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how theoretical constructs, such as the
Prisoner's Dilemma and coordination games, apply to these behavioral challenges. Further, field experiments involving specific ecological features of CPRs, such as water irrigation, forestry, and fisheries, have revealed the impact of various resource-specific dynamics on collective action and resource management. Additionally, a study explored the external validity of CPR laboratory experiments within the context of artisanal benthic fisheries in Chile, revealing a correlation between cooperative behaviors exhibited in laboratory settings and those in real-world co-managed and open-access fisheries. These studies collectively underscore the complexity of CPR dilemmas and highlight the nuanced interplay between individual strategies, collective action, and resource sustainability, providing a multifaceted understanding of cooperation and norm internalization in the management of communal resources.
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individual occupies or uses from the resource system, such as the total amount of fish caught in a fishing ground, the amount of feed consumed by livestock in pastoral areas. A resource system allows multiple people or enterprise to produce at the same time, and the process of using common-pool resources can be performed simultaneously by multiple occupants. However, the resource unit cannot be used by multiple people or enterprises at the same time.
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system. In order to develop more resources, resource owners may seek to change the ownership of resources in the form of cooperation with the government, privatize CPR or even cancel the protection of CPR ownership by regulations. Such institutional changes prevent the implementation of policies that are beneficial to the majority of the population, while the power of the government and bureaucracy can be abused.
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88:, where there is a huge demand for surface water but supplies are limited, common pool problems are exacerbated because the state does not manage groundwater basins at the state level. During the 2012-2016 drought, farmers with senior water rights dating back to the 19th century could use as much water as they wanted, while cities and towns had to make drastic cutbacks to water use.
483:
mechanism for CPR. Encouraging the exploitation of the least used resources and reducing the exploitation of the most used resources will effectively increase the rate of resource supply and reduce the rate of resource consumption and individual demand. (3) Group identity. When people in a community have a strong sense of group identity, it helps to manage CPR within the community.
84:
an incentive to harvest as many fish as possible because if they do not, someone else will—so without management and regulation, fish stocks soon become depleted. And while a river might supply many cities with drinking water, manufacturing plants might be tempted to pollute the river if they were not prohibited from doing so by law because someone else would bear the costs. In
445:, Ostrom makes the case for adaptive governance as a method for the management of common-pool resources. Adaptive governance is suited to dealing with problems that are complex, uncertain and fragmented, as is the management of common-pool resources. Ostrom outlines five basic protocol requirements for achieving adaptive governance. These include:
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by controlling the dock space. Due to these methods, they have access to the best whiting grounds, dominate the market during winter, and can maintain relatively high prices through supply management. The fishermen consider this type of self-regulation both flexible and effective in maintaining sustainable use.
112:
prompting conservation laws to be enacted after 1930 and outsiders being banned from trapping in James Bay. Eventually, Amerindian communities and family territories were legally recognized, and customary laws became enforceable. This restoration of local control allowed for the beaver population to recover.
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many factors that may affect the formation and development of these kinds of autonomous organizations. Effectively identifying the influencing factors of the autonomous management system of CPRs increasing the feasibility of the system, and it is more conducive to the sustainable use of resources as well.
124:. Those in a community are restricted to fishing in the territory held by that community. This is enforced by surreptitious violence towards interlopers. Fishermen in these exclusive territories catch significantly more and larger lobsters with less effort than those in areas where territories overlap.
