Commons - Knowledge

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are largely influenced by lobbying from lobster industry itself). Lobster is another resource that is sometimes considered vulnerable to overharvesting, and many people within the industry itself have been predicting a collapse for years. Nonetheless, the lobster industry has remained relatively unscathed by resource depletion. The state government of Maine establishes certain regulations, but they do not limit the number of licenses themselves. In practice there are many restrictive exclusionary systems that are generated, dictated, and upheld by the community through a series of "traditional fishing rights" that have been locally grandfathered in. One must obtain confirmation to fish from the community to actually be granted access. Once an individual is granted access, they are still only able to access the territories held by that community. Outsiders may be persuaded by threats of violence even. It is impossible to know if the lobster resource would have been sustainably used if there was more regulation, or without the internal regulation, but it is certainly being used sustainably in its current state of affairs. It also seems to be run relatively efficiently. This case study of Maine lobster fisheries reflects how a group was able to restrain access to a resource from outsiders, while regulating the communal use in an effective manner. This has allowed the local communities to reap the benefits of the rewards of their restrain for decades. Essentially, the local lobster fishers collaborate without much government intervention to sustain their common-pool resource.

472:, pollution and inequities, which also apply to knowledge. Then, effective alternatives (community-based, non-private, non-state), in line with those of natural commons (involving social rules, appropriate property rights and management structures), solutions are proposed. Thus, the commons metaphor is applied to social practice around knowledge. It is in this context that the present work proceeds, discussing the creation of depositories of knowledge through the organised, voluntary contributions of scholars (the research community, itself a social common), the problems that such knowledge commons might face (such as free-riding or disappearing assets), and the protection of knowledge commons from enclosure and commodification (in the form of intellectual property legislation, patenting, licensing and overpricing). At this point, it is important to note the nature of knowledge and its complex and multi-layered qualities of non-rivalry and non-excludability. Unlike natural commons – which are both rival and excludable (only one person can use any one item or portion at a time and in so doing they use it up, it is consumed) and characterised by scarcity (they can be replenished but there are limits to this, such that consumption/destruction may overtake production/creation) – knowledge commons are characterised by abundance (they are non-rival and non-excludable and thus, in principle, not scarce, so not impelling competition and compelling governance). This abundance of knowledge commons has been celebrated through alternative models of knowledge production, such as 238:. Community forest programs work by giving local areas a financial stake in nearby woodlands, and thereby increasing the incentive to protect them from overuse. Local institutions regulate harvesting and selling of timber and land, and must use any profit towards community development and preservation of the forests. In twenty years, some locals, especially in the middle hills, have noticed a visible increase in the number of trees, although other places have not seen tangible results, especially where opportunity costs to land are high. Community forestry may also contribute to community development in rural areas – for instance school construction, irrigation and drinking water channel construction, and road construction. Community forestry has proven conducive to democratic practices at grass roots level. Many Nepalese forest user groups generate income from the community forests, although the amount can vary widely among groups and is often invested in the community rather than flowing directly to individual households. Such income is generated from external sources involving the sales of timber from thinned pine plantations such as in the community forest user groups of Sindhu Palchok and Rachma, and internally in Nepal's mid-hills' broad leaf forests from membership fees, penalties and fines on rule-breakers, in addition to the sales of forest products. Some of the most significant benefits are that locals are able to use the products they gather directly in their own homes for subsistence use. 393:

traditional hierarchical structures of production, allowing for a higher collective benefit and a sustainable management of resources. Non-material resources are digitally reproducible and therefore can be shared at a low cost, contrary to physical resources which are quite limited. Shared resources represent in this context data, information, culture and knowledge which are produced and accessible online. In accordance with the "design global, manufacture local" approach digital commons may link the traditional commons theory with existing physical infrastructures. It further connects with the degrowth communities since transformations in use-value creation by employing new technologies, decoupling society from GDP growth and lower CO2 emissions, are envisioned. Moreover, as a decentralized approach, there is a strong emphasis on inclusion and democratic regulation which has led Commons as an alternative, emancipatory and emerging form of social organization that goes beyond democratic capitalism. Accordingly, through the cooperation of diverse stakeholders and the equitable distribution of means of production, technological development becomes more accessible and bottom-up projects are fostered in communities.

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in harvesting whiting. Being a part of the cooperative gives them consistent access to the best whiting grounds in the area which allows them to be highly successful, sometimes even dominating regional whiting markets during the winter season. It is a relatively high price to be a member of the collective, which limits entry, while also establishing catching quotas for members. They prevent unlimited entry or access to cap the number of members that are allowed in the club. This is done through a closed membership policy, as well as having control over the docking spaces. This leads to exclude outsiders from entering the regional whiting market. The "quotas" are established based on what they estimate can be sold to the regional markets. It directly contrasts government imposed regulations which are typically considered to be inflexible by the fisherman in the local area. The cooperative on the other hand is considered to be effective and flexible in their sustainable use of the resources in the region.

496:"The common is not to be construed, therefore, as a particular kind of thing, asset or even social process, but as an unstable and malleable social relation between a particular self-defined social group and those aspects of its actually existing or yet-to-be-created social and/or physical environment deemed crucial to its life and livelihood. There is, in effect, a social practice of commoning. This practice produces or establishes a social relation with a common whose uses are either exclusive to a social group or partially or fully open to all and sundry. At the heart of the practice of commoning lies the principle that the relation between the social group and that aspect of the environment being treated as a common shall be both collective and non-commodified-off-limits to the logic of market exchange and market valuations." 42: 406: 251:

to what is known as a "tragedy of the commons". In the 1930s conservation laws were enacted which prohibited outsiders from trapping in the area, and reinforced locals' customary laws. This led to a restoration of the population and commerce that beavers provided by the 1950s. The experience of the 1920s is not an isolated incident in the community either. Business conflicts among fur trading companies has led to a couple other times of resource overuse, but gradually resource use was restored to a proper balance once local control was restored. This case study reflects how communal resource sharing can be effectively propagated by a community.

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was covered in "non-indigenous" plants. While constructing their homes, the locals decided to do something different: rather than erecting security walls to demarcate and guard their individual property, they would restore the fynbos and wetland ecology and establish a public communal garden. As stated by the locals, the initial plan was to build a "blueprint" for communal gardening that would serve as an example for other abandoned green areas, with the goal of "correcting the imbalances of apartheid" and "beautifying and dignifying".

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that are responsible to their communities. The notion of community is not understood as a "gated community", but as "a quality of relations, a principle of cooperation and responsibility to each other and the earth, the forests, the seas, the animals. In communalizing housework, one of the supporting pillars of human activity, it is imperative that this sphere is "not negated but revolutionized". Communalizing housework also serves to de-naturalize it as women's labour, which has been an important part of the

173:, but over which certain classes of manorial tenants and others held certain rights. By extension, the term "commons" has come to be applied to other resources which a community has rights or access to. The older texts use the word "common" to denote any such right, but more modern usage is to refer to particular rights of common, and to reserve the name "common" for the land over which the rights are exercised. A person who has a right in, or over, common land jointly with another or others is called a 512:, that is, the process of coming together to manage such resources. Commoning thus adds another dimension to the commons, acknowledging the social practices entailed in the process of establishing and governing a commons. These practices entail, for the community of commoners, the creation of a new way of living and acting together, thus involving a collective psychological shift: it also entails a process of subjectivization, where the commoners produce themselves as common subjects. 4211: 5729: 4605: 4063: 4595: 549:

rules. In the case of the commons, the community manages and sets the rules of access and use of the resource held in common: the fact of having a commons, then, does not mean that anyone is free to use the resource as they like. Studies by Ostrom and others have shown that managing a resource as a commons often has positive outcomes and avoids the so-called tragedy of the commons, a fact that Hardin overlooked.

3023:– Aalto University Special Interest Group SIG in the Commons (peer-production, co-production, co-governance, co-creation) and Public(s)services. The SIG addresses the relevance of the Commons as a framework to expand the understanding of emerging considerations for the design, provision and maintenance of public services and urban space. Helsinki, Finland. 247:

been an important source of food and commerce for the area since the fur trade began in 1670. Unfortunately, beavers are an easy target for resource degradation and depletion due to their colonies being easily spotted. Luckily, the area has grandfathered in many traditions, and stewards of the land to safeguard certain territories populations.

