Genetic discrimination

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discrimination in comparison with other peer countries, such as France, Switzerland, Australia and the United Kingdom. Additionally, 2008 GINA offers no protection for home/mortgage insurance or when an employer has 15 or less employees. Excluded from the Act are also parties who are covered under Veterans Health Administration or Indian Health Services. Because a variety of medical tests serve as proxies for genetic information, proponents of insurer access to genetic information argue that it does not require specific limiting legislation. However, this represents an important problem for recruiting participants to medical research according to other scholars stressing that protecting American against discrimination may only happen with the advent of a voluntary moratorium by the insurance industry.

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companies to deny cover, increase the cost of premiums, or place exclusions on cover. Since 2008, the amount of insurance applications with attached genetic test results has increased by 90%. Although the community rating for health insurance allows for a more even distribution of risk and cost to consumers, life insurance companies are legally allowed to “underwrite” when evaluating the genetic risks of applicants; essentially, those with higher risk could potentially be charged higher premiums. Life insurance companies can require individuals to report genetic testing results if they have already been tested, but cannot force individuals to take genetic tests. These companies are able to require individuals to disclose genetic testing results from research and direct-to-consumer tests.

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extend to family members of DTC customers, having similar genetic make-up to their family member who did consent to data sharing, although these individuals did not consent themselves. GINA protects against genetic discrimination in health insurance and employment; however, there are circumstances of exception. For example, GINA does not protect individuals from genetic discrimination in life insurance, disability insurance, and long-term care or employees in companies with fewer than 15 individuals or in the military. DTC companies are not regulated in the same way as physician genetic testing and the disclaimers of data sharing in DTC companies is not as clear as medical biobanks, such as the All of Us project sponsored by the

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Additionally conversations have turned to how to protect DNA and genetic privacy during a pandemic like COVID-19. According to Hollenstein et al., in a preprint of their research on preserving genetic privacy, they address the possible issue of mass-scale detections and numerous samples being collected through COVID-19 tests and contact-tracing and what that means in terms of who then has access or owns this genetic information. While the exact solutions or changes to be made remain unknown, some solutions could possibly arise from research into equity-first preemption frameworks, which could help eliminate inequities in access to proper healthcare.

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expectations of the recommendations. The A-GLIMMER project concluded on 30 June 2023. It published its findings in a report, which found that genetic discrimination continues to occur in Australia, and continues to deter individuals from pursuing genetic testing and participating in genetic research. The report concluded that the moratorium is inadequate to address and prevent genetic discrimination in life insurance, and should be replaced with a legislative model of prohibition. The Project recommended that:

2110:. Some legal scholars have argued for a more precise and broader definition of genetic discrimination: "Genetic discrimination should be defined as when an individual is subjected to negative treatment, not as a result of the individual's physical manifestation of disease or disability, but solely because of the individual's genetic composition." Genetic Discrimination is considered to have its foundations in genetic determinism and genetic essentialism, and is based on the concept of 2657:. Though genetic ancestry testing can be a valuable source of information for those seeking connections to their heritage or recognize a new identity, African Americans may feel coerced into genetic testing or unknowingly face discrimination. Participants also have very little control over how their data will be used, including within the medical sphere or the criminal justice system. As such, increased circulation of genetic genealogical data may be harmful for African Americans. 25: 8107: 2271:

nondiscrimination standards as consumer health data is not currently regulated. Some argue that the clinical utility of results from DTC tests is extremely limited and thus the risk of genetic discrimination is not worth the utility of DTC tests. However, DTC companies argue that the lack of regulation for these companies equip them for a unique position to provide important health related data for contributions to personalized medicine.

103: 8117: 2325:, an autosomal recessive disease, or other disabilities were prevented from receiving ventilators or other scarce resources. In other states, like Washington and Alabama, hospitals were accused of broader discriminatory allocation policies which prevented larger groups of individuals with genetic conditions under categorizations of chronic conditions or 2266:

consumers as a result. While some providers of DTC testing destroy the samples after giving the consumer their data, others keep the samples for future data use. The way in which samples that are sent to DTC genetic testing companies are used after analysis is an important point of ethical controversy, as many worry that the creation of

2278:. In this deal, GlaxoSmithKline purchased a $ 300 million stake in 23andMe and in return 23andMe would allow the pharmaceutical company access to its biobank of genomic data for their pharmaceutical research. While these companies made this announcement in celebration of the opportunity for progress in 2529:

and restricted these workers from exposure to nitro and amino compounds. However, research indicates that workers or applicants would not take advantage of genetic testing due to fear of discrimination. A 1995 poll of the general public found that over 85% are concerned about access to use of genetic

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than workers without these conditions. By offering optional genetic testing to workers and allowing only the workers to see their own results, employers could protect genetically susceptible individuals from certain occupational diseases. A beryllium manufacturing company initiated a pilot program to

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In 2020, the Australian Genetics and Life Insurance Moratorium: Monitoring the Effectiveness and Response (A-GLIMMER) project was funded by the Australian Government Medical Research Futures Fund Genomics Health Futures Mission. The project was designed to evaluate the effectiveness of the moratorium

2291:, these companies can prevent the feared genetic discrimination from privacy breaches by advocating for updated policy to regulate data privacy and being intentional about only sharing genetic information to sources who intend to contribute to medical discovery with the appropriate ethical standards. 2220:

While the 2008 GINA Act does protect against genetic discrimination pertaining to health insurance, it does not protect against genetic discrimination under other forms of insurance, such as life, disability or long-term care insurance. Therefore, patients are enjoying less protection against genetic

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in the United States that protects people from being barred from working or from receiving healthcare as a result of their genetic makeup. The umbrella of genetic discrimination includes the notion of informed consent, which refers to an individual's right to make a decision about their participation

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As minority populations are hesitant to contribute their DNA to genomic research, there continues to be a lack of inclusive health information being disseminated and incorporated in medical treatments. Genomic research has been predominantly based upon DNA samples with European heritage, which fails

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2. The Australian Government allocate responsibility and appropriate resources to the Australian Human Rights Commission (‘AHRC’) to enforce, promote, educate and support individuals and all relevant stakeholders to understand and meet the new legal obligations under the Act. The AHRC should consult

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The project conducted research with consumers, health professionals, genetic researchers and financial services personnel. It also conducted a policy analysis of the moratorium compared with the recommendations made by the Parliamentary Committee in 2018, finding that the moratorium did not meet the

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Some commentators point to these instances as evidence that there are gaps among existent legal protections, like GINA, which may leave room for discrimination in long-term care and disability insurance, or the ADA, which more so covers ongoing disabilities, rather than susceptibility to conditions.

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My father was right. It didn't matter how much I lied on my resume. My real resume was in my cells. Why should anybody invest all that money to train me when there were a thousand other applicants with a far cleaner profile? Of course, it's illegal to discriminate, 'genoism' it's called. But no one

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According to Jonathan Roberts and his colleagues, the media evokes irrational fear among the public about advances in genetic techniques. In a recent study, participants who were prompted to convey their attitudes about unfamiliar scientific concepts relating to genetics ultimately drew conclusions

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additionally halted all 23andMe marketing in 2013 over unsubstantiated claims 23andMe made regarding disease diagnosis and prevention. After an investigation, the FDA approved 23andMe to begin carrier screening in 2015 and to resume genetic health risk screening in 2017. This has led the way for an

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Genetic discrimination is a rising issue in Argentina. Health plans discriminate against those who have disabilities or who have genetic conditions. In the past decade, however, National Law 26689 was passed providing patients with the right to not experience discrimination as a result of genetic

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that prohibit genetic discrimination in employment and accommodations within federally regulated industries, and also introduced criminal penalties for entities requiring individuals to undergo genetic testing as a condition for the provision of goods or services, or as a condition for entering or

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reported that some individuals avoid genetic testing out of fear that it will would impede their ability to purchase insurance or find a job. They also reported that evidence of actual discrimination was rare. In November 2016 insurance company GWG Life was found to be collecting saliva samples in

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decisions. GINA also protects individuals from genetic discrimination in healthcare; however, GINA itself does not define what genetic information is, leaving it up for debate. Prior to the 2008 GINA Act, individuals could be denied insurance, either partially or fully, based on genetic tests they

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Within the United States, genetic discrimination is an ever-evolving concept that remains prominent across different domains. Emerging technology such as direct-to-consumer genetic tests have allowed for broad genetic health information to be more accessible to the public but raises concerns about

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The Australian government is considering the recommendations in the report. The Assistant Treasurer and Minister for Financial Services, Stephen Jones, made a statement that "We don't want people to avoid having genetic tests which could detect life threatening conditions because of a fear it may

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Research in Australia demonstrated that life insurance discrimination deters people from participating in research and pursuing clinical genetic testing. In 2017, the Parliamentary Joint Committee on Corporations and Financial Services conducted an inquiry into the life insurance industry. In its

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form DTC data creates increased possibility for genetic discrimination. Genomic information is playing an increasingly important role in medical practice and progress. As DTC companies continue to grow, a large obstacle they face is creating a sense of trust with the public in promising to uphold

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and drug development, others were wary of the possible breaches of privacy that selling customer's personal genomic data may entail. Privacy concerns include incidental data sharing to third-party companies, such as insurance companies or employers. Privacy concerns with genetic information also

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are collections of biological samples which can include blood, tissue, or DNA from many people. Despite the utility of biobanks to furthering genomic research, minority groups fear that their samples may be used improperly or even be used to strike down an entire culture. Such was the case when

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In Australia, genetic information is less likely to influence health insurance coverage decisions as health insurance is "community rated", meaning that all individuals pay the same amount regardless of their history or genetic makeup. However, genetic test results can be used by life insurance

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The shortage of knowledge about and awareness of direct-to-consumer genetic testing is one of the contributors to the previously limited purchasing of this kind of service. As technology has progressed, genetic testing has become a more wide scale practice, potentially affecting the privacy of

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that was created shortly after WWII, during which thousands of racialized and disabled victims died in tests conducted in Germany. Since then, new issues of racialized genetic discrimination have come to light involving sharing of genetic information to genomic biobanks and subsequent novel

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Tiller, Jane M.; Keogh, Louise A.; McInerney-Leo, Aideen M.; Belcher, Andrea; Barlow-Stewart, Kristine; Boughtwood, Tiffany; Gleeson, Penny; Dowling, Grace; Prince, Anya; Bombard, Yvonne; Joly, Yann; Delatycki, Martin; Winship, Ingrid M.; Otlowski, Margaret; Lacaze, Paul (August 2022).

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1 million and/or imprisonment of up to five years. Accordingly, one effect of the legislation is to prohibit insurance providers from demanding that a prospective client undergo a genetic test—or to disclose an existing test—as a prerequisite to the provision of insurance coverage.

2321:. Due to the high volume of COVID-19 cases, hospital systems enacted triage protocols to direct the use of limited resources. Some hospitals were accused of enacting discriminatory triage protocols which excluded those with genetic conditions, such as in Tennessee, where those with 2701:

collected from hair, fingernails, skin flakes, spit swabs, eyelashes, etc. Upon birth, a number of genetically induced characteristics are calculated: physical and intellectual capacity, life expectancy, probable successful diseases, and likely causes of death, all determined via

5260: 2445:(Cth) (‘the Act’) to prohibit insurers from using genetic or genomic test results to discriminate between applicants for risk-rated insurance, and consider amendments to the regulation of financial services to ensure insurers are subject to a positive duty to not discriminate. 2427:

In 2019, the Financial Services Council, the industry body for Australian life insurers, introduced a voluntary, partial, moratorium on using genetic test results for applications up to certain financial limits. The moratorium is self-regulated, with no government oversight.

