: that human morality and ethics are not static but fluid and vary across cultures depending on the time period and current condition of any particular culture.
994:. Ethnocentrism may take obvious forms, in which one consciously believes that one's people's arts are the most beautiful, values the most virtuous, and beliefs the most truthful.
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Fernlund, Kevin Jon. "The Great Battle of the Books between the Cultural Evolutionists and the Cultural Relativists, from the Beginning of Infinity to the End of History” in the
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revised, submitted to the Commission on Human Rights, and then published. The statement begins with a fairly straightforward explanation of the relevance of cultural relativism:
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summed up the principle of cultural relativism thus: "Judgements are based on experience, and experience is interpreted by each individual in terms of his own enculturation."
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was the central tool for American anthropologists in this rejection of Western claims to universality and salvage of non-Western cultures. It functioned to transform Boas'
2214:"Relativist Claims on Culture Do Not Absolve States from Human Rights Obligations, Third Committee Expert Says as Delegates Denounce Country-Specific Mandates | UN Press"
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that cultural relativism straddles, remarking that the ensuing battlegrounds that arise tend to be in the domain of claims of self-evidence made on behalf of a people.
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The critical function of cultural relativism is widely understood; philosopher John Cook observed that "It is aimed at getting people to admit that although it may
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device of fundamental importance because it calls attention to the importance of variation in any sample that is used to derive generalizations about humanity.
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Boas's students did not draw only on his engagement with German philosophy. They also engaged the work of contemporary philosophers and scientists, such as
1678:. What these different positions have in common, Geertz argued, is that they are all responding to the same thing: knowledge about other ways of life.
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The transformation of cultural relativism as a heuristic tool into the doctrine of moral relativism occurred in the context of the work of the
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intentions, anthropology has stood for the refusal to accept this conventional perception of homogenization toward a dominant Western model.
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generalizations, Boas argued in favor of an inductive method. Based on his critique of contemporary museum displays, Boas concluded:
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Barzilai, Gad. 2003. Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
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of India, the racial caste system of the United States, or many other varieties of social discrimination in the world."
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categorize, and thus experience, language differently (this view was more fully developed in the hypothesis of
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hoped her own work would meet. The most famous use of cultural relativism as a means of cultural critique is
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argued that when the term "cultural relativism" entered popular culture, popular culture co-opted
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principles of relativism have led most anthropologists to conduct research in foreign countries.
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in 1924 to describe Lowie's "extreme cultural relativism", found in the latter's 1917 book
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of these principles is a kind of illusion." Cook recognizes the middle ground in between
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3609:
3589:
3564:
3499:
3456:
3414:
3378:
3361:
3351:
3326:
3316:
3311:
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3140:
3095:
3085:
2941:
2926:
2863:
2804:
2769:
2708:
2673:
2668:
2595:
2580:
2519:
2284:
2030:
1958:
1937:
1756:
1751:
1288:
1284:
1235:, did much to popularize the term in the United States. In it, she explained that:
974:
958:
detail ancient Greek arguments for cultural relativism as part of the tenth of the
955:
924:
468:
448:
185:
160:
31:
2454:
Nissim-Sabat, Charles 1987 "On Clifford Geertz and His 'Anti Anti-Relativism'" in
2034:
3798:
3793:
3718:
3579:
3534:
3524:
3451:
3446:
3383:
3356:
3331:
3301:
3296:
3276:
3271:
3055:
3030:
2963:
2821:
2442:
2353:
2244:
2213:
1670:
1628:
1472:
A 2011 study by international legal expert Roger Lloret Blackburn, examining the
712:
652:
629:
378:
2238:
Cultural Relativism in the Universal Periodic Review of the Human Rights Council
1967:
Anthropology as Cultural Critique: The Experimental Moment in the Human Sciences
1818:
3594:
3519:
3514:
3484:
3463:
3388:
3321:
3145:
3125:
2688:
2605:
2414:
Herskovitz, Melville J. 1958 "Some Further Comments on Cultural Relativism" in
2178:
2092:
2088:
1777:
1736:
1698:
1544:
A third possible group is nations that give special rights to specific groups:
1429:
1425:
1202:
1179:
1028:
forced anthropologists to develop innovative methods and heuristic strategies.
819:
667:
373:
190:
150:
2435:
815:
of one culture should not be evaluated using the norms and values of another.
3869:
3803:
3788:
3773:
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3666:
3626:
3494:
3366:
3130:
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2916:
2901:
2875:
2789:
2738:
2478:
2461:
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1989:
1731:
1726:
1299:
1295:
1280:
1226:
1134:
1007:
991:
545:
540:
488:
210:
1424:
These claims provoked an immediate response by a number of anthropologists.
