1471:, and therefore of limited military usefulness). Accordingly, CANDU reactors, like most power reactors in the world, are subject to safeguards under the United Nations which prevent possible diversion of plutonium. CANDU reactors are designed to be refuelled while running, which makes the details of such safeguards significantly different from other reactor designs. The end result, however, is a consistent and internationally accepted level of proliferation risk. The CANDU reactor was also proposed as a means of destroying surplus plutonium through using MOX fuel due to its capability of online fuel shuffling providing flexibility to deal with different reactor kinetics.
727:, the Canadian Minister of Munitions and Supply. This was the code name for the British Uranium Committee project which had worked on a theoretical design for an atomic bomb. One significant contribution was a calculation of the critical mass of uranium. The mass was less than earlier estimates and suggested that development of a fission bomb was practical. "Tube Alloys" was part of a shipment of the most secret scientific research in Great Britain that was sent to the United States for safekeeping when the threat of German invasion was significant. Materials included the
866:
1249:(NATO) strategic document, including those that implied a US strike-first policy. This may suggest that successive Canadian governments were willing to follow US and NATO doctrine even if said doctrine was counter to the publicly favoured (and politically supported) doctrine of Mutual Assured Destruction. Professors J.T. Jockel and J.J. Sokolsky explore this assertion in-depth in their article "Canada's Cold War Nuclear Experience". Furthermore, Canada allowed for forward deployment of US bombers and participated actively and extensively in the
854:
1185:(MAD) was in Canada's best interest. MAD was the Cold War doctrine which held that as long as both the US and USSR possessed significant nuclear arsenals, any nuclear war would assuredly destroy both nations, thereby discouraging either state from launching any nuclear offensive. For Canadians, MAD was appealing in this light, as Canada was unlikely to emerge from any nuclear exchange unscathed given its position between the two countries, considering that any weapons shot down or falling short were likely to fall on Canadian soil.
3031:
842:
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1200:"One of the most important changes in international affairs in recent years had been the increase in stability of nuclear deterrence, and the emergence of what is, in effect, nuclear parity between the United States and the Soviet Union. Each side now has sufficient nuclear strength to assure devastating retaliation in the event of a surprise attack by the other, and thus neither could rationally consider launching a deliberate attack."
24:
132:
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591:. The bombs were landed; crews relieved; aircraft refueled, or repaired; without returning to bases in the continental US. Nuclear weapons designs of the time were easily damaged but precise devices, that required off-aircraft inspection (after landing), and environmental sheltering (at a secure warm/dry location) while their carrier aircraft was on the ground for routine maintenance or repair.
510:
1055:
arrangement was called the NATO Quick
Reaction Alert Force. It provided a dispersed force upwards of 100 strike aircraft for use on short notice. Missions were targeted at troop concentrations, airfields, bridges, assembly and choke points and other tactical targets in order to slow the massive tank formations of the
993:) winter night when a group of protesters stood down from a vigil at the gates of the missile site. It was said they assumed that the RCAF would be unlikely to work on this traditional evening of celebration. The delivery was photographed by the press and this revealed to the world that the delivery had taken place.
1120:
acknowledged this reality citing that, "Soviet strategic planners must regard Canada and the United States as a single set of military targets no matter what political posture we might assume." This sums up Canada's Cold War predicament well, as Canada's geo-political relationship with the US meant
1208:
acknowledged that, "each superpower now has the capacity to obliterate the other,…the structure of mutual deterrence today is effective and stable. The
Government believes that it must remain so." Given the prospect of "incineration without representation", Canadians seemed to feel that the doctrine
1111:
Canada's Cold War military doctrine and fate was inextricably tied with that of the United States. The two nations shared responsibility for continental air defence through NORAD (North
American Air Defense Command) and both belonged to NATO and contributed forces in Europe. Should nuclear war with
805:
updated from the Second World War, the system has been computerized and automated with at least four new generations of technology being employed. It was clear, even in the early years of the Cold War, that on paper, Canada and the US were to be jointly responsible for the defence of the continent.