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proposed a definition of digital commons as "information and knowledge resources that are collectively created and owned or shared between or among a community and that tend to be non-exclusive, that is, be (generally freely) available to third parties. Thus, they are oriented to favor use and reuse,

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In 2005, the city re-zoned the Northern shore of Zeekoevlei – a seasonal lake and wetland area – into smaller parcels of land that were bought by people from Grassy Park who shared experiences of oppression and marginalization during apartheid. After 10 years of being utilised as a landfill, the area

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is a method of collective responsibility and management for irrigation systems in desert areas. In New Mexico, a community-run organization known as Acequia Associations supervises water in terms of diversion, distribution, utilization, and recycling, in order to reinforce agricultural traditions and

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in, especially, southern Germany, Austria, and the alpine countries) were kept, in some parts, till the present. Some studies have compared the German and English dealings with the commons between late medieval times and the agrarian reforms of the 18th and 19th centuries. The UK was quite radical in

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The process of commoning the material means of reproduction of human life is most promising in the struggle to "disentangle our livelihoods not only from the world market but also from the war machine and prison system". One of the main aims of the process of commoning is to create "common subjects"

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introduced the concept by a hypothetical example of herders overusing a shared parcel of land on which they are each entitled to let their cows graze, to the detriment of all users of the common land. The same concept has been called the "tragedy of the fishers", when over-fishing could cause stocks

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Urban commons situates citizens as key players rather than public authorities, private markets and technologies. David Harvey (2012) defines the distinction between public spaces and urban commons. He highlights that the former is not to be equated automatically with urban commons. Public spaces and

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The information commons may help protect users of commons. Companies that pollute the environment release information about what they are doing. The Corporate Toxics Information Project and information like the Toxic 100, a list of the top 100 polluters, helps people know what these corporations are

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Land is organised and managed cooperatively; outside enterprises are not involved in any way. The allotment association recognises lot holders as official members, granting them equal voting rights and shares. In turn, the association represents the land owners in various administrative proceedings.

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In Paris, France, there are over 1,200 free drinkable water fountains distributed throughout the city. The first 100 were donated by Englishman Sir Richard Wallace (1818–1890) in 1872, called the Wallace fountains, and since then the Parisian water company "Eau du Paris" have put more of them around

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In the 1920s there was a massive influx of non-native trappers in the region due to a new railroad coming to the area, as well as an increase in fur prices at the time. The Amerindian communities' lost control over these territories for a short time during this period which helped to eventually lead

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The use of "commons" for natural resources has its roots in European intellectual history, where it referred to shared agricultural fields, grazing lands and forests that were, over a period of several hundred years, enclosed, claimed as private property for private use. In European political texts,

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from Netherlands use international waters to conduct abortion. Also, in Italy, Obiezione Respinta movement collaboratively map spaces related to birth control such as pharmacies, consultors, hospitals, etc., through which users share their knowledge and experience of the place and provide access to

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Women have traditionally been at the forefront of struggles for commoning "as primary subjects of reproductive work". This proximity and dependence on communal natural resources has made women the most vulnerable by their privatization, and made them their most staunch defendants. Examples include:

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However, Hardin's (1968) argument has been widely criticized, since he is accused of having mistaken the commons, that is, resources held and managed in common by a community, with open access, that is, resources that are open to everyone but where it is difficult to restrict access or to establish

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The widespread success of the Maine lobster industry is often attributed to the willingness of Maine's lobstermen to uphold and support lobster conservation rules. These rules include harbor territories not recognized by the state, informal trap limits, and laws imposed by the state of Maine (which

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A trawl fishery in the Blight region, located in New York, provides a completely different example of a type of community-based solution to what is sometimes referred to as the dilemma or "tragedy of the commons". The multitude of fishermen in the region make up a fishing cooperative who specialize

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As reproductive rights over unwanted pregnancies have been denied in many countries for many years, several resistance groups used diverse commoning strategies in order to provide women safe and affordable abortion. Care, knowledge, and pills have been made commons against abortion restriction. In

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Because of its immense size, governance is extremely difficult. Currently, the project spans 6-7 ha, potentially even more. Its proximity to a busy road and hundreds of residential homes exacerbates the traffic issue. In addition to the disregard shown by the city administration, the neighbourhood

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Hunting wildlife territories in James Bay, Quebec; located in the northeastern part of Canada, provide an example of resources being effectively shared by a community. There is an extensive heritage of local customaries that are used to effectively regulate beaver hunting in the region. Beaver has

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About 50,000 plants were planted (and "weeds" eradicated) along Bottom Road over the course of four years, drawing bees, birds, dragonflies, and toads in addition to humans through the addition of walkways, benches, and areas for barbecues. Here, management is done by the locals themselves, often

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due to livestock grazing in the regions of Mongolia, Russia, and China. In Mongolia, where shepherds were permitted to move collectively between seasonal grazing pastures, degradation remained relatively low at approximately 9%. Comparatively, Russia and China, which mandated state-owned pastures

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as it sought to re-brand itself "the environmental guardian of the planet", she argues that it is important to adopt a commons discourse that actively resists this re-branding. Secondly, articulations of the commons, although historically present and multiple have struggled to come together as a

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along with her colleague Charlotte Hess, did succeed in extending the commons debate to knowledge, approaching knowledge as a complex ecosystem that operates as a common – a shared resource that is subject to social dilemmas and political debates. The focus here was on the ready availability of

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resources accessible to all members of a society, including natural materials such as air, water, and a habitable Earth. These resources are held in common even when owned privately or publicly. Commons can also be understood as natural resources that groups of people (communities, user groups)

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for people who have to travel for abortion which is considered illegal in their places of origins, and with New York Abortion Access Fund, they are able to provide them with medical and financial assistance. Underground networks outside medical service establishments are where women's networks

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The majority of allotment land in Stockholm is owned by the local municipality, and leaseholds are set for extended periods of time (up to 25 years). The local allotment association makes the decisions about who gets land rights. Only residents of multifamily homes inside the municipality were

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has proposed a 'sky trust' to fix this tragedic problem in worldwide generic commons. He claims that the sky belongs to all the people, and companies do not have a right to over pollute. It is a type of cap and dividend program. Ultimately the goal would be to make polluting excessively more

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in Barcelona were public spaces that transformed to an urban commons as people protested there to support their political statements. Streets are public spaces that have often become an urban commons by social action and revolutionary protests. Urban commons are operating in the cities in a

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Following the narrative of post-growth, the digital commons can present a model of progress that guide commoners to build counter-power in the economic and political field. Being able to digitally share knowledge and resources through internet platforms is a new capacity that challenges the

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The nine residents and the city's conservation managers signed an agreement that allowed the residents to incorporate the public shoreline area into the rehabilitation project, even though the city had retained the area closest to the shoreline as public property. Meanwhile, the city saw an

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In the Stockholm region, green spaces are predominantly owned and managed in either private or municipal forms, allotment gardens being the most common form. The system provide cultural ecosystem services to lot holders, as well as the offer of vegetables, fruits, and ornamental flowers.

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the common wealth was the totality of the material riches of the world, such as the air, the water, the soil and the seed, all nature's bounty regarded as the inheritance of humanity as a whole, to be shared together. In this context, one may go back further, to the Roman legal category

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unified front. For the latter to happen she argues that a "commoning" or "commons" movement that is effectively able to resist capitalist forms of organizing labour and our livelihoods must look to women to take the lead in organizing the collectivization of our daily lives and the

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It has been said the dissolution of the traditional land commons played a watershed role in landscape development and cooperative land use patterns and property rights. However, as in the British Isles, such changes took place over several centuries as a result of land

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among a group of colleagues, such as in a producers' cooperative. The precision of this distinction is not always maintained. Others conflate open access areas with commons; however, open access areas can be used by anybody while the commons has a defined set of users.

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Allied to this is the "comedy of the commons" concept, where users of the commons are able to develop mechanisms to police their use to maintain, and possibly improve, the state of the commons. This term was coined in an essay by legal scholar, Carol M. Rose, in 1986.

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Basu, Soutrik; Jongerden, Joost; Ruivenkamp, Guido (August 2017). "The emergence of a hybrid mode of knowledge production in the Generation Challenge Programme Rice Research Network (GCP-RRN) in India: Exploring the concept of Commons-Based Peer Production (CBPP)".

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In the post-apartheid metropolis of Cape Town, South Africa, the history of land rights is particularly noticeable since a large number of residents have vivid memories of being forcibly evacuated from their homes or of being assigned to live in specific regions.

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Basu, S (2014). An alternative imagination to study commons: beyond state and beyond scientific establishment. Paper presented at the 2nd International Conference on Knowledge Commons for Sustainable Agricultural Innovations. Maringá, Brazil: Maringá State

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digital forms of knowledge and associated possibilities to store, access and share it as a common. The connection between knowledge and commons may be made through identifying typical problems associated with natural resource commons, such as congestion,

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involving immobile settlements and in some cases privatization by household, had much higher degradation, at around 75% and 33% respectively. A collaborative effort on the part of Mongolians proved much more efficient in preserving grazing land.

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the city, this give people living Paris and tourists all around the world access to free drinkable fresh water in Paris. Since then, many other countries like Spain, Brazil, Italy or Portugal have put these fountains on a lower scale.

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While the original work on the tragedy of the commons concept suggested that all commons were doomed to failure, they remain important in the modern world. Work by later economists has found many examples of successful commons, and

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Urban commons present the opportunity for the citizens to gain power upon the management of the urban resources and reframe city-life costs based on their use value and maintenance costs, rather than the market-driven value.

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of the article "The Tragedy of the Commons", that the term gained relevance. Hardin introduced this tragedy as a social dilemma, and aimed at exposing the inevitability of failure that he saw in the commons.

