988:
28:
640:
749:(MLF). MLF was a concept promoted by the United States to place all NATO nuclear weapons not operated by their own services under joint control by American and European forces, with a dual-key arrangement. For the United States, the MLF was an attempt to balance the desire of other members of NATO to play a role in nuclear deterrence with their interest in bringing existing and potential Western nuclear arsenals under the umbrella of a more cohesive NATO alliance.
462:
897:
155:
862:
814:
805:, the Italian government argued that multilateral activity like the MLF was excluded from any agreement on non-proliferation, but found that the Soviet Union required that MLF be terminated as part of their negotiations on the Non-Proliferation Treaty, and the United States all but killed the agreement on 17 December 1964 with National Security Action Memorandum No. 322.
979:. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, programs and magazine articles on the dangers of nuclear war remained popular and the level of discussion on the issue increased. The creation of an Italian nuclear deterrent was not widely supported, and when new US weapons were deployed, the government kept them as quiet as possible to avoid unleashing a backlash.
1040:
The country has been an active participant in the program, for example, taking a lead in March 1979 in the deployment of what would become the BGM-109G ahead of the other NATO members. By the early 1980s several US nuclear weapons units were deployed in Italy in support of the
Italian Armed Forces,
1109:
against nuclear war on 27 September. The following month, between 200,000 and 300,000 people marched in Rome. The movement was politically broad, attracting mainly young people, and grew rapidly. The march on 22 October 1982 attracted between half a million and one million supporters. The movement
873:
called Alfa. Officially the project was termed as a development effort for a study on efficient solid-propellant rockets for civil and military applications. It was planned as a two-stage rocket and could be carried on submarines or ships. Ever since 27 March 1960, when
Admiral Pecori Geraldi had
908:
and a changing political climate meant that the project was doomed. In addition, there was an increasing risk of nuclear escalation outside Europe and domestic pressure for Italy to play its part in reducing the nuclear tension. These combined with pressure from the United States led to Italy
948:. While there was a strong awareness of the risk of nuclear war and a desire for disarmament, this was not widely articulated and public discourse was rare. The attitude towards the basing of nuclear weapons on Italian soil was generally on political lines, with followers of
793:
out of service and rebuilt the ship between 1957 and 1961 as a guided missile cruiser with launchers for four
Polaris missiles. The successful test of the missiles took place in September 1962. Shortly afterwards, in December 1962, Italian Minister of Defence
1125:
The United States Army removed their last nuclear weapons from Italy in 1992 when they withdrew the last Lance missile. However, for many people, this did not go far enough. In March 2008, 67,248 Italian citizens signed a petition to declare the country a
736:
that the United States would withdraw its missiles from Italy and Turkey in return for the Soviet Union withdrawing its missiles from Cuba. The decision was approved by the
Italian government and the missile brigade was deactivated on 1 April 1963.
874:
argued that a seaborne nuclear force was the most resistant to attack, the navy had looked for an opportunity to take on a nuclear role. Alfa was 6.5 metres (21 ft) long and had a diameter of 1.37 m (4 ft 6 in).
725:), which led the Italian government to believe it had greater control over the deterrent, and thus more power in NATO. The new missiles could be used "for the execution of NATO plans and policies in times of peace as well as war".
658:
missiles in
September 1955, In time of war, they were to be used to slow the advance of enemy forces attacking across the Austrian and Yugoslavian borders, providing the Italian Army with sufficient time for a full
752:
The program built on previous discussions between
European nations on a collaborative nuclear program. Italy, France and Germany had worked on a joint nuclear deterrent, but these were curtailed in 1958 by
877:
The first stage of the Alfa was 3.85 m (12.6 ft) long and contained 6 tonnes (5.9 long tons; 6.6 short tons) of solid rocket fuel. It supplied a thrust of 232 kilonewtons (52,000 lb
1090:
waged nuclear war against NATO. He acknowledged the presence of U.S. nuclear weapons in Italy, and speculated about the possible presence of
British and French nuclear weapons on Italian soil.
784:
and surface ships. The
Italian Navy proposed a nuclear powered submarine and a conversion of a cruiser. Announced in July 1959, the program paralleled similar work in the US. The Navy took the
999:
Since ratifying the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of
Nuclear Weapons and halting its own program, Italy has continued to host nuclear weapons on its soil. The country remained part of the
881:) for a duration of 57 seconds. It could carry a 1,000 kilograms (2,205 lb) warhead for a range of 1,600 kilometres (990 mi), placing European Russia and Moscow in range from the
2098:
Ciglioni, Laura (2017). "Italian Mass Media and the Atom in the 1960s: The Memory of
Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the Peaceful Atom (1963–1967)". In Bini, Elisabetta; Londero, Igor (eds.).
688:
saying on 29 November 1956 that the Italian government was trying to persuade their "Allies to remove the unjustified restrictions regarding the access of NATO countries to new weapons."
1808:
2060:
Bini, Elisabetta (2017). "Atoms for Peace (and War): US Forms of Influence on Italy's Civilian Nuclear Energy Programs (1946-1964)". In Bini, Elisabetta; Londero, Igor (eds.).
695:
put an additional impetus on Italy. Pressure was applied on the United States to provide additional nuclear weapons. On 26 March 1959, an agreement was signed under which the
825:
With the failure of its multilateral efforts, Italy looked again at creating an independent deterrent. Italy had experience with nuclear technology, with a well developed
971:, many of whom were not affiliated to the main political parties, collaborated in a series of publications and demonstrations. At the same time, Italian physicists like
2385:
Nuti, Leopoldo (2017). "A turning point in postwar foreign policy: Italy and the NPT negotiations 1967-1968". In Popp, Roland; Horovitz, Liviu; Wenger, Andreas (eds.).
