344:, became the most prominent proponent of this 'maximalist' school (Suhrke 1993), noting that "environmental refugees will soon become the largest group of involuntary refugees". Additionally, he stated that there were 25 million environmental refugees in the mid-1990s, further claiming that this figure could double by 2010, with an upper limit of 200 million by 2050 (Myers 1997). Myers argued that the causes of environmental displacement would include desertification, lack of water, salination of irrigated lands and the depletion of biodiversity. He also hypothesised that displacement would amount to 30m in China, 30m in India, 15m in Bangladesh, 14m in Egypt, 10m in other delta areas and coastal zones, 1m in island states, and with otherwise agriculturally displaced people totalling 50m by 2050. More recently, Myers has suggested that the figure by 2050 might be as high as 250 million.
22:
306:
296:). This does not go to say that their status of being temporary is any less severe than that of the other, it simply means that they are able to go back to the place they fled from (though it may be undesirable to do so) granted that they are able to rebuild what was broken, and go on to maintain a similar quality of life to the one prior to the natural disaster. This type of migrant is displaced from their home state when their environment rapidly changes. They are displaced when disastrous events occur, such as tsunamis, hurricanes, tornadoes, and other natural disasters occur.
413:
2737:
2725:
427:
2761:
2749:
1193:
171:"Environmental migrants are persons or groups of persons who, for compelling reasons of sudden or progressive changes in the environment that adversely affect their lives or living conditions, are obliged to leave their habitual homes, or choose to do so, either temporarily or permanently, and who move either within their country or abroad."
325:. Jodi Jacobson (1988) is cited as the first researcher to enumerate the issue, stating that there were already up to 10 million 'Environmental Refugees'. Drawing on 'worst-case scenarios' about sea-level rise, she argued that all forms of 'Environmental Refugees' would be six times as numerous as political refugees. By 1989,
270:
Meghna delta in
Bangladesh and India, and Mahanadi delta in India cited economic reasons as a cause of their migration and only 2.8% cited environment reasons. But one third of migrant households perceived an increased exposure to environmental hazards and deltaic populations associated environmental
279:
Pressured environmental migrants – slow onset This type of migrant is displaced from their environment when an event is predicted prior to when it would be imperative for the inhabitants to leave. Such events could be desertification or prolonged drought, where the people of the region are no longer
670:
Safra de Campos, Ricardo; Codjoe, Samuel Nii Ardey; Adger, W. Neil; Mortreux, Colette; Hazra, Sugata; Siddiqui, Tasneem; Das, Shouvik; Atiglo, D. Yaw; Bhuiyan, Mohammad Rashed Alam (2020), Nicholls, Robert J.; Adger, W. Neil; Hutton, Craig W.; Hanson, Susan E. (eds.), "Where People Live and Move in
352:
has stated that Myers' work can be 'criticized for being inconsistent, impossible to check and failing to take proper account of opportunities to adapt' (2008: 9). Furthermore, Myers himself has acknowledged that his figures are based upon 'heroic extrapolation' (Brown 2008: 12). More generally,
266:: people who choose to leave to avoid possible future problems. (Example: someone who leaves due to declining crop productivity caused by desertification. A study conducted between 2014 and 2018 reveals that a large proportion of the deltaic populations of Volta delta in Africa, the
151:
aren't leaving their homes because of fear they will be persecuted, or because of "generalized violence or events seriously disturbing public order." Even though the definition of who is a refugee was expanded since its first international and legally binding definition in
239:
and submergence due to rising sea levels”. The villagers were losing their homes to the encroaching sea and their cultivable lands to saline ingress, and were forced to migrate elsewhere. In Nepal, many villages in mass migration has been reported from
706:
39:
are people who are forced to leave their home region due to sudden or long-term changes to their local or regional environment. These changes compromise their well-being or livelihood, and include increased
347:
Norman Myers is the most cited researcher in this field, who found that 25 million environmental migrants existed in 1995 in his work (Myers & Kent 1995), which drew upon over 1000 sources. However,
846:
996:
498:
534:
2461:
794:
2637:
231:: people who have to leave due to deteriorating environmental conditions. (Example: someone forced to leave due to a slow deterioration of their environment such as
2305:
353:
Black has argued that there is 'surprisingly little scientific evidence' that indicates that the world is 'filling-up with environmental refugees' (1998: 23).