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The Drama of the Commons By Committee on the Human Dimensions of Global Change, National Research Council, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education, Board on Environmental Change and Society

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doing away with and enclosing former commons, while southwestern Germany (and the alpine countries as e.g. Switzerland) had the most advanced commons structures, and were more inclined to keep them. The

476:(CBPP), and embodied in the free software movement. The CBPP model showed the power of networked, open collaboration and non-material incentives to produce better quality products (mainly software). 3010:– an interdisciplinary peer-reviewed open-access journal dedicated to furthering the understanding of institutions for use and management of resources that are (or could be) enjoyed collectively. 269:

preserve water as a common resource for future generations. The Congreso de las Acequias has since 1990s, is a statewide federation that represents several hundred acequia systems in New Mexico.

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manage for individual and collective benefit. Characteristically, this involves a variety of informal norms and values (social practice) employed for a governance mechanism. Commons can also be

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rather than to exchange as a commodity. Additionally, the community of people building them can intervene in the governing of their interaction processes and of their shared resources."

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articulates a feminist perspective of the commons in her essay "Feminism and the Politics of the Commons". Since the language around the commons has been largely appropriated by the

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oversee the abortion and assist each other physically or emotionally by sharing the knowledge of herbalism or home abortion. These underground groups operate under codenames like

449:, urban farms on the rooftops and cultural spaces. More recently participatory studies of commons and infrastructures under the conditions of the financial crisis have emerged. 2924:

Linebaugh, Peter, and Marcus Rediker. (2000). The Many-Headed Hydra: Sailors, Slaves, Commoners, and the Hidden History of the Revolutionary Atlantic (Boston: Beacon Press)

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Basu, S (2016). Knowledge production, Agriculture and Commons: The case of Generation Challenge Programme. (PhD Thesis). Netherlands: Wageningen University. Retrieved from

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Based on a research project by the Environmental and Cultural Conservation in Inner Asia (ECCIA) from 1992 to 1995, satellite images were used to compare the amount of

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Bowers, Chet. (2012). The Way Forward: Educational Reforms that Focus on the Cultural Commons and the Linguistic Roots of the Ecological Crisis. Eco-Justice Press.

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permitted to sign contracts, signifying a commitment to the original goals of allotments, which were to enhance the health of city dwellers in outdoor settings.

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has deteriorated as a result of people setting up barbecues at random and cars driving around freely, both of which have been linked to criminal activity.

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Kostakis, Vasilis and Bauwens, Michel. (2014). Network Society and Future Scenarios for a Collaborative Economy. (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan). (

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Newfont, Kathyn. (2012). Blue Ridge Commons: Environmental Activism and Forest History in Western North Carolina (The University of Georgia Press)

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of governing a resource not by state or market but by a community of users that self-governs the resource through institutions that it creates.

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Eynaud, Philippe; Juan, Maïté; Mourey, Damien (2018). "Participatory Art as a Social Practice of Commoning to Reinvent the Right to the City".

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The Digital Library of the Commons defines "commons" as "a general term for shared resources in which each stakeholder has an equal interest".

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have stated; "Prior to the publication of Hardin's article on the tragedy of the commons (1968), titles containing the words 'the commons', '

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sphere. These commons include literature, music, arts, design, film, video, television, radio, information, software and sites of heritage.

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Kennedy, Kennedy. (2008). Diggers, Levellers, and Agrarian Capitalism: Radical Political Thought in 17th Century England (Lexington Books)

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Bresnihan, P. et Byrne, M. (2015). Escape into the city: Everyday practices of communing and the production of urban space in Dublin.

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by a contributor community in the form of encyclopedic knowledge that can be freely accessed by anyone without a central authority.

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Bowers, Chet. (2006). Revitalizing the Commons: Cultural and Educational Sites of Resistance and Affirmation. Lexington Books.

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Neeson, J. M. (1996). Commoners: Common Right, Enclosure and Social Change in England, 1700–1820 (Cambridge University Press)

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Price, Richard, ed. (1979). Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas (The Johns Hopkins University Press)

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The end of the commons as a watershed' The Age of Ecology, Joachim Radkau, John Wiley & Sons, 3 April 2014, p. 15 ff

1418:(= Quellen und Forschungen zur Agrargeschichte; Bd. 47), Stuttgart: Lucius & Lucius 2003, IX + 462 S., 4 Farb-Abb., 84:, which are also known as "commons", and was popularised in the modern sense as a shared resource term by the ecologist 4513: 2996:- an international association dedicated to the international and interdisciplinary study of commons and commons issues 1218:"Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press" 5582: 3766: 2384: 2318: 1595: 938: 2019: 5206: 4077: 3636: 3200: 2927:

Linebaugh, Peter. (2008). The Magna Carta Manifesto: Liberties and Commons for All (University of California Press)

876: 41: 2804:"Development of the drought tolerant variety Sahbhagi Dhan: exploring the concepts commons and community building" 1331:"Development of the drought tolerant variety Sahbhagi Dhan: exploring the concepts commons and community building" 1145:"Development of the drought tolerant variety Sahbhagi Dhan: exploring the concepts commons and community building" 4659: 4377: 3984: 3364: 2743: 2033:"The convergence of digital commons with local manufacturing from a degrowth perspective: Two illustrative cases" 1983:"The convergence of digital commons with local manufacturing from a degrowth perspective: Two illustrative cases" 540:

to plummet. Forster's pamphlet was little known, and it wasn't until 1968, with the publication by the ecologist

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Colding, Johan; Barthel, Stephan; Bendt, Pim; Snep, Robbert; van der Knaap, Wim; Ernstson, Henrik (2013-10-01).

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for analysing situations where they operate successfully. For example, Ostrom found that grazing commons in the

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Rowe, Jonathan. (2013). Our Common Wealth: The Hidden Economy That Makes Everything Else Work (Berrett-Koehler)

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Hill, Christopher. (1984). The World Turned Upside Down: Radical Ideas During the English Revolution (Penguin)

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Hill, Christopher. (2006). Winstanley 'The Law of Freedom' and other Writings (Cambridge University Press)

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Governance of online creation communities: Provision of infrastructure for the building of digital commons

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in the Wiki-Commons is avoided by community control by individual authors within the Knowledge community.

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took an intermediate position. However, the UK and the former dominions have till today a large amount of

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Mitchel, John Hanson. (1998). Trespassing: An Inquiry into the Private Ownership of Land (Perseus Books)

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Harvey, Neil. (1998). The Chiapas Rebellion: The Struggle for Land and Democracy (Duke University Press)

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De Angelis, Massimo (2010-08-17). "The Production of Commons and the "Explosion" of the Middle Class".

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Simon, Martin. (2014). Your Money or Your Life: time for both. Social Commons. (Freedom Favours)

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Rexroth, Kenneth. (1974). Communalism: From Its Origins to the Twentieth Century (Seabury Press)

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This article is about the term "commons" in political economics. For the Wikimedia project, see

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https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/2e3f561d-b1f5-4e7c-8da3-ccab0f00501d/UWP-033-REVISED.pdf

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Hyde, Lewis. (2010). Common as Air: Revolution, Art and Ownership (Farrar, Straus and Giroux)

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Azzellini, Dario (2018). "Labour as a Commons: The Example of Worker-Recuperated Companies".

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Leaming, Hugo P. (1995). Hidden Americans: Maroons of Virginia and the Carolinas (Routledge)

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opportunity to restore the fynbos and provided labour and plants for clearing and planting.

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Vergleichende Studien zum Spätmittelalter bis zu den Agrarreformen des 18./19. Jahrhunderts

437: 386: 112: 97: 1855:"Avoiding Tragedy in the Wiki-Commons", by Andrew George, 12 Va. J.L. & Tech. 8 (2007) 8: 5696: 5604: 5592: 5482: 5435: 5243: 5166: 4892: 4683: 4150: 4031: 3719: 3714: 3401: 3315: 3257: 3190: 1293: 853: 768: 446: 2204: 2132: 1875: 1827: 1509: 1455: 322:

with assistance from the local government, through paid employees and voluntary labour.

5706: 5691: 5621: 5577: 5467: 5053: 4958: 4713: 4598: 4352: 3998: 3322: 3119: 2890:

Fourier, Charles. (1996). The Theory of the Four Movements (Cambridge University Press)

2879: 2790: 2633:"The abortion underground: Groups quietly help women who have to travel to access care" 2292: 2052: 2002: 1839: 1813: 1656:"Local Control and Management of Our Water Commons: Stories of Rising to the Challenge" 1539: 1467: 1072: 953: 820: 789: 737: 370: 186: 2858:

Dellenbaugh, et al. (2015). Urban Commons: Moving beyond State and Market. Birkhäuser.

2485: 5753: 5678: 5142: 5048: 5021: 4868: 4818: 4754: 4708: 4594: 4553: 4548: 4480: 4298: 4253: 4240: 4195: 4067: 3791: 3776: 3396: 3262: 3212: 3207: 2953: 2883: 2794: 2721: 2414: 2380: 2314: 2265: 2255: 2216: 2212: 1965: 1843: 1790: 1591: 1531: 1471: 1419: 1395: 1311: 1198: 1188: 906: 802: 625: 458: 170: 20: 2106: 2056: 2006: 1786: 1716: 1543: 1231: 126:, applied to things common to all to be used and enjoyed by everyone, as opposed to 5628: 5587: 5570: 5457: 5355: 4887: 4791: 4675: 4558: 4533: 4422: 4273: 4200: 3968: 3960: 3888: 3585: 3525: 3278: 3164: 3154: 3139: 3109: 2871: 2815: 2782: 2713: 2208: 2177: 2173: 2044: 1994: 1831: 1782: 1523: 1459: 1342: 1301: 1272: 1262: 1156: 1116: 1077: 1047: 1020: 989: 984: 925: 416: 278: 202: 108: 2980:

Shantz, Jeff. (2013). Commonist Tendencies: Mutual Aid Beyond Communism. (Punctum)

2048: 1998: 1463: 1217: 428:

goods in the city make a commons when part of the citizens take political action.