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However, in a different setting, such as fishing, there will be drastically different consequences. Since fish are an open access resource, it is relatively simple to fish and profit. If fishing becomes profitable, there will be more fishers and fewer fish. Fewer fish lead to higher prices which will
507:
In economics, open access resources are, for the most part, rivalrous, non-excludable goods. This makes them similar to common goods during times of prosperity. Unlike many common goods, open access goods require little oversight or may be difficult to restrict access. However, as these resources are
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Common Pool
Resource (CPR) games have been a focal point in experimental research, providing insights into the dynamics and dilemmas associated with communal resource management. A foundational work introduced a conceptual framework that elucidates the strategic content of CPR dilemmas, demonstrating
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A new proposal of the management of CPR is to develop autonomous organizations that are not completely privatized and controlled by government power, which led and supervised by the community to manage common-pool resources in addition to directly through the government and the free market. There are
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loop, where the stock variable continually regenerates the fringe variable as long as the stock variable is not compromised, providing an optimum amount of consumption. However, consumption exceeding the fringe value reduces the stock variable, which in turn decreases the flow variable. If the stock
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limits entry into the local fishery and establishes catch quotas among members. These quotas are based on regional market sales estimations and attempt to encourage initiative while discouraging “free-riding.” They limit entry to the whiting grounds and markets through a closed membership policy and
83:
Common-pool goods are typically regulated and nurtured in order to prevent demand from overwhelming supply and allow for their continued exploitation. Examples of common-pool resources include forests, man-made irrigation systems, fishing grounds, and groundwater basins. For instance, fishermen have
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In general, there are four variables that are very important for local common-pool resource management: (1) characteristics of the resource; (2) characteristics of the resource-dependent group; (3) institutional model of resource management; (4) the relationship between groups, external forces, and
119:
catch has been remarkably stable despite predictions of resource collapse. The state government has regulations in place but does not limit the number of licenses. The exclusion to this CPR is done through a system of traditional fishing rights which makes it so that one needs to be accepted by the
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to occur each year without the core resource being harmed. In the case of excessive grazing, however, the pasture may become more prone to erosion and eventually yield less benefit to its users. Because the core resources are vulnerable, common-pool resources are generally subject to problems of
478:
The government, market and interest groups are all considered as external forces that have an impact on CPR management system. Changes in market demand for CPR, in particular, technological innovation increases productivity and lowers costs, which undermines the sustainability of the management
111:
to regulate hunting. However, in the 1920s the railroads caused a large influx of non-native trappers who took advantage of the high fur prices and the indigenous people losing control of their territories. Both non-native and native trappers contributed to the decline of the beaver population,
482:
The community is responsible for supervising and administering CPR under an autonomous management system, the characteristics of a community can affect how CPR is managed. (1) the size of the community. The level of cooperation decreases as the number of community members grows; (2) Allocation
201:
Resource systems like pastoral areas, fishing grounds, forest areas are storage variables. Under favorable conditions, they can maximize the flow without harming the total storage volume and the entire resource system. Different from the resource system, the resource unit is the amount that an
355:
Common property systems of management arise when users acting independently threaten the total net benefit from common-pool resource. In order to maintain the resources, protocols coordinate strategies to maintain the resource as a common property instead of dividing it up into parcels of
898:
Castilla-Rho J.C., Holley C., Castilla J.C. (2020) Groundwater as a Common Pool
Resource: Modelling, Management and the Complicity Ethic in a Non-collective World. In: Valera L., Castilla J. (eds) Global Changes. Ethics of Science and Technology Assessment, vol 46. Springer,
380:. While there is relatively free but monitored access to the resource system for community members, there are mechanisms in place which allow the community to exclude outsiders from using its resource. Thus, in a common property state, a common-pool resource appears as a
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used to withdraw various resource units from the resource system. Setting the limits too high would lead to overuse and eventually to the destruction of the core resource while setting the limits too low would unnecessarily reduce the benefits obtained by the users.
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of a common-pool resource. The use of the term "common property resource" to designate a type of good has been criticized, because common-pool resources are not necessarily governed by common property protocols. Examples of common-pool resources include
1907:
1144:
Rose, Carol M. (2000) "Expanding the
Choices for the Global Commons: Comparing Newfangled Tradable allowance schemes to Old-Fashioned Common Property Regimes". In: Duke Environmental Law & Policy Forum, Vol. X, No. 2, Spring 2000.
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Gelcich, S., Guzman, R., RodrĂguez-Sickert, C., Castilla, J. C., & Cárdenas, J. C. (2013). Exploring external validity of common pool resource experiments: insights from artisanal benthic fisheries in Chile. Ecology and
Society,
432:(TEAs) are used successfully to prevent excessive pollution, whereas in other cases — especially in the absence of a unique government being able to set limits and monitor economic activities — excessive use or pollution continue.
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The management of common-pool resources is highly dependent upon the type of resource involved. An effective strategy at one location, or of one particular resource, may not be necessarily appropriate for another. In
58:
system (e.g. an irrigation system or fishing grounds), whose size or characteristics makes it costly, but not impossible, to exclude potential beneficiaries from obtaining benefits from its use. Unlike pure
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Anderson, Terry L., Grewell, J. Bishop (2000) "Property Rights
Solutions for the Global Commons: Bottom-Up or Top-Down?" In: Duke Environmental Law & Policy Forum, Vol. X, No. 2, Spring 2000.