2478:
1914:
1740:
286:– gradual onset These are migrants that have been or will be "permanently displaced" from their homes due to environmental factors beyond their control.
1909:
1777:
873:
1714:
993:
1423:
458:
1656:
495:
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235:, coastal deterioration, etc. The village of Satabhaya in the Kendrapara district of Odisha in India is “one of the foremost victims of
1799:
1757:
2678:
1794:
1379:
1058:
551:
Brown, L., Mcgrath, P., and Stokes, B., (1976). twenty two dimensions of the population problem, Worldwatch Paper 5, Washington DC:
2009:
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1035:
211:
164:
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2154:
1322:
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847:"Understanding a slow disaster: getting to grips with slow-onset disasters, and what they mean for migration and displacement -"
620:
564:
2014:
1977:
1831:
1816:
1735:
1384:
1328:
1186:
983:
Myers, N. and Kent, J. (1995). Environmental Exodus: an
Emergent Crisis in the Global Arena, (Climate Institute: Washington DC)
645:
21:
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1162:
690:
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1651:
1646:
496:
Environmentally
Displaced People: Understanding the linkages between environmental change, livelihoods and forced migration
333:, was claiming that 'as many as 50 million people could become environmental refugees' if the world did not act to support
330:
595:
147:
The vast majority of people fleeing environmental distress migrate over short distances, often temporarily. Moreover, the
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1954:
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1704:
1694:
1677:
1584:
1391:
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people who are forced to flee due to environmental change are still not offered the same legal protection as refugees.
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2408:
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1428:
1143:
1012:
Friends of the Earth, A Citizen's Guide to
Climate Refugees, Fact Sheet Four: Predictions of Climate Refugees to 2050
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2403:
2383:
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388:(2013), documentary movie directed by Susan Stein. Starring Katherine Jacobsen, Nancy Schneider, Bogumil Terminski
271:
factors with more insecure livelihoods. This shows how the environment is having a proximate effect on migration.)
2522:
2473:
1899:
1861:
1806:
1276:
811:
Marshall, Nicole (2016). "Forced
Environmental Migration: Ethical Considerations for Emerging Migration Policy".
60:). Though there is no uniform, clear-cut definition of environmental migration, the idea is gaining attention as
225:
or sudden environmental event. (Examples: someone forced to leave due to a hurricane, tsunami, earthquake, etc.)
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1631:
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are a subset of environmental migrants who were forced to flee "due to sudden or gradual alterations in the
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1879:
1784:
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World
Refugee & Migration Council (2021) 'Solutions for the Global Governance of Climate Displacement'
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1972:
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may occur. Previously, environmental refugees were expected from these regions but they are often
91:" (or "climate refugee") are used somewhat interchangeably with a range of similar terms, such as
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2663:
2573:
2315:
2287:
1967:
1626:
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1211:
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244:/ Chure regions due to water scarcity. Similarly, in eastern highland of Nepal 10 households in
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2019:
2004:
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1481:
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1471:
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There have been a number of attempts over the decades to enumerate environmental migrants and
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305:
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8:
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Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences
874:"Photo Gallery: Is Environmental Migration Really Rising? - DER SPIEGEL - International"
745:
366:
The notion of 'environmental migrant' has been a part of popular culture at least since
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2034:
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1364:
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1158:
1139:
954:
832:
779:
767:
686:
293:
971:
Myers, N. (1997). 'Environmental
Refugees', Population and Environment 19(2): 167–82
455: – The purposeful, coordinated movement of people and buildings away from risks
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2240:
2181:
2072:
1836:
1560:
1433:
1369:
1122:
Environmentally-Induced
Displacement. Theoretical Frameworks and Current Challenges
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820:
757:
749:
676:
449: – Coerced movement of a person or persons away from their home or home region
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81:
824:
16:
People forced to leave their home region due to changes to their local environment
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2563:
2527:
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2418:
2335:
2267:
2142:
1999:
1621:
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538:
502:
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394:(2006), documentary movie directed by Hélène Choquette & Jean-Philippe Duval.