3768:
3713:
3701:
3686:
3656:
3569:
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3115:
2799:
2779:
2774:
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1433:
1319:
1276:
1142:
1122:
1098:
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1041:
867:
838:
453:
343:
49:
1382:
prepared a draft "Statement on Human Rights" which Executive Board of the
3778:
3681:
3651:
3336:
2794:
2693:
2600:
1408:
1404:
1150:
1053:
1037:
871:
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250:
123:
90:
2062:
ed. by George W. Stocking Jr. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
2843:
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1847:
1843:
1771:
1485:
1271:
to them that their moral principles are self-evidently true, and hence
1220:
1138:
1126:
995:
951:
822:
605:
2340:
Stocking, George W. Jr., 1982. "Afterward: A View from the Center" in
2117:
Cook, John. 1978. "Cultural Relativism as an Ethnocentric Notion." In
2058:
Boas, Franz 1974 "The Principles of Ethnological Classification", in
1178:, Boas argued that this approach to cultural evolution ignored one of
3671:
3070:
2271:
Renteln, Alison 1988 "Relativism and the Search for Human Rights" in
1914:
1721:
1553:
1246:
1216:
1166:
1003:
940:
936:
886:
578:
573:
505:
2314:
Hartung, Frank 1954 '"Cultural Relativity and Moral Judgements" in
1557:
1545:
1538:
1701:
made in reply to earlier critics of cultural relativism, in 1949:
2542:
1516:
1501:
1497:
1094:
999:
928:
615:
595:
563:
353:
2853:
2299:
Schmidt, Paul. 1955. "Some Criticisms of Cultural Relativism."
1549:
1521:
1481:
932:
875:
590:
1635:
in a way that voided the principle of any critical function:
1526:
1493:
1445:
1330:
American anthropologists had to confront this issue head-on.
1303:
897:
1592:
objectively justifiable, independent of specific cultures."
1530:
1509:
1505:
968:
874:
claims. Whether or not these claims necessitate a specific
600:
2511:
1294:
The critical function was indeed one of the ends to which
1884:. Texas: University of Texas-Pan American. Archived from
1469:
rejecting it as a refutation of human rights violations.
2254:). Barcelona: Institut CatalĂ Internacional per la Pau.
1411:), the document ended by making two substantive claims:
990:
Cultural relativism was, in part, a response to Western
57:
2497:
Natural Moralities, A Defense of Pluralistic Relativism
1205:
described the rise of the relativist perspective thus:
2021:
Heyer, Virginia (1948). "In Reply to Elgin Williams".
1823:
The Encyclopedia of World Problems and Human Potential
1141:
in an attempt to move, in the words of Boas's student
1113:
are phonetically different, the first being generally
2483:
The Culture Cult: Designer Tribalism and Other Essays
2445:" IUCN Ethics Working Group Report No 5, August 1994.
2181:. 1948. "Comments on the Statement of Human Rights."
1476:, distinguishes several different groups of nations:
1333:
927:
who illustrated the principle by inquiring about the
1954:
1952:
1949:
1906:
1416:enforce a brake upon discrimination and conquest.
1313:
3867:
2199:Barnett, H. G. "On Science and Human Rights" in
1910:Beyond Multiculturalism: Views from Anthropology
1848:"Museums of Ethnology and their classification."
1480:One group consists of nations where the current
1370:Commission of Human Rights of the United Nations
2331:New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers page 110
1302:'s research of adolescent female sexuality in
1182:'s main contributions to evolutionary theory:
2527:
2129:
2127:
2002:Boas, Franz (1889). "On Alternating Sounds".
1660:
1345:describes that cultures, throughout history (
1275:to be grounds for passing judgement on other
792:
2436:Cultural Relativism and Environmental Ethics
1363:
1263:reexamine our taken-for-granted assumptions.
1031:
1006:, and heavily influenced by the thought of
2534:
2520:
2236:Blackburn, Roger Lloret. September 2011. "
2124:
1697:explanation or solution, echoed a comment
1076:, others identify it using their word for
844:The first use of the term recorded in the
799:
785:
2054:
2052:
1613:
1391:fate his own is thus inextricably bound.
2145:
2108:Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, page 3
1355:describes that cultures in the present (
969:As a methodological and heuristic device
866:. Cultural relativism involves specific
1252:
850:was by philosopher and social theorist
14:
3868:
2049:
1879:
1160:
2515:
2195:
2193:
2020:
1690:tout comprendre, c'est tout pardonner
1622:
1463:Universal Declaration of Human Rights
1456:
1374:Universal Declaration of Human Rights
3829:
3430:Role of Christianity in civilization
2374:. 1949. "An Authoritarian Panacea."
2001:
1667:American Anthropological Association
1384:American Anthropological Association
895:3.38) observes on the relativity of
3841:
2163:1947. "Statement on Human Rights."
1525:and certain traditional practices:
24:
2387:
2190:
2091:. 1948. "Anthropology." New York:
1880:Glazer, Mark (December 16, 1994).