1942:"Armi nucleari in Italia: dove, come, perché: Il Pentagono sta per investire 11 miliardi di dollari per ammodernare gli ordigni nucleari presenti in Europa e in Italia"
728:
The deployment did not last long, however, and, on 5 January 1963, the United States announced that they would withdraw the Jupiter missiles as a consequence of the
524:
had been at the forefront of the development of the technology behind nuclear weapons, but the country was banned from developing the technology at the end of the
1822:
448:
491:
910:
801:
The Italian government saw the growth of the movement to halt the proliferation of nuclear weapons as a major challenge to its nuclear program. At the
1745:
Tasked to support and deploy the nuclear warheads assigned to the Lance and heavy conventional artillery battalions of the Italian 3rd Missile Brigade
1687:
2463:
2145:
Evangelista, Matthew (2011). "Atomic Ambivalence: Italy's Evolving Attitude to Nuclear Weapons". In Giacomello, Giampiero; Verbeek, Bertjan (eds.).
1782:
627:, Italy created a political strategy that relied on multilateralism, principally through a close relationship with the United States, membership of
976:
678:
warheads in 1960. However, these were not Italian weapons; the United States Army maintained ownership, custody and control of all these systems.
885:. After the first stage motor was fired eleven times in static tests, three test missiles with inert second stages were successfully launched at
2281:
Moro, Renato (2017). "Against the Euromissiles: Anti-nuclear Movements in 1980s Italy (1979–1984)". In Bini, Elisabetta; Londero, Igor (eds.).
392:
193:
2300:
Nation, R. Craig (2011). "Intra-Alliance Politics: Italian-American Relations 1946-2010". In Giacomello, Giampiero; Verbeek, Bertjan (eds.).
397:
444:
352:
347:
692:
372:
357:
317:
307:
302:
1914:
402:
1980:
788:
539:
484:
217:
212:
2338:
Nuti, Leopoldo (1992). "Italy and the Nuclear Choices of the Atlantic Alliance, 1955–63". In Beatrice Heuser; Brian Thomas (eds.).
802:
327:
312:
227:
2433:
Priest, Andrew (2011). "The President, the 'Theologians' and the Europeans: The Johnson Administration and NATO Nuclear Sharing".
1011:
387:
332:
297:
252:
207:
202:
2527:
Widén, J.J.; Colman, Jonathan (2007). "Lyndon B. Johnson, Alec Douglas-Home, Europe and the NATO Multilateral Force, 1963-64".
944:
In the 1950s, the Italian population was generally considered ignorant on matters of the high politics of the recently emerged
382:
367:
337:
322:
292:
272:
247:
232:
222:
987:
2517:
2394:
2366:
2347:
2328:
2309:
2290:
2201:
2173:
2154:
2126:
2107:
2088:
2069:
1166:
1094:
1034:
1030:
845:, Center for Military Applications of Nuclear Energy). It also had a large number of nuclear capable aircraft, including the
377:
287:
282:
257:
242:
237:
2357:
Nuti, Leopoldo (2001). "Italian Foreign Policy in the Cold War: A Constant Search for Status". In Carbonne, Maurizio (ed.).
2576:
703:
477:
465:
267:
262:
27:
2571:
1826:
1093:
During the 1980s, however, there was an increasing popular movement against nuclear weaponry. At the same time as the
2566:
1178:
933:
341:
1336:
620:
126:
762:
631:
and greater European integration, for its defence. A similar attitude was taken for its nuclear weapons program.
623:
banned the country from developing its own nuclear weapons. In the new geopolitical situation of the emerging
2464:"Explaining How Political Culture Changes: Catholic activism and the secular left in Italian peace movements"
758:
418:
535:
Allies in the 1950s and 1960s, Italy launched a national nuclear weapons program. The country converted the
769:
between the United States and the United Kingdom, and the attempted accession of the United Kingdom to the
975:
spoke out against the use of nuclear research in war, particularly through multinational action like the
949:
770:
682:
428:
2404:
Nuti, Leopoldo (2016). "Extended Deterrence and National Ambitions: Italy's Nuclear Policy, 1955–1962".
713:
The first missiles arrived on 1 April 1960. This time missiles were operated by an Italian brigade, the
1018:
846:
664:
146:
1177:
of 6Âş Stormo Alfredo Fusco that are based at Ghedi. The Tornado fleet will potentially be replaced by
2302:
Italy's Foreign Policy in the Twenty-first Century: The New Assertiveness of an Aspiring Middle Power
2147:
Italy's Foreign Policy in the Twenty-first Century: The New Assertiveness of an Aspiring Middle Power
2047:
Alegy, Gregory (2006). "Il PISQ e il rilancio della tecnologia aerospaziale nel secondo dopoguerra".
838:
1941:
1763:
Tasked to support and deploy nuclear warheads assigned to other artillery units of the Italian Army
1115:
714:
707:
553:
798:
officially asked the United States for assistance in developing nuclear propulsion for its fleet.
964:
953:
1772:
Tasked to support the nuclear warheads assigned to the Italian Air Force 6th Fighter-Bomber Wing
1190:
671:
1736:"Quello che i russi giĂ sanno e gli italiani non devono sapere", IRDISP, Rome 1983, pages 6-11
745:
In the meantime, Italy explored working develop a European nuclear force within the NATO, the
1022:
925:
830:
612:
was particularly keen to acquire nuclear weapons, seeing them primarily in a tactical role.