236:
191:
175:
88:
45:
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able to maintain farming or hunting to provide a hospitable living environment.
199:
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183:
49:
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2600:
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2147:
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2067:
1962:
771:
412:
241:
232:
77:
65:
913:(1989). Our biological heritage under siege. Bioscience 39, 725–728, page 25
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2350:
1994:
1984:
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1438:
958:
940:
341:
160:
2580:
2097:
2089:
1349:
253:
1060:
Opening the
Conversation about Climate Refugees with The Grapes of Wrath
1047:
Black, R. (1998). Refugees, Environment and Development, Harlow: Longman
2612:
1989:
532:
Treading Water: Climate Change, the Maldives, and De-territorialization
275:
Other scholars have proposed various other types of migrant including:
249:
898:
596:"Shifting Sands: The Story of Adapting to Rising Sea levels in Odisha"
1567:
518:
167:(IOM) proposes the following definition for environmental migrants:
901:, Worldwatch paper 86, Worldwatch Institute, Washington DC, page 38
728:
Koubi, Vally; Stoll, Sebastian; Spilker, Gabriele (8 August 2016).
707:"Politicizing Environmental Displacement: A Four Category Approach"
581:
925:"Environmental refugees: A growing phenomenon of the 21st century"
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1203:
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195:
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57:
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have been forced to migrate due to water crises in their areas.
61:
2462:
Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement
1555:
730:"Perceptions of environmental change and migration decisions"
675:, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 153–177,
292:- This includes migrants suffering from a single event (i.e.
26:
1135:
Environmental Justice and the Rights of Ecological Refugees
309:
A map showing where natural disasters caused/aggravated by
290:
Temporary environmental migrants – short term, sudden onset
64:-makers and environmental and social scientists attempt to
139:). The distinctions between these terms remain contested.
2638:
Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change
1155:
Nomad century : how to survive the climate upheaval
159:
The term "environmental refugee" was first proposed by
2479:
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
795:"Toward Special Mobility Rights for Climate Migrants"
467: – Situation where there is a shortage of water
408:
1038:
Migration Research Series, paper no.31, www.iom.int
1021:
Kolmannskog, V (2008). Future Floods of Refugees, (
899:
Environmental Refugees: a Yardstick of Habitability
986:
400:(2014) documentary movie directed by David Fedele.
1034:Brown, O (2008). 'Migration and Climate Change',
727:
621:"Mass migration as water sources dry up in Chure"
461: – UN agency to protect and support refugees
2779:
2679:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
979:
977:
646:"Water scarcity forces 45 households to migrate"
565:"DISCUSSION NOTE: MIGRATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT"
214:proposes three types of environmental migrants:
494:Boano, C., Zetter, R., and Morris, T., (2008).
485:Citation error. Mouse-over '' for pop-up msg.
1424:History of climate change policy and politics
1219:
974:
459:United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
792:
340:In the mid-1990s, British environmentalist,
182:related to at least one of three impacts of
1541:Atlantic meridional overturning circulation
542:. Stimson Centre. Retrieved 25 April 2012.
2760:
2748:
2205:
1226:
1212:
2500:
2306:Adaptation strategies on the German coast
1449:United Nations Climate Change conferences
948:
761:
680:
264:environmentally induced economic migrants
142:
2010:Co-benefits of climate change mitigation
810:
704:
529:Hartley, Lindsey. ( 16 February 2012).
304:
221:: people who flee temporarily due to an
212:International Organisation for Migration
165:International Organization for Migration
20:
2366:National Adaptation Programme of Action
2155:Land use, land-use change, and forestry
1028:
806:
804:
593:
2780:
2015:Economics of climate change mitigation
1978:Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)
1501:
1329:Scientific consensus on climate change
1131:
386:Eco Migrants: The Case of Bhola Island
356:
2674:Coupled Model Intercomparison Project
2499:
2204:
1940:
1500:
1412:
1293:
1245:
1207:
1152:
994:Human Tide: The Real Migration Crisis
922:
916:
594:Dulluri, Anvita (14 September 2020).