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While it has no more permanently stationed nuclear weapons as of 1984, Canada continues to cooperate with the United States and its nuclear weapons program. Canada allows testing of nuclear weapon delivery systems; nuclear weapon carrying vessels are permitted to visit
Canadian ports; and aircraft
1124:
The DEW Line and
Pinetree Line radar systems formed the backbone of continental air defense in the 1950s and 1960s. The most likely routes for Soviet aircraft attacking the United States came through Canada. In particular, the Eastern Seaboard of the United States would be approached through the
1054:
In practice, each of 36 NATO squadrons (initially six
Canadian squadrons Number 1 Air Division RCAF) would provide two aircraft and pilots to a Quick Reaction Alert facility. The 'Q' aircraft could be launched with an armed US nuclear weapon within 15 minutes of receiving the 'go' order. This
1266:", reflecting a contemporary disinclination towards nuclear weapons in Canada. Canada also remains under the NATO 'nuclear umbrella'; even after disarming itself in 1984, Canada has maintained support for nuclear armed nations as doing otherwise would be counter to Canadian NATO commitments.
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In total, there were between 250 and 450 nuclear warheads on
Canadian bases between 1963 and 1972. There were at most 108 Genie missiles armed with 1.5 kiloton W25 warheads present from 1963 to 1984. There may have been fewer due to attrition of CF-101s as the program aged and as incoming
611:
to ensure he would not, "find anything in these references contrary to any views may have expressed," although "references" may indicate quotes or glosses in the paper attributed to him, which they wished him to verify as authentic and correct, thus making the gesture a polite courtesy.
1232:"Canadians often think that their neighbour to the south exhibits wild swings of emotional attachments… with other countries; that it is impatient, is prone to making sweeping judgments, and generally lacks sophistication and subtlety in its approach to the Soviet bloc and the cold war."
1236:
However, if
Canadian leadership was nervous about US foreign policy, they did not voice their discontent through actions. Canada was consistently and significantly cooperative with the United States when it came to nuclear weapons doctrine and deployments through the Cold War.
1359:
research program in the early to middle part of the 20th century. Canadian research involved developing protections against biowarfare attacks and for offensive purposes, often with the help of the UK and the US. Canada has thus experimented with such things as weaponized
655:: Constitutionally, Canada was subject to the British declaration of war, as were other British Dominion countries. Canadian foreign policy became independent in December 1931 (save for the issues of Commonwealth/Dominion war and peace) with the passage of the
1330:
continued in Canada into the early 1970s. These tests left Canada with large stockpiles of chemical weapons. Canada eventually abandoned the use of lethal chemical weapons, and had to devote a great deal of effort to safely destroying them. Since 1990, the
1172:
air refueling tankers. These were intended to top up the fuel tanks of the outbound B-52 strike force headed for targets in the USSR. They also supported the SAC Airborne Alert Force and would have refueled any surviving bombers returning from the USSR.
988:
never publicly admitted to the presence of nuclear weapons on
Canadian bases in Canada and Germany but their presence was common knowledge at the time. It is generally understood that the Bomarc missile warheads were delivered on this cold (-13 degrees
762:
which took over from Tube Alloys. Canada would continue to supply fissionable material to the US and other allies throughout the Cold War although Canada never developed indigenous nuclear weapons as did NATO allies France and the United
Kingdom.
1458:
reactor. Unlike most designs, the CANDU does not require enriched fuel, and in theory is therefore much less likely to lead to the development of weaponized missile fuel. However, like all power reactor designs, CANDU reactors produce and use
1102:
were reduced in number and reassigned to conventional ground attack at about the same time. From late in 1972, the CF-101 interceptor force remained as the only nuclear-armed system in Canadian use until it was replaced by the CF-18 in 1984.
1262:
carrying nuclear warheads are permitted to fly in Canadian airspace with the permission of the Canadian government. There is, however, popular objection to this federal policy. Over 60% of Canadians live in cities or areas designated "
1257:
in hosting nuclear related facilities. In short, the Canadian Government was thoroughly committed to supporting US nuclear doctrine and deployments through the Cold War, in spite of any popular reservations concerning this dynamic.
1311:
1282:, Canada was a major producer and developer of chemical weapons for the Allied war effort. These were used in combat in World War I, but not in World War II. Human experimentation was carried out during World War II, with
1428:. However, in recent years it has become less vocal on the issue of disarmament; the need for increased border defence, particularly in the Territories, has recently overshadowed other issues in military circles.
1314:
prohibited further marine dumping of UXOs, however the chemical weapons existing off the shores of Nova Scotia for over 60 years continue to bring concern to local communities and the fishing industry.
1121:
that Canada would inevitably be widely devastated by any US-Soviet nuclear exchange, whether it was targeted or not. It led to a familiar phrase of the time, "incineration without representation".