423:
2224:
1984:
729:
685:
668:
605:
184:
556:. Currently, Italy does not produce or possess nuclear weapons but takes part in the NATO
8:
1809:"Anche l'Italia coinvolta nel riarmo nucleare da noi settanta testate - la Repubblica.it"
960:
841:
technologies, as well as the 5MW RTS-1 'Galileo Galilei' test reactor at CAMEN (Italian:
581:
2228:
2544:
2496:
2450:
2421:
2283:
Nuclear Italy: An International History of Italian Nuclear Policies during the Cold War
2242:
2100:
Nuclear Italy: An International History of Italian Nuclear Policies during the Cold War
2062:
Nuclear Italy: An International History of Italian Nuclear Policies during the Cold War
1147:
1131:
1111:
1007:
746:
2548:
2513:
2454:
2425:
2390:
2362:
2343:
2324:
2305:
2286:
2246:
2197:
2169:
2150:
2122:
2103:
2084:
2065:
1382:
La 36ÂŞ Aerobrigata Interdizione Strategica: il contributo Italiano alla guerra fredda
1170:
1127:
1071:
1067:
929:
870:
754:
696:
651:
593:
545:
2500:
2536:
2486:
2478:
2442:
2413:
2267:
2232:
1154:
1143:
1063:
992:
795:
766:
681:
For Italy, this was insufficient. The country argued for greater involvement, with
561:
169:
2417:
2272:
2255:
776:
Under the MLF, the United States proposed that various NATO countries operate the
2446:
1754:
Tasked to support and deploy Atomic Demolition Munitions along the Italian border
1174:
1158:
1139:
1003:
886:
850:
589:
565:
557:
174:
1536:
615:
The Army was confronted with defending mountain passes, which would channel any
1162:
1079:
991:
The Italian Air Force flies the F-35 which is expected to be able to carry the
972:
777:
700:
655:
643:
597:
569:
521:
513:
362:
179:
108:
2540:
2482:
2387:
Negotiating the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty: Origins of the Nuclear Order
2560:
2319:
Nichols, Thomas M.; Stuart, Douglas T.; McCausland, Jeffrey D., eds. (2012).
2237:
2212:
1135:
1119:
921:
917:
826:
818:
785:
549:
536:
2359:
Italy in the Post-Cold War Order: Adaptation, Bipartisanship and Visibility
1181:, which is expected to be certified nuclear-capable with the B-61 by 2026.
1015:
905:
882:
733:
660:
639:
609:
601:
585:
525:
517:
757:'s desire for an independent French deterrent. The MLF was pursued by the
1340:
1087:
616:
619:
advance, and therefore made ideal targets for nuclear weapons. However,
2166:
Tactical Nuclear Weapons and Euro-Atlantic Security: The Future of NATO
945:
900:
The technological heritage of Alfa is today in the current Vega rocket.
650:
The first nuclear weapons deployed on Italian soil were two battalions
2491:
2011:
896:
2340:
Securing Peace in Europe, 1945–62: Thoughts for the Post-Cold War Era
1098:
967:, emerged in the mid-1950s. A combination of Christian pacifists and
920:
is today in light solid-propellant space launchers, like the current
781:
2510:
Spaceplane HERMES: Europe's Dream of Independent Manned Spaceflight
1075:
890:
718:
624:
2182:
1542:
1070:
could use these weapons in case of war: in 2005, former president
924:
rocket. In more recent years, the country, working as part of the
531:
After abortive proposals to establish a multilateral program with
1102:
1083:
968:
869:
In 1971, the Italian Navy began an indigenous program to develop
1915:"Gli Usa testano la nuova bomba nucleare che giungerĂ in Italia"
154:
1960:
1106:
861:
834:
813:
2140:. Stockholm: Stockholm International Peace Research Institute.
2023:
1607:
1458:
1403:
516:
in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Italian scientists such as
2285:. Trieste: Edizioni Università di Trieste. pp. 199–211.
2102:. Trieste: Edizioni Università di Trieste. pp. 165–179.
1514:
1512:
1130:. In June, senior politicians across the political spectrum,
509:
19:
1078:
Italy's role in a planned retaliation consisted in striking
2164:
Fadorini, Paolo (2013). "Italy". In Fadorini, Paolo (ed.).
2064:. Trieste: Edizioni Università di Trieste. pp. 23–40.
1422:
Gianvanni, Paolo (2000). "Un ricordo della guerra fredda".
1000:
628:
552:. The program ended in 1975 upon Italy's accession to the
532:
1894:
1882:
1688:"Gli Usa mettono il segreto sulle armi atomiche in Italia"
1667:
1595:
1509:
1446:
1384:(in Italian). Rome: Aeronautica Militare, Ufficio Storico.
1157:
mod 3, mod 4 and mod 7 stored in two locations, 50 at the
663:. They were supported by other nuclear weapons, including
2138:
United States Military Forces and Installations in Europe
1853:
OSS, CIA, GLADIO, i Rapporti Segreti tra America e Italia
1631:
1562:
Il potere nucleare delle Forze Armate Italiane, 1954-1992
1054:
69th Ordnance Company, Special Ammunition, Direct Support
1026:
956:
being against. The position of the other parties varied,
909:
abandoning its nuclear weapons program and ratifying the
904:
However, the combination of high costs of over 6 billion
675:
1110:
received another boost in 1987 when, in the wake of the
2318:
2017:
1655:
1619:
1220:
1208:
939:
1983:. Air Force Historical Research Agency. Archived from
1499:
1497:
1360:
1358:
1066:
were also stationed in Italy. It is believed that the
982:
765:
administrations, and formed a fundamental part of the
1999:
1524:
1434:
1393:
1391:
1295:
1283:
1568:
1482:
1261:
1259:
1870:
1858:
1643:
1494:
1470:
1355:
691:The decision by Switzerland on 23 December 1958 to
2376:Nuti, Leopoldo (2011). "Italy's Nuclear Choices".