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to an insider of the community. The resource units withdrawn from the system are typically owned individually by the appropriators. A common property good is rivaled in consumption.
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Ostrom, E. (1990). Governing the
Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action (Canto Classics). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9781316423936
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Achieving accurate and relevant information, by focusing on the creation and use of timely scientific knowledge on the part of both the managers and the users of the resource
722:
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Araral, Eduardo. (2014). Ostrom, Hardin and the
Commons. A Critical Appreciation and Revisionist View. Env Science and Policy. Volume 36, Pages 1–92 (February 2014)
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Saunders, Pammela Q. (2011) "A Sea Change Off the Coast of Maine: Common Pool
Resources as Cultural Property". In: Emory Law Journal, Vol. 60, No. 6, June 2011.
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Ostrom, Elinor (2003) "How Types of Goods and
Property Rights Jointly Affect Collective Action", Journal of Theoretical Politics, Vol. 15, No. 3, 239-270 (2003).
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Hess, C. and Ostrom, E. (2001), "Artifacts, Facilities, And Content: Information as a Common-pool Resource", Workshop in Political Theory and Policy Analysis.
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75:. While the core resource is to be protected or nurtured in order to allow for its continuous exploitation, the fringe units can be harvested or consumed.
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Hess, C. and Ostrom, E. (2003), "Ideas, Artifacts, and Facilities: Information as a Common-Pool Resource", Law and Contemporary Problems 66, S. 111–146.
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Dealing with conflict, acknowledging the fact that conflicts will occur, and having systems in place to discover and resolve them as quickly as possible
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Cárdenas, J., Janssen, M., & Bousquet, F. (2013). Dynamics of rules and resources: three new field experiments on water, forests and fisheries. DOI
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by a local community. Her observations contradict claims that common-pool resources must be privatized or else face destruction in the long run due to
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variable is allowed to regenerate then the fringe and flow variables may also recover to initial levels, but in many cases the loss is irreparable.
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or overuse, because they are subtractable. A common-pool resource typically consists of a core resource (e.g. water or fish), which defines the
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Ostrom, Elinor. (2010). "The Challenge of common-pool resources". In: Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development, 50:4, 8-21.
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https://water.ca.gov/-/media/DWR-Website/Web-Pages/Water-Basics/Drought/Files/Publications-And-Reports/CNRA-Drought-Report-final-March-2021.pdf
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Baland, Jean-Marie and Jean-Philippe Platteau (1996) Halting Degradation of Natural Resources: Is There a Role for Rural Communities?
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Ostrom, Elinor, Roy Gardner, and James Walker (1994) Rules, Games, and Common-Pool Resources. University of Michigan Press. 1994.
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In case of larger CPRs: Organisation in the form of multiple layers of nested enterprises, with small, local CPRs at their bases.
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Ostrom, Elinor (1990) "Governing the Commons. The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action". Cambridge University Press.
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Meinzen-Dick, Ruth, Esther Mwangi, Stephan Dohrn. 2006. Securing the Commons. CAPRi Policy Brief 4. Washington DC: IFPRI.
2016:
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Providing infrastructure, that is flexible over time, both to aid internal operations and create links to other resources
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Collective-choice arrangements allowing for the participation of most of the appropriators in the decision making process
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Thompson, Jr., Barton H. (2000) "Tragically Difficult: The Obstacles to Governing the Commons" Environmental Law 30:241.
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of a resource system from which fringe units can be extracted. In some cases, government regulations combined with
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368:. Common resource management has to face the difficult task of devising rules that limit the amount, timing, and
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The use of many common-pool resources, if managed carefully, can be extended because the resource system forms a
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360:. Common property systems typically protect the core resource and allocate the fringe resources through complex
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A common property rights regime system (not to be confused with a common-pool resource) is a particular
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Enhancing rule compliance, through creating responsibility for the users of a resource to monitor usage
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Gardner, R., Ostrom, E., & Walker, J. M. (1990). The Nature of Common-Pool Resource Problems. DOI
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In common property systems, access to the resource is not free and common-pool resources are not
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Daniels, Brigham (2007) "Emerging Commons and Tragic Institutions," Environmental Law, Vol. 37.
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This section is about non-excludable resources in economics. It is not to be confused with
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identified eight design principles which are prerequisites for a stable CPR arrangement:
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was an important species for food and later commerce when the fur trade started in 1670.