774:
at Goose Bay. These bombs would have been armed in wartime with materials brought from the United States. Goose Bay was used as a base for air refueling tankers which were to support the SAC
1298:, and other chemical agents, and some were permanently injured as a result. Following both world wars, Canadian military forces returning home were directed to dump millions of tons of
1335:
has conducted annual site visits and inspections to verify that all remaining military activities involving chemical warfare agents are defensive in nature. Canada ratified the
957:, surrounded by two barbed wire fences and several armed guard towers. Goose Air Base Weapons Storage Area was the only weapons storage area in Canada constructed to house the
635:
North American Warning Lines - Arrays of radar stations arranged east-west across the continent to provide to NORAD information in the case of incoming Soviet bombing sorties.
1467:
fission of plutonium created in the uranium fuel), and this plutonium could be used in a nuclear explosive if separated and converted to metallic form (albeit only as
1435:
devoted to pursuing these ends. It also dedicates significant resources in trying to verify that current treaties are being obeyed, passing much information on to the
903:
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is the leading research centre. Canada says it has destroyed all military stockpiles and no longer conducts toxin warfare research. As with chemical weapons, the
853:
520:
425:
41:
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In execution, Canadian investment in air defence has decreased significantly with the decline of the intercontinental strategic bomber threat. In the 1950s the
766:
After briefly allowing nuclear weapons to be temporarily stationed in Goose Bay, Labrador, Canada agreed to a long term lease of the Goose Bay base to the US
468:
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and were always under the direct supervision of a "Custodial Detachment" from the United States Air Force (or Army, in the case of Honest John warheads).
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to monitor adherence to such treaties, but these plans were shelved. A public furor arose in 1983, when the Canadian government approved a plan to test
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and elsewhere to verify that all remaining military activities involving biological warfare agents are purely defensive in nature. Canada ratified the
664:
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by 1970. Some of this is due to improved technology but more is due to the decline of the bomber threat and reductions in Canadian military spending.
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program; as well, Canada cooperated with the US when it came to research, early warning, surveillance and communications. Canada was second only to
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the USSR have broken out, Canada would have been in harm's way because of the geographic position between both the USSR and US. Prime Minister
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squadrons (about 90 aircraft) based with NATO in Europe (there is a lack of open sources detailing exactly how many warheads were deployed).
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This number decreased significantly through the years as various systems were withdrawn from service. The Honest John was retired by the
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801:. The Pinetree Line was built to control the air battle between the NORAD interceptor forces and manned Soviet bombers. Beginning with
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Canada hosted no intercontinental strategic bombers but the Strategic Air Command base at Goose Bay Labrador hosted a large number of
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From 1963 to 1984, Canada fielded a total of four tactical nuclear weapons systems which deployed several hundred nuclear warheads.
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601:, Canada was closely aligned with defensive elements of United States programs in both NORAD and NATO. In 1964, Canada sent its
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Through 1984, Canada would deploy four American designed nuclear weapons delivery systems accompanied by hundreds of warheads:
663:, a week later than Great Britain. Following the German declaration of war on the United States on December 11, 1941, the U.S.
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had a yield of 1.5 kilotons, and was designed to strike enemy aircraft as opposed to ground targets, and may not qualify as a
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2001:
1968:
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107:
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in their fuel rods during normal operation (roughly 50% of the energy generated in a CANDU reactor comes from the
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527:
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Canada is a member of every international disarmament organization and is committed to pushing for an end to
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643:. Although the Dominion of Canada came into being on July 1, 1867, Canadian foreign policy was determined in
395:
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For the Canadian public, "incineration without representation" led to a popular belief that the doctrine of
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ore from a northern mine which may have been used in the construction of the atom bomb that was dropped on
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Canada withdrew three of the four nuclear-capable weapons systems by 1972. The single system retained, the
915:
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1932:
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The warheads were never in the sole possession of Canadian personnel. They were the property of the
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since 1984 and, as of 1998, has signed treaties repudiating possession of them. Canada ratified the
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1725:. The Queen's Printer by authority of the Minister of National Defence. p. 514. Archived from
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One of the first formal agreements for military cooperation was made in August 1940. Known as the
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that states a Knowledge editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic.