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continuing a contract. The Act also forbids anyone from refusing to enter into a goods or services agreement with another person on the grounds that that person has refused to disclose the results of an already completed genetic test. Violations are punishable by fines of up

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trait in African Americans. Further, therapeutic interventions or treatments based on genetic variants associated with race can sometimes be inaccurate and lead to negative health outcomes. An example of this has been doctors prescribing an improper dosage of a drug called

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Dowling, Grace; Tiller, Jane; McInerney-Leo, Aideen; Belcher, Andrea; Haining, Casey; Barlow-Stewart, Kristine; Boughtwood, Tiffany; Gleeson, Penny; Delatycki, Martin B.; Winship, Ingrid; Otlowski, Margaret; Jacobs, Chris; Keogh, Louise; Lacaze, Paul (November 2022).

2179:, which all help to prevent genetic discrimination in the workplace, public services, and provide some insurance protection. Therefore, by law, those with genetic conditions are protected from possible discrimination and have a right to receive equitable care. 2530:

information by insurers and employers. Likewise, in the case of the beryllium manufacturer described above, so few workers participated in the genetic testing that the company decided instead to pursue an "enhanced preventive model of workplace controls."

2244:, a now defunct family history website. A genetic test is considered a direct-to-consumer test if it is presented to the consumer separate from a health care provider. These tests are easily accessible on the market and popularized by companies such as 2567:. Yet research looking at 109 genetic markers across 16 populations by Guido Barbujani "does not suggest that the racial subdivision of our species reflects any major discontinuity in our genome". As genomic research continues to investigate 2397:

prohibits the use of genetic information for employment decisions such as hiring and promotions. While no formal law exists banning the use of genetic information for insurance policy decisions, the Government of the United Kingdom and the

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and worry that they will face discrimination based on their genetic information. These worries may include loss of confidentiality, risk of information being shared with insurance providers, risk of genetic samples being used without their

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Tiller, Jane; Bakshi, Andrew; Dowling, Grace; Keogh, Louise; McInerney-Leo, Aideen; Barlow-Stewart, Kristine; Boughtwood, Tiffany; Gleeson, Penny; Delatycki, Martin B.; Winship, Ingrid; Otlowski, Margaret; Lacaze, Paul (2023-05-11).

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Malawi is the only country in Africa that has enacted any laws regarding genetic discrimination. Malawi's National Health Sciences Research Committee adopted the policy requirements of the Science and Technology Act No.16 of 2003.

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2018 report, the Committee recommended an urgent ban on the use of genetic test results by life insurers, and that the Australian government maintain a watching brief to consider whether legislation was required in future.

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Tiller, Jane; Gleeson, Penny; McInerney-Leo, Aideen M.; Keogh, Louise; Nowak, Kristen; Barlow-Stewart, Kristine; Boughtwood, Tiffany; Delatycki, Martin B.; Winship, Ingrid; Otlowski, Margaret; Lacaze, Paul (2023-06-29).

2252:. These genetic kits are expensive and disproportionately serve wealthy individuals. As a result, when the data collected from testing is sold to research companies, it represents a biased sample of the population. The 4958:

Tiller, Jane; McInerney-Leo, Aideen; Belcher, Andrea; Boughtwood, Tiffany; Gleeson, Penny; Delatycki, Martin; Barlow-Stewart, Kristine; Winship, Ingrid; Otlowski, Margaret; Keogh, Louise; Lacaze, Paul (2021-05-21).

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order to offer lower rates to people who are epigenetically healthier than others of their age. While this is positive discrimination, this does suggest future potential classification of clients by genetic data.

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In 1991, the American Medical Association Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs suggested that the following five conditions must be satisfied in order for genetic screening by an employer to be appropriate:

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State governments in the United States have attempted to combat racial discrimination by barring instances of discrimination by insurers that involve linking specific genetic conditions to race, such as the

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test prospective workers for the HLA-DPB1 gene at a university-based laboratory. The company paid for the testing and counseling but received results that did not identify which workers had the gene.

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using empirical evidence. Though the human genome is extremely complex, humans share 99.9% of their DNA and differences among people cannot be attributed to social categories of race.

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Bélisle-Pipon JC, Vayena E, Green RC, Cohen IG (August 2019). "Genetic testing, insurance discrimination and medical research: what the United States can learn from peer countries".

2186:, and passed in the US Senate by a vote of 95–0 and in the House of Representatives by 414–1. The legislation bars employers from using individuals' genetic information when making 2731:

takes the law seriously. If you refuse to disclose, they can always take a sample from a door handle or a handshake, even the saliva on your application form. If in doubt, a legal

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Several occupational health screening measures similar to genetic testing are already taking place. For example, in 1978, DuPont reported testing African American applicants for

4289: 4215: 2476:(1997), the International Declaration on Human Genetic Data (2003) and the Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights (2005) are global instruments drawn up by the 2492:

Some people have genes that make them more susceptible to developing a disease as a result of an occupational exposure. For example, workers with beryllium sensitivity and

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On May 21, 2008, George W. Bush signed the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act, protecting individuals from genetic discrimination in health insurance and employment.

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stated she believed the law may be unconstitutional. The provisions of the law, as they applied to provincially regulated industries, were challenged by the government of

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or provide evolutionary genetic analysis to discredit the tribe's origin beliefs. Misuse of genetic data may create long-lasting distrust towards the medical community.

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Genetic discrimination is illegal in the U.S. after passage of the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA) on May 21, 2008. It was signed into law by President

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Although it was passed in 2008 there were 201 cases that cited GINA in 2010 and 333 in 2014. It was not until 2013 that a company actually faced penalties under GINA.

2710:. Job interviews, health insurance purchasing, and even potential dates can be sized up according to the perceived quality of the person's DNA due to advancements in 7596: 1532: 2595:

prescribed to African American populations, despite research disproving they require a higher dose than white populations. The medical community recognizes that

3389: 2599:—such as predisposition to drug metabolism among others—make up only one facet of a person's health, which is also impacted by their environment and lifestyle. 6664: 4361:

Hollenstein M, Naccache D, Rønne PB, Ryan PY, Weil R, Yifrach-Stav O (2020-08-01). "Preservation of DNA Privacy During the Large Scale Detection of COVID-19".

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is not a scientifically valid concept and cannot accurately describe biological variation. Attempts to do using genetics may lead down a slippery slope toward

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Tiller, Jane; Morris, Susan; Rice, Toni; Barter, Krystal; Riaz, Moeen; Keogh, Louise; Delatycki, Martin B.; Otlowski, Margaret; Lacaze, Paul (January 2020).

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Other confounding factors related to diversity such as age, gender, or socioeconomic status may also influence genetic discrimination in addition to race.

4847: 6867: 6073: 2784: 2310:. Some research suggests that genetic conditions are among the causes of co-morbid conditions that lead to more severe COVID-19 symptoms, such as death. 789: 5678:

Condit C (2007). "How culture and science make race "genetic": motives and strategies for discrete categorization of the continuous and heterogeneous".

5202:"The Australian moratorium on genetics and life insurance: evaluating policy compared to Parliamentary recommendations regarding genetic discrimination" 2121:

Genetic discrimination takes different forms depending on the country and the protections that have been taken to limit genetic discrimination, such as

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Haga SB (January 2017). "Chapter 2 - Overview of Policy, Ethical, and Social Considerations in Genomic and Personalized Medicine". In David SP (ed.).

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Hoglund-Shen A (July 2017). "Direct-to-Consumer Genetic Testing, Gamete Donation, and the Law: DTC Genetic Testing, Gamete Donation, and the Law".

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One current example of this ethical controversy was demonstrated in the 2018 announcement of 23andMe's partnership with the pharmaceutical company

2075: 740: 5304: 5261:"Final Stakeholder Report of the Australian Genetics and Life Insurance Moratorium: Monitoring the Effectiveness and Response (A-GLIMMER) Project" 2649:

Some efforts have been made to use genetic testing for reconciliation projects involving people of African descent, which attempt to make social

2303: 5329: 2287:. However, this does not necessarily mean that the intentions of DTC companies are nefarious. According to a qualitative study published in the 2106:

of a person rather than their individual merits, including that related to race, although the latter would be more appropriately included under

6739: 5723:"Population genetic analysis of the DARC locus (Duffy) reveals adaptation from standing variation associated with malaria resistance in humans" 653: 35: 4190: 7379: 1309: 5473:

DeBord DG, Schulte P, Butler MA, McCanlies E, Reutman S, Ruder A, et al. (Genetics Working Group) (November 2009). Tuchman RJ (ed.).

5416: 7349: 6960: 6502: 1279: 882: 408: 3553: 3415:"Epigenetic Discrimination: Emerging Applications of Epigenetics Pointing to the Limitations of Policies Against Genetic Discrimination" 3046:

Joly Y, Ngueng Feze I, Song L, Knoppers BM (2017-03-06). "Normative Approaches to Address Genetic Discrimination: Placebo or Panacea?".

6649: 5021:"Community concerns about genetic discrimination in life insurance persist in Australia: A survey of consumers offered genetic testing" 3971: 2329:

from receiving life-saving treatments, such as ventilators. Many advocacy groups raised complaints about these triage protocols to the

2306:, is a highly-transmittable, respiratory virus first identified in Wuhan, China, in December 2019. The virus' global spread caused the 563: 5145:"Health professionals' views and experiences of the Australian moratorium on genetic testing and life insurance: A qualitative study" 4961:"Study protocol: the Australian genetics and life insurance moratorium-monitoring the effectiveness and response (A-GLIMMER) project" 4481: 2789: 2168: 2122: 2563:

Some cases, however, have found statistical evidence of genetic differences between human populations, such as mutations within the

6584: 6472: 6205: 490: 378: 2794: 2693:, used to describe unethical and illegal genetic discrimination. Predictions of physical and mental performance are computed via 2172: 8092: 6823: 6594: 6412: 6397: 6392: 6238: 4881: 2044: 745: 500: 318: 303: 298: 130: 3174:"The Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA): public policy and medical practice in the age of personalized medicine" 2146:

treatments. Many countries are still developing policies to combat genetic discrimination in science, law, and everyday life.

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voluntarily entered a moratorium from 2014 to 2019 to refrain from using genetic information with regards to insurance.

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Joly Y, Feze IN, Song L, Knoppers BM (May 2017). "Comparative Approaches to Genetic Discrimination: Chasing Shadows?".

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people, a Native American tribe in Arizona. They consented for their samples to provide insight into the prevalence of

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Undue expense is needed to protect susceptible workers by lowering the level of the toxic substance in the workplace.

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affect access to insurance. Early detection can lead to life saving interventions. That's in everyone's interest."

2288: 1698: 1527: 1421: 877: 767: 3621:"Public reactions to direct-to-consumer genetic health tests: A comparison across the US, UK, Japan and Australia" 8161: 8156: 7344: 6862: 6624: 6417: 4455: 2977: 2399: 2061: 1274: 784: 538: 323: 6487: 4290:"OCR Reaches Early Case Resolution With Alabama After It Removes Discriminatory Ventilator Triaging Guidelines" 393: 6629: 3535: 543: 8023: 7739: 6467: 6152: 2314: 2284: 1975: 1683: 373: 7302: 7250: 6228: 6198: 2253: 2134:

has exacerbated difficulties of those with genetic conditions as they have faced discrimination within the

1232: 1180: 120: 4435:"Public Bill (Senate) S-201 (42–1) – Royal Assent – Genetic Non-Discrimination Act – Parliament of Canada" 2091:

occurs when people treat others (or are treated) differently because they have or are perceived to have a

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The Genetic Non-Discrimination Act was opposed by the insurance industry and, upon its passage, then-

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Contributing to genomic biobanks can be an additional source of concern for minority populations.