509:Policy Brief No.1 (RSC: Oxford), pg.4
2696:Representative Concentration Pathway
1647:Tipping points in the climate system
1323:Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere
801:
379:
331:United Nations Environment Programme
300:
2467:Nationally determined contributions
2177:Individual action on climate change
1392:World energy supply and consumption
871:
580:Global Governance Project. (2012).
13:
2606:Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis
1233:
1114:
557:
361:
14:
2809:
2533:Satellite temperature measurement
2138:forestry for carbon sequestration
1429:History of climate change science
1180:
851:Climate & Migration Coalition
284:Imperative environmental migrants
105:environmentally motivated migrant
2759:
2747:
2736:
2735:
2723:
2384:Climate Change Performance Index
1191:
1056:
425:
411:
260:Environmental motivated migrants
219:Environmental emergency migrants
109:environmentally displaced person
2523:Instrumental temperature record
2474:Sustainable Development Goal 13
1085:
1050:
1041:
1015:
1006:
965:
904:
891:
865:
839:
786:
721:
698:
663:
638:
2591:Climate variability and change
1941:
1632:Retreat of glaciers since 1850
813:Ethics, Policy and Environment
613:
587:
574:
545:
523:
512:
488:
479:
1:
2701:Shared Socioeconomic Pathways
2236:Climate emergency declaration
825:10.1080/21550085.2016.1173284
472:
229:Environmental forced migrants
129:ecologically displaced person
87:"Environmental migrant" and "
52:, and disruption of seasonal
2684:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report
1910:Middle East and North Africa
1246:
101:forced environmental migrant
7:
1413:
682:10.1007/978-3-030-23517-8_7
404:
392:Refugees of the Blue Planet
133:environmental-refugee-to-be
31:2011 Horn of Africa drought
29:for those displaced by the
10:
2814:
2518:Global surface temperature
2409:Popular culture depictions
2321:Ecosystem-based adaptation
2051:Carbon capture and storage
1973:Carbon offsets and credits
1294:
673:Deltas in the Anthropocene
584:. Retrieved on 5 May 2012.
2730:Climate change portal
2717:
2656:
2623:Extreme event attribution
2541:
2510:
2506:
2495:
2439:
2374:
2296:
2246:School Strike for Climate
2218:
2214:
2200:
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2125:Climate-smart agriculture
2086:
2043:
1953:
1949:
1936:
1860:
1723:
1670:
1513:
1509:
1496:
1419:
1408:
1337:
1306:
1302:
1289:
1272:Climate change adaptation
1267:Climate change mitigation
1262:Effects of climate change
1252:
1241:
1023:Norwegian Refugee Council
754:10.1007/s10584-016-1767-1
705:Marshall, Nicole (2015).
582:Forum on Climate Refugees
442:Effects of climate change
74:environmental degradation
70:effects of climate change
2633:Global warming potential
2440:International agreements
2087:Preserving and enhancing
1531:Arctic methane emissions
1453:Years in climate change
1360:Greenhouse gas emissions
1257:Causes of climate change
501:12 November 2020 at the
329:, Executive Director of
205:
2664:Climate change scenario
2316:Disaster risk reduction
1968:Carbon emission trading
1778:U.S. insurance industry
1758:Civilizational collapse
1605:sea surface temperature
992:Christian Aid (2007). ‘
897:Jacobson, J.L. (1988).
335:sustainable development
246:Chainpur, Sankhuwasabha
121:environmental displacee
2657:Research and modelling
2341:Nature-based solutions
2161:Nature-based solutions
2103:Carbon dioxide removal
2020:Fossil fuel divestment
2005:Climate risk insurance
1915:Small island countries
1536:Arctic sea ice decline
1198:Environmental migrants
1132:Westra, Laura (2009).