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in 1970. The Bomarc missile was phased out in 1972 and the CF-104 Strike/Attack squadrons in
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400:
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2018:
1985:
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Canadians were still nervous about US foreign policy, however. In 1950, when U.S. President
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atomic bombs at the base in the summer, and flew them out in December. While returning to
8:
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became combat-qualified. In addition, between 1968 and 1994 the United States stored the
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CF-104 Starfighter; Warhead: B57 bomb 5-20 kilotons; B28 bomb 70-350 kt; B43 bomb 1 Mt
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Canada's military relationship with the United States has grown significantly since the
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1919:
1785:
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1420:, reduction in nuclear arsenals, a ban on all chemical and biological weapons, bans on
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becoming the leading research facility. Thousands of Canadian soldiers were exposed to
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2019:
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1953:
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in Labrador was the site of the first US nuclear weapons in Canada, when in 1950 the
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to collectively "shudder". One Cold War contemporary observer even remarked that,
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790:
608:
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2251:. Canadian Centre for Arms Control and Disarmament Issue Brief No. 10. pp.
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History of the Custody and Deployment of Nuclear Weapons: July 1945 through 1977
1758:. Canadian Centre for Arms Control and Disarmament Issue Brief No. 10. pp.
2481:
1444:
1436:
1381:
1303:
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had not entirely ruled out the use of nuclear weapons in Korea, Prime Minister
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which most encouraged restraint was the strategically soundest one to support.
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1113:
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estimates of 90 to 210 tactical (20–60 kiloton) nuclear warheads assigned to 6
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constructed ten new reinforced concrete buildings as part of a heavily secured
732:
695:
644:
339:
156:
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1310:; an undetermined amount of these UXOs are known to be chemical weapons. The
583:. Goose Bay was used as an aircraft staging location for both the SAC and the
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2819:
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Mike: The Memoirs of the Right Honourable Lester B. Pearson, vol.2, 1948-1957
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876:
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Avoiding Armageddon: Canadian military strategy and nuclear weapons, 1950-63
2402:
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Campion-Smith, Bruce (2005-07-18). "Nerve Gas Tests Revealed". Toronto Star.
2202:
Jockel, J.T.; J.J. Sokolsky (1999). "Canada's Cold War Nuclear Experience".
2187:
Jockel, J.T.; J.J. Sokolsky (1999). "Canada's Cold War Nuclear Experience".
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Jockel, J.T.; J.J. Sokolsky (1999). "Canada's Cold War Nuclear Experience".
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rocket systems, each with four rockets and four warheads, for a total of 16
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was established north of the US-Canada border, and in 1953 Canada built the
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Canada continues to promote peaceful nuclear technology exemplified by the
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Nuclear Falcon missiles as this was a standard configuration on the F-102.
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770:. The Americans were refused permission to stockpile bomb casings for the
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delivered a shipment of nuclear warheads to the Bomarc missile site near
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911:
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616:
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The first US nuclear weapon entered Canada in 1950 when the US Air Force
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which was essential to RADAR, British information related to the German
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Learning to love the bomb: Canada's nuclear weapons during the Cold War
2422:
Canadian nuclear weapons: the untold story of Canada's Cold War arsenal
1687:
A Race on the Edge of Time: Radar - The Decisive Weapon of Dorld War II
1373:
736:
724:
723:" Project and created a committee to manage the project which included
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2403:"The Canadian Nuclear FAQ - Section F: Security and Non-Proliferation"
2086:. Office of the Assistant to the Secretary of Defence (Atomic Energy).
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in 1945, was to provide at least one scientist working at Los Alamos (
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648:
588:
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Cold War Canada: the Making of a National Insecurity State 1945-1957
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Cold War Canada: the Making of a National Insecurity State 1945-1957
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Cold War Canada: the Making of a National Insecurity State 1945-1957
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encountered engine trouble, had to drop, and conventionally detonate
702:(NATO). In 1957, they signed the NORAD Agreement, which created the
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23:
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1898:"Camping Canadian: Goose Air Base | (Nuclear) Weapons Storage Area"
1295:
1126:
1056:
973:
598:
580:
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719:, the United Kingdom and the United States agreed to develop the "
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Arms, Men and Government: The War Policies of Canada, 1939 - 1945
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990:
887:
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694:. Both the United States and Canada are founding members of the
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has since 1990 conducted annual site visits and inspections at
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1225:
1169:
1162:
1138:
815:
811:
798:
481:
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Bryden, John. "Deadly Allies: Canada's Secret War 1937-1947".
2174:
The Long Polar Watch: Canada and the Defence of North America
2146:. Ottawa: Minister of Supply and Services Canada. p. 17.
