2079:. Becker argued that the reasons for such discrimination should be determined by psychologists and sociologists, not by economists, and he sought only to determine the consequences of discrimination as manifested in economic decision-making. The early version of this model was criticized for failing to explain the continued existence of discriminating firms, because it predicts that these firms will be less profitable than their non-discriminating counterparts. Nevertheless, the taste-based model has since become the predominant economic explanation for discriminatory practices.
4298:
40:
4308:
2095:. The German Americans were discriminated against as a consequence of the war and were considered an ethnic minority, creating opportunity for taste-based discrimination in the trade market. The results showed that the discrimination indeed had an effect on the German Americans in the NYSE, where the rates of their rejection doubled. However, the discrimination had no effects on the price of NYSE seats.
2059:. The taste-based model further supposes that employers' preference for employees of certain groups is unrelated to their preference for more productive employees. According to this model, employees that are members of a group that is discriminated against may have to work harder for the same wage or accept a lower wage for the same work as other employees.
2055:. The model further posits that employers discriminate against minority applicants to avoid interacting with them, regardless of the applicant's productivity, and that employers are willing to pay a financial penalty to do so. It is one of the two leading theoretical explanations for labor market discrimination, the other being
2111:
employees' productivity is publicly disclosed. The results showed that the research subjects were choosing players based on their performance, which is measured in points, and the race of the players did not play a role. The research was done over a period of three years and no evidence of taste-based discrimination was found.
2062:
Taste-based discrimination can be observed from the side of employers, customers or co-workers. In the case of an employer's "taste for discrimination", the employer aims to avoid non-monetary costs and does so often based on his own preferences. In the case of co-workers and customers, they may not
2110:
teams. Since this is a virtual game, the players are able to discriminate without real life consequences. There are no real customers and the "workers" (players) do not interact. This allowed the research team to control for statistical discrimination, because all information about potential
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1000:
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2012:
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It is difficult for economists to distinguish between taste-based and statistical discrimination. A paper in 2008 studied the effect
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1981:
682:
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3146:
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2063:
want to interact with people belonging to a certain group, which the employer considers during the hiring process.
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1464:
1358:
814:
704:
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1998:
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57:
2308:
Moser, Petra (2012). "Taste-based discrimination: evidence from a shift in ethnic preferences after WWI".
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2179:"Economic Scene; Sticks and stones can break bones, but the wrong name can make a job hard to find"
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2213:
Neilson, William; Ying, Shanshan (2016). "From taste-based to statistical discrimination".
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1974:
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159:
2106:, which is an online game where players choose their 15 players from 20 participant
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1969:
1964:
1845:
1840:
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300:
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139:
114:
39:
3597:
2628:
2527:
2505:
2500:
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1273:
280:
171:
149:
144:
94:
3607:
2455:
1283:
99:
4219:
4048:
2071:
The taste-based discrimination model was first proposed by
1917:
1746:
2130:"Is ethnic discrimination due to distaste or statistics?"
2242:"Lecture Note: The Economics of Discrimination — Theory"
4183:Racial bias in criminal news in the United States
2263:International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences
1881:Racial bias in criminal news in the United States
4324:
3843:Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)
2334:
2215:Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization
1525:Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)
3325:SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups
2335:Bryson, Alex; Chevalier, Arnaud (2014-08-15).
2083:Distinguishing from statistical discrimination
1001:SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups
2390:
2006:
3541:List of people killed for being transgender
2212:
1217:List of people killed for being transgender
2397:
2383:
2128:Baert, Stijn; Pauw, Ann-Sophie De (2014).
2091:had on German Americans as traders at the
2051:, meaning that they can be said to have a
2013:
1999:
2153:
2127:
2664:Social determinants of health in poverty
2369:The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics
2337:"Is there a 'taste for discrimination'?"
2275:
316:Social determinants of health in poverty
2176:
2100:Center for Economic and Policy Research
4325:
2253:
2251:
2208:
2206:
2121:
2378:
2307:
2239:
4307:
3347:Capital punishment for homosexuality
2669:Social determinants of mental health
2303:
2301:
2299:
2047:can have negative results in hiring
1023:Capital punishment for homosexuality
321:Social determinants of mental health
3467:Genital modification and mutilation
2248:
2203:
1143:Genital modification and mutilation
13:
2404:
14:
4359:
2357:
2296:
4306:
4297:
4296:
3946:Diversity, equity, and inclusion
3783:Law for Protection of the Nation
3683:White genocide conspiracy theory
2310:Explorations in Economic History
1636:Diversity, equity, and inclusion
1465:Law for Protection of the Nation
1359:White genocide conspiracy theory
38:
16:Economic model of discrimination
3788:MSM blood donation restrictions
3536:LGBT grooming conspiracy theory
2177:Krueger, Alan B. (2002-12-12).
2077:The economics of discrimination
1470:MSM blood donation restrictions
1212:LGBT grooming conspiracy theory
3801:(as religious or racial quota)
2328:
2269:
2233:
2170:
2098:In 2014, researchers from the
1483:(as religious or racial quota)
1:
4215:Second-generation gender bias
3931:Constitutional colorblindness
2659:Social determinants of health
2146:10.1016/j.econlet.2014.09.020
2114:
2035:which argues that employers'
1913:Second-generation gender bias
1621:Constitutional colorblindness
311:Social determinants of health
2290:10.1016/j.labeco.2011.07.002
7:
4126:Medical model of disability
3978:Hate speech laws by country
2259:"Discrimination, Taste For"
2240:Autor, David (2003-11-24).