1334:Vertical and horizontal relativism
25:
3897:
1870:. New York: Douglas C. McMurtrie.
3840:
3828:
3817:
3816:
2551:
2466:The Elements of Moral Philosophy
2356:. 1984. "Anti-Anti-Relativism."
1467:World Conference on Human Rights
56:
3642:Culture and positive psychology
2552:
2365:
2347:
2334:
2321:
2308:
2293:
2278:
2265:
2230:
2206:
2172:
2154:
2139:
2111:
2098:
2082:
2073:
2014:
881:
818:The concept was established by
3081:High- and low-context cultures
1995:
1976:
1931:
1900:
1873:
1858:
1837:
1811:
1314:Comparison to moral relativism
746:Anthropologists by nationality
13:
1:
2421:Herskovitz, Melville J. 1956
2035:10.1525/aa.1948.50.1.02a00290
1804:
1488:, and that deny the need for
1172:In an article in the journal
3647:Culture and social cognition
2632:Cross-cultural communication
1564:
7:
3886:Majority–minority relations
3729:Intercultural communication
2541:
1971:University of Chicago Press
1710:
923:He mentions an anecdote of
10:
3902:
3172:Cross cultural sensitivity
2839:Resistance through culture
2329:In Search of the Primitive
1907:Giuliana B. Prato (2016).
1661:Defence by Clifford Geertz
1515:Another group are certain
1474:Universal Periodic Reviews
766:List of indigenous peoples
29:
3812:
3784:Transformation of culture
3477:
3397:
3217:Cultural environmentalism
3154:
2894:
2757:
2647:Cross-cultural psychology
2642:Cross-cultural psychiatry
2637:Cross-cultural leadership
2614:
2563:
2549:
2203:50(2) 352–355. June 1948.
2119:The Philosophy of Society
1985:The Mind of Primitive Man
1789:Universality (philosophy)
1364:Statement on human rights
847:Oxford English Dictionary
511:Cross-cultural comparison
3744:Living things in culture
3734:Intercultural competence
3637:Culture and menstruation
3136:Trans-cultural diffusion
2448:Murphy, Robert F., 1972
1747:Intercultural competence
1742:Historical particularism
1676:talking past one another
1436:, and as a professor at
1032:As a methodological tool
998:, originally trained in
683:Historical particularism
30:Not to be confused with
18:Multicultural relativism
3555:Cultural homogenization
2785:Individualistic culture
2719:Popular culture studies
2704:Intercultural relations
2456:American Anthropologist
2416:American Anthropologist
2377:American Anthropologist
2359:American Anthropologist
2273:American Anthropologist
2201:American Anthropologist
2184:American Anthropologist
2166:American Anthropologist
2161:Herskovits, Melville J.
2023:American Anthropologist
2004:American Anthropologist
1572:international relations
1519:nations that adhere to
1080:. Thus, Boas's student
516:Participant observation
3490:Archaeological culture
3237:Cultural globalization
3106:Organizational culture
2954:Cultural communication
2912:Cultural appropriation
2699:Intercultural learning
2627:Cross-cultural studies
2409:Journal of Big History
2327:Stanley Diamond 2004
2133:Kluckhohn, Clyde 1944
1708:
1694:
1651:
1614:Post-colonial politics
1607:
1589:
1484:has been installed by
1450:
1428:(who, as a student of
1401:
1380:Melville J. Herskovits
1265:
1242:
1212:
1199:
1189:
1025:
988:
921:
658:Cross-cultural studies
3876:Cultural anthropology
3759:Participatory culture
3550:Cultural evolutionism
3374:Multiracial democracy
3252:Cultural intelligence
3197:Cultural conservatism
3187:Cultural backwardness
3177:Cultural assimilation
3051:Cultural reproduction
2907:Cultural appreciation
2859:Far-right subcultures
2749:Transcultural nursing
2714:Philosophy of culture
2591:Cultural neuroscience
2571:Cultural anthropology
2434:Mathews, Freya 1994 "
2429:"Cultural Relativism"
2316:Philosophy of Science
2302:Journal of Philosophy
2148:"Cultural Relativism"
1943:Outlines of Pyrrhnism
1882:"Cultural Relativism"
1867:Culture and Ethnology
1864:Lowie, Robert. 1917.
1819:"Cultural relativism"
1762:Political correctness
1703:
1680:
1637:
1598:
1584:
1579:Alison Dundes Renteln
1442:
1388:
1353:Horizontal relativism
1260:
1237:
1207:
1194:
1184:
1062:Linguistic relativity
1020:
983:
979:Michael M. J. Fischer
907:
856:Culture and Ethnology
3754:Oppositional culture
3724:Emotions and culture
3632:Cultural sensibility
3622:Cultural translation
3560:Cultural institution
3540:Cultural determinism
3262:Cultural nationalism
3247:Cultural imperialism
3207:Cultural deprivation
3101:Non-material culture
2734:Sociology of culture
2729:Semiotics of culture
2249:ICIP Working Papers:
2104:Ruth Benedict 1959
1982:Boas, Franz. 1963.