2342:. New York: St. Martin's Press. pp. 222–245.
1718:
1706:
1388:
1307:
1271:
1232:
911:Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons
717:, and the Americans provided the warheads under a
588:, had been at the forefront of the development of
2119:Italy in Space: In Search of a Strategy 1957-1975
1823:"Cossiga: "In Italia ci sono bombe atomiche Usa""
1256:
1244:
1051:62nd Engineer Atomic Demolition Munitions Company
2558:
2253:
2210:
2029:
1966:
977:Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs
2507:
2254:Kristensen, Hans M.; Norris, Robert S. (2020).
2211:Kristensen, Hans M.; Norris, Robert S. (2015).
2117:De Maria, Michelangelo; Orlando, Lucia (2008).
2116:
1613:
1564:(in Italian). Milan: Greco & Greco editori.
1409:
1150:, signed a statement in favour of disarmament.
2196:. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press.
2187:. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency.
2149:. Lanham: Lexington Books. pp. 115–134.
1972:
1555:
1553:
1551:
1375:
1373:
843:Centro Applicazioni Militari Energia Nucleare
592:. Indeed, some, like Fermi, took part in the
485:
2185:Power and Research Reactors in Member States
1059:US Air Force 183rd Munition Support Squadron
2526:
2304:. Lanham: Lexington Books. pp. 29–54.
2183:International Atomic Energy Agency (1971).
2144:
1900:
1888:
1673:
1601:
1518:
1464:
1452:
1339:. Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from
1330:
1328:
1326:
1324:
1322:
865:Italian Alfa missile side and cutaway views
808:
2461:
2078:
1939:
1637:
1548:
1370:
1226:
1214:
1048:28th Field Artillery Warhead Support Group
492:
478:
153:
2490:
2323:. Carlisle: Strategic Studies Institute.
2271:
2236:
1978:
1421:
1153:As of 2015, there were between 70 and 90
780:IRBM on seaborne platforms, both nuclear
634:
2163:
2097:
1661:
1625:
1587:Castro, Luciano (1982). "Dossier Alfa".
1319:
1301:
1289:
986:
895:
860:
812:
803:Eighteen Nation Committee on Disarmament
638:
2389:. New York: Routledge. pp. 77–96.
2191:
2005:
1685:
1679:
1543:International Atomic Energy Agency 1971
1379:
1012:BGM-109G Ground Launched Cruise Missile
608:wished to have nuclear capability. The
2559:
2462:Tosi, Simone; Vitale, Tommaso (2009).
2432:
2299:
1979:Robertson, Patsy (22 September 2008).
1906:
1586:
1559:
1530:
1488:
1440:
1167:General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcons
1101:, England, 60,000 people marched from
2168:. London: Routledge. pp. 61–74.
2046:
2018:Nichols, Stuart & McCausland 2012
1940:Tirinnanzi, Luciano (23 April 2013).
1912:
1825:(in Italian). Tiscali. Archived from
1574:
1173:that are based at Aviano and Italian
1118:demonstrated popular opinion against
1033:artillery shells. The Italian Army's
952:being positive and supporters of the
740:
704:intermediate range ballistic missiles
2403:
2384:
2375:
2356:
2337:
2280:
2135:
2059:
1876:
1864:
1724:
1712:
1649:
1503:
1476:
1397:
1364:
1334:
1313:
1277:
1265:
1250:
1238:
940:Popular attitudes to nuclear weapons
2194:Disarmament under International Law
1981:"Factsheet 31 Fighter Wing (USAFE)"
1037:was trained to use the munitions.
983:Nuclear weapons in Italy since 1975
13:
1686:Maurizi, Stefania (20 July 2017).
1095:Greenham Common Women's Peace Camp
14:
2588:
2321:Tactical Nuclear Weapons and NATO
2260:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
2217:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
2081:Enrico Fermi: The Obedient Genius
1783:"In Italia 90 bombe atomiche Usa"
1179:Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II
1006:program and has been used by the
2529:Journal of Transatlantic Studies
2435:The International History Review
1913:Iacch, Franco (30 August 2017).
1165:. They can be delivered by USAF
932:and landing of a capsule called
693:pursue a nuclear weapons program
580:Italian physicists, such as the
461:
460:
138:Nuclear weapons program of Italy
107:Cumulative strategic arsenal in
26:
2039:
1933:
1841:
1815:
1801:
1789:(in Italian). 15 September 2007
1775:
1766:
1757:
1748:
1739:
1730:
1580:
1415:
506:Italian nuclear weapons program
51:First thermonuclear weapon test
1045:599th US Army Artillery Group
1035:3rd Missile Brigade "Aquileia"
916:The technological heritage of
732:, under an agreement with the
596:and the creation of the first
1:
2508:van den Abeelen, Luc (2017).
2418:10.1080/01402390.2016.1168015
2273:10.1080/00963402.2019.1701286
2079:Bruzzaniti, Giuseppe (2016).
1196:
853:with nuclear strike in mind.
604:. At the end of the war, the
575:
2447:10.1080/07075332.2011.555437
2406:Journal of Strategic Studies
2030:Kristensen & Norris 2020
1967:Kristensen & Norris 2015
1849:Blu notte - Misteri italiani
1201:
1010:for their deployment of the
893:, the last on 6 April 1976.