2142:
Government of Canada, Department of National Defence (1987).
2101:. Ottawa: Minister of Supply and Services Canada. p. 10.
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Government of Canada, Department of National Defence (1987).
1455:
1369:
1343:, such as tear gas and pepper spray, which are classified as
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1150:
1072:
2382:
2127:
Government of Canada, Minister of National Defence (1971).
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779:
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in 1914 when Great Britain declared war on Germany and the
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personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay
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797:(DEW) was established jointly by the US and Canada in the
793:, which was manned by the Canadian military. In 1954 the
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2247:
Canada as a Nuclear Weapon-Free Zone: A Critical Analysis
1754:
Canada as a Nuclear Weapon-Free Zone: A Critical Analysis
1023:
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on December 8 following the December 7 Japanese surprise
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The Government of Canada formally agreed to every major
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interceptors and this was reduced to three squadrons of
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nuclear warheads the Canadian Army deployed in Germany.
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2144:
Challenge and Commitment: A Defence Policy for Canada
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Challenge and Commitment: A Defence Policy for Canada
1946:
1944:
1942:
1835:. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. xvi.
871:
Voodoo weapons test; Combat Warhead: W25 1.5 kilotons
2161:. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. p. 165.
1850:. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. xx.
1820:. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. p. 144.
1641:
1518:
1516:
1161:. These were presumably equipped with nuclear-armed
1106:
2276:"Canada's Position on Nuclear Weapons Free Zones".
2221:
Nuclear Battlefields: Global Links in the Arms Race
2201:
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2111:
48:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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1939:
1784:
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706:to defend the continent against attacks from the
679:on December 7, a day earlier than the US and the
627:Early history: World War II and into the Cold War
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1502:Biological and Chemical Defence Review Committee
1398:Biological and Chemical Defence Review Committee
1333:Biological and Chemical Defence Review Committee
1204:Even as late as 1987, Prime Minister Mulroney's
1133:ran down the coast of Labrador and southeast to
2459:
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2418:
2238:
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1604:Statute of Westminster, 1931 - Enactment No. 17
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1877:"Broken Arrow: Lost Nuclear Weapons in Canada"
1691:. McGraw-Hill Book Company (p. 268). pp.
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2290:
1715:
462:
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1791:. Edmonton: Hurtig Publishers Ltd. pp.
1439:. In the 1970s, Canada discussed building a
1339:on September 26, 1995. Canada still employs
1241:Continued cooperation with the US to present
484:has not officially maintained and possessed
2935:Canadian Special Operations Forces Command
2800:
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2176:. New York: Harper & Bros. p. 67.
2129:White Paper on Defence: Defence in the 70s
2054:Canadian Nuclear Weapons: The Untold Story
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2021:Canadian Nuclear Weapons: The Untold Story
2016:
1988:Canadian Nuclear Weapons: The Untold Story
1983:
1955:Canadian Nuclear Weapons: The Untold Story
1950:
1863:Canadian Nuclear Weapons: The Untold Story
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1560:Canadian Nuclear Weapons: The Untold Story
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1527:Canadian Nuclear Weapons: The Untold Story
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1318:Human testing of chemical weapons such as
847:MGR-1 Honest John; Warhead W7 8-61 kiloton
746:besides providing raw material, including
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455:
130:
2909:Commander of the Royal Canadian Air Force
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835:BCIM-10 BOMARC; Warhead: W40 7-10 kiloton
675:in Honolulu, Hawaii. Canada had actually
667:the same day. This was three days after
550:Learn how and when to remove this message
108:Learn how and when to remove this message
1845:
1830:
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1137:. These stations were supported by RCAF
630:
57:"Canada and weapons of mass destruction"
2355:Cruise missile testing coming to Canada
2314:"CHEMICAL & BIO WEAPONS MEMBERSHIP"
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1782:
1481:Defence Research and Development Canada
1347:for domestic law enforcement purposes.
898:with one of the bombs on board, a USAF
822:Inventory of Canada's nuclear armaments
3085:Weapons of mass destruction by country
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2706:Canada and weapons of mass destruction
2302:Sea-dumped munitions: An unseen threat
2171:
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2914:Canadian Forces chief warrant officer
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2225:. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger. pp.
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2131:. Ottawa: Queen's Printer. p. 4.