1963:Michael M.J. Fischer
1767:Paradox of tolerance
1603:cultural imperialism
1577:Political scientist
1253:As a critical device
945:funerary cannibalism
917:Aubrey de Selincourt
751:Anthropology by year
688:Boasian anthropology
663:Cultural materialism
648:Actor–network theory
246:Paleoanthropological
3605:Culture speculation
3600:Cultural relativism
3530:Cultural competence
3420:Cultural Christians
3292:Cultural Revolution
3282:Cultural radicalism
3257:Cultural liberalism
3192:Cultural Bolshevism
3167:Consumer capitalism
3121:Relational mobility
3061:Cultural technology
2969:Cultural dissonance
2886:Culture by location
2849:Alternative culture
2765:Constructed culture
2744:Theology of culture
2684:Cultural psychology
2664:Cultural entomology
2494:Wong, David, 2006,
2427:Jarvie, I. C. 1995
2411:4, 3 (2020): 6-30.
2106:Patterns of Culture
2060:A Franz Boas reader
1717:Cultural Revolution
1490:political plurality
1438:Columbia University
1409:imperial domination
1343:Vertical relativism
1232:Patterns of Culture
1165:Another method was
1161:As a heuristic tool
1082:Melville Herskovits
1046:cultural relativism
812:Cultural relativism
703:Performance studies
596:Kinship and descent
536:Cultural relativism
186:Paleoethnobotanical
161:Ethnoarchaeological
3764:Permission culture
3697:Disability culture
3677:Children's culture
3545:Cultural diversity
3505:Circuit of culture
3287:Cultural retention
3267:Cultural pessimism
3222:Cultural exception
3212:Cultural diplomacy
3202:Cultural contracts
3162:Colonial mentality
3091:Manuscript culture
3066:Cultural universal
3036:Cultural pluralism
3016:Cultural landscape
3011:Cultural invention
2979:Cultural framework
2881:Vernacular culture
2679:Cultural mediation
2659:Cultural economics
2654:Cultural analytics
2586:Cultural geography
2576:Cultural astronomy
2441:2009-09-14 at the
2243:2021-10-03 at the
1825:. 12 December 2017
1799:Cultural diplomacy
1784:Situational ethics
1623:Political critique
1457:Governmental usage
723:Post-structuralism
482:Research framework
3863:
3862:
3692:Death and culture
3585:Cultural movement
3575:Cultural literacy
3435:Eastern Orthodoxy
3347:Dominator culture
3342:Deculturalization
3242:Cultural hegemony
3232:Cultural genocide
3227:Cultural feminism
3046:Cultural property
3041:Cultural practice
3026:Cultural leveling
3021:Cultural learning
3006:Cultural industry
3001:Cultural identity
2984:Cultural heritage
2974:Cultural emphasis
2959:Cultural conflict
2932:Cultural behavior
2922:Cultural artifact
2834:Primitive culture
2810:Political culture
2506:978-0-19-530539-5
2423:Man and His Works
2285:Frankena, William
1405:European colonial
1372:in preparing the
1103:⟨t⟩
950:The works of the
809:
808:
708:Political economy
531:Thick description
328:Political economy
191:Zooarchaeological
151:Bioarchaeological
16:(Redirected from
3893:
3844:
3843:
3832:
3831:
3820:
3819:
3709:Drinking culture
3662:Culture industry
3610:Cultural tourism
3590:Cultural mulatto
3565:Cultural jet lag
3500:Cannabis culture
3457:Cultural Muslims
3379:Pluriculturalism
3362:Multiculturalism
3352:Interculturalism
3327:Culture minister
3317:Cultural Zionism
3312:Cultural subsidy
3307:Cultural silence
3182:Cultural attaché
3141:Transculturation
3096:Material culture
3086:Interculturality
2942:Cultural capital
2927:Cultural baggage
2864:Youth subculture
2805:Official culture
2770:Dominant culture
2709:Internet culture
2674:Cultural mapping
2669:Cultural history
2596:Cultural studies
2581:Cultural ecology
2555:
2554:
2536:
2529:
2522:
2513:
2512:
2381:
2369:
2363:
2354:Geertz, Clifford
2351:
2345:
2338:
2332:
2325:
2319:
2312:
2306:
2297:
2291:
2282:
2276:
2269:
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2234:
2228:
2227:
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2224:
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2204:
2197:
2188:
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2122:
2115:
2109:
2102:
2096:
2086:
2080:
2077:
2071:
2056:
2047:
2046:
2018:
2012:
2011:
1999:
1993:
1980:
1974:
1956:
1947:
1938:Sextus Empiricus
1935:
1929:
1928:
1904:
1898:
1897:
1895:
1893:
1888:on June 13, 2007
1877:
1871:
1862:
1856:
1841:
1835:
1834:
1832:
1830:
1815:
1757:Multiculturalism
1752:Moral relativism
1289:moral absolutism
1285:moral relativism