7:
2577:Nuclear technology in Italy
2361:. Lanham: Lexington Books.
1410:De Maria & Orlando 2008
1184:
1161:, and from 20 to 40 at the
771:European Economic Community
667:. They were followed by 90
665:Atomic demolition munitions
544:and developed and tested a
147:Weapons of mass destruction
10:
2593:
1847:Interview with Cossiga on
1424:JP4 Mensile di Aeronautica
1019:tactical ballistic missile
847:Lockheed F-104 Starfighter
38:Late 1960s (ended in 1975)
35:Nuclear program start date
2572:Military history of Italy
2541:10.1080/14794019908656863
2483:10.1080/14742830902770282
2256:"US nuclear forces, 2020"
2213:"US nuclear forces, 2015"
1560:Meleca, Vincenzo (2015).
1380:Mariani, Antonio (2012).
849:, and was developing the
125:
117:
106:
99:Current strategic arsenal
98:
90:
82:
74:
66:
58:
50:
43:First nuclear weapon test
42:
34:
25:
18:
2567:Nuclear weapons programs
2378:UNISCI Discussion Papers
2238:10.1177/0096340215571913
809:Italy's domestic program
708:Gioia del Colle Air Base
706:(IRBMs) to operate from
554:Non-Proliferation Treaty
2471:Social Movement Studies
1465:Widén & Colman 2007
1074:stated that during the
965:nuclear weapons testing
959:A broader movement for
954:Italian Communist Party
928:, has demonstrated the
856:
672:surface-to-air missiles
2192:Kierulf, John (2017).
1638:Tosi & Vitale 2009
1191:Nuclear power in Italy
996:
901:
866:
842:
822:
722:
721:arrangement (Italian:
647:
635:Initial US deployments
2121:. Paris: Beauchesne.
2083:. Basel: Birkhäuser.
990:
926:European Space Agency
899:
864:
816:
642:
118:Maximum missile range
2136:Duke, Simon (1989).
1829:on 28 September 2015
1614:van den Abeelen 2017
1097:was being set up in
730:Cuban Missile Crisis
686:Paolo Emilio Taviani
669:MIM-14 Nike Hercules
606:Italian Armed Forces
2229:2015BuAtS..71b.107K
2049:Rivista Aeronautica
1987:on 31 December 2013
1467:, pp. 181–186.
1335:Wade, Mark (2017).
961:nuclear disarmament
950:Christian Democracy
683:Minister of Defence
582:Via Panisperna boys
2512:. Cham: Springer.
1148:Francesco Calogero
1112:Chernobyl disaster
1008:United States Army
997:
902:
871:ballistic missiles
867:
823:
790:Giuseppe Garibaldi
747:Multilateral Force
741:Multilateral Force
648:
541:Giuseppe Garibaldi
67:Largest yield test
2519:978-3-31944-470-3
2396:978-1-13869-017-2
2368:978-0-73913-711-6
2349:978-0-33355-002-1
2330:978-1-28822-829-4
2311:978-0-73914-868-6
2292:978-88-8303-812-9
2203:978-0-77354-822-0
2175:978-0-41563-534-9
2156:978-0-73914-868-6
2128:978-2-70101-518-7
2109:978-88-8303-812-9
2090:978-1-493-93533-8
2071:978-88-8303-812-9
1171:31st Fighter Wing
1155:B61 nuclear bombs
1128:nuclear-free zone
1072:Francesco Cossiga
1068:Italian Air Force
1064:B61 nuclear bombs
755:Charles de Gaulle
697:Italian Air Force
652:MGR-1 Honest John
621:1947 Peace Treaty
594:Manhattan Project
562:B61 nuclear bombs
560:program, hosting
546:ballistic missile
508:was an effort by
502:
501:
136:
135:
91:Current stockpile
59:Last nuclear test
2584:
2552:
2523:
2504:
2494:
2468:
2458:
2429:
2400:
2381:
2372:
2353:
2334:
2315:
2296:
2277:
2275:
2250:
2240:
2207:
2188:
2179:
2160:
2141:
2132:
2113:
2094:
2075:
2056:
2033:
2027:
2021:
2015:
2009:
2003:
1997:
1996:
1994:
1992:
1976:
1970:
1964:
1958:
1957:
1955:
1953:
1937:
1931:
1930:
1928:
1926:
1910:
1904:
1901:Evangelista 2011
1898:
1892:
1889:Evangelista 2011
1886:
1880:
1874:
1868:
1862:
1856:
1845:
1839:
1838:
1836:
1834:
1819:
1813:
1812:
1805:
1799:
1798:
1796:
1794:
1779:
1773:
1770:
1764:
1761:
1755:
1752:
1746:
1743:
1737:
1734:
1728:
1722:
1716:
1710:
1704:
1703:
1701:
1699:
1683:
1677:
1674:Evangelista 2011
1671:
1665:
1659:
1653:
1647:
1641:
1635:
1629:
1623:
1617:
1611:
1605:
1602:Evangelista 2011
1599:
1593:
1592:
1584:
1578:
1572:
1566:
1565:
1557:
1546:
1540:
1534:
1528:
1522:
1519:Evangelista 2011
1516:
1507:
1501:
1492:
1486:
1480:
1474:
1468:
1462:
1456:
1453:Evangelista 2011
1450:
1444:
1438:
1432:
1431:
1419:
1413:
1407:
1401:
1395:
1386:
1385:
1377:
1368:
1362:
1353:
1352:
1350:
1348:
1332:
1317:
1311:
1305:
1299:
1293:
1287:
1281:
1275:
1269:
1263:
1254:
1248:
1242:
1236:
1230:
1224:
1218:
1212:
1175:Panavia Tornados
1144:Giorgio La Malfa
993:B61 nuclear bomb
796:Giulio Andreotti
767:Nassau Agreement
646:deployment sites
602:Second World War
526:Second World War
494:
487:
480:
464:
463:
445:List of treaties
157:
143:
142:
30:
20:Italian Republic
16:
15:
2592:
2591:
2587:
2586:
2585:
2583:
2582:
2581:
2557:
2556:
2555:
2520:
2466:
2397:
2369:
2350:
2331:
2312:
2293:
2204:
2176:
2157:
2129:
2110:
2091:
2072:
2042:
2037:
2036:
2028:
2024:
2016:
2012:
2004:
2000:
1990:
1988:
1977:
1973:
1965:
1961:
1951:
1949:
1938:
1934:
1924:
1922:
1911:
1907:
1899:
1895:
1887:
1883:
1875:
1871:
1863:
1859:
1846:
1842:
1832:
1830:
1821:
1820:
1816:
1807:
1806:
1802:
1792:
1790:
1781:
1780:
1776:
1771:
1767:
1762:
1758:
1753:
1749:
1744:
1740:
1735:
1731:
1723:
1719:
1711:
1707:
1697:
1695:
1684:
1680:
1672:
1668:
1660:
1656:
1648:
1644:
1636:
1632:
1624:
1620:
1612:
1608:
1600:
1596:
1585:
1581:
1573:
1569:
1558:
1549:
1541:
1537:
1529:
1525:
1517:
1510:
1502:
1495:
1487:
1483:
1475:
1471:
1463:
1459:
1451:
1447:
1439:
1435:
1420:
1416:
1408:
1404:
1396:
1389:
1378:
1371:
1363:
1356:
1346:
1344:
1343:on 18 July 2016
1333:
1320:
1312:
1308:
1300:
1296:
1288:
1284:
1276:
1272:
1264:
1257:
1249:
1245:
1241:, pp. 225.
1237:
1233:
1227:Bruzzaniti 2016
1225:
1221:
1215:Bruzzaniti 2016
1213:
1209:
1204:
1199:
1187:
1159:Aviano Air Base
1140:Gianfranco Fini
1132:Massimo D'Alema
1004:nuclear sharing
985:
942:
913:on 2 May 1975.
887:Salto di Quirra
880:
859:
851:Panavia Tornado
817:Test launch of
811:
773:(EEC) in 1961.
743:
715:36ÂŞ Aerobrigata
637:
590:nuclear physics
578:
570:Ghedi Air Bases
558:nuclear sharing
514:nuclear weapons
498:
139:
12:
11:
5:
2590:
2580:
2579:
2574:
2569:
2554:
2553:
2535:(2): 179–198.
2524:
2518:
2505:
2477:(2): 131–147.
2459:
2441:(2): 257–275.
2430:
2412:(4): 559–579.
2401:
2395:
2382:
2380:(25): 167–181.
2373:
2367:
2354:
2348:
2335:
2329:
2316:
2310:
2297:
2291:
2278:
2251:
2223:(2): 107–119.
2208:
2202:
2189:
2180:
2174:
2161:
2155:
2142:
2133:
2127:
2114:
2108:
2095:
2089:
2076:
2070:
2057:
2051:(in Italian).
2043:
2041:
2038:
2035:
2034:
2022:
2020:, p. 341.
2010:
1998:
1971:
1969:, p. 118.
1959:
1932:
1905:
1903:, p. 130.
1893:
1891:, p. 129.
1881:
1879:, p. 208.
1869:
1867:, p. 202.
1857:
1840:
1814:
1800:
1774:
1765:
1756:
1747:
1738:
1729:
1717:
1705:
1678:
1676:, p. 120.
1666:
1664:, p. 167.
1654:
1652:, p. 171.
1642:
1640:, p. 134.
1630:
1628:, p. 165.
1618:
1616:, p. 388.
1606:
1604:, p. 125.
1594:
1579:
1577:, p. 102.
1567:
1547:
1535:
1533:, p. 266.
1523:
1521:, p. 122.
1508:
1506:, p. 234.
1493:
1481:
1479:, p. 568.
1469:
1457:
1455:, p. 124.
1445:
1443:, p. 259.
1433:
1426:(in Italian).
1414:
1412:, p. 253.
1402:
1387:
1369:
1367:, p. 231.
1354:
1318:
1316:, p. 229.
1306:
1294:
1282:
1280:, p. 226.