1003:’ (CA: London), page 6
941:10.1098/rstb.2001.0953
923:Myers, Norman (2002).
507:Refugee Studies Centre
318:
223:environmental disaster
173:
143:Definition and concept
37:Environmental migrants
33:
2618:Earth's energy budget
2501:Background and theory
2389:Climate crisis (term)
2061:Fossil fuel phase-out
1955:Economics and finance
1920:by individual country
1862:By country and region
1837:Security and conflict
1832:Psychological impacts
1521:Abrupt climate change
1444:Charles David Keeling
1277:By country and region
433:Climate change portal
308:
252:and 10 households in
169:
97:environmental refugee
68:the potential social
24:
2788:Environmental issues
2447:Glasgow Climate Pact
2108:Carbon sequestration
1683:Mass mortality event
1200:at Wikimedia Commons
1153:Vince, Gaia (2022).
553:Worldwatch Institute
2586:Climate sensitivity
2361:The Adaptation Fund
1817:Infectious diseases
1724:Social and economic
1126:University of Liège
1120:Bogumil Terminski,
999:9 June 2019 at the
763:20.500.11850/119291
746:2016ClCh..138..439K
537:27 May 2013 at the
447:Forced displacement
369:The Grapes of Wrath
357:Society and culture
248:, 25 households in
180:natural environment
2157:(LULUCF and AFOLU)
2129:Forest management
2113:Direct air capture
2078:Sustainable energy
2035:Net zero emissions
2030:Low-carbon economy
2025:Green Climate Fund
1812:Indigenous peoples
1715:Plant biodiversity
1503:Effects and issues
1093:"THE LAND BETWEEN"
1073:on 10 October 2022
793:Marshall, Nicole.
419:Environment portal
372:, a 1939 novel by
350:Vikram Kolmannskog
319:
268:Ganges Brahmaputra
93:ecological refugee
56:patterns (such as
34:
2775:
2774:
2713:
2712:
2709:
2708:
2648:Radiative forcing
2491:
2490:
2487:
2486:
2311:Adaptive capacity
2196:
2195:
2192:
2191:
2056:Energy transition
1932:
1931:
1928:
1927:
1652:Tropical cyclones
1578:Urban heat island
1492:
1491:
1404:
1403:
1400:
1399:
1365:Carbon accounting
1319:Greenhouse effect
1285:
1284:
1196:Media related to
1164:978-0-241-52231-8
935:(1420): 609–613.
853:. 4 February 2015
692:978-3-030-23517-8
650:kathmandupost.com
625:kathmandupost.com
519:unhcr.org page 19
380:Documentary films
315:internal refugees
301:Global statistics
294:Hurricane Katrina
2805:
2793:Refugees by type
2763:
2762:
2751:
2750:
2739:
2738:
2728:
2727:
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2691:Paleoclimatology
2508:
2507:
2497:
2496:
2258:Ecological grief
2241:Climate movement
2216:
2215:
2202:
2201:
2182:Plant-based diet
2073:Renewable energy
1951:
1950:
1938:
1937:
1773:Economic impacts
1705:Invasive species
1561:Coastal flooding
1511:
1510:
1498:
1497:
1434:Svante Arrhenius
1410:
1409:
1380:from agriculture
1370:Carbon footprint
1355:Greenhouse gases
1304:
1303:
1291:
1290:
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1228:
1221:
1214:
1205:
1204:
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1107:
1105:
1103:
1097:THE LAND BETWEEN
1089:
1083:
1082:
1080:
1078:
1072:
1066:. Archived from
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1054:
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740:(3–4): 439–451.
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398:The Land Between
176:Climate migrants
117:disaster refugee
82:overexploitation
2813:
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2802:
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2643:Orbital forcing
2537:
2502:
2483:
2457:Paris Agreement
2435:
2431:Warming stripes
2370:
2336:Managed retreat
2331:Loss and damage
2292:
2226:Business action
2210:
2188:
2165:
2088:
2082:
2039:
2000:Climate finance
1945:
1924:
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1695:Extinction risk
1671:Flora and fauna
1666:
1627:Permafrost thaw
1622:Ozone depletion
1551:Extreme weather
1505:
1488:
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1396:
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453:Managed retreat
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362:Popular culture
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46:desertification
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1157:. Allen Lane.