5645: 5611: 5497: 5477: 5387: 5036: 5002: 4936: 4733: 4718: 4417: 4404: 4382: 4367: 4278: 4190: 4011: 3833: 3823: 3799: 3736: 3602: 3558: 3459: 3159: 3144: 3020: 2093: 2020:

https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/47378/1/9783839454244.pdf

1527: 1389: 1294:"Resilient Commoning: The Reproduction of the Basque Commons in the Longue Durée" 1082: 1052: 825: 759: 732: 675: 670: 635: 615: 429: 409: 2031:

Kostakis, Vasilis; Latoufis, Kostas; Liarokapis, Minas; Bauwens, Michel (2018).

1981:

Kostakis, Vasilis; Latoufis, Kostas; Liarokapis, Minas; Bauwens, Michel (2018).

5686: 5633: 5543: 5462: 5447: 5442: 5394: 5282: 5078: 5026: 5009: 4843: 4563: 4090: 3916: 3687: 3670: 3607: 3580: 3563: 3252: 3185: 3149: 3129: 2971:

Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph. (1994). What is Property? (Cambridge University Press)

2893: 1025: 1010: 829: 747: 727: 695: 660: 645: 630: 605: 541: 469: 166: 85: 2875: 2757: 2269: 2252:

Revolution at point zero : housework, reproduction, and feminist struggle

1915: 5747: 5650: 5487: 5377: 5334: 5115: 4992: 4878: 4828: 4692: 4573: 4503: 4460: 4427: 4412: 4230: 4185: 4006: 3973: 3771: 3751: 3702: 3379: 3359: 3300: 3217: 3114: 2999: 2943: 2939: 2786: 2717: 2486:"The Comedy of the Commons: Commerce, Custom, and Inherently Public Property" 2438: 2220: 1794: 1631:"Community Forestry Programs in Nepal and their Effects on Poorer Households" 1426: 1315: 1202: 910: 900: 710: 705: 650: 610: 575: 464: 433: 420: 382: 93: 1363: 586:

have been run successfully for many hundreds of years by the farmers there.

5452: 5410: 5186: 5137: 5073: 4929: 4833: 4362: 4340: 4335: 4325: 3978: 3954: 3921: 3902: 3883: 3838: 3811: 3804: 3786: 3724: 3500: 3454: 3449: 3352: 3337: 3180: 1535: 870: 842: 640: 485: 122: 46: 45:

Sheep grazing on common pasture, a stereotypical environmental commons, at

4210: 2377:

Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action

1182: 1002:– Account of historical and present common land use, mainly British Isles. 5548: 5492: 5314: 5292: 5287: 5154: 5031: 4997: 4985: 4873: 4796: 4330: 4225: 3946: 3746: 3631: 3520: 3495: 3483: 3464: 3347: 3327: 3237: 3134: 2443:

The Zero Marginal Cost Society: The Internet of Things, the Collaborative

1835: 1067: 1015: 999: 979: 721: 579: 343: 162: 152: 81: 31: 3048: 2864:

Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations

1587:

Capturing the Commons: Devising Institutions to Manage the Maine Lobster

5655: 5472: 5430: 5372: 5341: 4980: 4912: 4850: 4823: 4786: 4372: 4245: 4039: 3926: 3543: 3124: 2296: 1306: 1057: 763: 700: 665: 583: 190: 80:

The term "commons" derives from the traditional English legal term for

2896:. (2001). Free-Born John: A Biography of John Lilburne (Phoenix Press) 2588: 2309:

Samuel Bowles: Microeconomics: Behavior, Institutions, and Evolution,

1277: 1184:

Rebel cities : from the right to the city to the urban revolution

795: 5538: 5420: 5228: 5223: 5201: 5090: 5083: 4902: 4897: 4804: 4781: 3940: 3741: 3692: 3675: 3613: 3595: 3369: 3283: 2930:

Lummis, Douglas. (1997). Radical Democracy (Cornell University Press)

2820: 2803: 2413:. Washington D.C: Corporation for Enterprise Development. p. 1. 1347: 1330: 1329:

Basu, Soutrik; Jongerden, Joost; Ruivenkamp, Guido (March 17, 2017).

1161: 1144: 1005: 715: 680: 620: 554: 378: 339: 4644: 3006: 1267: 1250: 1143:

Basu, Soutrik; Jongerden, Joost; Ruivenkamp, Guido (17 March 2017).

819:

New York, U.S., the group Haven Coalition volunteer provide pre and

100:', or 'common property' were very rare in the academic literature." 5665: 5233: 5159: 5100: 5095: 5043: 4953: 4924: 4917: 4907: 4838: 4812: 4808: 4800: 4347: 3828: 3761: 3697: 3510: 3488: 3384: 3332: 3090: 994: 445:

complementary way with the state and the market. Some examples are

335: 35: 2682: 1818: 5329: 5324: 5270: 5176: 5105: 4948: 4749: 3781: 3575: 3568: 3433: 2994:

IASC - The International Association for the Study of the Commons

2030: 1980: 1394:. Cambridge University Press. p. 90, ff in the German text. 848: 785: 260: 57: 3042: 2613:"New York Abortion Access Fund | Connecting Rights to Resources" 2107:

Rebel cities: from the right to the city to the urban revolution

1771:"Urban green commons: Insights on urban common property systems" 1741: 5382: 5347: 5171: 5127: 4975: 4773: 3756: 3708: 3477: 2993: 2096:. (2017). Mountain View: Shareable. Retrieved December 28, 2017 920: 895: 565:

expensive than cleaning what is being put into the atmosphere.

61: 3013: 2829: 143:

The examples below illustrate types of environmental commons.

5415: 5255: 5181: 4968: 3845: 3441: 3032: 2283:

Lloyd, William Forster (1833). "Two Lectures on Population".

2145: 880: 104: 193:

which often is used for community or conservation purposes.

5360: 5216: 5211: 5191: 5065: 5016: 4860: 3059: 3054: 3026: 2965:

Patel, Raj. (2010). The Value of Nothing (Portobello Books)

891: 500:

Some authors distinguish between the resources shared (the

2236:"Commoning: a different way of living and acting together" 1494:"Revisiting the Commons: Local Lessons, Global Challenges" 272: 5319: 4963: 3818: 2612: 774: 3895:

The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State

130:, applied to public property managed by the government. 2801: 2162: 1768: 1742:"Wallace Fountains of Paris - Home - Wallace Fountains" 1328: 1142: 2071:

What makes urban commons different from other commons?

1043:

International Association for the Study of the Commons

1570:

Berkes, F. et al. 1989. The Benefits of the Commons.

1391:

Nature and Power: A Global History of the Environment

2853:

Infrastructural gap: Commons, State and Anthropology

2133:

Infrastructural Gap: Commons, State and Anthropology

1976: 1974: 1950: 1948: 1764: 1762: 1440:"State Policy and Pasture Degradation in Inner Asia" 836: 329: 1251:"Traditions and Trends in the Study of the Commons" 342:is an example of the production and maintenance of 304: 254: 1966:https://policyreview.info/concepts/digital-commons 1414:Hartmut Zückert, "Allmende und Allmendaufhebung". 828:in Chicago or Renata in Arizona. Some groups like 2329:Hardin, G. (1968). "The tragedy of the commons". 1971: 1945: 1759: 859: 287: 5745: 4120: 2861: 2802:Basu, S.; Jongerden, J.; Ruivenkamp, G. (2017). 2233:Euler, J. & Gauditz, L. (23 February 2017). 334:Today, the commons are also understood within a 1248: 1215:Classical theory based on Elinor Ostrom's book 1910:Fuster Morell, M. (2010, p. 5). Dissertation: 4660: 4106: 3075: 2374: 2122:" (personal communication, November 9, 2016) 1249:Laerhoven, Frank Van; Ostrom, Elinor (2007). 813: 229: 2659:"Inside the top-secret abortion underground" 2370: 2368: 2087:Sharing Cities: activating the Urban Commons 1138: 1136: 808: 236:decentralize government control over forests 72: 2464:"Remembering Elinor Ostrom, Nobel Laureate" 1916:http://www.onlinecreation.info/?page_id=338 1653: 1034:" – essay on the open source economic model 242:Beaver Hunting in James Bay, Quebec, Canada 220: 66: 4667: 4653: 4113: 4099: 3082: 3068: 2712:(1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. 2522:"Feminism and the Politics of the Commons" 2190: 535:, originated in the 18th century. In 1833 2819: 2772: 2479: 2477: 2432: 2430: 2365: 1817: 1810:Crowdsourcing, Attention and Productivity 1517: 1346: 1305: 1276: 1266: 1160: 1133: 833:information that is difficult to obtain. 796:"Feminist Reconstructions" of the Commons 520: 479: 138: 2656: 2554:Feminism and the Politics of the Commons 2519: 2249: 1807: 754: 415: 404: 40: 2705: 2548: 2546: 2544: 2542: 2349:"The Tragedy of the Commons, Revisited" 1717:"The iconic Wallace fountains in Paris" 1613:"Community Forestry in India and Nepal" 1583: 273:Free drinkable water fountains in Paris 196: 161:the common was an integral part of the 88:in an influential 1968 article called " 5746: 2474: 2427: 2408: 2346: 1866:"Corporate Toxics Information Project" 1714: 1491: 1437: 1387: 1383: 1381: 1180: 775:Women and the struggle for the Commons 180:In middle Europe, commons (relatively 5764:Environmental social science concepts 4674: 4648: 4094: 3063: 2282: 1926: 1610: 1566: 1564: 1562: 1560: 1291: 1114: 568: 531:A commons failure theory, now called 3037:Economics and the Commons Conference 3007:International Journal of the Commons 2808:International Journal of the Commons 2539: 2483: 1871:Political Economy Research Institute 1692:"¡Viva la Acequia! | On the Commons" 1388:Radkau, Joachim (11 February 2008). 1335:International Journal of the Commons 1255:International Journal of the Commons 1176: 1174: 1172: 1149:International Journal of the Commons 1110: 1108: 593: 515: 452: 146: 1611:Mehta, Trupti Ambrish (June 2002). 1590:. University Press of New England. 1378: 1355: 788:(money commons) and collectivizing 165:, and was thus legally part of the 13: 2737: 2436: 2393: 1557: 359: 234:In the late 1980s, Nepal chose to 14: 5775: 2987: 2285:Population and Development Review 1927:Berry, David (21 February 2005). 1169: 1121:The Commons Social Change Library 1105: 939:Movement for Justice en el Barrio 837:Historical land commons movements 330:Cultural and intellectual commons 103:Some texts make a distinction in 5728: 5727: 4604: 4603: 4593: 4209: 4062: 4061: 2706:Heiberg, Marianne (1989-09-07). 2353:Scientific American Blog Network 2213:10.1111/j.1467-8330.2010.00783.x 1361: 1232:"Digital Library Of The Commons" 877:Bhumi Uchhed Pratirodh Committee 396: 377:Examples of digital commons are 305:Urban green commons in Cape Town 255:Irrigation systems of New Mexico 4378:Science, technology and society 2709:The Making of the Basque Nation 2699: 2675: 2650: 2625: 2605: 2581: 2563: 2513: 2504: 2456: 2402: 2340: 2323: 2303: 2276: 2243: 2227: 2184: 2156: 2138: 2125: 2112: 2099: 2080: 2069:Dellenbaugh-Losse, M. (2017). " 2063: 2024: 2013: 1959: 1920: 1904: 1888: 1882: 1858: 1849: 1801: 1787:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2013.05.006 1734: 1708: 1684: 1647: 1623: 1604: 1577: 1485: 1431: 1408: 1187:. New York: Verso. p. 73. 3627:Right of way (property access) 2379:. Cambridge University Press. 2178:10.1016/j.geoforum.2017.06.008 1808:Huberman, Bernardo A. (2008), 1322: 1285: 1242: 1224: 1209: 886:Electronic Frontier Foundation 860:Contemporary commons movements 784:, credit associations such as 288:Allotment gardens in Stockholm 92:". As Frank van Laerhoven and 1: 3049:The Commons Transition Primer 2077:. Retrieved December 28, 2017 2049:10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.09.077 2037:Journal of Cleaner Production 1999:10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.09.077 1987:Journal of Cleaner Production 1464:10.1126/science.281.5380.1147 1099: 474:Commons-based peer production 4693:Pollution / quality 4122:Environmental social science 3089: 3043:The Commons Strategies Group 3014:Infrastructuring the Commons 2952:. Harvard University Press. 2763:Resources in other libraries 2439:"10 – Comedy of the Commons" 1874:. PERI-Umass. Archived from 1528:10.1126/science.284.5412.278 67:defined as a social practice 7: 4161:Environmental communication 3933:Two Treatises of Government 3033:The Peer to Peer Foundation 1775:Global Environmental Change 1292:Olsen, Jonah (2024-07-09). 1115:Smith, E. T. (2024-01-23). 967: 366:Digital commons (economics) 210:Trawl Fisheries of New York 10: 5780: 4146:Environmental anthropology 3000:Foundation for common land 2560:. Retrieved April 25, 2020 2490:Faculty Scholarship Series 2311:Princeton University Press 1088:Tyranny of small decisions 1038:Tragedy of the anticommons 933:Landless Workers' Movement 917:Homeless Workers' Movement 814:Abortion and Birth Control 524: 456: 412:in Athens as urban commons 363: 356:doing to the environment. 276: 258: 230:Community forests in Nepal 150: 90:The Tragedy of the Commons 29: 18: 5723: 5664: 5529: 5522: 5403: 5264:Types / location 5263: 5254: 5064: 4859: 4772: 4742: 4691: 4682: 4589: 4438: 4218: 4207: 4128: 4057: 3854: 3656: 3536: 3429: 3422: 3271: 3228: 3173: 3097: 2876:10.1007/s11266-018-0006-y 2758:Resources in your library 2558:The Wealth of the Commons 2526:The Wealth of the Commons 2250:Federici, Silvia (2012). 809:Feminist Commons Movement 423:in Cairo as urban commons 73:Definition and modern use 4176:Environmental psychology 3985:The Great Transformation 3343:Labor theory of property 2787:10.1177/0896920516661856 2718:10.1017/cbo9780511558023 2131:Dalakoglou, D. (2016). " 1715:Pierre (9 August 2018). 