8151: 8141: 8110: 7939: 7919: 7781: 7771: 7729: 7359: 7200: 7062: 7032: 7027: 6977: 6912: 6897: 6830: 6803: 6788: 6191: 5305:"Australians skipping genetic screening tests out of fear it will affect life insurance coverage" 4313: 3997:"New insights into genetic susceptibility of COVID-19: an ACE2 and TMPRSS2 polymorphism analysis" 2824:

Ajunwa I (2014). "Genetic Testing Meets Big Data: Torts and Contract Law Issues". Rochester, NY.

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929: 43: 8038: 8011: 8001: 7481: 7461: 7324: 7195: 7092: 7042: 7012: 6992: 6927: 6907: 6882: 6877: 6872: 6783: 6754: 6727: 6703: 6698: 6274: 2378: 1990: 1963: 1953: 1411: 1391: 1254: 1125: 1014: 964: 934: 914: 849: 829: 804: 799: 794: 705: 668: 641: 617: 612: 174: 5980:""We can wipe an entire culture": fears and promises of DNA biobanking among Native Americans" 4099:"Contributing factors to personal protective equipment shortages during the COVID-19 pandemic" 3055: 2877: 2829: 2515:

The genetic variation results in an unusually elevated susceptibility to occupational illness.

8006: 7966: 7899: 7796: 7744: 7671: 7426: 7190: 7102: 7077: 7072: 7057: 7052: 7047: 6987: 6942: 6902: 6808: 6778: 6681: 6294: 5337: 5276: 2935: 2885: 2837: 2107: 1958: 1918: 1851: 1740: 1688: 1607: 1356: 1120: 1024: 999: 994: 979: 974: 969: 909: 864: 824: 730: 700: 595: 192: 5474: 4733:"Genetic discrimination by Australian insurance companies: a survey of consumer experiences" 3700:"The Skeleton in the Closet: Faults and Strengths of Public Versus Private Genetic Biobanks" 3619:

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in addressing genetic discrimination in Australia, from various stakeholder perspectives.

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The disease must develop so rapidly that monitoring would be ineffective in preventing it.

8: 8053: 7914: 7549: 7451: 7431: 7220: 7128: 7087: 7067: 7037: 6937: 6732: 6547: 5369:"Ethical issues in genetics and public health in Latin America with a focus on Argentina" 3843:"A Major Drug Company Now Has Access to 23andMe's Genetic Data. Should You Be Concerned?" 2799: 2587: 2176: 2115: 2005: 1866: 1485: 1381: 1361: 1150: 1058: 1009: 989: 959: 859: 646: 453: 5933: 5873:"Chapter 4 - Cancer Genetic Screening and Ethical Considerations for Precision Medicine" 5789: 5597: 5055: 5020: 3510: 3329: 7826: 7821: 7811: 7759: 7749: 7724: 7666: 7624: 7534: 7529: 7524: 7436: 6744: 6126: 6101: 6007: 5952: 5917: 5884: 5847: 5749: 5722: 5703: 5393: 5368: 5237: 5177: 5144: 5124: 5068: 4995: 4960: 4940: 4824: 4789: 4765: 4732: 4708: 4681: 4654: 4629: 4456:"Liberal backbenchers defy cabinet wishes and vote to enact genetic discrimination law" 4408: 4383: 4362: 4265: 4240: 4146:

Emanuel EJ, Persad G, Upshur R, Thome B, Parker M, Glickman A, et al. (May 2020).

4123: 4098: 4074: 4047: 4023: 3996: 3947: 3922: 3780: 3753: 3726: 3699: 3645: 3620: 3580:"Direct-to-Consumer Testing 2.0: Emerging Models of Direct-to-Consumer Genetic Testing" 3492: 3441: 3414: 3370: 3293: 3266: 3198: 3173: 3124: 3099: 3023: 2998: 2354: 2212: 1770: 1765: 1755: 1703: 1693: 1668: 1602: 1560: 1470: 1465: 1460: 1366: 658: 3938: 3842: 8146: 8085: 7996: 7924: 7909: 7708: 7651: 7456: 7364: 7255: 7175: 7022: 6324: 6131: 6055: 6011: 5999: 5979: 5957: 5888: 5851: 5813: 5808: 5773: 5754: 5695: 5658: 5559: 5554: 5518: 5398: 5241: 5229: 5221: 5182: 5164: 5128: 5116: 5108: 5072: 5060: 5042: 5000: 4982: 4944: 4932: 4924: 4829: 4811: 4770: 4752: 4713: 4659: 4583: 4525: 4413: 4270: 4169: 4128: 4079: 4028: 3952: 3820: 3785: 3731: 3650: 3601: 3496: 3484: 3446: 3374: 3333: 3298: 3244: 3203: 3129: 3051: 3028: 2873: 2825: 2711: 2654: 2596: 2549: 2539: 2526: 2394: 2307: 2131: 2037: 1948: 1876: 1861: 1644: 1587: 1386: 1294: 1185: 1105: 944: 222: 5707: 4893:

Tiller, Jane; Winship, Ingrid; Otlowski, Margaret Fa; Lacaze, Paul A. (March 2021).

3014: 2450:

with a range of genetics and genomics experts and stakeholders to achieve this goal.

2313:

Early in the pandemic, many regions experienced shortages of medical resources like

8048: 8033: 7961: 7882: 7852: 7683: 7519: 7225: 6798: 6793: 6644: 6542: 6121: 6113: 6045: 5991: 5947: 5937: 5880: 5843: 5803: 5793: 5744: 5734: 5687: 5650: 5601: 5549: 5508: 5388: 5380: 5264: 5213: 5172: 5156: 5100: 5050: 5032: 4990: 4972: 4914: 4906: 4819: 4801: 4760: 4744: 4703: 4693: 4649: 4641: 4575: 4403: 4395: 4260: 4252: 4159: 4118: 4110: 4069: 4059: 4018: 4008: 3942: 3934: 3812: 3775: 3765: 3721: 3711: 3677: 3640: 3632: 3591: 3476: 3436: 3426: 3360: 3325: 3288: 3278: 3234: 3223:"Keeping pace with the times—the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008" 3193: 3185: 3119: 3111: 3018: 3010: 2865: 2719: 2279: 2195: 2099: 2000: 1985: 1913: 1834: 1804: 1619: 1455: 1155: 720: 715: 558: 448: 6158: 5654: 5104: 4882:

FSC Announces Moratorium on Genetic Tests for Life Insurance to Start in July 2019

3995:

Hou Y, Zhao J, Martin W, Kallianpur A, Chung MK, Jehi L, et al. (July 2020).

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to holistically and accurately describe the complexity of all people's genetics.

2608: 2580: 2275: 2135: 2015: 1923: 1819: 1760: 1612: 1597: 1577: 1542: 1249: 1160: 1095: 894: 844: 622: 473: 4114: 3816: 8058: 8016: 7986: 7976: 7894: 7887: 7872: 7862: 7698: 7634: 7576: 7571: 7556: 7339: 7334: 7329: 7215: 7150: 6686: 6659: 6512: 6214: 6117: 5778:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

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Office of Civil Rights, and after the complaints the guidelines were removed.

8135: 8070: 7693: 7629: 7614: 7476: 7441: 7421: 7292: 7235: 7170: 6589: 6492: 6003: 5225: 5168: 5112: 5046: 4986: 4928: 4815: 4806: 4756: 4698: 3923:"Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): current status and future perspectives" 3431: 2684: 2638: 2553: 2022: 1629: 1565: 1550: 1406: 1371: 1351: 1222: 1165: 1100: 495: 398: 6050: 6033: 5201: 5088: 4894: 4399: 3868:""It's not Personal" — DNA, Privacy, and Direct to Consumer Genetic Testing" 2571:

on a large scale, racial genetic discrimination remains a concern for many.

2167:

There are multiple legal protections in place in the United States, such as

7904: 7791: 7619: 7586: 7566: 7496: 7486: 7466: 7446: 7082: 6982: 6718: 6693: 6557: 6497: 6462: 6427: 6422: 6135: 6059: 5961: 5798: 5758: 5699: 5563: 5522: 5497:"Genetic testing in the workplace: ethical, legal, and social implications" 5402: 5233: 5186: 5120: 5064: 5004: 4936: 4833: 4774: 4717: 4663: 4587: 4417: 4274: 4173: 4132: 4083: 4032: 3956: 3824: 3789: 3735: 3654: 3605: 3488: 3450: 3353:"Why the 'devious defecator' case is a landmark for US genetic-privacy law" 3337: 3302: 3248: 3207: 3133: 3032: 2912: 2703: 2346: 2249: 1856: 1735: 1555: 1522: 1502: 1426: 1416: 1396: 1376: 1004: 904: 632: 607: 463: 403: 368: 333: 328: 5817: 5475:

Genetics in the Workplace: Implications for Occupational Safety and Health

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and became law in Canada on May 4, 2017. It introduced amendments to the

2187: 1750: 1710: 1678: 1537: 1497: 1331: 1244: 1195: 1170: 1070: 762: 485: 468: 423: 338: 4919: 3770: 2735:

can just as easily become an illegal peek at your future in the company.

2637:

in their community, but did not consent to them to investigate links to

8080: 8075: 7956: 7951: 7847: 7831: 7688: 7581: 7539: 7501: 7309: 7297: 7270: 7260: 7180: 6606: 6601: 6572: 6507: 6346: 4910: 3681: 3533: 2318: 2032: 2027: 1908: 1903: 1799: 1775: 1624: 1517: 1475: 1431: 1239: 1227: 1200: 1190: 1110: 512: 507: 478: 413: 244: 6102:"Popular culture and genetics; friend, foe or something more complex?" 5871:

Dumitrescu, R. G. (2017-01-01), Verma, Mukesh; Barh, Debmalya (eds.),

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The idea of genetic discrimination has been combated since the 1947

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Barlow-Stewart K, Liepins M, Doble A, Otlowski M (September 2018).

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National Human Genome Research Institute on Genetic Discrimination

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Barbujani G, Magagni A, Minch E, Cavalli-Sforza LL (April 1997).

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reversed the decision and upheld the law in a 5–4 split ruling.

2240:

Direct-to-consumer genetic testing was first offered in 1997 by

7406: 6437: 6336: 6314: 6309: 6259: 5417:"UNESCO adopts international declaration on human genetic data" 5257: 5085: 3149:"Genetic Discrimination by Insurers, Employers Becomes a Crime" 2557: 2521:

The worker must provide informed consent prior to being tested.

2481: 2374: 2126:

in research with complete comprehension of the research study.

2102:. It may also refer to any and all discrimination based on the 1336: 343: 234: 212: 207: 159: 5720: 7416: 6264: 5482:

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)

5200:

Tiller, Jane; Lacaze, Paul; Otlowski, Margaret (2022-12-13).

4191:"COVID-19 and Disability-Based Discrimination in Health Care" 4045: 3466: 2723: 2257:

expansion of the market of direct-to-consumer genetic tests.

1346: 164: 34:

deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a

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Allyse MA, Robinson DH, Ferber MJ, Sharp RR (January 2018).

3003:

Mayo Clinic Proceedings. Innovations, Quality & Outcomes

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Clayton EW, Halverson CM, Sathe NA, Malin BA (2018-10-31).

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Hendricks-Sturrup RM, Cerminara KL, Lu CY (December 2020).