1270:
1255:
1243:
1231:
1219:
1206:
1205:
1203:
1200:
1198:
1195:
1194:
1193:
1186:
1183:
1163:Ghedi Air Base
1114:, a series of
1080:Czechoslovakia
1061:
1060:
1057:
1056:
1055:
1052:
1049:
984:
981:
973:Edoardo Amaldi
963:, and against
941:
938:
878:
858:
855:
829:industry with
810:
807:
778:UGM-27 Polaris
742:
739:
701:PGM-19 Jupiter
656:MGM-5 Corporal
636:
633:
598:nuclear weapon
577:
574:
522:Edoardo Amaldi
500:
499:
497:
496:
489:
482:
474:
471:
470:
469:
468:
455:
454:
453:
452:
449:treaty parties
439:
438:
434:
433:
432:
431:
426:
421:
413:
412:
408:
407:
406:
405:
400:
395:
393:United Kingdom
390:
385:
380:
375:
370:
365:
360:
355:
350:
345:
335:
330:
325:
320:
315:
310:
305:
300:
295:
290:
285:
280:
275:
270:
265:
260:
255:
250:
245:
240:
235:
230:
225:
220:
215:
210:
205:
197:
196:
190:
189:
188:
187:
182:
177:
172:
164:
163:
159:
158:
150:
149:
137:
134:
133:
130:
123:
122:
119:
115:
114:
111:
104:
103:
100:
96:
95:
92:
88:
87:
84:
83:Peak stockpile
80:
79:
76:
72:
71:
68:
64:
63:
60:
56:
55:
52:
48:
47:
44:
40:
39:
36:
32:
31:
23:
22:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2589:
2578:
2575:
2573:
2570:
2568:
2565:
2564:
2562:
2550:
2546:
2542:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2525:
2521:
2515:
2511:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2493:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2465:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2448:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2407:
2402:
2398:
2392:
2388:
2383:
2379:
2374:
2370:
2364:
2360:
2355:
2351:
2345:
2341:
2336:
2332:
2326:
2322:
2317:
2313:
2307:
2303:
2298:
2294:
2288:
2284:
2279:
2274:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2239:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2214:
2209:
2205:
2199:
2195:
2190:
2186:
2181:
2177:
2171:
2167:
2162:
2158:
2152:
2148:
2143:
2139:
2134:
2130:
2124:
2120:
2115:
2111:
2105:
2101:
2096:
2092:
2086:
2082:
2077:
2073:
2067:
2063:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2045:
2044:
2032:, p. 56.
2031:
2026:
2019:
2014:
2008:, p. 64.
2007:
2002:
1986:
1982:
1975:
1968:
1963:
1947:
1943:
1936:
1920:
1916:
1909:
1902:
1897:
1890:
1885:
1878:
1873:
1866:
1861:
1854:
1850:
1844:
1828:
1824:
1818:
1810:
1804:
1788:
1784:
1778:
1769:
1760:
1751:
1742:
1733:
1727:, p. 40.
1726:
1721:
1715:, p. 88.
1714:
1709:
1693:
1692:La Repubblica
1689:
1682:
1675:
1670:
1663:
1662:Ciglioni 2017
1658:
1651:
1646:
1639:
1634:
1627:
1626:Ciglioni 2017
1622:
1615:
1610:
1603:
1598:
1590:
1583:
1576:
1571:
1563:
1556:
1554:
1552:
1545:, p. 43.
1544:
1539:
1532:
1527:
1520:
1515:
1513:
1505:
1500:
1498:
1491:, p. 37.
1490:
1485:
1478:
1473:
1466:
1461:
1454:
1449:
1442:
1437:
1429:
1425:
1418:
1411:
1406:
1400:, p. 79.
1399:
1394:
1392:
1383:
1376:
1374:
1366:
1361:
1359:
1342:
1338:
1331:
1329:
1327:
1325:
1323:
1315:
1310:
1304:, p. 62.
1303:
1302:Fadorini 2013
1298:
1292:, p. 63.
1291:
1290:Fadorini 2013
1286:
1279:
1274:
1268:, p. 78.
1267:
1262:
1260:
1253:, p. 25.
1252:
1247:
1240:
1235:
1229:, p. 29.
1228:
1223:
1217:, p. 11.
1216:
1211:
1207:
1192:
1189:
1188:
1182:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1151:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1136:Arturo Parisi
1133:
1129:
1123:
1121:
1120:nuclear power
1117:
1113:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1091:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1058:
1053:
1050:
1047:
1046:
1044:
1043:
1042:
1038:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1002:
994:
989:
980:
978:
974:
970:
966:
962:
957:
955:
951:
947:
937:
935:
931:
927:
923:
919:
914:
912:
907:
898:
894:
892:
888:
884:
875:
872:
863:
854:
852:
848:
844:
840:
836:
832:
828:
827:nuclear power
820:
815:
806:
804:
799:
797:
792:
791:
787:
786:light cruiser
783:
779:
774:
772:
768:
764:
760:
756:
750:
748:
738:
735:
731:
726:
724:
723:doppia chiave
720:
716:
711:
709:
705:
702:
698:
694:
689:
687:
684:
679:
677:
673:
670:
666:
662:
657:
653:
645:
641:
632:
630:
626:
622:
618:
613:
611:
607:
603:
599:
595:
591:
587:
583:
573:
571:
567:
563:
559:
555:
551:
547:
543:
542:
538:
537:light cruiser
534:
529:
527:
523:
519:
515:
511:
507:
495:
490:
488:
483:
481:
476:
475:
473:
472:
467:
459:
458:
457:
456:
450:
446:
443:
442:
441:
440:
436:
435:
430:
427:
425:
422:
420:
417:
416:
415:
414:
411:Proliferation
410:
409:
404:
401:
399:
398:United States
396:
394:
391:
389:
386:
384:
381:
379:
376:
374:
371:
369:
366:
364:
361:
359:
356:
354:
351:
349:
346:
343:
339:
336:
334:
331:
329:
326:
324:
321:
319:
316:
314:
311:
309:
306:
304:
301:
299:
296:
294:
291:
289:
286:
284:
281:
279:
276:
274:
271:
269:
266:
264:
261:
259:
256:
254:
251:
249:
246:
244:
241:
239:
236:
234:
231:
229:
226:
224:
221:
219:
216:
214:
211:
209:
206:
204:
201:
200:
199:
198:
195:
192:
191:
186:
183:
181:
178:
176:
173:
171:
168:
167:
166:
165:
161:
160:
156:
152:
151:
148:
145:
144:
141:
131:
128:
124:
120:
116:
112:
110:
105:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
24:
21:
17:
2532:
2528:
2509:
2474:
2470:
2438:
2434:
2409:
2405:
2386:
2377:
2358:
2339:
2320:
2301:
2282:
2266:(1): 46–60.