1093:The Goose and the Common 943:United States of America 221:Lobster fishery of Maine 30:Not to be confused with 25:Commons (disambiguation) 4181:Environmental sociology 4156:Environmental economics 4136:Ecological anthropology 3554:Forest-dwelling (India) 3516:restraint on alienation 3296:Common good (economics) 2571:"Caliban and the Witch" 2484:Rose, Carol M. (1986). 1663:www.ourwatercommons.org 1654:Davidson-Harden, Adam. 1584:Acheson, James (2004). 1492:Ostrom, Elinor (1999). 1063:Public good (economics) 782:subsistence agriculture 182:small-scale agriculture 133: 4171:Environmental politics 3993:Pierre-Joseph Proudhon 3767:Primitive accumulation 3622:Right of way (transit) 3407:Tragedy of the commons 3289:fictitious commodities 2851:Dalakoglou, Dimitris " 2552:Federici, S. (2012). " 2409:Barnes, Peter (2000). 2375:Elinor Ostrom (2015). 1934:Free Software Magazine 1438:Sneath, David (1998). 1181:Harvey, David (2012). 1117:"Practising Commoning" 948:Narmada Bachao Andolan 533:tragedy of the commons 527:Tragedy of the commons 521:Tragedy of the commons 498: 488:have adopted the term 480:Commoning as a process 424: 413: 350:Tragedy of the commons 139:Environmental resource 49: 23:. For other uses, see 4266:Ecological humanities 4166:Environmental history 4046:The Wealth of Nations 4026:Jean-Jacques Rousseau 4018:The Ethics of Liberty 2520:Federici, S. (2012). 2254:. Between the Lines. 2120:The city as a commons 960:Cosmopolitan localism 867:Abahlali baseMjondolo 755:Feminist perspectives 691:William Forster Lloyd 537:William Forster Lloyd 494: 419: 408: 98:common pool resources 44: 5639:remnant natural area 5276:storage and recovery 4942:habitat conservation 4760:Deforestation (REDD) 4358:Integrated geography 4236:Behavioral geography 4141:Ecological economics 3909:Progress and Poverty 3243:Common-pool resource 2848:(1), pp. 36–54. 2683:"Obiezione Respinta" 2657:Liss-Schultz, Nina. 2105:Harvey, D. (2013). " 1941:on 15 December 2009. 1891:"Justice in the Air" 1836:10.2139/ssrn.1266996 1746:wallacefountains.org 1696:www.onthecommons.org 1236:dlc.dlib.indiana.edu 508:who governs it, and 502:common-pool resource 438:Maidan Nezalezhnosti 387:open-source hardware 197:Mongolian grasslands 113:collective ownership 5593:Earth Overshoot Day 5167:Marine conservation 5148:non-timber products 4629:Research institutes 4151:Environmental crime 4032:The Social Contract 3720:population transfer 3637:prior-appropriation 3316:homestead principle 2347:Frischmann, Brett. 2313:, pp. 27–29 (2004) 2205:2010Antip..42..954D 1828:2008arXiv0809.3030H 1510:1999Sci...284..278. 1456:1998Sci...281.1147S 1450:(5380): 1147–1148. 769:means of production 447:community gardening 111:of the commons and 5578:Ecosystem services 4701:Ambient standards 4599:Environment portal 4353:Industrial ecology 4012:Murray N. Rothbard 3323:Free-rider problem 3019:2013-05-26 at the 2775:Critical Sociology 2687:Obiezione Respinta 2337:(3859), 1243-1248. 2135:". City vol. 6 (2) 2092:2017-12-29 at the 1574:, vol. 340: 91–93. 1427:review (in German) 1307:10.1111/anti.13077 1073:Reproductive labor 1032:The Magic Cauldron 975:Citizen's dividend 954:Take Back the Land 821:post abortion care 790:reproductive labor 738:Gerrard Winstanley 569:Successful commons 442:Plaza de Catalunya 425: 414: 371:Mayo Fuster Morell 187:Lower Rhine region 50: 5741: 5740: 5719: 5718: 5518: 5517: 5197:genetic resources 5133:genetic resources 4768: 4767: 4676:Natural resources 4642: 4641: 4481:Green criminology 4241:Community studies 4196:Political ecology 4088: 4087: 3999:What Is Property? 3792:human trafficking 3777:Regulatory taking 3652: 3651: 3397:Right to property 2744:Library resources 2727:978-0-521-36103-3 2589:"Haven Coalition" 2420:978-1-883187-32-3 2261:978-1-77113-494-1 1504:(5412): 278–282. 1424:978-3-8282-0226-9 1401:978-0-521-85129-9 1194:978-1-84467-882-2 909:primarily in the 907:Geolibertarianism 803:feminist struggle 626:George Caffentzis 594:Notable theorists 516:Economic theories 484:Scholars such as 459:Knowledge commons 453:Knowledge commons 440:in Kyiv, and the 171:lord of the manor 147:European land use 21:Wikimedia Commons 5771: 5731: 5730: 5682: 5629:Natural heritage 5588:overexploitation 5527: 5526: 5261: 5260: 5207:herbal medicines 5187:FAO Plant Treaty 4727: 4704: 4689: 4688: 4669: 4662: 4655: 4646: 4645: 4607: 4606: 4597: 4529:natural resource 4213: 4201:Regional science 4115: 4108: 4101: 4092: 4091: 4065: 4064: 3969:John Stuart Mill 3889:Friedrich Engels 3870:Frédéric Bastiat 3863: 3715:Forced migration 3683:Collectivization 3427: 3426: 3306:First possession 3279:Bundle of rights 3084: 3077: 3070: 3061: 3060: 2887: 2825: 2823: 2821:10.18352/ijc.673 2798: 2781:(4–5): 763–776. 2732: 2731: 2703: 2697: 2696: 2694: 2693: 2679: 2673: 2672: 2670: 2669: 2654: 2648: 2647: 2645: 2644: 2639:. September 2019 2629: 2623: 2622: 2620: 2619: 2609: 2603: 2602: 2600: 2599: 2585: 2579: 2578: 2567: 2561: 2550: 2537: 2536: 2534: 2532: 2517: 2511: 2508: 2502: 2501: 2499: 2497: 2481: 2472: 2471: 2460: 2454: 2453: 2451: 2449: 2437:Rifkin, Jeremy. 2434: 2425: 2424: 2406: 2400: 2397: 2391: 2390: 2372: 2363: 2362: 2360: 2359: 2344: 2338: 2327: 2321: 2307: 2301: 2300: 2280: 2274: 2273: 2247: 2241: 2231: 2225: 2224: 2188: 2182: 2181: 2160: 2154: 2153: 2142: 2136: 2129: 2123: 2116: 2110: 2109:". London: Verso 2103: 2097: 2084: 2078: 2067: 2061: 2060: 2028: 2022: 2017: 2011: 2010: 1978: 1969: 1963: 1957: 1952: 1943: 1942: 1937:. Archived from 1924: 1918: 1908: 1902: 1901: 1895: 1886: 1880: 1879: 1862: 1856: 1853: 1847: 1846: 1821: 1805: 1799: 1798: 1781:(5): 1039–1051. 1766: 1757: 1756: 1754: 1752: 1738: 1732: 1731: 1729: 1727: 1712: 1706: 1705: 1703: 1702: 1688: 1682: 1681: 1679: 1677: 1671: 1665:. Archived from 1660: 1651: 1645: 1644: 1642: 1641: 1627: 1621: 1620: 1608: 1602: 1601: 1581: 1575: 1568: 1555: 1554: 1552: 1550: 1521: 1498:Science Magazine 1489: 1483: 1482: 1480: 1478: 1444:Science Magazine 1435: 1429: 1412: 1406: 1405: 1385: 1376: 1375: 1373: 1371: 1359: 1353: 1352: 1350: 1348:10.18352/ijc.673 1326: 1320: 1319: 1309: 1289: 1283: 1282: 1280: 1270: 1246: 1240: 1239: 1228: 1222: 1221: 1213: 1207: 1206: 1178: 1167: 1166: 1164: 1162:10.18352/ijc.673 1140: 1131: 1130: 1128: 1127: 1112: 1078:Social ownership 1048:Municipalization 1021:Homo reciprocans 990:Creative Commons 985:Common ownership 962:or cosmolocalism 926:The Land is Ours 854:Kett's Rebellion 843:The Carlist Wars 720:John Platt (see 686:Vasilis Kostakis 279:Wallace fountain 203:land degradation 159:medieval England 109:common ownership 16:Shared resources 5779: 5778: 5774: 5773: 5772: 5770: 5769: 5768: 5744: 5743: 5742: 5737: 5715: 5680: 5660: 5646:Systems ecology 5612:Natural capital 5514: 5399: 5388:reclaimed water 5250: 5212:UPOV Convention 5060: 4855: 4764: 4738: 4734:Ozone depletion 4725: 4702: 4678: 4673: 4643: 4638: 4585: 4434: 4405:Systems ecology 4389:Sustainability 4383:science studies 4368:Rural sociology 4214: 4205: 4191:Human geography 4124: 4119: 4089: 4084: 4053: 3857: 3856: 3850: 3800:husband-selling 3737:Illegal logging 