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Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights

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Roberts J, Archer L, DeWitt J, Middleton A (May 2019).

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In addition, many individuals are concerned with their

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Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (2019-12-20).

3412: 2917:"Genism, Racism, and the Prospect of Genetic Genocide" 3315: 2224: 5330:"Growth, inequality, and social equity in Argentina" 5199: 4679: 4565: 4546:"Concordat and Moratorium on Genetics and Insurance" 4381: 3413:

Dupras C, Song L, Saulnier KM, Joly Y (2018-06-08).

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Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act

2487: 3921:Li H, Liu SM, Yu XH, Tang SL, Tang CK (May 2020). 3097: 2999:"Ethical Issues in Contemporary Clinical Genetics" 2205: 7992:Racial bias in criminal news in the United States 5647:The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social Theory 3098:Field RI, Orlando AW, Rosoff AJ (February 2021). 2575:Linking genetic conditions and treatments to race 1944:Racial bias in criminal news in the United States 8133: 4447: 3836: 3834: 2616:, and health-based discrimination more broadly. 2169:Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA) 7652:Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting) 3891:Lanton III R, Garfinkel C (10 September 2018). 3462: 3460: 3264: 3221:Hudson KL, Holohan MK, Collins FS (June 2008). 1588:Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting) 16:Discrimination based on specific gene mutations 7134:SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups 5575: 5573: 1064:SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups 6199: 5877:Progress and Challenges in Precision Medicine 4680:Tiller J, Otlowski M, Lacaze P (2017-12-13). 4287: 4213: 3927:International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents 3831: 3697: 3390:"Insurance Fears Lead Many to Shun DNA Tests" 2069: 32:The examples and perspective in this article 5977: 5833: 5831: 5829: 5827: 5366: 4238: 4096: 3667: 3457: 3318:Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 2345:The Genetic Non-Discrimination Act received 2098:(s) that causes or increases the risk of an 7350:List of people killed for being transgender 5582:"Racism in science: the taint that lingers" 5570: 5514:10.1146/annurev.publhealth.25.101802.123012 4479: 3920: 3802: 1280:List of people killed for being transgender 6206: 6192: 5978:Abadie, Roberto; Heaney, Kathleen (2015). 5870: 5327: 4871:Genetic Tests and Life Insurance Key Facts 3976:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2076: 2062: 6125: 6049: 5951: 5941: 5824: 5807: 5797: 5774:"An apportionment of human DNA diversity" 5748: 5738: 5649:. American Cancer Society. pp. 1–3. 5605: 5553: 5538:"Genetic discrimination in the workplace" 5512: 5392: 5176: 5054: 5036: 4994: 4976: 4918: 4823: 4805: 4764: 4707: 4697: 4653: 4407: 4366: 4264: 4163: 4122: 4073: 4063: 4022: 4012: 3946: 3779: 3769: 3725: 3715: 3644: 3595: 3440: 3430: 3364: 3292: 3282: 3238: 3197: 3123: 3022: 2905: 2790:Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act 70:Learn how and when to remove this message 6473:Social determinants of health in poverty 3840: 3265:McGuire AL, Majumder MA (January 2009). 2673:based on examples from popular culture. 2644: 2158: 379:Social determinants of health in poverty 5495:Brandt-Rauf PW, Brandt-Rauf SI (2004). 3350: 3171: 2687:, director and writer of the 1997 film 2441:1. The Australian Government amend the 2331:Department of Health and Human Services 8134: 6031: 5973: 5971: 5911: 5909: 5677: 5645:Meloni M (2017). "Scientific Racism". 5644: 5579: 5535: 5362: 5360: 4675: 4673: 4453: 4239:Chen B, McNamara DM (September 2020). 4185: 4183: 3747: 3745: 3698:Tozzo P, Caenazzo L (September 2020). 3387: 3260: 3258: 2863: 2823: 2295:Genetic discrimination during COVID-19 6187: 6095: 6093: 6027: 6025: 6023: 6021: 5622:"AAPA Statement on Race & Racism" 5468: 5466: 5464: 5462: 5302: 5253: 5251: 5206:Public Health Research & Practice 4623: 4621: 4553:Association of British Insurers (ABI) 4429: 4427: 4097:Cohen J, Rodgers YV (December 2020). 3093: 3091: 3089: 2911: 2467: 2173:Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) 8116: 7156:Capital punishment for homosexuality 6478:Social determinants of mental health 6106:European Journal of Medical Genetics 5837: 3865: 3178:Journal of General Internal Medicine 3146: 2992: 2990: 2967:"Statement of Administration policy" 2960: 2958: 2629:genetic samples were taken from the 2512:The genetic test is highly accurate. 1086:Capital punishment for homosexuality 384:Social determinants of mental health 18: 7276:Genital modification and mutilation 5968: 5906: 5879:, Academic Press, pp. 79–100, 5357: 4670: 4594: 4306: 4180: 4152:The New England Journal of Medicine 3969: 3963: 3803:Vayena E, Mauch F (July 2012). "". 3742: 3330:10.1146/annurev-genom-090711-163800 3255: 3227:The New England Journal of Medicine 3070:"GINAhelp.org – Your GINA Resource" 2619: 1206:Genital modification and mutilation 13: 6213: 6159:"US Blocks Genetic Discrimination" 6090: 6018: 5885:10.1016/b978-0-12-809411-2.00004-0 5848:10.1016/b978-0-12-800685-6.00005-9 5459: 5248: 5149:European Journal of Human Genetics 5025:European Journal of Human Genetics 4737:European Journal of Human Genetics 4634:European Journal of Human Genetics 4618: 4424: 3625:European Journal of Human Genetics 3086: 2805:Genetic Discrimination Observatory 2667: 2602: 2496:are more likely to carry the gene 2443:Disability Discrimination Act 1992 2231:Direct-to-consumer genetic testing 2225:Direct-to-consumer genetic testing 14: 8173: 6146: 3939:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105951 3511:"What is genetic discrimination?" 2987: 2955: 2857: 2478:International Bioethics Committee 2388: 8115: 8106: 8105: 7755:Diversity, equity, and inclusion 7592:Law for Protection of the Nation 7492:White genocide conspiracy theory 6038:The British Journal of Sociology 5555:10.1097/00125817-200105000-00001 4899:The Medical Journal of Australia 4602:"Genetic discrimination | NHMRC" 3758:Journal of Personalized Medicine 2488:Genetic testing in the workplace 2289:Journal of Personalized Medicine 2154: 1699:Diversity, equity, and inclusion 1528:Law for Protection of the Nation 1422:White genocide conspiracy theory 101: 23: 7597:MSM blood donation restrictions 7345:LGBT grooming conspiracy theory 6066: 5864: 5765: 5714: 5671: 5638: 5614: 5529: 5488: 5434: 5409: 5321: 5303:Borys, Stephanie (2023-06-29). 5296: 5193: 5135: 5079: 5011: 4951: 4886: 4875: 4864: 4840: 4781: 4724: 4559: 4538: 4499: 4473: 4375: 4354: 4330: 4281: 4232: 4207: 4139: 4090: 4039: 3988: 3914: 3884: 3859: 3796: 3661: 3612: 3571: 3546: 3527: 3503: 3406: 3381: 3344: 3309: 3214: 3165: 3015:10.1016/j.mayocpiqo.2018.03.005 2974:Office of Management and Budget 2795:Americans with Disabilities Act 2714:. This put an ironic twist to 2400:Association of British Insurers 2206:Health insurance discrimination 2149: 1533:MSM blood donation restrictions 1275:LGBT grooming conspiracy theory 7610:(as religious or racial quota) 6179:Respond Genetic Discrimination 5840:Genomic and Precision Medicine 5501:Annual Review of Public Health 4480:Stefanovich O (10 July 2020). 3140: 3062: 3039: 2817: 2260: 1546:(as religious or racial quota) 1: 8024:Second-generation gender bias 7740:Constitutional colorblindness 6468:Social determinants of health 5655:10.1002/9781118430873.est0324 5373:Journal of Community Genetics 5367:Penchaszadeh VB (July 2015). 5105:10.1136/jmedgenet-2021-107989 3388:Harmon A (24 February 2008). 2810: 2235: 1976:Second-generation gender bias 1684:Constitutional colorblindness 374:Social determinants of health 5943:10.1371/journal.pone.0204417 5740:10.1371/journal.pgen.1006560 5328:Valdovinos CF (2005-11-01). 4342:American Medical Association 4288:News Division (2020-04-08). 4214:News Division (2020-06-26). 3597:10.1016/j.mayocp.2017.11.001 2458: 2414: 2254:Food and Drug Administration 7: 7935:Medical model of disability 7787:Hate speech laws by country 6032:Nelson A (September 2018). 5093:Journal of Medical Genetics 4454:Tasker JP (March 8, 2017). 4115:10.1016/j.ypmed.2020.106263 3841:Ducharme J (26 July 2018). 