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1491:Canadian Joint Incident Response Unit
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1177:"Incineration without representation"
2940:Canadian Forces Intelligence Command
2899:Commander of the Royal Canadian Navy
2512:Canada and the Bomb: Past and Future
503:
46:adding citations to reliable sources
17:
1431:Canada maintains a division of its
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13:
2412:
1247:North Atlantic Treaty Organization
810:contributed fourteen squadrons of
739:designs as well as "Tube Alloys".
704:North American Air Defense Command
700:North Atlantic Treaty Organization
499:
14:
3111:
2966:Royal Military College Saint-Jean
2930:Canadian Joint Operations Command
2732:Emergency Government Headquarters
2504:
1497:Canadian Voice of Women for Peace
1107:Cold War relationship with the US
3057:
3029:
3017:
3016:
2961:Royal Military College of Canada
2767:Young Communist League of Canada
2514:Montreal Gazette. 9 August 1998.
2460:Sean M. Maloney (25 July 2007).
1865:. Dundurn Press Ltd. p. 18.
1593:. Dundurn Press Ltd. p. 12.
864:
852:
840:
828:
692:Permanent Joint Board on Defence
659:. On September 10, 1939, Canada
508:
494:Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty
438:
437:
22:
2889:Vice Chief of the Defence Staff
2395:
2372:Introduction to Reactor Physics
2364:
2348:
2331:
2295:
2284:
2269:
2210:
2195:
2180:
2165:
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2135:
2120:
2105:
2090:
2076:
2043:
2010:
1977:
1904:
1890:
1869:
1854:
1839:
1824:
1809:
1776:
1743:
1676:
1118:Canadian White Paper on Defence
998:Government of the United States
910:, contaminating the river with
562:
33:needs additional citations for
2904:Commander of the Canadian Army
2442:U.S. nuclear weapons in Canada
2058:. Dundurn Press Ltd. pp.
2025:. Dundurn Press Ltd. pp.
1992:. Dundurn Press Ltd. pp.
1959:. Dundurn Press Ltd. pp.
1662:
1648:
1634:
1620:
1608:
1597:
1591:U.S. Nuclear Weapons in Canada
1564:. Dundurn Press Ltd. pp.
1531:. Dundurn Press Ltd. pp.
1411:
803:Ground-controlled interception
1:
2727:Canada–Soviet Union relations
1507:
1406:Biological Weapons Convention
607:to U.S. Secretary of Defense
1914:. 2 January 1964. p. 2.
1378:Rocky Mountain spotted fever
1224:recalled the remarks caused
896:Davis–Monthan Air Force Base
7:
3003:Weapons of mass destruction
2319:. Nuclear Threat Initiative
1846:Whitaker, Reginald (1994).
1831:Whitaker, Reginald (1994).
1816:Whitaker, Reginald (1994).
1616:On This Day, Sept. 10, 1939
1474:
1337:Chemical Weapons Convention
486:weapons of mass destruction
124:Weapons of mass destruction
10:
3116:
3090:Military history of Canada
2884:Chief of the Defence Staff
2280:(Summer–Autumn): 12. 1986.
2157:Pearson, Lester B (1973).
1433:Foreign Affairs department
1196:, this dynamic was noted:
1183:mutual assured destruction
1159:Stephenville, Newfoundland
1153:interceptors stationed at
914:. The detonation was near
795:Distant Early Warning Line
621:weapon of mass destruction
3095:Nuclear weapons of Canada
3011:
2995:
2974:
2953:
2922:
2871:
2838:
2815:
2752:
2719:
2663:
2617:
2581:
2555:
2050:Clearwater, John (1998).
2017:Clearwater, John (1998).
1984:Clearwater, John (1998).
1951:Clearwater, John (1998).
1861:Clearwater, John (1998).
1787:Canada, NATO and the Bomb
1589:Clearwater, John (1999).
1556:Clearwater, John (1998).
1523:Clearwater, John (1998).
916:Saint-André-de-Kamouraska
623:given its limited yield.
3100:Nuclear weapons programs
2858:Royal Canadian Air Force
2825:Royal Canadian Air Force
2701:Avro Canada CF-105 Arrow
2439:John Clearwater (1999).
2419:John Clearwater (1998),
2278:The Disarmament Bulletin
1683:Fisher, David E (1988).
1441:reconnaissance satellite
1135:St. John's, Newfoundland
1059:as they poured into the
1013:surface-to-air missiles.
978:Royal Canadian Air Force
2604:Igor Vasilyevich Ivanov
2243:Selin, Shannon (1988).