3732:Illegal fishing 3661: 3648: 3559:Freedom to roam 3532: 3445:(agrarian land) 3418: 3375:Property rights 3267: 3224: 3186:Estate (landed) 3169: 3093: 3088: 3021:Wayback Machine 2990: 2769: 2768: 2767: 2752: 2751: 2747: 2740: 2738:Further reading 2735: 2728: 2704: 2700: 2691: 2689: 2681: 2680: 2676: 2667: 2665: 2655: 2651: 2642: 2640: 2631: 2630: 2626: 2617: 2615: 2611: 2610: 2606: 2597: 2595: 2593:Haven Coalition 2587: 2586: 2582: 2575:www.akpress.org 2569: 2568: 2564: 2551: 2540: 2530: 2528: 2518: 2514: 2509: 2505: 2495: 2493: 2482: 2475: 2462: 2461: 2457: 2447: 2445: 2435: 2428: 2421: 2407: 2403: 2398: 2394: 2387: 2373: 2366: 2357: 2355: 2345: 2341: 2328: 2324: 2308: 2304: 2281: 2277: 2262: 2248: 2244: 2232: 2228: 2189: 2185: 2161: 2157: 2144: 2143: 2139: 2130: 2126: 2117: 2113: 2104: 2100: 2094:Wayback Machine 2085: 2081: 2068: 2064: 2029: 2025: 2018: 2014: 1979: 1972: 1964: 1960: 1953: 1946: 1925: 1921: 1909: 1905: 1893: 1887: 1883: 1864: 1863: 1859: 1854: 1850: 1806: 1802: 1767: 1760: 1750: 1748: 1740: 1739: 1735: 1725: 1723: 1713: 1709: 1700: 1698: 1690: 1689: 1685: 1675: 1673: 1669: 1658: 1652: 1648: 1639: 1637: 1629: 1628: 1624: 1609: 1605: 1598: 1582: 1578: 1569: 1558: 1548: 1546: 1519:10.1.1.510.4369 1490: 1486: 1476: 1474: 1436: 1432: 1413: 1409: 1402: 1386: 1379: 1369: 1367: 1360: 1356: 1327: 1323: 1290: 1286: 1268:10.18352/ijc.76 1247: 1243: 1230: 1229: 1225: 1216: 1214: 1210: 1195: 1179: 1170: 1141: 1134: 1125: 1123: 1113: 1106: 1102: 1097: 1083:State ownership 1053:Nationalization 970: 965: 862: 839: 826:Jane Collective 816: 811: 798: 777: 760:Silvia Federici 757: 752: 733:Kenneth Rexroth 676:Peter Linebaugh 671:Lawrence Lessig 636:Silvia Federici 616:Murray Bookchin 596: 571: 529: 523: 518: 482: 461: 455: 430:Syntagma Square 410:Syntagma Square 399: 368: 362: 360:Digital commons 332: 307: 290: 281: 275: 263: 257: 232: 223: 199: 155: 149: 141: 136: 75: 39: 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5777: 5767: 5766: 5761: 5759:Public commons 5756: 5739: 5738: 5736: 5735: 5724: 5721: 5720: 5717: 5716: 5714: 5713: 5704: 5699: 5694: 5689: 5684: 5681:(perpetuation) 5676: 5670: 5668: 5662: 5661: 5659: 5658: 5653: 5648: 5643: 5642: 5641: 5634:Nature reserve 5631: 5626: 5625: 5624: 5619: 5609: 5608: 5607: 5597: 5596: 5595: 5590: 5580: 5575: 5574: 5573: 5568: 5558: 5557: 5556: 5551: 5546: 5541: 5530: 5524: 5520: 5519: 5516: 5515: 5513: 5512: 5511: 5510: 5505: 5495: 5490: 5485: 5480: 5475: 5470: 5465: 5460: 5455: 5450: 5445: 5440: 5439: 5438: 5428: 5423: 5418: 5413: 5407: 5405: 5401: 5400: 5398: 5397: 5392: 5391: 5390: 5380: 5375: 5370: 5369: 5368: 5358: 5353: 5352: 5351: 5339: 5338: 5337: 5332: 5327: 5317: 5312: 5311: 5310: 5305: 5300: 5290: 5285: 5280: 5279: 5278: 5267: 5265: 5258: 5252: 5251: 5249: 5248: 5247: 5246: 5241: 5231: 5226: 5221: 5220: 5219: 5214: 5209: 5204: 5199: 5194: 5189: 5179: 5174: 5169: 5164: 5163: 5162: 5152: 5151: 5150: 5145: 5140: 5135: 5125: 5124: 5123: 5118: 5113: 5111:climate change 5103: 5098: 5093: 5088: 5087: 5086: 5079:Bioprospecting 5076: 5070: 5068: 5062: 5061: 5059: 5058: 5057: 5056: 5051: 5041: 5040: 5039: 5034: 5029: 5024: 5014: 5013: 5012: 5007: 5006: 5005: 5000: 4990: 4989: 4988: 4983: 4973: 4972: 4971: 4961: 4956: 4946: 4945: 4944: 4934: 4933: 4932: 4922: 4921: 4920: 4915: 4910: 4905: 4895: 4890: 4885: 4884: 4883: 4882: 4881: 4865: 4863: 4857: 4856: 4854: 4853: 4848: 4847: 4846: 4841: 4831: 4826: 4821: 4816: 4794: 4789: 4784: 4778: 4776: 4770: 4769: 4766: 4765: 4763: 4762: 4757: 4752: 4746: 4744: 4740: 4739: 4737: 4736: 4731: 4730: 4729: 4724:Clean Air Act 4716: 4711: 4706: 4697: 4695: 4686: 4680: 4679: 4672: 4671: 4664: 4657: 4649: 4640: 4639: 4637: 4636: 4631: 4626: 4621: 4616: 4611: 4601: 4590: 4587: 4586: 4584: 4583: 4582: 4581: 4576: 4568: 4567: 4566: 4561: 4556: 4551: 4546: 4538: 4537: 4536: 4531: 4526: 4521: 4516: 4508: 4507: 4506: 4501: 4496: 4491: 4483: 4478: 4477: 4476: 4471: 4463: 4458: 4457: 4456: 4451: 4442: 4440: 4436: 4435: 4433: 4432: 4431: 4430: 4425: 4420: 4415: 4407: 4402: 4401: 4400: 4395: 4387: 4386: 4385: 4375: 4370: 4365: 4360: 4355: 4350: 4345: 4344: 4343: 4338: 4333: 4323: 4322: 4321: 4316: 4311: 4306: 4301: 4296: 4291: 4285:Environmental 4283: 4282: 4281: 4276: 4268: 4263: 4262: 4261: 4256: 4248: 4243: 4238: 4233: 4228: 4222: 4220: 4216: 4215: 4208: 4206: 4204: 4203: 4198: 4193: 4188: 4183: 4178: 4173: 4168: 4163: 4158: 4153: 4148: 4143: 4138: 4132: 4130: 4126: 4125: 4118: 4117: 4110: 4103: 4095: 4086: 4085: 4083: 4082: 4081: 4080: 4070: 4058: 4055: 4054: 4052: 4051: 4050: 4049: 4037: 4036: 4035: 4023: 4022: 4021: 4009: 4004: 4003: 4002: 3990: 3989: 3988: 3976: 3971: 3966: 3965: 3964: 3952: 3951: 3950: 3938: 3937: 3936: 3924: 3919: 3917:Garrett Hardin 3914: 3913: 3912: 3900: 3899: 3898: 3886: 3881: 3880: 3879: 3866: 3864: 3852: 3851: 3849: 3848: 3843: 3842: 3841: 3836: 3831: 3826: 3816: 3815: 3814: 3809: 3808: 3807: 3802: 3794: 3789: 3779: 3774: 3769: 3764: 3759: 3754: 3749: 3744: 3739: 3734: 3729: 3728: 3727: 3722: 3712: 3705: 3700: 3695: 3690: 3688:Eminent domain 3685: 3680: 3679: 3678: 3671:Bioprospecting 3667: 3665: 3663:redistribution 3654: 3653: 3650: 3649: 3647: 3646: 3645: 3644: 3639: 3629: 3624: 3619: 3618: 3617: 3605: 3600: 3599: 3598: 3593: 3588: 3578: 3573: 3572: 3571: 3561: 3556: 3551: 3546: 3540: 3538: 3534: 3533: 3531: 3530: 3529: 3528: 3523: 3518: 3513: 3508: 3498: 3493: 3492: 3491: 3481: 3474: 3469: 3468: 3467: 3462: 3457: 3447: 3439: 3430: 3424: 3420: 3419: 3417: 3416: 3415: 3414: 3404: 3399: 3394: 3393: 3392: 3387: 3382: 3372: 3367: 3365:Natural rights 3362: 3357: 3356: 3355: 3345: 3340: 3335: 3330: 3325: 3320: 3319: 3318: 3313: 3303: 3298: 3293: 3292: 3291: 3281: 3275: 3273: 3269: 3268: 3266: 3265: 3260: 3255: 3250: 3245: 3240: 3234: 3232: 3226: 3225: 3223: 3222: 3221: 3220: 3210: 3205: 3204: 3203: 3193: 3188: 3183: 3177: 3175: 3171: 3170: 3168: 3167: 3162: 3157: 3152: 3147: 3142: 3137: 3132: 3127: 3122: 3117: 3112: 3107: 3101: 3099: 3095: 3094: 3087: 3086: 3079: 3072: 3064: 3058: 3057: 3052: 3046: 3040: 3030: 3027:On the Commons 3024: 3011: 3003: 2997: 2989: 2988:External links 2986: 2985: 2984: 2981: 2978: 2975: 2972: 2969: 2966: 2963: 2960: 2940:Negri, Antonio 2937: 2934: 2931: 2928: 2925: 2922: 2919: 2912: 2909: 2906: 2903: 2900: 2897: 2894:Gregg, Pauline 2891: 2888: 2870:(4): 621–636. 2859: 2856: 2855:". City 20(6). 2849: 2842: 2839: 2836: 2832: 2826: 2814:(1): 144–170. 2799: 2766: 2765: 2760: 2754: 2753: 2742: 2741: 2739: 2736: 2734: 2733: 2726: 2698: 2674: 2649: 2624: 2604: 2580: 2562: 2538: 2512: 2503: 2473: 2455: 2426: 2419: 2411:Pie in the Sky 2401: 2392: 2385: 2364: 2339: 2322: 2302: 2291:(3): 473–496. 2275: 2260: 2242: 2226: 2199:(4): 954–977. 2183: 2155: 2137: 2124: 2111: 2098: 2079: 2062: 2023: 2012: 1970: 1958: 1944: 1919: 1903: 1900:. PERI- Umass. 1889:Ash, Michael. 1881: 1878:on 2011-07-25. 