2755: 2544:Researchers emphasize that 2302:, or a coronavirus labeled 1887:Medical model of disability 1731:Hate speech laws by country 46:, discuss the issue on the 10: 8178: 8044:Social model of disability 6523:Discrimination against men 6118:10.1016/j.ejmg.2018.12.005 5607:10.1038/d41586-019-01968-z 5161:10.1038/s41431-022-01150-6 5038:10.1038/s41431-023-01373-1 4978:10.1186/s12910-021-00634-2 4794:Frontiers in Public Health 4686:Frontiers in Public Health 4318:www.centerforpublicrep.org 4257:10.1007/s41649-020-00147-x 4065:10.1186/s40246-020-00267-3 4014:10.1186/s12916-020-01673-z 3972:"COVID-19 and Your Health" 3866:King J (7 November 2019). 3536:"Direct-to-Consumer Tests" 2578: 2537: 2228: 2130:privacy. In addition, the 1996:Social model of disability 429:Discrimination against men 8101: 7840: 7717: 7510: 7397:Opposition to immigration 7121: 6768: 6615: 6365: 6315:Race / Ethnicity 6252: 6221: 5996:10.1007/s10624-015-9391-4 5385:10.1007/s12687-015-0217-5 4749:10.1038/s41431-019-0426-1 4646:10.1038/s41431-018-0198-z 4580:10.1016/j.tig.2017.02.002 3817:10.1024/1661-8157/a001008 3637:10.1038/s41431-019-0529-8 3481:10.1038/s41591-019-0534-z 3366:10.1038/nature.2015.17857 3190:10.1007/s11606-012-1988-6 3116:10.1016/j.tig.2020.08.019 2494:chronic beryllium disease 2405: 2351:Canadian Human Rights Act 2340: 2327:intellectual disabilities 2177:Affordable Care Act (ACA) 1327:Opposition to immigration 213:Race / Ethnicity 7392:Occupational segregation 7161:Compulsory sterilization 5984:Dialectical Anthropology 4807:10.3389/fpubh.2018.00333 4699:10.3389/fpubh.2017.00330 4338:"Genetic discrimination" 3897:Specialty Pharmacy Times 3432:10.3389/fgene.2018.00202 3351:Gilbert N (2015-06-25). 3172:Feldman EA (June 2012). 1322:Occupational segregation 1091:Compulsory sterilization 7920:Internalized oppression 7782:Fighting Discrimination 7772:Fat acceptance movement 7730:Anti-discrimination law 7370:Native American mascots 6051:10.1111/1468-4446.12607 5680:Literature and Medicine 5580:Nelson R (2019-06-25). 5536:Miller PS (June 2001). 4400:10.1111/1468-0009.12444 3584:Mayo Clinic Proceedings 3515:Genetics Home Reference 2569:human genetic variation 2556:practice of justifying 2533: 2383:Supreme Court of Canada 2323:spinal muscular atrophy 1872:Internalized oppression 1726:Fighting Discrimination 1716:Fat acceptance movement 1674:Anti-discrimination law 1300:Native American mascots 8162:Science fiction themes 8157:Discrimination by type 8039:Social identity threat 8012:Reverse discrimination 8002:Racial color blindness 7482:Violence against women 7462:Sex-selective abortion 5799:10.1073/pnas.94.9.4516 5345:Cite journal requires 5284:Cite journal requires 4530:: CS1 maint: others ( 4513:. Expert Participation 4511:www.legislation.gov.uk 4245:Asian Bioethics Review 3267:"Two cheers for GINA?" 3147:Keim B (21 May 2008). 2943:Cite journal requires 2893:Cite journal requires 2845:Cite journal requires 2753: 2452: 2379:Quebec Court of Appeal 2164: 2089:Genetic discrimination 1991:Social identity threat 1964:Reverse discrimination 1954:Racial color blindness 1412:Violence against women 1392:Sex-selective abortion 8007:Religious intolerance 7967:Political correctness 7797:Intersex human rights 7745:Cultural assimilation 7427:Religious persecution 7191:Disability hate crime 5263:. Monash University. 4388:The Milbank Quarterly 4165:10.1056/NEJMsb2005114 3899:. September/October. 3872:cyberlaw.stanford.edu 3419:Frontiers in Genetics 2728: 2645:Diversity in genomics 2438: 2162: 2108:racial discrimination 1959:Religious intolerance 1919:Political correctness 1741:Intersex human rights 1689:Cultural assimilation 1357:Religious persecution 1121:Disability hate crime 7412:Political repression 6418:Anti-left handedness 6408:Anti-intellectualism 5692:10.1353/lm.2008.0000 5542:Genetics in Medicine 5218:10.17061/phrp3242235 3717:10.3390/biom10091273 3240:10.1056/nejmp0803964 2870:10.2139/ssrn.2460897 2780:Human Genome Project 2371:Jody Wilson-Raybould 2194:, job placement, or 1342:Political repression 324:Anti-left handedness 314:Anti-intellectualism 52:create a new article 44:improve this article 7915:Historical eugenics 7452:Segregation academy 7432:Religious terrorism 7221:Enemy of the people 7129:Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric 6655:Jehovah's Witnesses 6548:Perpetual foreigner 5934:2018PLoSO..1304417C 5790:1997PNAS...94.4516B 5598:2019Natur.570..440N 5421:European Commission 4507:"Equality Act 2010" 4195:www.americanbar.org 4103:Preventive Medicine 3771:10.3390/jpm10040264 3670:Family Court Review 2800:Affordable Care Act 2116:determined by genes 1867:Historical eugenics 1382:Segregation academy 1362:Religious terrorism 1151:Enemy of the people 1059:Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric 569:Jehovah's Witnesses 454:Perpetual foreigner 7827:Social integration 7822:Self-determination 7812:Racial integration 7760:Diversity training 7750:Cultural pluralism 7725:Affirmative action 7625:Racial segregation 7535:Crime of apartheid 7437:Religious violence 6947:Indigenous people 6342:Sexual orientation 4965:BMC Medical Ethics 4911:10.5694/mja2.50922 4568:Trends in Genetics 3970:CDC (2020-02-11). 3682:10.1111/fcre.12288 3394:The New York Times 3104:Trends in Genetics 3048:Trends in Genetics 2468:Global instruments 2355:Canada Labour Code 2213:The New York Times 2165: 2100:inherited disorder 1771:Social integration 1766:Self-determination 1756:Racial integration 1704:Diversity training 1694:Cultural pluralism 1669:Affirmative action 1561:Racial segregation 1471:Crime of apartheid 1367:Religious violence 869:Indigenous people 240:Sexual orientation 8129: 8128: 7997:Racism by country 7925:Intersectionality 7910:Heteronormativity 7709:Voter suppression 7457:Sexual harassment 7256:Forced conversion 7176:Cultural genocide 6846:African Americans 6665:post–Cold War era 6650:Eastern Orthodoxy 6403:Anti-drug addicts 6398:Anti-homelessness 6325:Scientific racism 5894:978-0-12-809411-2 5857:978-0-12-800685-6 5664:978-1-118-43087-3 5592:(7762): 440–441. 5269:10.26180/23564538 5155:(11): 1262–1268. 4905:(4): 157–159.e1. 4158:(21): 2049–2055. 3050:. Rochester, NY. 2740:Vincent Freeman ( 2712:genome sequencing 2655:genetic genealogy 2565:Duffy blood group 2550:scientific racism 2540:Race and genetics 2527:sickle cell trait 2395:Equality Act 2010 2308:COVID-19 pandemic 2132:COVID-19 pandemic 2086: 2085: 1949:Racism by country 1877:Intersectionality 1862:Heteronormativity 1645:Voter suppression 1387:Sexual harassment 1186:Forced conversion 1106:Cultural genocide 768:African Americans 579:post–Cold War era 564:Eastern Orthodoxy 309:Anti-drug addicts 304:Anti-homelessness 223:Scientific racism 80: 79: 72: 54:, as appropriate. 8169: 8119: 8118: 8109: 8108: 8049:Social privilege 8034:Social exclusion 7962:Police brutality 7883:Multiculturalism 7853:Amatonormativity 7684:Social exclusion 7520:Age of candidacy 7320:Homeless dumping 7226:Ethnic cleansing 6208: 6201: 6194: 6185: 6184: 6175: 6173: 6172: 6140: 6139: 6129: 6097: 6088: 6087: 6085: 6084: 6070: 6064: 6063: 6053: 6029: 6016: 6015: 5975: 5966: 5965: 5955: 5945: 5928:(10): e0204417. 5913: 5904: 5903: 5902: 5901: 5868: 5862: 5861: 5835: 5822: 5821: 5811: 5801: 5769: 5763: 5762: 5752: 5742: 5718: 5712: 5711: 5675: 5669: 5668: 5642: 5636: 5635: 5633: 5632: 5618: 5612: 5611: 5609: 5577: 5568: 5567: 5557: 5533: 5527: 5526: 5516: 5492: 5486: 5485: 5479: 5470: 5457: 5456: 5454: 5453: 5438: 5432: 5431: 5429: 5427: 5413: 5407: 5406: 5396: 5364: 5355: 5354: 5348: 5343: 5341: 5333: 5325: 5319: 5318: 5316: 5315: 5300: 5294: 5293: 5287: 5282: 5280: 5272: 5255: 5246: 5245: 5197: 5191: 5190: 5180: 5139: 5133: 5132: 5083: 5077: 5076: 5058: 5040: 5015: 5009: 5008: 4998: 4980: 4955: 4949: 4948: 4922: 4890: 4884: 4879: 4873: 4868: 4862: 4861: 4859: 4858: 4844: 4838: 4837: 4827: 4809: 4785: 4779: 4778: 4768: 4728: 4722: 4721: 4711: 4701: 4677: 4668: 4667: 4657: 4640:(9): 1248–1256. 4625: 4616: 4615: 4613: 4612: 4606:www.nhmrc.gov.au 4598: 4592: 4591: 4563: 4557: 4556: 4550: 4542: 4536: 4535: 4529: 4521: 4519: 4518: 4503: 4497: 4496: 4494: 4492: 4477: 4471: 4470: 4468: 4466: 4451: 4445: 4444: 4442: 4441: 4431: 4422: 4421: 4411: 4379: 4373: 4372: 4370: 4358: 4352: 4351: 4349: 4348: 4334: 4328: 4327: 4325: 4324: 4310: 4304: 4303: 4301: 4300: 4285: 4279: 4278: 4268: 4236: 4230: 4229: 4227: 4226: 4211: 4205: 4204: 4202: 4201: 4187: 4178: 4177: 4167: 4143: 4137: 4136: 4126: 4094: 4088: 4087: 4077: 4067: 4043: 4037: 4036: 4026: 4016: 3992: 3986: 3985: 3983: 3982: 3967: 3961: 3960: 3950: 3918: 3912: 3911: 3909: 3908: 3888: 3882: 3881: 3879: 3878: 3863: 3857: 3856: 3854: 3853: 3838: 3829: 3828: 3800: 3794: 3793: 3783: 3773: 3749: 3740: 3739: 3729: 3719: 3695: 3686: 3685: 3665: 3659: 3658: 3648: 3616: 3610: 3609: 3599: 3575: 3569: 3568: 3566: 3565: 3550: 3544: 3543: 3531: 3525: 3524: 3522: 3521: 3507: 3501: 3500: 3475:(8): 1198–1204. 