1104:
975:George E. Marcus
956:Sextus Empiricus
925:Darius the Great
919:
836:
833:is relative, and
832:
828:
801:
794:
787:
329:
211:Anthrozoological
60:
37:
36:
32:Moral relativism
21:
3901:
3900:
3896:
3895:
3894:
3892:
3891:
3890:
3866:
3865:
3864:
3859:
3808:
3799:Western culture
3794:Welfare culture
3719:Eastern culture
3580:Cultural mosaic
3535:Cultural critic
3525:Cultural center
3473:
3447:Cultural Hindus
3393:
3384:Polyculturalism
3357:Monoculturalism
3332:Culture of fear
3302:Cultural safety
3297:Cultural rights
3277:Cultural racism
3272:Cultural policy
3150:
3056:Cultural system
3031:Cultural memory
2964:Cultural cringe
2890:
2822:Popular culture
2753:
2689:Cultural values
2610:
2559:
2545:
2540:
2510:
2468:, McGraw-Hill,
2443:Wayback Machine
2390:
2388:Further reading
2385:
2384:
2372:Kroeber, Alfred
2370:
2366:
2352:
2348:
2339:
2335:
2326:
2322:
2313:
2309:
2298:
2294:
2283:
2279:
2270:
2266:
2245:Wayback Machine
2235:
2231:
2222:
2220:
2212:
2211:
2207:
2198:
2191:
2179:Steward, Julian
2177:
2173:
2159:
2155:
2144:
2140:
2132:
2125:
2116:
2112:
2103:
2099:
2089:Kroeber, Alfred
2087:
2083:
2078:
2074:
2057:
2050:
2019:
2015:
2000:
1996:
1981:
1977:
1957:
1950:
1936:
1932:
1925:
1905:
1901:
1891:
1889:
1878:
1874:
1863:
1859:
1842:
1838:
1828:
1826:
1817:
1816:
1812:
1807:
1713:
1671:Clifford Geertz
1663:
1654:George Stocking
1629:Stanley Diamond
1625:
1616:
1567:
1459:
1366:
1336:
1316:
1279:, in fact, the
1258:enlightenment:
1255:
1201:Boas's student
1163:
1102:
1090:Native-American
1034:
971:
931:customs of the
920:
914:
884:
868:epistemological
834:
830:
826:
805:
776:
775:
741:
733:
732:
713:Practice theory
653:Alliance theory
643:
635:
634:
630:Postcolonialism
559:
551:
550:
484:
474:
473:
439:Anthropological
434:
424:
423:
327:
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256:
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86:
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5:
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3731:
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3649:
3644:
3639:
3634:
3629:
3624:
3619:
3618:
3617:
3607:
3602:
3597:
3595:Cultural probe
3592:
3587:
3582:
3577:
3572:
3567:
3562:
3557:
3552:
3547:
3542:
3537:
3532:
3527:
3522:
3520:Cross-cultural
3517:
3515:Coffee culture
3512:
3507:
3502:
3497:
3492:
3487:
3485:Animal culture
3481:
3479:
3475:
3474:
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3449:
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3432:
3427:
3422:
3417:
3407:
3401:
3399:
3395:
3394:
3392:
3391:
3389:Transculturism
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3371:
3370:
3369:
3359:
3354:
3349:
3344:
3339:
3334:
3329:
3324:
3322:Culture change
3319:
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3294:
3289:
3284:
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3204:
3199:
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3174:
3169:
3164:
3158:
3156:
3152:
3151:
3149:
3148:
3146:Visual culture
3143:
3138:
3133:
3128:
3126:Safety culture
3123:
3118:
3113:
3108:
3103:
3098:
3093:
3088:
3083:
3078:
3073:
3068:
3063:
3058:
3053:
3048:
3043:
3038:
3033:
3028:
3023:
3018:
3013:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2993:
2992:
2991:
2981:
2976:
2971:
2966:
2961:
2956:
2951:
2950:
2949:
2947:Cross-cultural
2939:
2934:
2929:
2924:
2919:
2914:
2909:
2904:
2898:
2896:
2892:
2891:
2889:
2888:
2883:
2878:
2873:
2872:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2841:
2836:
2831:
2830:
2829:
2819:
2818:
2817:
2807:
2802:
2797:
2792:
2787:
2782:
2777:
2772:
2767:
2761:
2759:
2755:
2754:
2752:
2751:
2746:
2741:
2736:
2731:
2726:
2721:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2701:
2696:
2691:
2686:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2661:
2656:
2651:
2650:
2649:
2644:
2639:
2634:
2624:
2618:
2616:
2612:
2611:
2609:
2608:
2606:Culture theory
2603:
2598:
2593:
2588:
2583:
2578:
2573:
2567:
2565:
2561:
2560:
2550:
2547:
2546:
2539:
2538:
2531:
2524:
2516:
2509:
2508:
2492:
2479:Sandall, Roger
2476:
2462:Rachels, James
2459:
2458:89(4): 935-939
2452:
2446:
2432:
2425:
2419:
2412:
2405:
2402:
2391:
2389:
2386:
2383:
2382:
2364:
2346:
2333:
2320:
2307:
2292:
2277:
2264:
2229:
2205:
2189:
2171:
2153:
2146:Caleb Rosado.