1857: 1848: 1800: 1758: 1733: 1721:French Moments 1707: 1683: 1672:on 3 June 2016 1646: 1622: 1603: 1596: 1576: 1556: 1484: 1430: 1407: 1400: 1377: 1354: 1321: 1284: 1241: 1223: 1208: 1193: 1168: 1132: 1103: 1101: 1098: 1096: 1095: 1090: 1085: 1080: 1075: 1070: 1065: 1060: 1055: 1050: 1045: 1040: 1035: 1028: 1026:Network effect 1023: 1018: 1013: 1011:Global commons 1008: 1003: 997: 992: 987: 982: 977: 971: 969: 966: 964: 963: 957: 951: 945: 936: 929: 923: 913: 904: 898: 888: 883: 873: 863: 861: 858: 857: 856: 851: 845: 838: 835: 830:Women on Waves 815: 812: 810: 807: 797: 794: 776: 773: 756: 753: 751: 750: 748:Michel Bauwens 745: 740: 735: 730: 728:Joachim Radkau 725: 718: 713: 708: 703: 698: 696:William Morris 693: 688: 683: 678: 673: 668: 663: 661:Silke Helfrich 658: 653: 648: 646:Garrett Hardin 643: 638: 633: 631:Barry Commoner 628: 623: 618: 613: 608: 606:Yochai Benkler 603: 597: 595: 592: 570: 567: 542:Garrett Hardin 525:Main article: 522: 519: 517: 514: 481: 478: 470:overharvesting 457:Main article: 454: 451: 398: 395: 364:Main article: 361: 358: 331: 328: 306: 303: 289: 286: 277:Main article: 274: 271: 259:Main article: 256: 253: 231: 228: 222: 219: 198: 195: 167:estate in land 157:Originally in 151:Main article: 148: 145: 140: 137: 135: 132: 86:Garrett Hardin 74: 71: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5776: 5765: 5762: 5760: 5757: 5755: 5752: 5751: 5749: 5734: 5726: 5725: 5722: 5712: 5711:Non-renewable 5708: 5705: 5703: 5700: 5698: 5695: 5693: 5690: 5688: 5685: 5683: 5677: 5675: 5672: 5671: 5669: 5667: 5663: 5657: 5654: 5652: 5651:Urban ecology 5649: 5647: 5644: 5640: 5637: 5636: 5635: 5632: 5630: 5627: 5623: 5620: 5618: 5615: 5614: 5613: 5610: 5606: 5603: 5602: 5601: 5598: 5594: 5591: 5589: 5586: 5585: 5584: 5581: 5579: 5576: 5572: 5569: 5567: 5564: 5563: 5562: 5559: 5555: 5552: 5550: 5547: 5545: 5542: 5540: 5537: 5536: 5535: 5532: 5531: 5528: 5525: 5521: 5509: 5506: 5504: 5501: 5500: 5499: 5496: 5494: 5491: 5489: 5486: 5484: 5483:Privatization 5481: 5479: 5476: 5474: 5471: 5469: 5466: 5464: 5461: 5459: 5456: 5454: 5451: 5449: 5446: 5444: 5441: 5437: 5434: 5433: 5432: 5429: 5427: 5424: 5422: 5419: 5417: 5414: 5412: 5409: 5408: 5406: 5402: 5396: 5393: 5389: 5386: 5385: 5384: 5381: 5379: 5378:Surface water 5376: 5374: 5371: 5367: 5364: 5363: 5362: 5359: 5357: 5354: 5350: 5349: 5345: 5344: 5343: 5340: 5336: 5333: 5331: 5328: 5326: 5323: 5322: 5321: 5318: 5316: 5313: 5309: 5306: 5304: 5301: 5299: 5296: 5295: 5294: 5291: 5289: 5286: 5284: 5281: 5277: 5274: 5273: 5272: 5269: 5268: 5266: 5262: 5259: 5257: 5253: 5245: 5242: 5240: 5237: 5236: 5235: 5232: 5230: 5227: 5225: 5222: 5218: 5215: 5213: 5210: 5208: 5205: 5203: 5200: 5198: 5195: 5193: 5190: 5188: 5185: 5184: 5183: 5180: 5178: 5175: 5173: 5170: 5168: 5165: 5161: 5158: 5157: 5156: 5153: 5149: 5146: 5144: 5141: 5139: 5136: 5134: 5131: 5130: 5129: 5126: 5122: 5119: 5117: 5114: 5112: 5109: 5108: 5107: 5104: 5102: 5099: 5097: 5094: 5092: 5089: 5085: 5082: 5081: 5080: 5077: 5075: 5072: 5071: 5069: 5067: 5063: 5055: 5052: 5050: 5047: 5046: 5045: 5042: 5038: 5035: 5033: 5030: 5028: 5025: 5023: 5020: 5019: 5018: 5015: 5011: 5008: 5004: 5001: 4999: 4996: 4995: 4994: 4991: 4987: 4984: 4982: 4979: 4978: 4977: 4974: 4970: 4967: 4966: 4965: 4962: 4960: 4957: 4955: 4952: 4951: 4950: 4947: 4943: 4940: 4939: 4938: 4935: 4931: 4928: 4927: 4926: 4923: 4919: 4916: 4914: 4911: 4909: 4906: 4904: 4901: 4900: 4899: 4896: 4894: 4891: 4889: 4886: 4880: 4879:peak farmland 4877: 4876: 4875: 4872: 4871: 4870: 4867: 4866: 4864: 4862: 4858: 4852: 4849: 4845: 4842: 4840: 4837: 4836: 4835: 4832: 4830: 4827: 4825: 4822: 4820: 4817: 4814: 4810: 4806: 4802: 4798: 4795: 4793: 4790: 4788: 4785: 4783: 4780: 4779: 4777: 4775: 4771: 4761: 4758: 4756: 4753: 4751: 4748: 4747: 4745: 4741: 4735: 4732: 4728: 4722: 4721: 4720: 4717: 4715: 4712: 4710: 4707: 4705: 4699: 4698: 4696: 4694: 4690: 4687: 4685: 4681: 4677: 4670: 4665: 4663: 4658: 4656: 4651: 4650: 4647: 4635: 4632: 4630: 4627: 4625: 4622: 4620: 4617: 4615: 4612: 4610: 4602: 4600: 4596: 4592: 4591: 4588: 4580: 4579:environmental 4577: 4575: 4572: 4571: 4569: 4565: 4562: 4560: 4557: 4555: 4552: 4550: 4547: 4545: 4544:environmental 4542: 4541: 4539: 4535: 4532: 4530: 4527: 4525: 4522: 4520: 4517: 4515: 4514:environmental 4512: 4511: 4509: 4505: 4502: 4500: 4497: 4495: 4492: 4490: 4489:environmental 4487: 4486: 4484: 4482: 4479: 4475: 4474:environmental 4472: 4470: 4467: 4466: 4464: 4462: 4461:Ecopsychology 4459: 4455: 4452: 4450: 4447: 4446: 4445:Architecture 4444: 4443: 4441: 4437: 4429: 4426: 4424: 4421: 4419: 4416: 4414: 4411: 4410: 4408: 4406: 4403: 4399: 4396: 4394: 4391: 4390: 4388: 4384: 4381: 4380: 4379: 4376: 4374: 4371: 4369: 4366: 4364: 4361: 4359: 4356: 4354: 4351: 4349: 4346: 4342: 4339: 4337: 4334: 4332: 4329: 4328: 4327: 4324: 4320: 4317: 4315: 4312: 4310: 4307: 4305: 4302: 4300: 4297: 4295: 4292: 4290: 4287: 4286: 4284: 4280: 4277: 4275: 4272: 4271: 4269: 4267: 4264: 4260: 4259:environmental 4257: 4255: 4252: 4251: 4249: 4247: 4244: 4242: 4239: 4237: 4234: 4232: 4231:Anthrozoology 4229: 4227: 4224: 4223: 4221: 4217: 4212: 4202: 4199: 4197: 4194: 4192: 4189: 4187: 4186:Human ecology 4184: 4182: 4179: 4177: 4174: 4172: 4169: 4167: 4164: 4162: 4159: 4157: 4154: 4152: 4149: 4147: 4144: 4142: 4139: 4137: 4134: 4133: 4131: 4127: 4123: 4116: 4111: 4109: 4104: 4102: 4097: 4096: 4093: 4079: 4076: 4075: 4074: 4071: 4069: 4066:Categories: 4060: 4059: 4056: 4048: 4047: 4043: 4042: 4041: 4038: 4034: 4033: 4029: 4028: 4027: 4024: 4020: 4019: 4015: 4014: 4013: 4010: 4008: 4007:David Ricardo 4005: 4001: 4000: 3996: 3995: 3994: 3991: 3987: 3986: 3982: 3981: 3980: 3977: 3975: 3974:Elinor Ostrom 3972: 3970: 3967: 3963: 3962: 3958: 3957: 3956: 3953: 3949: 3948: 3944: 3943: 3942: 3939: 3935: 3934: 3930: 3929: 3928: 3925: 3923: 3920: 3918: 3915: 3911: 3910: 3906: 3905: 3904: 3901: 3897: 3896: 3892: 3891: 3890: 3887: 3885: 3882: 3878: 3877: 3873: 3872: 3871: 3868: 3867: 3865: 3861: 3853: 3847: 3844: 3840: 3837: 3835: 3832: 3830: 3827: 3825: 3822: 3821: 3820: 3817: 3813: 3810: 3806: 3803: 3801: 3798: 3797: 3795: 3793: 3790: 3788: 3785: 3784: 3783: 3780: 3778: 3775: 3773: 3772:Privatization 3770: 3768: 3765: 3763: 3760: 3758: 3755: 3753: 3752:Legal plunder 3750: 3748: 3745: 3743: 3740: 3738: 3735: 3733: 3730: 3726: 3723: 3721: 3718: 3717: 3716: 3713: 3711: 3710: 3706: 3704: 3703:Expropriation 3701: 3699: 3696: 3694: 3691: 3689: 3686: 3684: 3681: 3677: 3674: 3673: 3672: 3669: 3668: 3666: 3664: 3659: 3655: 3643: 3640: 3638: 3635: 3634: 3633: 3630: 3628: 3625: 3623: 3620: 3616: 3615: 3611: 3610: 3609: 3606: 3604: 3601: 3597: 3594: 3592: 3589: 3587: 3584: 3583: 3582: 3579: 3577: 3574: 3570: 3567: 3566: 3565: 3562: 3560: 3557: 3555: 3552: 3550: 3547: 3545: 3542: 3541: 3539: 3535: 3527: 3524: 3522: 3519: 3517: 3514: 3512: 3509: 3507: 3504: 3503: 3502: 3499: 3497: 3494: 3490: 3487: 3486: 3485: 3482: 3480: 3479: 3475: 3473: 3470: 3466: 3463: 3461: 3458: 3456: 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