3464: 3455: 3454: 3444: 3434: 3410: 3404: 3403: 3401: 3400: 3385: 3379: 3378: 3368: 3348: 3342: 3341: 3313: 3307: 3306: 3296: 3286: 3262: 3253: 3252: 3242: 3218: 3212: 3211: 3201: 3169: 3163: 3162: 3160: 3159: 3144: 3138: 3137: 3127: 3095: 3084: 3083: 3081: 3080: 3066: 3060: 3059: 3043: 3037: 3036: 3026: 2994: 2985: 2984: 2982: 2976:. 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Archived from 2909: 2903: 2902: 2896: 2891: 2889: 2881: 2861: 2855: 2854: 2848: 2843: 2841: 2833: 2821: 2751: 2720:sexual selection 2620:Genomic biobanks 2597:genetic variants 2554:pseudoscientific 2368:attorney general 2361: 2280:pharmacogenomics 2078: 2071: 2064: 2001:Social privilege 1986:Social exclusion 1914:Police brutality 1835:Multiculturalism 1805:Amatonormativity 1620:Social exclusion 1456:Age of candidacy 1250:Homeless dumping 1156:Ethnic cleansing 105: 82: 81: 75: 68: 64: 61: 55: 27: 26: 19: 8177: 8176: 8172: 8171: 8170: 8168: 8167: 8166: 8132: 8131: 8130: 8125: 8097: 7972:Polyculturalism 7868:Civil liberties 7836: 7817:Reappropriation 7718:Countermeasures 7713: 7642:Racial steering 7608:Numerus clausus 7512: 7506: 7231:Ethnic conflict 7166:Corrective rape 7117: 6764: 6611: 6503:HIV/AIDS stigma 6361: 6310:Mental disorder 6248: 6217: 6212: 6170: 6168: 6167:. 25 April 2008 6157: 6149: 6144: 6143: 6098: 6091: 6082: 6080: 6072: 6071: 6067: 6030: 6019: 5976: 5969: 5914: 5907: 5899: 5897: 5895: 5869: 5865: 5858: 5836: 5825: 5770: 5766: 5733:(3): e1006560. 5719: 5715: 5676: 5672: 5665: 5643: 5639: 5630: 5628: 5620: 5619: 5615: 5578: 5571: 5534: 5530: 5493: 5489: 5477: 5471: 5460: 5451: 5449: 5440: 5439: 5435: 5425: 5423: 5415: 5414: 5410: 5365: 5358: 5346: 5344: 5335: 5334: 5326: 5322: 5313: 5311: 5301: 5297: 5285: 5283: 5274: 5273: 5256: 5249: 5198: 5194: 5140: 5136: 5084: 5080: 5016: 5012: 4956: 4952: 4891: 4887: 4880: 4876: 4869: 4865: 4856: 4854: 4846: 4845: 4841: 4786: 4782: 4729: 4725: 4678: 4671: 4626: 4619: 4610: 4608: 4600: 4599: 4595: 4564: 4560: 4548: 4544: 4543: 4539: 4523: 4522: 4516: 4514: 4505: 4504: 4500: 4490: 4488: 4478: 4474: 4464: 4462: 4452: 4448: 4439: 4437: 4433: 4432: 4425: 4380: 4376: 4359: 4355: 4346: 4344: 4336: 4335: 4331: 4322: 4320: 4312: 4311: 4307: 4298: 4296: 4286: 4282: 4237: 4233: 4224: 4222: 4212: 4208: 4199: 4197: 4189: 4188: 4181: 4144: 4140: 4095: 4091: 4044: 4040: 3993: 3989: 3980: 3978: 3968: 3964: 3919: 3915: 3906: 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1924:Polyculturalism 1820:Civil liberties 1792: 1784: 1783: 1782: 1781: 1780: 1761:Reappropriation 1661: 1660:Countermeasures 1653: 1652: 1651: 1650: 1649: 1578:Racial steering 1544:Numerus clausus 1448: 1440: 1439: 1438: 1437: 1436: 1161:Ethnic conflict 1096:Corrective rape 1051: 1043: 1042: 1041: 1040: 1039: 693: 682: 681: 680: 679: 678: 531: 521: 520: 519: 518: 517: 409:HIV/AIDS stigma 271: 263: 262: 261: 260: 259: 208:Mental disorder 152: 144: 143: 142: 141: 140: 113: 76: 65: 59: 56: 41: 28: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 8175: 8165: 8164: 8159: 8154: 8152:Medical ethics 8149: 8144: 8142:Human genetics 8127: 8126: 8124: 8123: 8113: 8102: 8099: 8098: 8096: 8095: 8090: 8089: 8088: 8078: 8073: 8068: 8067: 8066: 8061: 8056: 8046: 8041: 8036: 8031: 8026: 8021: 8020: 8019: 8017:Reverse racism 8009: 8004: 7999: 7994: 7989: 7987:Prisoner abuse 7984: 7979: 7977:Power distance 7974: 7969: 7964: 7959: 7954: 7949: 7944: 7943: 7942: 7932: 7927: 7922: 7917: 7912: 7907: 7902: 7897: 7895:Ethnic penalty 7892: 7891: 7890: 7888:Neurodiversity 7885: 7875: 7873:Dehumanization 7870: 7865: 7863:Cisnormativity 7860: 7855: 7850: 7844: 7842: 7841:Related topics 7838: 7837: 7835: 7834: 7829: 7824: 7819: 7814: 7809: 7804: 7799: 7794: 7789: 7784: 7779: 7774: 7769: 7764: 7763: 7762: 7752: 7747: 7742: 7737: 7732: 7727: 7721: 7719: 7715: 7714: 7712: 7711: 7706: 7701: 7699:State religion 7696: 7691: 7686: 7681: 7680: 7679: 7674: 7669: 7664: 7654: 7649: 7644: 7639: 7638: 7637: 7635:Nuremberg Laws 7632: 7622: 7617: 7612: 7604: 7599: 7594: 7589: 7584: 7579: 7577:Ghetto benches 7574: 7572:Gerrymandering 7569: 7564: 7559: 7557:Gender pay gap 7554: 7553: 7552: 7547: 7537: 7532: 7527: 7522: 7516: 7514: 7511:Discriminatory 7508: 7507: 7505: 7504: 7499: 7494: 7489: 7484: 7479: 7474: 7469: 7464: 7459: 7454: 7449: 7444: 7439: 7434: 7429: 7424: 7419: 7414: 7409: 7404: 7399: 7394: 7389: 7388: 7387: 7382: 7377: 7367: 7362: 7357: 7352: 7347: 7342: 7340:Lavender scare 7337: 7335:Kill Haole Day 7332: 7330:Indian rolling 7327: 7322: 7317: 7312: 7307: 7306: 7305: 7295: 7290: 7289: 7288: 7278: 7273: 7268: 7263: 7258: 7253: 7248: 7243: 7238: 7233: 7228: 7223: 7218: 7216:Eliminationism 7213: 7208: 7203: 7198: 7193: 7188: 7183: 7178: 7173: 7168: 7163: 7158: 7153: 7151:Cancel culture 7148: 7143: 7138: 7137: 7136: 7125: 7123: 7122:Manifestations 7119: 7118: 7116: 7115: 7110: 7105: 7100: 7095: 7090: 7085: 7080: 7075: 7070: 7065: 7060: 7055: 7050: 7045: 7040: 7035: 7030: 7025: 7020: 7018:Middle Eastern 7015: 7010: 7005: 7000: 6995: 6990: 6985: 6980: 6975: 6970: 6965: 6964: 6963: 6958: 6953: 6945: 6940: 6935: 6930: 6925: 6920: 6915: 6910: 6905: 6900: 6895: 6890: 6885: 6880: 6875: 6870: 6865: 6860: 6859: 6858: 6853: 6848: 6838: 6833: 6828: 6827: 6826: 6821: 6816: 6806: 6801: 6796: 6791: 6786: 6781: 6775: 6773: 6766: 6765: 6763: 6762: 6760:Zoroastrianism 6757: 6752: 6747: 6742: 6737: 6736: 6735: 6725: 6724: 6723: 6722: 6721: 6716: 6711: 6706: 6691: 6690: 6689: 6687:Untouchability 6684: 6674: 6669: 6668: 6667: 6662: 6657: 6652: 6647: 6637: 6632: 6627: 6621: 6619: 6613: 6612: 6610: 6609: 6604: 6599: 6598: 6597: 6592: 6587: 6577: 6576: 6575: 6570: 6560: 6555: 6550: 6545: 6540: 6535: 6530: 6525: 6520: 6515: 6513:Leprosy stigma 6510: 6505: 6500: 6495: 6490: 6485: 6480: 6475: 6470: 6465: 6460: 6455: 6450: 6445: 6440: 6435: 6430: 6425: 6420: 6415: 6410: 6405: 6400: 6395: 6390: 6385: 6380: 6375: 6369: 6367: 6363: 6362: 6360: 6359: 6354: 6349: 6344: 6339: 6334: 6329: 6328: 6327: 6322: 6312: 6307: 6302: 6297: 6292: 6287: 6282: 6277: 6272: 6267: 6262: 6256: 6254: 6250: 6249: 6247: 6246: 6241: 6236: 6231: 6225: 6223: 6219: 6218: 6215:Discrimination 6211: 6210: 6203: 6196: 6188: 6182: 6181: 6176: 6155: 6148: 6147:External links 6145: 6142: 6141: 6112:(5): 368–375. 6089: 6065: 6044:(3): 522–537. 6017: 5990:(3): 305–320. 5967: 5905: 5893: 5863: 5856: 5823: 5764: 5713: 5670: 5663: 5637: 5613: 5569: 5528: 5487: 5458: 5433: 5408: 5356: 5347:|journal= 5320: 5295: 5286:|journal= 5247: 5212:(4): 3242235. 5192: 5134: 5099:(8): 817–826. 5078: 5031:(3): 286–294. 5010: 4950: 4885: 4874: 4863: 4852:www.aph.gov.au 4839: 4780: 4743:(1): 108–113. 4723: 4669: 4617: 4593: 4574:(5): 299–302. 4558: 4537: 4498: 4472: 4446: 4423: 4394:(1): 131–149. 4374: 4353: 4329: 4305: 4280: 4251:(4): 511–518. 4231: 4206: 4179: 4138: 4089: 4052:Human Genomics 4038: 3987: 3962: 3913: 3883: 3858: 3830: 3795: 3741: 3687: 3676:(3): 472–484. 3660: 3631:(3): 339–348. 3611: 3590:(1): 113–120. 3570: 3545: 3526: 3502: 3456: 3405: 3380: 3343: 3308: 3254: 3233:(25): 2661–3. 3213: 3164: 3139: 3110:(2): 106–108. 3085: 3061: 3038: 2986: 2983:on 2018-08-21. 