2138:
2135:Mirror For Man
2123:
2110:
2097:
2093:Harcourt Brace
2081:
2072:
2048:
2013:
1994:
1975:
1959:Marcus, George
1948:
1930:
1923:
1899:
1872:
1857:
1836:
1809:
1808:
1806:
1803:
1802:
1801:
1796:
1791:
1786:
1781:
1778:Sick Societies
1774:
1769:
1764:
1759:
1754:
1749:
1744:
1739:
1737:Global justice
1734:
1729:
1724:
1719:
1712:
1709:
1699:Alfred Kroeber
1662:
1659:
1642:anthropologist
1624:
1621:
1615:
1612:
1566:
1563:
1562:
1561:
1542:
1513:
1465:, despite the
1458:
1455:
1430:Alfred Kroeber
1426:Julian Steward
1422:
1421:
1417:
1365:
1362:
1335:
1332:
1315:
1312:
1254:
1251:
1203:Alfred Kroeber
1180:Charles Darwin
1162:
1159:
1131:Henri Poincaré
1054:methodological
1033:
1030:
970:
967:
963:of Aenesidemus
915:translated by
912:
883:
880:
872:methodological
820:anthropologist
807:
806:
804:
803:
796:
789:
781:
778:
777:
774:
773:
768:
763:
758:
753:
748:
742:
739:
738:
735:
734:
731:
730:
728:Systems theory
725:
720:
715:
710:
705:
700:
695:
690:
685:
680:
675:
670:
668:Culture theory
665:
660:
655:
650:
644:
641:
640:
637:
636:
633:
632:
623:
618:
613:
608:
603:
598:
593:
588:
587:
586:
576:
571:
566:
560:
557:
556:
553:
552:
549:
548:
543:
538:
533:
528:
523:
518:
513:
508:
503:
502:
501:
491:
485:
480:
479:
476:
475:
472:
471:
466:
461:
456:
451:
446:
441:
435:
430:
429:
426:
425:
422:
421:
416:
411:
406:
401:
396:
391:
386:
381:
376:
371:
366:
361:
356:
351:
346:
341:
336:
331:
324:
319:
314:
309:
304:
299:
294:
289:
284:
278:
275:
274:
269:
263:
262:
261:
258:
257:
254:
253:
251:Primatological
248:
243:
238:
233:
228:
223:
218:
213:
207:
202:
201:
198:
197:
194:
193:
188:
183:
178:
173:
168:
163:
158:
153:
148:
143:
138:
133:
127:
124:Archaeological
122:
121:
118:
117:
114:
113:
108:
103:
98:
93:
91:Archaeological
87:
84:
83:
80:
79:
77:
76:
71:
65:
62:
61:
53:
52:
46:
45:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3898:
3887:
3884:
3882:
3879:
3877:
3874:
3873:
3871:
3856:
3855:
3851:
3849:
3848:
3839:
3837:
3836:
3827:
3825:
3824:
3815:
3814:
3811:
3805:
3804:Youth culture
3802:
3800:
3797:
3795:
3792:
3790:
3789:Urban culture
3787:
3785:
3782:
3780:
3777:
3775:
3774:Remix culture
3772:
3770:
3767:
3765:
3762:
3760:
3757:
3755:
3752:
3750:
3749:Media culture
3747:
3745:
3742:
3740:
3739:Languaculture
3737:
3735:
3732:
3730:
3727:
3725:
3722:
3720:
3717:
3715:
3712:
3710:
3707:
3703:
3700:
3699:
3698:
3695:
3693:
3690:
3688:
3685:
3683:
3680:
3678:
3675:
3673:
3670:
3668:
3667:Culture shock
3665:
3663:
3660:
3658:
3655:
3653:
3650:
3648:
3645:
3643:
3640:
3638:
3635:
3633:
3630:
3628:
3627:Cultural turn
3625:
3623:
3620:
3616:
3613:
3612:
3611:
3608:
3606:
3603:
3601:
3598:
3596:
3593:
3591:
3588:
3586:
3583:
3581:
3578:
3576:
3573:
3571:
3568:
3566:
3563:
3561:
3558:
3556:
3553:
3551:
3548:
3546:
3543:
3541:
3538:
3536:
3533:
3531:
3528:
3526:
3523:
3521:
3518:
3516:
3513:
3511:
3508:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3498:
3496:
3495:Bennett scale
3493:
3491:
3488:
3486:
3483:
3482:
3480:
3476:
3470:
3467:
3465:
3462:
3458:
3455:
3454:
3453:
3450:
3448:
3445:
3441:
3438:
3436:
3433:
3431:
3428:
3426:
3425:Protestantism
3423:
3421:
3418:
3416:
3413:
3412:
3411:
3408:
3406:
3403:
3402:
3400:
3396:
3390:
3387:
3385:
3382:
3380:
3377:
3375:
3372:
3368:
3367:Biculturalism
3365:
3364:
3363:
3360:
3358:
3355:
3353:
3350:
3348:
3345:
3343:
3340:
3338:
3335:
3333:
3330:
3328:
3325:
3323:
3320:
3318:
3315:
3313:
3310:
3308:
3305:
3303:
3300:
3298:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3288:
3285:
3283:
3280:
3278:
3275:
3273:
3270:
3268:
3265:
3263:
3260:
3258:
3255:
3253:
3250:
3248:
3245:
3243:
3240:
3238:
3235:
3233:
3230:
3228:
3225:
3223:
3220:
3218:
3215:
3213:
3210:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3188:
3185:
3183:
3180:
3178:
3175:
3173:
3170:
3168:
3165:
3163:
3160:
3159:
3157:
3153:
3147:
3144:
3142:
3139:
3137:
3134:
3132:
3131:Technoculture
3129:
3127:
3124:
3122:
3119:
3117:
3114:
3112:
3111:Print culture
3109:
3107:
3104:
3102:
3099:
3097:
3094:
3092:
3089:
3087:
3084:
3082:
3079:
3077:
3076:Enculturation
3074:
3072:
3069:
3067:
3064:
3062:
3059:
3057:
3054:
3052:
3049:
3047:
3044:
3042:
3039:
3037:
3034:
3032:
3029:
3027:
3024:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3004:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2996:Cultural icon
2994:
2990:
2987:
2986:
2985:
2982:
2980:
2977:
2975:
2972:
2970:
2967:
2965:
2962:
2960:
2957:
2955:
2952:
2948:
2945:
2944:
2943:
2940:
2938:
2937:Cultural bias
2935:
2933:
2930:
2928:
2925:
2923:
2920:
2918:
2917:Cultural area
2915:
2913:
2910:
2908:
2905:
2903:
2902:Acculturation
2900:
2899:
2897:
2893:
2887:
2884:
2882:
2879:
2877:
2876:Super culture
2874:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2850:
2847:
2846:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2837:
2835:
2832:
2828:
2825:
2824:
2823:
2820:
2816:
2813:
2812:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2790:Legal culture
2788:
2786:
2783:
2781:
2778:
2776:
2773:
2771:
2768:
2766:
2763:
2762:
2760:
2756:
2750:
2747:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2739:Sound culture
2737:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2720:
2717:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2652:
2648:
2645:
2643:
2640:
2638:
2635:
2633:
2630:
2629:
2628:
2625:
2623:
2620:
2619:
2617:
2613:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2579:
2577:
2574:
2572:
2569:
2568:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2548:
2544:
2537:
2532:
2530:
2525:
2523:
2518:
2517:
2514:
2507:
2503:
2500:, Oxford UP,
2499:
2498:
2493:
2491:
2490:0-8133-3863-8
2487:
2484:
2480:
2477:
2475:
2474:0-07-282574-X
2471:
2467:
2463:
2460:
2457:
2453:
2451:
2447:
2444:
2440:
2437:
2433:
2430:
2426:
2424:
2420:
2418:60(2) 266-273
2417:
2413:
2410:
2406:
2403:
2401:
2400:2-88155-004-5
2397:
2393:
2392:
2380:51(2):318–20.
2379:
2378:
2373:
2368:
2362:86(2):263–78.
2361:
2360:
2355:
2350:
2343:
2337:
2330:
2324:
2317:
2311:
2304:
2303:
2296:
2290:
2286:
2281:
2274:
2268:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2239:
2233:
2219:
2215:
2209:
2202:
2196:
2194:
2187:50(2):351–52.
2186:
2185:
2180:
2175:
2169:49(4):539–43.