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878:www.spiegel.de
872:SPIEGEL, DER.
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262:also known as
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200:water scarcity
188:sea-level rise
184:climate change
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50:sea level rise
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1141:
1138:. Routledge.
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242:Sivalik Hills
238:
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233:deforestation
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163:in 1976. The
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78:deforestation
75:
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66:conceptualize
63:
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47:
43:
38:
32:
28:
23:
19:
2764:
2752:
2740:
2721:
2554:Carbon cycle
2511:Measurements
2206:Society and
2090:carbon sinks
1995:Climate debt
1985:Carbon price
1807:Human rights
1642:Season creep
1600:heat content
1526:Anoxic event
1439:James Hansen
1154:
1134:
1121:
1100:. Retrieved
1096:
1087:
1075:. Retrieved
1068:the original
1059:
1052:
1043:
1030:
1017:
1008:
988:
967:
932:
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911:Tolba, M. K.
906:
893:
881:. Retrieved
877:
867:
855:. Retrieved
850:
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816:
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737:
733:
723:
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672:
665:
653:. Retrieved
649:
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628:. Retrieved
624:
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603:. Retrieved
599:
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397:
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367:
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342:Norman Myers
339:
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194:events, and
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161:Lester Brown
158:
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108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
86:
36:
35:
25:Shelters in
18:
2581:Carbon sink
2559:atmospheric
2424:video games
2098:Blue carbon
1731:Agriculture
1710:Marine life
1657:Water cycle
1615:temperature
1350:Fossil fuel
857:26 February
819:(1): 1–18.
605:29 November
600:THE BASTION
254:Panchkhapan
125:eco-refugee
2782:Categories
2613:Cryosphere
2574:permafrost
2346:Resilience
2298:Adaptation
2273:Litigation
2263:Governance
2208:adaptation
1990:Carbon tax
1943:Mitigation
1880:Antarctica
1768:Disability
1173:1286796695
883:24 October
655:1 December
630:1 December
473:References
250:Dharmadevi
72:and other
2628:Feedbacks
2399:Education
1900:Caribbean
1895:Australia
1822:Migration
1785:Fisheries
1736:Livestock
1662:Wildfires
1568:Heat wave
1124:, CEDEM,
833:156253235
780:157835999
772:0165-0009
717:: 96–112.
671:Deltas",
76:, such a
2754:Glossary
2742:Category
2564:biologic
2278:Politics
2170:Personal
1875:Americas
1748:Children
1514:Physical
1307:Overview
1247:Overview
1077:26 April
997:Archived
959:12028796
535:Archived
499:Archived
405:See also
323:refugees
149:refugees
58:monsoons
2569:oceanic
2419:fiction
2268:Justice
2219:Society
1827:Poverty
1546:Drought
1414:History
1338:Sources
1128:, 2012.
1102:1 March
1025:: Oslo)
950:1692964
742:Bibcode
196:drought
54:weather
42:drought
2549:Albedo
2542:Theory
2253:Denial
2044:Energy
1905:Europe
1885:Arctic
1870:Africa
1795:Health
1790:Gender
1753:Cities
1678:Biomes
1585:Oceans
1573:Marine
1296:Causes
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2766:Index
2528:Proxy
2288:Women
1763:Crime
1690:Birds
1556:Flood
1071:(PDF)
1064:(PDF)
829:S2CID
776:S2CID
568:(PDF)
206:Types
131:, or
27:Kenya
2351:Risk
1890:Asia
1482:2024
1477:2023
1472:2022
1467:2021
1462:2020
1457:2019
1169:OCLC
1159:ISBN
1140:ISBN
1104:2017
1079:2021
955:PMID
885:2020
859:2017
768:ISSN
687:ISBN
657:2020
632:2020
607:2020
210:The
198:and
154:1951
137:ERTB
2414:art
1036:IOM
945:PMC
937:doi
933:357
821:doi
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