2954: 2945:|journal= 2904: 2895:|journal= 2856: 2847:|journal= 2815: 2814: 2812: 2809: 2808: 2807: 2802: 2797: 2792: 2787: 2782: 2777: 2772: 2764: 2757: 2754: 2737: 2669: 2666: 2646: 2643: 2621: 2618: 2604: 2601: 2576: 2573: 2538:Main article: 2535: 2532: 2523: 2522: 2519: 2516: 2513: 2510: 2489: 2486: 2469: 2466: 2460: 2457: 2439: 2416: 2413: 2407: 2404: 2390: 2389:United Kingdom 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Bush 2156: 2153: 2151: 2148: 2143:Nuremberg Code 2084: 2083: 2081: 2080: 2073: 2066: 2058: 2055: 2054: 2048: 2047: 2042: 2041: 2040: 2030: 2025: 2020: 2019: 2018: 2013: 2008: 1998: 1993: 1988: 1983: 1978: 1973: 1972: 1971: 1969:Reverse racism 1961: 1956: 1951: 1946: 1941: 1939:Prisoner abuse 1936: 1931: 1929:Power distance 1926: 1921: 1916: 1911: 1906: 1901: 1896: 1895: 1894: 1884: 1879: 1874: 1869: 1864: 1859: 1854: 1849: 1847:Ethnic penalty 1844: 1843: 1842: 1840:Neurodiversity 1837: 1827: 1825:Dehumanization 1822: 1817: 1815:Cisnormativity 1812: 1807: 1802: 1796: 1795: 1794: 1793: 1791:Related topics 1790: 1789: 1786: 1785: 1779: 1778: 1773: 1768: 1763: 1758: 1753: 1748: 1743: 1738: 1733: 1728: 1723: 1718: 1713: 1708: 1707: 1706: 1696: 1691: 1686: 1681: 1676: 1671: 1665: 1664: 1663: 1662: 1659: 1658: 1655: 1654: 1648: 1647: 1642: 1637: 1635:State religion 1632: 1627: 1622: 1617: 1616: 1615: 1610: 1605: 1600: 1590: 1585: 1580: 1575: 1574: 1573: 1571:Nuremberg Laws 1568: 1558: 1553: 1548: 1540: 1535: 1530: 1525: 1520: 1515: 1513:Ghetto benches 1510: 1508:Gerrymandering 1505: 1500: 1495: 1493:Gender pay gap 1490: 1489: 1488: 1483: 1473: 1468: 1463: 1458: 1452: 1451: 1450: 1449: 1446: 1445: 1442: 1441: 1435: 1434: 1429: 1424: 1419: 1414: 1409: 1404: 1399: 1394: 1389: 1384: 1379: 1374: 1369: 1364: 1359: 1354: 1349: 1344: 1339: 1334: 1329: 1324: 1319: 1318: 1317: 1312: 1307: 1297: 1292: 1287: 1282: 1277: 1272: 1270:Lavender scare 1267: 1265:Kill Haole Day 1262: 1260:Indian rolling 1257: 1252: 1247: 1242: 1237: 1236: 1235: 1225: 1220: 1219: 1218: 1208: 1203: 1198: 1193: 1188: 1183: 1178: 1173: 1168: 1163: 1158: 1153: 1148: 1146:Eliminationism 1143: 1138: 1133: 1128: 1123: 1118: 1113: 1108: 1103: 1098: 1093: 1088: 1083: 1081:Cancel culture 1078: 1073: 1068: 1067: 1066: 1055: 1054: 1053: 1052: 1050:Manifestations 1049: 1048: 1045: 1044: 1038: 1037: 1032: 1027: 1022: 1017: 1012: 1007: 1002: 997: 992: 987: 982: 977: 972: 967: 962: 957: 952: 947: 942: 940:Middle Eastern 937: 932: 927: 922: 917: 912: 907: 902: 897: 892: 887: 886: 885: 880: 875: 867: 862: 857: 852: 847: 842: 837: 832: 827: 822: 817: 812: 807: 802: 797: 792: 787: 782: 781: 780: 775: 770: 760: 755: 750: 749: 748: 743: 738: 728: 723: 718: 713: 708: 703: 697: 696: 695: 694: 688: 687: 684: 683: 677: 676: 674:Zoroastrianism 671: 666: 661: 656: 651: 650: 649: 639: 638: 637: 636: 635: 630: 625: 620: 605: 604: 603: 601:Untouchability 598: 588: 583: 582: 581: 576: 571: 566: 561: 551: 546: 541: 535: 534: 533: 532: 527: 526: 523: 522: 516: 515: 510: 505: 504: 503: 498: 493: 483: 482: 481: 476: 466: 461: 456: 451: 446: 441: 436: 431: 426: 421: 419:Leprosy stigma 416: 411: 406: 401: 396: 391: 386: 381: 376: 371: 366: 361: 356: 351: 346: 341: 336: 331: 326: 321: 316: 311: 306: 301: 296: 291: 286: 281: 275: 274: 273: 272: 269: 268: 265: 264: 258: 257: 252: 247: 242: 237: 232: 227: 226: 225: 220: 210: 205: 200: 195: 190: 185: 182: 177: 172: 167: 162: 156: 155: 154: 153: 150: 149: 146: 145: 139: 138: 133: 128: 123: 117: 116: 115: 114: 111: 110: 107: 106: 98: 97: 95:Discrimination 91: 90: 78: 77: 38:of the subject 36:worldwide view 31: 29: 22: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8174: 8163: 8160: 8158: 8155: 8153: 8150: 8148: 8145: 8143: 8140: 8139: 8137: 8122: 8114: 8112: 8104: 8103: 8100: 8094: 8091: 8087: 8084: 8083: 8082: 8079: 8077: 8074: 8072: 8071:Social stigma 8069: 8065: 8062: 8060: 8057: 8055: 8052: 8051: 8050: 8047: 8045: 8042: 8040: 8037: 8035: 8032: 8030: 8027: 8025: 8022: 8018: 8015: 8014: 8013: 8010: 8008: 8005: 8003: 8000: 7998: 7995: 7993: 7990: 7988: 7985: 7983: 7980: 7978: 7975: 7973: 7970: 7968: 7965: 7963: 7960: 7958: 7955: 7953: 7950: 7948: 7945: 7941: 7938: 7937: 7936: 7933: 7931: 7928: 7926: 7923: 7921: 7918: 7916: 7913: 7911: 7908: 7906: 7903: 7901: 7898: 7896: 7893: 7889: 7886: 7884: 7881: 7880: 7879: 7876: 7874: 7871: 7869: 7866: 7864: 7861: 7859: 7856: 7854: 7851: 7849: 7846: 7845: 7843: 7839: 7833: 7830: 7828: 7825: 7823: 7820: 7818: 7815: 7813: 7810: 7808: 7805: 7803: 7800: 7798: 7795: 7793: 7790: 7788: 7785: 7783: 7780: 7778: 7775: 7773: 7770: 7768: 7765: 7761: 7758: 7757: 7756: 7753: 7751: 7748: 7746: 7743: 7741: 7738: 7736: 7733: 7731: 7728: 7726: 7723: 7722: 7720: 7716: 7710: 7707: 7705: 7702: 7700: 7697: 7695: 7694:State atheism 7692: 7690: 7687: 7685: 7682: 7678: 7675: 7673: 7670: 7668: 7665: 7663: 7660: 7659: 7658: 7655: 7653: 7650: 7648: 7645: 7643: 7640: 7636: 7633: 7631: 7630:Jim Crow laws 7628: 7627: 7626: 7623: 7621: 7618: 7616: 7615:One-drop rule 7613: 7611: 7609: 7605: 7603: 7600: 7598: 7595: 7593: 7590: 7588: 7585: 7583: 7580: 7578: 7575: 7573: 7570: 7568: 7565: 7563: 7560: 7558: 7555: 7551: 7548: 7546: 7543: 7542: 7541: 7538: 7536: 7533: 7531: 7530:Blood quantum 7528: 7526: 7523: 7521: 7518: 7517: 7515: 7509: 7503: 7500: 7498: 7495: 7493: 7490: 7488: 7485: 7483: 7480: 7478: 7477:Victimisation 7475: 7473: 7472:Trans bashing 7470: 7468: 7465: 7463: 7460: 7458: 7455: 7453: 7450: 7448: 7445: 7443: 7442:Religious war 7440: 7438: 7435: 7433: 7430: 7428: 7425: 7423: 7422:Racialization 7420: 7418: 7415: 7413: 7410: 7408: 7405: 7403: 7400: 7398: 7395: 7393: 7390: 7386: 7383: 7381: 7378: 7376: 7373: 7372: 7371: 7368: 7366: 7363: 7361: 7358: 7356: 7353: 7351: 7348: 7346: 7343: 7341: 7338: 7336: 7333: 7331: 7328: 7326: 7323: 7321: 7318: 7316: 7313: 7311: 7308: 7304: 7301: 7300: 7299: 7296: 7294: 7293:Glass ceiling 7291: 7287: 7284: 7283: 7282: 7279: 7277: 7274: 7272: 7269: 7267: 7264: 7262: 7259: 7257: 7254: 7252: 7249: 7247: 7244: 7242: 7239: 7237: 7236:Ethnic hatred 7234: 7232: 7229: 7227: 7224: 7222: 7219: 7217: 7214: 7212: 7209: 7207: 7204: 7202: 7199: 7197: 7194: 7192: 7189: 7187: 7184: 7182: 7179: 7177: 7174: 7172: 7171:Counter-jihad 7169: 7167: 7164: 7162: 7159: 7157: 7154: 7152: 7149: 7147: 7144: 7142: 7139: 7135: 7132: 7131: 7130: 7127: 7126: 7124: 7120: 7114: 7111: 7109: 7106: 7104: 7101: 7099: 7096: 7094: 7091: 7089: 7086: 7084: 7081: 7079: 7076: 7074: 7071: 7069: 7066: 7064: 7061: 7059: 7056: 7054: 7051: 7049: 7046: 7044: 7041: 7039: 7036: 7034: 7031: 7029: 7026: 7024: 7021: 7019: 7016: 7014: 7011: 7009: 7006: 7004: 7001: 6999: 6996: 6994: 6991: 6989: 6986: 6984: 6981: 6979: 6976: 6974: 6971: 6969: 6966: 6962: 6961:United States 6959: 6957: 6954: 6952: 6949: 6948: 6946: 6944: 6941: 6939: 6936: 6934: 6931: 6929: 6926: 6924: 6921: 6919: 6916: 6914: 6911: 6909: 6906: 6904: 6901: 6899: 6896: 6894: 6891: 6889: 6886: 6884: 6881: 6879: 6876: 6874: 6871: 6869: 6866: 6864: 6861: 6857: 6854: 6852: 6849: 6847: 6844: 6843: 6842: 6839: 6837: 6834: 6832: 6829: 6825: 6824:United States 6822: 6820: 6817: 6815: 6812: 6811: 6810: 6807: 6805: 6802: 6800: 6797: 6795: 6792: 6790: 6787: 6785: 6782: 6780: 6777: 6776: 6774: 6772: 6767: 6761: 6758: 6756: 6753: 6751: 6748: 6746: 6745:Protestantism 6743: 6741: 6738: 6734: 6731: 6730: 6729: 6726: 6720: 6717: 6715: 6712: 6710: 6707: 6705: 6702: 6701: 6700: 6697: 6696: 6695: 6692: 6688: 6685: 6683: 6680: 6679: 6678: 6675: 6673: 6670: 6666: 6663: 6661: 6660:LDS or Mormon 6658: 6656: 6653: 6651: 6648: 6646: 6643: 6642: 6641: 6638: 6636: 6633: 6631: 6628: 6626: 6623: 6622: 6620: 6618: 6614: 6608: 6605: 6603: 6600: 6596: 6593: 6591: 6590:Transmisogyny 6588: 6586: 6583: 6582: 6581: 6578: 6574: 6571: 6569: 6566: 6565: 6564: 6561: 6559: 6556: 6554: 6551: 6549: 6546: 6544: 6541: 6539: 6536: 6534: 6531: 6529: 6526: 6524: 6521: 6519: 6516: 6514: 6511: 6509: 6506: 6504: 6501: 6499: 6496: 6494: 6493:Gerontophobia 6491: 6489: 6486: 6484: 6481: 6479: 6476: 6474: 6471: 6469: 6466: 6464: 6461: 6459: 6456: 6454: 6451: 6449: 6446: 6444: 6441: 6439: 6436: 6434: 6431: 6429: 6426: 6424: 6421: 6419: 6416: 6414: 6413:Anti-intersex 6411: 6409: 6406: 6404: 6401: 6399: 6396: 6394: 6391: 6389: 6388:Anti-albinism 6386: 6384: 6381: 6379: 6376: 6374: 6371: 6370: 6368: 6364: 6358: 6355: 6353: 6350: 6348: 6345: 6343: 6340: 6338: 6335: 6333: 6330: 6326: 6323: 6321: 6318: 6317: 6316: 6313: 6311: 6308: 6306: 6303: 6301: 6298: 6296: 6293: 6291: 6288: 6286: 6283: 6281: 6278: 6276: 6273: 6271: 6268: 6266: 6263: 6261: 6258: 6257: 6255: 6251: 6245: 6242: 6240: 6237: 6235: 6232: 6230: 6229:Institutional 6227: 6226: 6224: 6220: 6216: 6209: 6204: 6202: 6197: 6195: 6190: 6189: 6186: 6180: 6177: 6166: 6165: 6160: 6156: 6154: 6151: 6150: 6137: 6133: 6128: 6123: 6119: 6115: 6111: 6107: 6103: 6096: 6094: 6079: 6075: 6069: 6061: 6057: 6052: 6047: 6043: 6039: 6035: 6028: 6026: 6024: 6022: 6013: 6009: 6005: 6001: 5997: 5993: 5989: 5985: 5981: 5974: 5972: 5963: 5959: 5954: 5949: 5944: 5939: 5935: 5931: 5927: 5923: 5919: 5912: 5910: 5896: 5890: 5886: 5882: 5878: 5874: 5867: 5859: 5853: 5849: 5845: 5841: 5834: 5832: 5830: 5828: 5819: 5815: 5810: 5805: 5800: 5795: 5791: 5787: 5784:(9): 4516–9. 5783: 5779: 5775: 5768: 5760: 5756: 5751: 5746: 5741: 5736: 5732: 5728: 5727:PLOS Genetics 5724: 5717: 5709: 5705: 5701: 5697: 5693: 5689: 5686:(1): 240–68. 5685: 5681: 5674: 5666: 5660: 5656: 5652: 5648: 5641: 5627: 5623: 5617: 5608: 5603: 5599: 5595: 5591: 5587: 5583: 5576: 5574: 5565: 5561: 5556: 5551: 5547: 5543: 5539: 5532: 5524: 5520: 5515: 5510: 5506: 5502: 5498: 5491: 5483: 5476: 5469: 5467: 5465: 5463: 5447: 5443: 5437: 5422: 5418: 5412: 5404: 5400: 5395: 5390: 5386: 5382: 5379:(3): 223–30. 