2168:
2167:
2162:
2157:
2149:
2142:
2136:
2130:
2128:
2120:
2114:
2107:
2101:
2094:
2090:
2085:
2076:
2069:
2068:0-226-06243-0
2065:
2061:
2055:
2053:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2017:
2009:
2005:
1998:
1991:
1990:Collier Books
1987:
1986:
1979:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1955:
1953:
1945:
1944:
1939:
1934:
1926:
1924:9781317174677
1920:
1917:. p. 5.
1916:
1912:
1911:
1903:
1887:
1883:
1876:
1869:
1868:
1861:
1854:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1840:
1824:
1820:
1814:
1810:
1800:
1797:
1795:
1792:
1790:
1787:
1785:
1782:
1780:
1779:
1775:
1773:
1770:
1768:
1765:
1763:
1760:
1758:
1755:
1753:
1750:
1748:
1745:
1743:
1740:
1738:
1735:
1733:
1732:Emic and etic
1730:
1728:
1727:Ethnocentrism
1725:
1723:
1720:
1718:
1715:
1714:
1707:
1702:
1700:
1693:
1691:
1686:
1679:
1677:
1672:
1668:
1658:
1655:
1650:
1647:
1643:
1636:
1634:
1630:
1620:
1611:
1606:
1604:
1597:
1593:
1588:
1583:
1580:
1575:
1573:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1523:
1518:
1514:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1478:
1477:
1475:
1470:
1468:
1464:
1454:
1449:
1447:
1441:
1439:
1435:
1431:
1427:
1418:
1414:
1413:
1412:
1410:
1406:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1387:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1375:
1371:
1361:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1321:
1311:
1307:
1305:
1301:
1300:Margaret Mead
1297:
1292:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1281:self-evidence
1278:
1274:
1270:
1264:
1259:
1250:
1248:
1241:
1236:
1234:
1233:
1228:
1227:Ruth Benedict
1224:
1222:
1218:
1211:
1206:
1204:
1198:
1193:
1188:
1183:
1181:
1177:
1176:
1170:
1168:
1158:
1154:
1152:
1146:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1135:William James
1132:
1128:
1124:
1119:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1105:in the words
1100:
1096:
1091:
1085:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1065:
1063:
1057:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1029:
1024:
1019:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
992:ethnocentrism
987:
982:
980:
976:
973:According to
966:
964:
962:
957:
953:
948:
946:
942:
938:
934:
930:
926:
918:
911:
906:
904:
900:
899:
894:
893:
888:
879:
877:
873:
869:
865:
859:
857:
853:
849:
848:
842:
840:
824:
821:
816:
813:
802:
797:
795:
790:
788:
783:
782:
780:
779:
772:
771:Organizations
769:
767:
764:
762:
759:
757:
754:
752:
749:
747:
744:
743:
737:
736:
729:
726:
724:
721:
719:
718:Structuralism
716:
714:
711:
709:
706:
704:
701:
699:
696:
694:
693:Functionalism
691:
689:
686:
684:
681:
679:
676:
674:
671:
669:
666:
664:
661:
659:
656:
654:
651:
649:
646:
645:
639:
638:
631:
627:
624:
622:
619:
617:
614:
612:
609:
607:
604:
602:
599:
597:
594:
592:
589:
585:
584:sociocultural
582:
581:
580:
577:
575:
572:
570:
567:
565:
562:
561:
555:
554:
547:
546:Emic and etic
544:
542:
541:Ethnocentrism
539:
537:
534:
532:
529:
527:
524:
522:
519:
517:
514:
512:
509:
507:
504:
500:
497:
496:
495:
492:
490:
489:Anthropometry
487:
486:
483:
478:
477:
470:
467:
465:
462:
460:
457:
455:
454:Ethnopoetical
452:
450:
447:
445:
442:
440:
437:
436:
433:
428:
427:
420:
417:
415:
412:
410:
409:Transpersonal
407:
405:
402:
400:
397:
395:
392:
390:
389:Psychological
387:
385:
382:
380:
377:
375:
372:
370:
367:
365:
362:
360:
357:
355:
352:
350:
349:Institutional
347:
345:
342:
340:
337:
335:
332:
330:
325:
323:
320:
318:
317:Environmental
315:
313:
310:
308:
305:
303:
300:
298:
295:
293:
290:
288:
285:
283:
280:
279:
273:
270:
268:
265:
264:
260:
259:
252:
249:
247:
244:
242:
239:
237:
234:
232:
229:
227:
224:
222:
219:
217:
214:
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2694:Culturomics
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1151:ethnography
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569:Development
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216:Biocultural
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3881:Relativism
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2622:Bioculture
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2305:52:780–91.
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1805:References
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1486:revolution
1357:horizontal
1221:psychology
1139:John Dewey
1127:Ernst Mach
996:Franz Boas
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3398:Religions
3071:Cultureme
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1969:Chicago:
1915:Routledge
1722:Emotivism
1685:anthrĹŤpos
1669:in 1984,
1646:Montaigne
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892:Histories
887:Herodotus
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