2263:
2259:
2220:
2216:
2193:
2184:
2165:
2146:
2137:
2118:
2099:
2080:
2061:
2052:
2048:
2040:Bibliography
2025:
2013:
2006:Kierulf 2017
2001:
1989:. Retrieved
1985:the original
1974:
1962:
1950:. Retrieved
1948:(in Italian)
1945:
1935:
1923:. Retrieved
1921:(in Italian)
1918:
1908:
1896:
1884:
1872:
1860:
1852:
1848:
1843:
1833:18 September
1831:. Retrieved
1827:the original
1817:
1803:
1791:. Retrieved
1786:
1777:
1768:
1759:
1750:
1741:
1732:
1720:
1708:
1696:. Retrieved
1694:(in Italian)
1691:
1681:
1669:
1657:
1645:
1633:
1621:
1609:
1597:
1588:
1582:
1570:
1561:
1538:
1526:
1484:
1472:
1460:
1448:
1436:
1427:
1423:
1417:
1405:
1381:
1345:. Retrieved
1341:the original
1309:
1297:
1285:
1273:
1246:
1234:
1222:
1210:
1152:
1124:
1092:
1062:
1041:as follows:
1039:
1016:MGM-52 Lance
998:
958:
943:
915:
903:
883:Adriatic Sea
876:
868:
824:
800:
789:
775:
751:
744:
734:Soviet Union
727:
712:
699:received 30
690:
680:
661:mobilisation
649:
614:
610:Italian Army
586:Enrico Fermi
579:
540:
530:
518:Enrico Fermi
505:
503:
353:South Africa
348:Saudi Arabia
342:Soviet Union
277:
185:Radiological
140:
1946:panorama.it
1919:Il Giornale
1851:, episode "
1531:Priest 2011
1489:Nation 2011
1441:Priest 2011
1347:5 September
1116:referendums
1088:Warsaw Pact
617:Warsaw Pact
600:during the
512:to develop
373:Switzerland
358:South Korea
318:Philippines
308:North Korea
303:Netherlands
109:megatonnage
75:Total tests
2561:Categories
2492:10281/5107
2055:: 100–131.
1589:Aerospazio
1575:Alegy 2006
1197:References
946:Atomic Age
782:submarines
576:Background
403:Yugoslavia
194:By country
170:Biological
2549:143583954
2455:154156491
2426:156702914
2247:145260117
1991:14 August
1877:Moro 2017
1865:Moro 2017
1855:" in 2005
1787:La Stampa
1725:Nuti 2001
1713:Duke 1989
1650:Nuti 2011
1504:Nuti 1992
1477:Nuti 2016
1398:Nuti 2017
1365:Nuti 1992
1314:Nuti 1992
1278:Nuti 1992
1266:Nuti 2017
1251:Bini 2017
1239:Nuti 1992
1202:Citations
1099:Berkshire
218:Australia
213:Argentina
2501:51784018
1591:: 20–24.
1430:: 30–35.
1185:See also
1086:had the
1076:Cold War
995:by 2026.
969:marxists
891:Sardinia
719:dual key
625:Cold War
466:Category
437:Treaties
429:Missiles
419:Chemical
328:Rhodesia
313:Pakistan
228:Bulgaria
175:Chemical
2225:Bibcode
1103:Perugia
1084:Hungary
930:reentry
821:in 1975
763:Johnson
759:Kennedy
644:Jupiter
584:led by
564:at the
548:called
424:Nuclear
388:Ukraine
333:Romania
298:Myanmar
253:Germany
208:Algeria
203:Albania
180:Nuclear
162:By type
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1952:8 June
1925:8 June
1793:8 June
1698:8 June
1337:"Alfa"
1107:Assisi
837:, and
835:Magnox
566:Aviano
383:Taiwan
368:Sweden
338:Russia
323:Poland
293:Mexico
273:Israel
248:France
233:Canada
223:Brazil
2545:S2CID
2497:S2CID
2467:(PDF)
2451:S2CID
2422:S2CID
2243:S2CID
674:with
510:Italy
378:Syria
363:Spain
288:Libya
283:Japan
278:Italy
258:India
243:Egypt
238:China
129:party
2514:ISBN
2391:ISBN
2363:ISBN
2344:ISBN
2325:ISBN
2306:ISBN
2287:ISBN
2198:ISBN
2170:ISBN
2151:ISBN
2123:ISBN
2104:ISBN
2085:ISBN
2066:ISBN
1993:2017
1954:2018
1927:2018
1835:2015
1795:2018
1700:2018
1349:2017
1146:and
1082:and
1029:and
1021:and
1001:NATO
922:Vega
918:Alfa
906:lira
857:Alfa
819:Alfa
761:and
654:and
629:NATO
568:and
550:Alfa
533:NATO
520:and
504:The
268:Iraq
263:Iran
121:None
113:None
102:None
94:None
86:None
78:None
70:None
62:None
54:None
46:None
2537:doi
2487:hdl
2479:doi
2443:doi
2414:doi
2268:doi
2233:doi
2053:5/6
1169:of
1122:.
1105:to
1031:W79
1027:W48
1023:W33
934:IXV
889:in
839:PWR
831:BWR
710:.
676:W31
528:.
132:Yes
127:NPT
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