5378: 5374: 5370: 5363: 5361: 5352: 5339: 5331: 5324: 5310: 5306: 5299: 5291: 5278: 5270: 5266: 5262: 5254: 5252: 5243: 5239: 5235: 5231: 5227: 5223: 5219: 5215: 5211: 5207: 5203: 5196: 5188: 5184: 5179: 5174: 5170: 5166: 5162: 5158: 5154: 5150: 5146: 5138: 5130: 5126: 5122: 5118: 5114: 5110: 5106: 5102: 5098: 5094: 5090: 5082: 5074: 5070: 5066: 5062: 5057: 5052: 5048: 5044: 5039: 5034: 5030: 5026: 5022: 5014: 5006: 5002: 4997: 4992: 4988: 4984: 4979: 4974: 4970: 4966: 4962: 4954: 4946: 4942: 4938: 4934: 4930: 4926: 4921: 4916: 4912: 4908: 4904: 4900: 4896: 4889: 4883: 4878: 4872: 4867: 4853: 4849: 4843: 4835: 4831: 4826: 4821: 4817: 4813: 4808: 4803: 4799: 4795: 4791: 4784: 4776: 4772: 4767: 4762: 4758: 4754: 4750: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4727: 4719: 4715: 4710: 4705: 4700: 4695: 4691: 4687: 4683: 4676: 4674: 4665: 4661: 4656: 4651: 4647: 4643: 4639: 4635: 4631: 4624: 4622: 4607: 4603: 4597: 4589: 4585: 4581: 4577: 4573: 4569: 4562: 4554: 4547: 4541: 4533: 4527: 4512: 4508: 4502: 4487: 4483: 4476: 4461: 4457: 4450: 4436: 4430: 4428: 4419: 4415: 4410: 4405: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4389: 4385: 4378: 4369: 4364: 4357: 4343: 4339: 4333: 4319: 4315: 4309: 4295: 4291: 4284: 4276: 4272: 4267: 4262: 4258: 4254: 4250: 4246: 4242: 4235: 4221: 4217: 4210: 4196: 4192: 4186: 4184: 4175: 4171: 4166: 4161: 4157: 4153: 4149: 4142: 4134: 4130: 4125: 4120: 4116: 4112: 4108: 4104: 4100: 4093: 4085: 4081: 4076: 4071: 4066: 4061: 4057: 4053: 4049: 4042: 4034: 4030: 4025: 4020: 4015: 4010: 4006: 4002: 3998: 3991: 3977: 3973: 3966: 3958: 3954: 3949: 3944: 3940: 3936: 3933:(5): 105951. 3932: 3928: 3924: 3917: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3887: 3873: 3869: 3862: 3848: 3844: 3837: 3835: 3826: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3811:(15): 961–4. 3810: 3806: 3799: 3791: 3787: 3782: 3777: 3772: 3767: 3763: 3759: 3755: 3748: 3746: 3737: 3733: 3728: 3723: 3718: 3713: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3694: 3692: 3683: 3679: 3675: 3671: 3664: 3656: 3652: 3647: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3615: 3607: 3603: 3598: 3593: 3589: 3585: 3581: 3574: 3559: 3555: 3549: 3541: 3537: 3530: 3516: 3512: 3506: 3498: 3494: 3490: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3470: 3463: 3461: 3452: 3448: 3443: 3438: 3433: 3428: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3409: 3395: 3391: 3384: 3376: 3372: 3367: 3362: 3358: 3354: 3347: 3339: 3335: 3331: 3327: 3324:(1): 433–54. 3323: 3319: 3312: 3304: 3300: 3295: 3290: 3285: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3268: 3261: 3259: 3250: 3246: 3241: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3224: 3217: 3209: 3205: 3200: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3183: 3179: 3175: 3168: 3154: 3150: 3143: 3135: 3131: 3126: 3121: 3117: 3113: 3109: 3105: 3101: 3094: 3092: 3090: 3075: 3071: 3065: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3042: 3034: 3030: 3025: 3020: 3016: 3012: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2993: 2991: 2979: 2975: 2968: 2961: 2959: 2950: 2937: 2923:on 2011-07-26 2922: 2918: 2914: 2908: 2900: 2887: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2860: 2852: 2839: 2831: 2827: 2820: 2816: 2806: 2803: 2801: 2798: 2796: 2793: 2791: 2788: 2786: 2783: 2781: 2778: 2776: 2773: 2770: 2769: 2765: 2763: 2760: 2759: 2749: 2748: 2743: 2736: 2734: 2727: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2704:blood samples 2700: 2696: 2692: 2691: 2686: 2685:Andrew Niccol 2682: 2678: 2674: 2665: 2662: 2658: 2656: 2652: 2642: 2640: 2639:schizophrenia 2636: 2632: 2627: 2617: 2615: 2610: 2600: 2598: 2594: 2589: 2582: 2572: 2570: 2566: 2561: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2541: 2531: 2528: 2520: 2517: 2514: 2511: 2508: 2507: 2506: 2502: 2499: 2495: 2485: 2483: 2479: 2475: 2465: 2456: 2448: 2447: 2444: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2421: 2412: 2403: 2401: 2396: 2386: 2384: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2369: 2364: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2338: 2334: 2332: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2311: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2292: 2290: 2286: 2281: 2277: 2272: 2269: 2258: 2255: 2251: 2247: 2243: 2232: 2222: 2218: 2215: 2214: 2203: 2200: 2197: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2180: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2161: 2155:United States 2147: 2144: 2139: 2137: 2133: 2127: 2124: 2119: 2117: 2113: 2109: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2094: 2090: 2079: 2074: 2072: 2067: 2065: 2060: 2059: 2057: 2056: 2046: 2043: 2039: 2036: 2035: 2034: 2031: 2029: 2026: 2024: 2023:Social stigma 2021: 2017: 2014: 2012: 2009: 2007: 2004: 2003: 2002: 1999: 1997: 1994: 1992: 1989: 1987: 1984: 1982: 1979: 1977: 1974: 1970: 1967: 1966: 1965: 1962: 1960: 1957: 1955: 1952: 1950: 1947: 1945: 1942: 1940: 1937: 1935: 1932: 1930: 1927: 1925: 1922: 1920: 1917: 1915: 1912: 1910: 1907: 1905: 1902: 1900: 1897: 1893: 1890: 1889: 1888: 1885: 1883: 1880: 1878: 1875: 1873: 1870: 1868: 1865: 1863: 1860: 1858: 1855: 1853: 1850: 1848: 1845: 1841: 1838: 1836: 1833: 1832: 1831: 1828: 1826: 1823: 1821: 1818: 1816: 1813: 1811: 1808: 1806: 1803: 1801: 1798: 1797: 1788: 1787: 1777: 1774: 1772: 1769: 1767: 1764: 1762: 1759: 1757: 1754: 1752: 1749: 1747: 1744: 1742: 1739: 1737: 1734: 1732: 1729: 1727: 1724: 1722: 1719: 1717: 1714: 1712: 1709: 1705: 1702: 1701: 1700: 1697: 1695: 1692: 1690: 1687: 1685: 1682: 1680: 1677: 1675: 1672: 1670: 1667: 1666: 1657: 1656: 1646: 1643: 1641: 1638: 1636: 1633: 1631: 1630:State atheism 1628: 1626: 1623: 1621: 1618: 1614: 1611: 1609: 1606: 1604: 1601: 1599: 1596: 1595: 1594: 1591: 1589: 1586: 1584: 1581: 1579: 1576: 1572: 1569: 1567: 1566:Jim Crow laws 1564: 1563: 1562: 1559: 1557: 1554: 1552: 1551:One-drop rule 1549: 1547: 1545: 1541: 1539: 1536: 1534: 1531: 1529: 1526: 1524: 1521: 1519: 1516: 1514: 1511: 1509: 1506: 1504: 1501: 1499: 1496: 1494: 1491: 1487: 1484: 1482: 1479: 1478: 1477: 1474: 1472: 1469: 1467: 1466:Blood quantum 1464: 1462: 1459: 1457: 1454: 1453: 1444: 1443: 1433: 1430: 1428: 1425: 1423: 1420: 1418: 1415: 1413: 1410: 1408: 1407:Victimisation 1405: 1403: 1402:Trans bashing 1400: 1398: 1395: 1393: 1390: 1388: 1385: 1383: 1380: 1378: 1375: 1373: 1372:Religious war 1370: 1368: 1365: 1363: 1360: 1358: 1355: 1353: 1352:Racialization 1350: 1348: 1345: 1343: 1340: 1338: 1335: 1333: 1330: 1328: 1325: 1323: 1320: 1316: 1313: 1311: 1308: 1306: 1303: 1302: 1301: 1298: 1296: 1293: 1291: 1288: 1286: 1283: 1281: 1278: 1276: 1273: 1271: 1268: 1266: 1263: 1261: 1258: 1256: 1253: 1251: 1248: 1246: 1243: 1241: 1238: 1234: 1231: 1230: 1229: 1226: 1224: 1223:Glass ceiling 1221: 1217: 1214: 1213: 1212: 1209: 1207: 1204: 1202: 1199: 1197: 1194: 1192: 1189: 1187: 1184: 1182: 1179: 1177: 1174: 1172: 1169: 1167: 1166:Ethnic hatred 1164: 1162: 1159: 1157: 1154: 1152: 1149: 1147: 1144: 1142: 1139: 1137: 1134: 1132: 1129: 1127: 1124: 1122: 1119: 1117: 1114: 1112: 1109: 1107: 1104: 1102: 1101:Counter-jihad 1099: 1097: 1094: 1092: 1089: 1087: 1084: 1082: 1079: 1077: 1074: 1072: 1069: 1065: 1062: 1061: 1060: 1057: 1056: 1047: 1046: 1036: 1033: 1031: 1028: 1026: 1023: 1021: 1018: 1016: 1013: 1011: 1008: 1006: 1003: 1001: 998: 996: 993: 991: 988: 986: 983: 981: 978: 976: 973: 971: 968: 966: 963: 961: 958: 956: 953: 951: 948: 946: 943: 941: 938: 936: 933: 931: 928: 926: 923: 921: 918: 916: 913: 911: 908: 906: 903: 901: 898: 896: 893: 891: 888: 884: 883:United States 881: 879: 876: 874: 871: 870: 868: 866: 863: 861: 858: 856: 853: 851: 848: 846: 843: 841: 838: 836: 833: 831: 828: 826: 823: 821: 818: 816: 813: 811: 808: 806: 803: 801: 798: 796: 793: 791: 788: 786: 783: 779: 776: 774: 771: 769: 766: 765: 764: 761: 759: 756: 754: 751: 747: 746:United States 744: 742: 739: 737: 734: 733: 732: 729: 727: 724: 722: 719: 717: 714: 712: 709: 707: 704: 702: 699: 698: 692: 686: 685: 675: 672: 670: 667: 665: 662: 660: 659:Protestantism 657: 655: 652: 648: 645: 644: 643: 640: 634: 631: 629: 626: 624: 621: 619: 616: 615: 614: 611: 610: 609: 606: 602: 599: 597: 594: 593: 592: 589: 587: 584: 580: 577: 575: 574:LDS or Mormon 572: 570: 567: 565: 562: 560: 557: 556: 555: 552: 550: 547: 545: 542: 540: 537: 536: 530: 525: 524: 514: 511: 509: 506: 502: 499: 497: 496:Transmisogyny 494: 492: 489: 488: 487: 484: 480: 477: 475: 472: 471: 470: 467: 465: 462: 460: 457: 455: 452: 450: 447: 445: 442: 440: 437: 435: 432: 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