1824:Medical model of disability
1668:Hate speech laws by country
10:
4364:
4235:Social model of disability
2714:Discrimination against men
2227:10.1016/j.jebo.2016.06.001
2066:
2057:statistical discrimination
2026:Taste-based discrimination
1933:Social model of disability
366:Discrimination against men
4333:Employment discrimination
4292:
4031:
3908:
3701:
3588:Opposition to immigration
3312:
2959:
2806:
2556:
2506:Race / Ethnicity
2443:
2412:
2322:10.1016/j.eeh.2011.12.003
2102:conducted a study of the
1264:Opposition to immigration
150:Race / Ethnicity
3583:Occupational segregation
3352:Compulsory sterilization
2053:taste for discrimination
2028:is an economic model of
1259:Occupational segregation
1028:Compulsory sterilization
4111:Internalized oppression
3973:Fighting Discrimination
3963:Fat acceptance movement
3921:Anti-discrimination law
3561:Native American mascots
2093:New York Stock Exchange
1809:Internalized oppression
1663:Fighting Discrimination
1653:Fat acceptance movement
1611:Anti-discrimination law
1237:Native American mascots
4230:Social identity threat
4203:Reverse discrimination
4193:Racial color blindness
3673:Violence against women
3653:Sex-selective abortion
2104:Fantasy Premier League
2041:organisational culture
1928:Social identity threat
1901:Reverse discrimination
1891:Racial color blindness
1349:Violence against women
1329:Sex-selective abortion
4348:Sociological theories
4198:Religious intolerance
4158:Political correctness
3988:Intersex human rights
3936:Cultural assimilation
3618:Religious persecution
3382:Disability hate crime
1896:Religious intolerance
1856:Political correctness
1678:Intersex human rights
1626:Cultural assimilation
1294:Religious persecution
1058:Disability hate crime
3603:Political repression
2609:Anti-left handedness
2599:Anti-intellectualism
2075:in 1957 in his book
1279:Political repression
261:Anti-left handedness
251:Anti-intellectualism
4106:Historical eugenics
3643:Segregation academy
3623:Religious terrorism
3412:Enemy of the people
3320:Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric
2846:Jehovah's Witnesses
2739:Perpetual foreigner
1804:Historical eugenics
1319:Segregation academy
1299:Religious terrorism
1088:Enemy of the people
996:Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric
506:Jehovah's Witnesses
391:Perpetual foreigner
4018:Social integration
4013:Self-determination
4003:Racial integration
3951:Diversity training
3941:Cultural pluralism
3916:Affirmative action
3816:Racial segregation
3726:Crime of apartheid
3628:Religious violence
3138:Indigenous people
2533:Sexual orientation
2183:The New York Times
2045:prohibited grounds
2039:or dislikes in an
1708:Social integration
1703:Self-determination
1693:Racial integration
1641:Diversity training
1631:Cultural pluralism
1606:Affirmative action
1498:Racial segregation
1408:Crime of apartheid
1304:Religious violence
806:Indigenous people
177:Sexual orientation
4343:Economic theories
4320:
4319:
4188:Racism by country
4116:Intersectionality
4101:Heteronormativity
3900:Voter suppression
3648:Sexual harassment
3447:Forced conversion
3367:Cultural genocide
3037:African Americans
2856:post–Cold War era
2841:Eastern Orthodoxy
2594:Anti-drug addicts
2589:Anti-homelessness
2516:Scientific racism
2134:Economics Letters
2023:
2022:
1886:Racism by country
1814:Intersectionality
1799:Heteronormativity
1582:Voter suppression
1324:Sexual harassment
1123:Forced conversion
1043:Cultural genocide
705:African Americans
516:post–Cold War era
501:Eastern Orthodoxy
246:Anti-drug addicts
241:Anti-homelessness
160:Scientific racism
4355:
4338:Labour economics
4310:
4309:
4300:
4299:
4240:Social privilege
4225:Social exclusion
4153:Police brutality
4074:Multiculturalism
4044:Amatonormativity
3875:Social exclusion
3711:Age of candidacy
3511:Homeless dumping
3417:Ethnic cleansing
2399:
2392:
2385:
2376:
2375:
2351:
2350:
2348:
2347:
2332:
2326:
2325:
2305:
2294:
2293:
2278:Labour Economics
2273:
2267:
2266:
2255:
2246:
2245:
2237:
2231:
2230:
2210:
2201:
2200:
2198:
2197:
2174:
2168:
2167:
2157:
2125:
2049:minority workers
2015:
2008:
2001:
1938:Social privilege
1923:Social exclusion
1851:Police brutality
1772:Multiculturalism
1742:Amatonormativity
1557:Social exclusion
1393:Age of candidacy
1187:Homeless dumping
1093:Ethnic cleansing
42:
19:
18:
4363:
4362:
4358:
4357:
4356:
4354:
4353:
4352:
4323:
4322:
4321:
4316:
4288:
4163:Polyculturalism
4059:Civil liberties
4027:
4008:Reappropriation
3909:Countermeasures
3904:
3833:Racial steering
3799:Numerus clausus
3703:
3697:
3422:Ethnic conflict
3357:Corrective rape
3308:
2955:
2802:
2694:HIV/AIDS stigma
2552:
2501:Mental disorder
2439:
2408:
2403:
2360:
2355:
2354:
2345:
2343:
2333:
2329:
2306:
2297:
2274:
2270:
2257:
2256:
2249:
2238:
2234:
2211:
2204:
2195:
2193:
2175:
2171:
2155:1854/LU-5704419
2126:
2122:
2117:
2085:
2069:
2019:
1990:
1989:
1988:
1987:
1986:
1861:Polyculturalism
1757:Civil liberties
1729:
1721:
1720:
1719:
1718:
1717:
1698:Reappropriation
1598:
1597:Countermeasures
1590:
1589:
1588:
1587:
1586:
1515:Racial steering
1481:Numerus clausus
1385:
1377:
1376:
1375:
1374:
1373:
1098:Ethnic conflict
1033:Corrective rape
988:
980:
979:
978:
977:
976:
630:
619:
618:
617:
616:
615:
468:
458:
457:
456:
455:
454:
346:HIV/AIDS stigma
208:
200:
199:
198:
197:
196:
145:Mental disorder
87:
79:
78:
77:
76:
75:
50:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4361:
4351:
4350:
4345:
4340:
4335:
4318:
4317:
4315:
4314:
4304:
4293:
4290:
4289:
4287:
4286:
4281:
4280:
4279:
4269:
4264:
4259:
4258:
4257:
4252:
4247:
4237:
4232:
4227:
4222:
4217:
4212:
4211:
4210:
4208:Reverse racism
4200:
4195:
4190:
4185:
4180:
4178:Prisoner abuse
4175:
4170:
4168:Power distance
4165:
4160:
4155:
4150:
4145:
4140:
4135:
4134:
4133:
4123:
4118:
4113:
4108:
4103:
4098:
4093:
4088:
4086:Ethnic penalty
4083:
4082:
4081:
4079:Neurodiversity
4076:
4066:
4064:Dehumanization
4061:
4056:
4054:Cisnormativity
4051:
4046:
4041:
4035:
4033:
4032:Related topics
4029:
4028:
4026:
4025:
4020:
4015:
4010:
4005:
4000:
3995:
3990:
3985:
3980:
3975:
3970:
3965:
3960:
3955:
3954:
3953:
3943:
3938:
3933:
3928:
3923:
3918:
3912:
3910:
3906:
3905:
3903:
3902:
3897:
3892:
3890:State religion
3887:
3882:
3877:
3872:
3871:
3870:
3865:
3860:
3855:
3845:
3840:
3835:
3830:
3829:
3828:
3826:Nuremberg Laws
3823:
3813:
3808:
3803:
3795:
3790:
3785:
3780:
3775:
3770:
3768:Ghetto benches
3765:
3763:Gerrymandering
3760:
3755:
3750:
3748:Gender pay gap
3745:
3744:
3743:
3738:
3728:
3723:
3718:
3713:
3707:
3705:
3702:Discriminatory
3699:
3698:
3696:
3695:
3690:
3685:
3680:
3675:
3670:
3665:
3660:
3655:
3650:
3645:
3640:
3635:
3630:
3625:
3620:
3615:
3610:
3605:
3600:
3595:
3590:
3585:
3580:
3579:
3578:
3573:
3568:
3558:
3553:
3548:
3543:
3538:
3533:
3531:Lavender scare
3528:
3526:Kill Haole Day
3523:
3521:Indian rolling
3518:
3513:
3508:
3503:
3498:
3497:
3496:
3486:
3481:
3480:
3479:
3469:
3464:
3459:
3454:
3449:
3444:
3439:
3434:
3429:
3424:
3419:
3414:
3409:
3407:Eliminationism
3404:
3399:
3394:
3389:
3384:
3379:
3374:
3369:
3364:
3359:
3354:
3349:
3344:
3342:Cancel culture
3339:
3334:
3329:
3328:
3327:
3316:
3314:
3313:Manifestations
3310:
3309:
3307:
3306:
3301:
3296:
3291:
3286:
3281:
3276:
3271:
3266:
3261:
3256:
3251:
3246:
3241:
3236:
3231:
3226:
3221:
3216:
3211:
3209:Middle Eastern
3206:
3201:
3196:
3191:
3186:
3181:
3176:
3171:
3166:
3161:
3156:
3155:
3154:
3149:
3144:
3136:
3131:
3126:
3121:
3116:
3111:
3106:
3101:
3096:
3091:
3086:
3081:
3076:
3071:
3066:
3061:
3056:
3051:
3050:
3049:
3044:
3039:
3029:
3024:
3019:
3018:
3017:
3012:
3007:
2997:
2992:
2987:
2982:
2977:
2972:
2966:
2964:
2957:
2956:
2954:
2953:
2951:Zoroastrianism
2948:
2943:
2938:
2933:
2928:
2927:
2926:
2916:
2915:
2914:
2913:
2912:
2907:
2902:
2897:
2882:
2881:
2880:
2878:Untouchability
2875:
2865:
2860:
2859:
2858:
2853:
2848:
2843:
2838:
2828:
2823:
2818:
2812:
2810:
2804:
2803:
2801:
2800:
2795:
2790:
2789:
2788:
2783:
2778:
2768:
2767:
2766:
2761:
2751:
2746:
2741:
2736:
2731:
2726:
2721:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2704:Leprosy stigma
2701:
2696:
2691:
2686:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2661:
2656:
2651:
2646:
2641:
2636:
2631:
2626:
2621:
2616:
2611:
2606:
2601:
2596:
2591:
2586:
2581:
2576:
2571:
2566:
2560:
2558:
2554:
2553:
2551:
2550:
2545:
2540:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2520:
2519:
2518:
2513:
2503:
2498:
2493:
2488:
2483:
2478:
2473:
2468:
2463:
2458:
2453:
2447:
2445:
2441:
2440:
2438:
2437:
2432:
2427:
2422:
2416:
2414:
2410:
2409:
2406:Discrimination
2402:
2401:
2394:
2387:
2379:
2373:
2372:
2359:
2358:External links
2356:
2353:
2352:
2327:
2316:(2): 167–188.