2217:Arkin, William (1985).
2172:Conant, Melvin (1962).
1750:Selin, Shannon (1988).
1469:reactor-grade plutonium
1418:nuclear weapons testing
1408:on September 18, 1972.
945:53.295528°N 60.376833°W
881:United States Air Force
665:declared war on Germany
661:declared war on Germany
653:Austro-Hungarian Empire
2696:Canadian Forces Europe
2549:Canada in the Cold War
2466:. Potomac Books, Inc.
2425:, Dundurn Press Ltd.,
1716:Stacey, C. P. (1970).
1628:"Ogdensburg Agreement"
1422:weapons in outer space
1312:1972 London Convention
1155:Ernest Harmon Air Base
1147:Chatham, New Brunswick
1085:Naval Station Argentia
1039:rockets carried by 54
982:RCAF Station North Bay
673:attack on Pearl Harbor
669:declaring war on Japan
657:Statute of Westminster
636:
604:White Paper on Defence
577:RCAF Station Goose Bay
530:by rewriting it in an
2809:Canadian Armed Forces
2671:Canadian peacekeeping
2618:Alleged Soviet agents
2445:. Dundurn Press Ltd.
2206:(Special Issue): 116.
2191:(Special Issue): 115.
2116:(Special Issue): 111.
1783:Keating, Tom (1988).
1426:nuclear proliferation
950:53.295528; -60.376833
920:Strategic Air Command
884:Strategic Air Command
768:Strategic Air Command
742:Canada's role in the
690:, it established the
677:declared war on Japan
647:. Canada entered the
634:
569:Strategic Air Command
2894:Armed Forces Council
1264:Nuclear Weapons Free
1127:Greenland-Iceland-UK
986:Government of Canada
976:'s Eve in 1963, the
906:, the bomb over the
688:Ogdensburg Agreement
42:improve this article
2848:Royal Canadian Navy
2830:Royal Canadian Navy
2594:Mikhail Baryshnikov
1341:riot control agents
1300:unexploded ordnance
1206:Defence White Paper
1194:Defence White Paper
1063:and on towards the
941: /
924:weapon storage area
760:Montreal Laboratory
758:), and hosting the
571:(SAC) stationed 11
3080:Military of Canada
3064:Nuclear technology
2879:Commander-in-Chief
2568:1974 Summit Series
2563:1972 Summit Series
2392:, September, 2002.
2388:2011-06-10 at the
2377:2007-04-15 at the
1912:The Globe and Mail
1357:biological warfare
1351:Biological weapons
1345:non-lethal weapons
1188:In Prime Minister
1149:, as well as USAF
1143:Bagotville, Quebec
1131:SAGE search radars
1129:gap and a line of
1048:CF-104 Starfighter
969:nuclear weapons.
908:St. Lawrence river
888:model 1561 Fat Man
637:
573:model 1561 Fat Man
532:encyclopedic style
519:is written like a
3045:
3044:
3036:Canada portal
2775:
2774:
2640:E. Herbert Norman
2497:978-0-7748-0888-0
2473:978-1-57488-616-0
2452:978-1-55002-329-9
2432:978-1-55002-299-5
1927:Missing or empty
1222:Lester B. Pearson
1083:nuclear bombs at
1020:MGR-1 Honest John
744:Manhattan Project
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2361:, July 15, 1983.
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1302:(UXOs) into the
1270:Chemical weapons
1141:interceptors at
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729:cavity magnetron
716:Quebec Agreement
681:UK's declaration
641:Second World War
575:atomic bombs at
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2686:Mid-Canada Line
2659:
2630:Lauchlin Currie
2613:
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2573:Gouzenko Affair
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1366:botulinum toxin
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1214:Harry S. Truman
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791:Mid-Canada Line
782:bomber forces.
733:Enigma machines
698:as well as the
629:
609:Robert McNamara
597:Throughout the
585:Royal Air Force
565:
556:
545:
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528:help improve it
525:
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500:Nuclear weapons
490:Geneva Protocol
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53:Find sources:
47:
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31:This article
29:
25:
20:
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3015:
3002:
2982:Bibliography
2863:Peacekeeping
2759:
2705:
2650:John Watkins
2635:Gordon Lunan
2510:Edwards, G.