2295:
2268:
2247:
2232:
2202:
2169:
2140:(2): 270–273.
2119:
2118:
2116:
2113:
2108:Premier League
2084:
2081:
2068:
2065:
2033:discrimination
2021:
2020:
2018:
2017:
2010:
2003:
1995:
1992:
1991:
1985:
1984:
1979:
1978:
1977:
1967:
1962:
1957:
1956:
1955:
1950:
1945:
1935:
1930:
1925:
1920:
1915:
1910:
1909:
1908:
1906:Reverse racism
1898:
1893:
1888:
1883:
1878:
1876:Prisoner abuse
1873:
1868:
1866:Power distance
1863:
1858:
1853:
1848:
1843:
1838:
1833:
1832:
1831:
1821:
1816:
1811:
1806:
1801:
1796:
1791:
1786:
1784:Ethnic penalty
1781:
1780:
1779:
1777:Neurodiversity
1774:
1764:
1762:Dehumanization
1759:
1754:
1752:Cisnormativity
1749:
1744:
1739:
1733:
1732:
1731:
1730:
1728:Related topics
1727:
1726:
1723:
1722:
1716:
1715:
1710:
1705:
1700:
1695:
1690:
1685:
1680:
1675:
1670:
1665:
1660:
1655:
1650:
1645:
1644:
1643:
1633:
1628:
1623:
1618:
1613:
1608:
1602:
1601:
1600:
1599:
1596:
1595:
1592:
1591:
1585:
1584:
1579:
1574:
1572:State religion
1569:
1564:
1559:
1554:
1553:
1552:
1547:
1542:
1537:
1527:
1522:
1517:
1512:
1511:
1510:
1508:Nuremberg Laws
1505:
1495:
1490:
1485:
1477:
1472:
1467:
1462:
1457:
1452:
1450:Ghetto benches
1447:
1445:Gerrymandering
1442:
1437:
1432:
1430:Gender pay gap
1427:
1426:
1425:
1420:
1410:
1405:
1400:
1395:
1389:
1388:
1387:
1386:
1383:
1382:
1379:
1378:
1372:
1371:
1366:
1361:
1356:
1351:
1346:
1341:
1336:
1331:
1326:
1321:
1316:
1311:
1306:
1301:
1296:
1291:
1286:
1281:
1276:
1271:
1266:
1261:
1256:
1255:
1254:
1249:
1244:
1234:
1229:
1224:
1219:
1214:
1209:
1207:Lavender scare
1204:
1202:Kill Haole Day
1199:
1197:Indian rolling
1194:
1189:
1184:
1179:
1174:
1173:
1172:
1162:
1157:
1156:
1155:
1145:
1140:
1135:
1130:
1125:
1120:
1115:
1110:
1105:
1100:
1095:
1090:
1085:
1083:Eliminationism
1080:
1075:
1070:
1065:
1060:
1055:
1050:
1045:
1040:
1035:
1030:
1025:
1020:
1018:Cancel culture
1015:
1010:
1005:
1004:
1003:
992:
991:
990:
989:
987:Manifestations
986:
985:
982:
981:
975:
974:
969:
964:
959:
954:
949:
944:
939:
934:
929:
924:
919:
914:
909:
904:
899:
894:
889:
884:
879:
877:Middle Eastern
874:
869:
864:
859:
854:
849:
844:
839:
834:
829:
824:
823:
822:
817:
812:
804:
799:
794:
789:
784:
779:
774:
769:
764:
759:
754:
749:
744:
739:
734:
729:
724:
719:
718:
717:
712:
707:
697:
692:
687:
686:
685:
680:
675:
665:
660:
655:
650:
645:
640:
634:
633:
632:
631:
625:
624:
621:
620:
614:
613:
611:Zoroastrianism
608:
603:
598:
593:
588:
587:
586:
576:
575:
574:
573:
572:
567:
562:
557:
542:
541:
540:
538:Untouchability
535:
525:
520:
519:
518:
513:
508:
503:
498:
488:
483:
478:
472:
471:
470:
469:
464:
463:
460:
459:
453:
452:
447:
442:
441:
440:
435:
430:
420:
419:
418:
413:
403:
398:
393:
388:
383:
378:
373:
368:
363:
358:
356:Leprosy stigma
353:
348:
343:
338:
333:
328:
323:
318:
313:
308:
303:
298:
293:
288:
283:
278:
273:
268:
263:
258:
253:
248:
243:
238:
233:
228:
223:
218:
212:
211:
210:
209:
206:
205:
202:
201:
195:
194:
189:
184:
179:
174:
169:
164:
163:
162:
157:
147:
142:
137:
132:
127:
122:
117:
112:
107:
102:
97:
91:
90:
89:
88:
85:
84:
81:
80:
74:
73:
70:
65:
60:
54:
53:
52:
51:
48:
47:
44:
43:
35:
34:
32:Discrimination
28:
27:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4360:
4349:
4346:
4344:
4341:
4339:
4336:
4334:
4331:
4330:
4328:
4313:
4305:
4303:
4295:
4294:
4291:
4285:
4282:
4278:
4275:
4274:
4273:
4270:
4268:
4265:
4263:
4262:Social stigma
4260:
4256:
4253:
4251:
4248:
4246:
4243:
4242:
4241:
4238:
4236:
4233:
4231:
4228:
4226:
4223:
4221:
4218:
4216:
4213:
4209:
4206:
4205:
4204:
4201:
4199:
4196:
4194:
4191:
4189:
4186:
4184:
4181:
4179:
4176:
4174:
4171:
4169:
4166:
4164:
4161:
4159:
4156:
4154:
4151:
4149:
4146:
4144:
4141:
4139:
4136:
4132:
4129:
4128:
4127:
4124:
4122:
4119:
4117:
4114:
4112:
4109:
4107:
4104:
4102:
4099:
4097:
4094:
4092:
4089:
4087:
4084:
4080:
4077:
4075:
4072:
4071:
4070:
4067:
4065:
4062:
4060:
4057:
4055:
4052:
4050:
4047:
4045:
4042:
4040:
4037:
4036:
4034:
4030:
4024:
4021:
4019:
4016:
4014:
4011:
4009:
4006:
4004:
4001:
3999:
3996:
3994:
3991:
3989:
3986:
3984:
3981:
3979:
3976:
3974:
3971:
3969:
3966:
3964:
3961:
3959:
3956:
3952:
3949:
3948:
3947:
3944:
3942:
3939:
3937:
3934:
3932:
3929:
3927:
3924:
3922:
3919:
3917:
3914:
3913:
3911:
3907:
3901:
3898:
3896:
3893:
3891:
3888:
3886:
3885:State atheism
3883:
3881:
3878:
3876:
3873:
3869:
3866:
3864:
3861:
3859:
3856:
3854:
3851:
3850:
3849:
3846:
3844:
3841:
3839:
3836:
3834:
3831:
3827:
3824:
3822:
3821:Jim Crow laws
3819:
3818:
3817:
3814:
3812:
3809:
3807:
3806:One-drop rule
3804:
3802:
3800:
3796:
3794:
3791:
3789:
3786:
3784:
3781:
3779:
3776:
3774:
3771:
3769:
3766:
3764:
3761:
3759:
3756:
3754:
3751:
3749:
3746:
3742:
3739:
3737:
3734:
3733:
3732:
3729:
3727:
3724:
3722:
3721:Blood quantum
3719:
3717:
3714:
3712:
3709:
3708:
3706:
3700:
3694:
3691:
3689:
3686:
3684:
3681:
3679:
3676:
3674:
3671:
3669:
3668:Victimisation
3666:
3664:
3663:Trans bashing
3661:
3659:
3656:
3654:
3651:
3649:
3646:
3644:
3641:
3639:
3636:
3634:
3633:Religious war
3631:
3629:
3626:
3624:
3621:
3619:
3616:
3614:
3613:Racialization
3611:
3609:
3606:
3604:
3601:
3599:
3596:
3594:
3591:
3589:
3586:
3584:
3581:
3577:
3574:
3572:
3569:
3567:
3564:
3563:
3562:
3559:
3557:
3554:
3552:
3549:
3547:
3544:
3542:
3539:
3537:
3534:
3532:
3529:
3527:
3524:
3522:
3519:
3517:
3514:
3512:
3509:
3507:
3504:
3502:
3499:
3495:
3492:
3491:
3490:
3487:
3485:
3484:Glass ceiling
3482:
3478:
3475:
3474:
3473:
3470:
3468:
3465:
3463:
3460:
3458:
3455:
3453:
3450:
3448:
3445:
3443:
3440:
3438:
3435:
3433:
3430:
3428:
3427:Ethnic hatred
3425:
3423:
3420:
3418:
3415:
3413:
3410:
3408:
3405:
3403:
3400:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3390:
3388:
3385:
3383:
3380:
3378:
3375:
3373:
3370:
3368:
3365:
3363:
3362:Counter-jihad
3360:
3358:
3355:
3353:
3350:
3348:
3345:
3343:
3340:
3338:
3335:
3333:
3330:
3326:
3323:
3322:
3321:
3318:
3317:
3315:
3311:
3305:
3302:
3300:
3297:
3295:
3292:
3290:
3287:
3285:
3282:
3280:
3277:
3275:
3272:
3270:
3267:
3265:
3262:
3260:
3257:
3255:
3252:
3250:
3247:
3245:
3242:
3240:
3237:
3235:
3232:
3230:
3227:
3225:
3222:
3220:
3217:
3215:
3212:
3210:
3207:
3205:
3202:
3200:
3197:
3195:
3192:
3190:
3187:
3185:
3182:
3180:
3177:
3175:
3172:
3170:
3167:
3165:
3162:
3160:
3157:
3153:
3152:United States
3150:
3148:
3145:
3143:
3140:
3139:
3137:
3135:
3132:
3130:
3127:
3125:
3122:
3120:
3117:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3105:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3095:
3092:
3090:
3087:
3085:
3082:
3080:
3077:
3075:
3072:
3070:
3067:
3065:
3062:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3052:
3048:
3045:
3043:
3040:
3038:
3035:
3034:
3033:
3030:
3028:
3025:
3023:
3020:
3016:
3015:United States
3013:
3011:
3008:
3006:
3003:
3002:
3001:
2998:
2996:
2993:
2991:
2988:
2986:
2983:
2981:
2978:
2976:
2973:
2971:
2968:
2967:
2965:
2963:
2958:
2952:
2949:
2947:
2944:
2942:
2939:
2937:
2936:Protestantism
2934:
2932:
2929:
2925:
2922:
2921:
2920:
2917:
2911:
2908:
2906:
2903:
2901:
2898:
2896:
2893:
2892:
2891:
2888:
2887:
2886:
2883:
2879:
2876:
2874:
2871:
2870:
2869:
2866:
2864:
2861:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2851:LDS or Mormon
2849:
2847:
2844:
2842:
2839:
2837:
2834:
2833:
2832:
2829:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2819:
2817:
2814:
2813:
2811:
2809:
2805:
2799:
2796:
2794:
2791:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2781:Transmisogyny
2779:
2777:
2774:
2773:
2772:
2769:
2765:
2762:
2760:
2757:
2756:
2755:
2752:
2750:
2747:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2737:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2720:
2717:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2685:
2684:Gerontophobia
2682:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2642:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2604:Anti-intersex
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2579:Anti-albinism
2577:
2575:
2572:
2570:
2567:
2565:
2562:
2561:
2559:
2555:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2541:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2517:
2514:
2512:
2509:
2508:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2497:
2494:
2492:
2489:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2479:
2477:
2474:
2472:
2469:
2467:
2464:
2462:
2459:
2457:
2454:
2452:
2449:
2448:
2446:
2442:
2436:
2433:
2431:
2428:
2426:
2423:
2421:
2420:Institutional
2418:
2417:
2415:
2411:
2407:
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2300:
2291:
2287:
2284:: S146–S159.