2486:
2462:
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1880:. Retrieved
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1430:
1415:
1402:CFB Suffield
1394:CFB Suffield
1354:
1317:
1284:CFB Suffield
1280:World War II
1274:During both
1273:
1260:
1255:West Germany
1244:
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995:
971:
936:60°22′36.6″W
933:53°17′43.9″N
875:
785:In 1951 the
784:
765:
756:Louis Slotin
741:
714:
713:In the 1942
712:
685:
638:
614:
602:
596:
593:
566:
563:Introduction
546:
540:January 2012
537:
518:
480:
330:South Africa
325:Saudi Arabia
319:Soviet Union
209:
162:Radiological
104:
95:
85:
78:
71:
64:
52:
40:Please help
35:verification
32:
15:
2655:Emma Woikin
2599:Tamás Buday
1486:Gerald Bull
1412:Disarmament
1386:Brucellosis
1324:mustard gas
1308:Nova Scotia
1288:mustard gas
1276:World War I
1077:Mk 101 Lulu
1065:Rhine River
967:AIR-2 Genie
948: /
926:located at
918:. In 1953,
912:uranium-238
721:Tube Alloys
617:AIR-2 Genie
350:Switzerland
335:South Korea
295:Philippines
285:North Korea
280:Netherlands
3074:Categories
2987:Operations
2872:Leadership
2720:Government
1736:2012-09-06
1508:References
1374:rinderpest
1218:Washington
737:Jet Engine
725:C. D. Howe
380:Yugoslavia
171:By country
147:Biological
68:newspapers
2954:Academies
2645:Fred Rose
2582:Defectors
2323:8 January
1920:cite news
1461:plutonium
1390:tularemia
1061:Fulda Gap
752:Hiroshima
649:Great War
496:in 1970.
195:Australia
190:Argentina
98:June 2013
3022:Category
2923:Commands
2737:CFS Carp
2681:DEW Line
2664:Military
2625:Sam Carr
2484:(2002),
2386:Archived
2383:CANTEACH
2375:Archived
1475:See also
1296:tear gas
1192:'s 1971
1116:'s 1987
1057:Red Army
1032:nuclear
974:New Year
599:Cold War
581:Labrador
443:Category
414:Treaties
406:Missiles
396:Chemical
305:Rhodesia
290:Pakistan
205:Bulgaria
152:Chemical
2744:PROFUNC
1670:"NORAD"
1493:(CJIRU)
1465:in situ
1449:Alberta
1376:virus,
1362:anthrax
991:Celsius
816:CF-101s
748:uranium
645:Britain
589:V Force
526:Please
401:Nuclear
365:Ukraine
310:Romania
275:Myanmar
230:Germany
185:Algeria
180:Albania
157:Nuclear
139:By type
82:scholar
3050:Portal
2996:Others
2556:Events
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2429:
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2259:
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2000:
1967:
1882:9 July
1799:
1766:
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1656:"NATO"
1572:
1539:
1382:plague
1328:VX gas
1326:, and
1226:Ottawa
1170:KC-135
1163:AIM-26
1139:CF-101
1073:CF-18s
984:. The
965:, and
959:Mark 4
892:Mark 4
812:CF-100
799:Arctic
482:Canada
360:Taiwan
345:Sweden
315:Russia
300:Poland
270:Mexico
250:Israel
225:France
210:Canada
200:Brazil
84:
77:
70:
63:
55:
2975:Lists
2753:Other
2676:NORAD
2317:(PDF)
1730:(PDF)
1723:(PDF)
1456:CANDU
1370:ricin
1320:sarin
1251:NORAD
1151:F-102
1037:Genie
355:Syria
340:Spain
265:Libya
260:Japan
255:Italy
235:India
220:Egypt
215:China
89:JSTOR
75:books
2492:ISBN
2468:ISBN
2447:ISBN
2427:ISBN
2339:ISBN
2325:2015
2257:ISBN
2064:ISBN
2031:ISBN
1998:ISBN
1965:ISBN
1933:help
1884:2023
1797:ISBN
1764:ISBN
1697:ISBN
1570:ISBN
1537:ISBN
1388:and
1278:and
1145:and
1079:and
900:B-50
890:and
808:RCAF
780:B-52
778:and
776:B-47
772:B-36
708:USSR
245:Iraq
240:Iran
61:news
2359:CBC
2060:205
1693:371
1447:in
1157:in
1081:B57
1034:W25
1030:108
1024:W31
972:On
587:'s
579:in
44:by
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2235:^
2227:78
2062:.
2029:.
2027:23
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