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2038:
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2027:
2016:
2011:
2009:
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2002:
1997:
1996:
1994:
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1983:
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1968:
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1960:Social stigma
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1954:
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1604:
1603:
1594:
1593:
1583:
1580:
1578:
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1573:
1570:
1568:
1567:State atheism
1565:
1563:
1560:
1558:
1555:
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1543:
1541:
1538:
1536:
1533:
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1531:
1528:
1526:
1523:
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1518:
1516:
1513:
1509:
1506:
1504:
1503:Jim Crow laws
1501:
1500:
1499:
1496:
1494:
1491:
1489:
1488:One-drop rule
1486:
1484:
1482:
1478:
1476:
1473:
1471:
1468:
1466:
1463:
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1458:
1456:
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1428:
1424:
1421:
1419:
1416:
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1414:
1411:
1409:
1406:
1404:
1403:Blood quantum
1401:
1399:
1396:
1394:
1391:
1390:
1381:
1380:
1370:
1367:
1365:
1362:
1360:
1357:
1355:
1352:
1350:
1347:
1345:
1344:Victimisation
1342:
1340:
1339:Trans bashing
1337:
1335:
1332:
1330:
1327:
1325:
1322:
1320:
1317:
1315:
1312:
1310:
1309:Religious war
1307:
1305:
1302:
1300:
1297:
1295:
1292:
1290:
1289:Racialization
1287:
1285:
1282:
1280:
1277:
1275:
1272:
1270:
1267:
1265:
1262:
1260:
1257:
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1198:
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1188:
1185:
1183:
1180:
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1175:
1171:
1168:
1167:
1166:
1163:
1161:
1160:Glass ceiling
1158:
1154:
1151:
1150:
1149:
1146:
1144:
1141:
1139:
1136:
1134:
1131:
1129:
1126:
1124:
1121:
1119:
1116:
1114:
1111:
1109:
1106:
1104:
1103:Ethnic hatred
1101:
1099:
1096:
1094:
1091:
1089:
1086:
1084:
1081:
1079:
1076:
1074:
1071:
1069:
1066:
1064:
1061:
1059:
1056:
1054:
1051:
1049:
1046:
1044:
1041:
1039:
1038:Counter-jihad
1036:
1034:
1031:
1029:
1026:
1024:
1021:
1019:
1016:
1014:
1011:
1009:
1006:
1002:
999:
998:
997:
994:
993:
984:
983:
973:
970:
968:
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960:
958:
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953:
950:
948:
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938:
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928:
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923:
920:
918:
915:
913:
910:
908:
905:
903:
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898:
895:
893:
890:
888:
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883:
880:
878:
875:
873:
870:
868:
865:
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860:
858:
855:
853:
850:
848:
845:
843:
840:
838:
835:
833:
830:
828:
825:
821:
820:United States
818:
816:
813:
811:
808:
807:
805:
803:
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798:
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793:
790:
788:
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780:
778:
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748:
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723:
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711:
708:
706:
703:
702:
701:
698:
696:
693:
691:
688:
684:
683:United States
681:
679:
676:
674:
671:
670:
669:
666:
664:
661:
659:
656:
654:
651:
649:
646:
644:
641:
639:
636:
635:
629:
623:
622:
612:
609:
607:
604:
602:
599:
597:
596:Protestantism
594:
592:
589:
585:
582:
581:
580:
577:
571:
568:
566:
563:
561:
558:
556:
553:
552:
551:
548:
547:
546:
543:
539:
536:
534:
531:
530:
529:
526:
524:
521:
517:
514:
512:
511:LDS or Mormon
509:
507:
504:
502:
499:
497:
494:
493:
492:
489:
487:
484:
482:
479:
477:
474:
473:
467:
462:
461:
451:
448:
446:
443:
439:
436:
434:
433:Transmisogyny
431:
429:
426:
425:
424:
421:
417:
414:
412:
409:
408:
407:
404:
402:
399:
397:
394:
392:
389:
387:
384:
382:
379:
377:
374:
372:
369:
367:
364:
362:
359:
357:
354:
352:
349:
347:
344:
342:
339:
337:
336:Gerontophobia
334:
332:
329:
327:
324:
322:
319:
317:
314:
312:
309:
307:
304:
302:
299:
297:
294:
292:
289:
287:
284:
282:
279:
277:
274:
272:
269:
267:
264:
262:
259:
257:
256:Anti-intersex
254:
252:
249:
247:
244:
242:
239:
237:
234:
232:
231:Anti-albinism
229:
227:
224:
222:
219:
217:
214:
213:
204:
203:
193:
190:
188:
185:
183:
180:
178:
175:
173:
170:
168:
165:
161:
158:
156:
153:
152:
151:
148:
146:
143:
141:
138:
136:
133:
131:
128:
126:
123:
121:
118:
116:
113:
111:
108:
106:
103:
101:
98:
96:
93:
92:
83:
82:
71:
69:
66:
64:
61:
59:
58:Institutional
56:
55:
46:
45:
41:
37:
36:
33:
30:
29:
25:
21:
20:
4096:Gender-blind
3983:Human rights
3811:Racial quota
3798:
3778:Jewish quota
3758:Gerontocracy
3753:Gender roles
3731:Disabilities
3716:Blood purity
3688:Wife selling
3678:White flight
3658:Slut-shaming
3638:Scapegoating
3556:Murder music
3229:Palestinians
3047:South Africa
3032:Black people
3010:South Africa
2831:Christianity
2821:Baháʼí Faith
2749:Sectarianism
2689:Heterosexism
2654:Ephebiphobia
2619:Antisemitism
2614:Anti-Masonry
2481:Hair texture
2434:
2367:
2344:. Retrieved
2340:
2330:
2313:
2309:
2281:
2277:
2271:
2262:
2235:
2218:
2214:
2194:. Retrieved
2182:
2172:
2137:
2133:
2123:
2097:
2086:
2076:
2070:
2061:
2052:
2030:labor market
2025:
2024:
1794:Gender-blind
1673:Human rights
1493:Racial quota
1480:
1460:Jewish quota
1440:Gerontocracy
1435:Gender roles
1413:Disabilities
1398:Blood purity
1364:Wife selling
1354:White flight
1334:Slut-shaming
1314:Scapegoating
1232:Murder music
897:Palestinians
715:South Africa
700:Black people
678:South Africa
491:Christianity
481:Baháʼí Faith
401:Sectarianism
341:Heterosexism
306:Ephebiphobia
271:Antisemitism
266:Anti-Masonry
125:Hair texture
3998:Nonviolence
3993:LGBT rights
3958:Empowerment
3926:Anti-racism
3848:Segregation
3793:No kid zone
3593:Persecution
3506:Hate speech
3457:Gay bashing
3432:Ethnic joke
3387:Dog whistle
3332:Blood libel
3027:Azerbaijani
2931:Neopaganism
2924:Persecution
2890:Persecution
2873:Persecution
2836:Catholicism
2771:Transphobia
2754:Supremacism
2709:Lesbophobia
2624:Aporophobia
2584:Anti-autism
2435:Taste-based
2430:Statistical
2221:: 116–128.
2089:World War I
2073:Gary Becker
1688:Nonviolence
1683:LGBT rights
1648:Empowerment
1616:Anti-racism
1530:Segregation
1475:No kid zone
1269:Persecution
1182:Hate speech
1133:Gay bashing
1108:Ethnic joke
1063:Dog whistle
1008:Blood libel
695:Azerbaijani
591:Neopaganism
584:Persecution
550:Persecution
533:Persecution
496:Catholicism
423:Transphobia
406:Supremacism
361:Lesbophobia
276:Aporophobia
236:Anti-autism
72:Taste-based
68:Statistical
4327:Categories
4272:Stereotype
4267:Speciesism
4148:Oppression
4143:Oikophobia
4039:Allophilia
4023:Toleration
3880:Sodomy law
3773:Internment
3693:Witch-hunt
3571:Blackhawks
3501:Hate group
3489:Hate crime
3462:Gendercide
3452:Freak show
3442:Excellence
3402:Employment
3372:Defamation
3304:Vietnamese
3299:Venezuelan
3189:Lithuanian
2863:Falun Gong
2798:Xenophobia
2793:Vegaphobia
2776:Non-binary
2734:Pedophobia
2699:Homophobia
2511:Skin color
2471:Disability
2444:Attributes
2425:Structural
2346:2018-02-03
2196:2018-02-03
2115:References
2043:rooted in
1970:Stereotype
1965:Speciesism
1846:Oppression
1841:Oikophobia
1737:Allophilia
1713:Toleration
1562:Sodomy law
1455:Internment
1369:Witch-hunt
1247:Blackhawks
1177:Hate group
1165:Hate crime
1138:Gendercide
1128:Freak show
1118:Excellence
1078:Employment
1048:Defamation
972:Vietnamese
967:Venezuelan
857:Lithuanian
523:Falun Gong
450:Xenophobia
445:Vegaphobia
428:Non-binary
386:Pedophobia
351:Homophobia
155:Skin color
115:Disability
86:Attributes
63:Structural
4245:Christian
4173:Prejudice
4121:Masculism
4069:Diversity
3863:religious
3838:Redlining
3437:Ethnocide
3397:Education
3289:Ukrainian
3224:Pakistani
3214:Mongolian
3142:Australia
3124:Hungarian
3079:Colombian
3059:Bulgarian
2941:Rastafari
2895:Ahmadiyya
2808:Religious
2786:Trans men
2744:Pregnancy
2679:Gayphobia
2674:Fatphobia
2569:Acephobia
2564:Arophobia
2548:Viewpoint
2341:VoxEU.org
2191:0362-4331
2164:154444808
2037:prejudice
1943:Christian
1871:Prejudice
1819:Masculism
1767:Diversity
1545:religious
1520:Redlining
1113:Ethnocide
1073:Education
957:Ukrainian
892:Pakistani
882:Mongolian
810:Australia
792:Hungarian
747:Colombian
727:Bulgarian
601:Rastafari
555:Ahmadiyya
466:Religious
438:Trans men
396:Pregnancy
331:Gayphobia
326:Fatphobia
221:Acephobia
216:Arophobia
192:Viewpoint
4302:Category
4284:The talk
4220:Snobbery
4138:Net bias
3968:Feminism
3895:Ugly law
3736:Catholic
3704:policies
3551:Mortgage
3546:Lynching
3477:examples
3472:Genocide
3392:Economic
3377:Democide
3337:Bullying
3254:Romanian
3219:Nigerian
3169:Japanese
3104:Georgian
3089:Filipino
3022:Assyrian
2995:Armenian
2985:American
2980:Albanian
2962:National
2946:Yazidism
2868:Hinduism
2826:Buddhism
2729:Nepotism
2724:Misogyny
2719:Misandry
2644:Cronyism
2639:Clannism
2634:Biphobia
2574:Adultism
2491:Language
1982:The talk
1918:Snobbery
1836:Net bias
1658:Feminism
1577:Ugly law
1418:Catholic
1384:Policies
1227:Mortgage
1222:Lynching
1153:examples
1148:Genocide
1068:Economic
1053:Democide
1013:Bullying
922:Romanian
887:Nigerian
837:Japanese
772:Georgian
757:Filipino
690:Assyrian
663:Armenian
653:American
648:Albanian
628:national
606:Yazidism
528:Hinduism
486:Buddhism
381:Nepotism
376:Misogyny
371:Misandry
296:Cronyism
291:Clannism
286:Biphobia
226:Adultism
135:Language
24:a series
22:Part of
4312:Commons
4091:Figleaf
3516:Housing
3284:Turkish
3234:Pashtun
3204:Mexican
3184:Kurdish
3164:Italian
3114:Haitian
3099:Finnish
3074:Chinese
3069:Chechen
3064:Catalan
3054:Bengali
2975:African
2960:Ethnic/
2919:Judaism
2910:Sunnism
2900:Shi'ism
2816:Atheism
2649:Elitism
2538:Species
2476:Genetic
2466:Dialect
2265:. 2008.
2067:History
1789:Figleaf
1192:Housing
952:Turkish
902:Pashtun
872:Mexican
852:Kurdish
832:Italian
782:Haitian
767:Finnish
742:Chinese
737:Chechen
732:Catalan
722:Bengali
643:African
626:Ethnic/
579:Judaism
570:Sunnism
560:Shi'ism
476:Atheism
301:Elitism
182:Species
120:Genetic
110:Dialect
4277:threat
4131:autism
3868:sexual
3858:racial
3741:Jewish
3598:Pogrom
3576:Chiefs
3566:Braves
3294:Uyghur
3269:Somali
3264:Slavic
3249:Romani
3244:Quebec
3239:Polish
3179:Korean
3174:Jewish
3147:Canada
3134:Indian
3119:Hazara
3094:Fulani
3005:France
2970:Afghan
2905:Sufism
2629:Audism
2557:Social
2486:Height
2189:
2162:
1975:threat
1829:autism
1550:sexual
1540:racial
1423:Jewish
1274:Pogrom
1252:Chiefs
1242:Braves
962:Uyghur
937:Somali
932:Slavic
917:Romani
912:Quebec
907:Polish
847:Korean
842:Jewish
815:Canada
802:Indian
787:Hazara
762:Fulani
673:France
638:Afghan
565:Sufism
281:Audism
207:Social
130:Height
4255:white
3608:Purge
3274:Tatar
3199:Māori
3194:Malay
3159:Irish
3109:Greek
3084:Croat
3042:China
3000:Asian
2885:Islam
2759:White
2496:Looks
2461:Class
2456:Caste
2413:Forms
2364:Entry
2160:S2CID
1953:white
1284:Purge
942:Tatar
867:Māori
862:Malay
827:Irish
777:Greek
752:Croat
710:China
668:Asian
545:Islam
411:White
140:Looks
105:Class
100:Caste
49:Forms
4250:male
4049:Bias
3494:LGBT
3279:Thai
3259:Serb
3129:Igbo
2990:Arab
2764:Male
2543:Size
2523:Rank
2187:ISSN
1948:male
1747:Bias
1170:LGBT
947:Thai
927:Serb
797:Igbo
658:Arab
416:Male
187:Size
167:Rank
3853:age
2528:Sex
2451:Age
2366:in
2318:doi
2286:doi
2223:doi
2219:129
2150:hdl
2142:doi
2138:125
1535:age
172:Sex
95:Age
4329::
2339:.
2314:49
2312:.
2298:^
2282:18
2280:.
2261:.
2250:^
2217:.
2205:^
2185:.
2181:.
2158:.
2148:.
2136:.
2132:.
26:on
2398:e
2391:t
2384:v
2349:.
2324:.
2320::
2292:.
2288::
2244:.
2229:.
2225::
2199:.
2166:.
2152::
2144::
2014:e
2007:t
2000:v
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