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groups in the area have traditionally used resources communally and have a heritage of
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lead again to more fishers, as well as lower reproduction of fish. This is a negative
198:, and potential destruction unless harvesting or use limits are devised and enforced.
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Ostrom, Elinor; Gardner, Roy; Walker, James; Walker, James M.; Walker, Jimmy (1994).
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Effective monitoring by monitors who are part of or accountable to the appropriators
71:, while providing a limited quantity of extractable fringe units, which defines the
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247:— arrangements different from private property or state administration — based on
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Common-pool resources may be owned by national, regional or local governments as
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Encouraging adaption and change to address errors and cope with new developments
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512:. Two possibilities may follow: a common property or an open access system.
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723:"Open Access Resource definition | Environmental Economics Dictionary"
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Common property systems typically function at a local level to prevent the
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Governing the commons: the evolution of institutions for collective action
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Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action
239:. Having observed a number of common pool resources throughout the world,
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Congruence between appropriation and provision rules and local conditions
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first come, first served, they may be affected by the phenomenon of the
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Graduated sanctions for appropriators who do not respect community rules
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834:"UNU-IAS. (2011). "Adaptive Governance". United Nations University"
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Minimal recognition of rights to organize (e.g., by the government)
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Berkes, F.; Feeny, D.; McCay, B. J.; Acheson, J. M. (July 1989).
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Conflict-resolution mechanisms which are cheap and easy to access
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Goods § Goods classified by exclusivity and competitiveness
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and an example of problems that arise with open access goods.
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Influential factors in the management of common-pool resources
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1021:"Market Failures: Open-Access Resources, Public Goods, Etc"
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Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development
185:. A pasture, for instance, allows for a certain amount of
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2172:
871:
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The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State
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Analysing the design of long-enduring CPR institutions,
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725:. Economics.socialsciencedictionary.com. Archived from
658:
1055:
Acheson, James, M. (1988) The Lobster Gangs of Maine.
255:
problems leading to the overuse of the core resource (
78:
822:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 90, 91–102.
487:Experimental Studies on Common Pool Resource Games
235:. When they are owned by no one, they are used as
721:Environmental Economics Dictionary (2008-04-30).
4749:
3573:
772:. Alternatives for Delivering Public Services.
630:"Sustainable Groundwater Management Act (SGMA)"
231:, or by private individuals or corporations as
995:(20 September 2006). "Open access resources".
817:
243:noticed that a number of them are governed by
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608:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
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1071:Copeland, Brian R.; M. Scott Taylor (2009).
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836:. Ias.unu.edu. 2006-08-18. Archived from
795:Global Encyclopaedia of Welfare Economics
135:fishermen that specializes in harvesting
63:, common pool resources face problems of
911:"The Challenge of Common-Pool Resources"
495:
875:Rules, Games, and Common-pool Resources
14:
4750:
908:
767:
603:
443:The Challenge of Common-Pool Resources
435:
4768:Environmental social science concepts
4101:
3547:
2474:
2448:
1417:
1179:
867:
865:
763:
761:
751:
749:
747:
745:
743:
716:
714:
712:
710:
328:eg. cinemas, software, private parks
4722:
975:
966:
957:
654:
652:
650:
265:
156:the preservation, maintenance, and
24:
1205:
902:
862:
797:. Global Vision Publishing House.
758:
740:
707:
79:Examples of a Common-Pool Resource
25:
4779:
1159:
1073:"Trade, Tragedy, and the Commons"
647:
550:Exploitation of natural resources
430:tradable environmental allowances
4721:
4712:
4711:
4701:
4269:Traditional ecological knowledge
4215:
4057:
4056:
4046:
3662:
3528:
3527:
2416:
2415:
878:. University of Michigan Press.
565:Occupancy-abundance relationship
4567:Science, technology and society
3831:Science, technology and society
1046:
1012:
985:
892:
851:
826:
770:Public Goods and Public Choices
1981:Right of way (property access)
1166:Digital Library of the Commons
811:
786:
636:
622:
597:
13:
1:
4408:Religion and environmentalism
909:Ostrom, Elinor (2008-07-01).
661:"The benefits of the commons"
585:
504:publishing of academic works.
205:
4471:Environmental interpretation
3575:Environmental social science
2493:Pollution / quality
1443:
590:
218:
7:
4444:Environmental communication
3614:Environmental communication
2287:Two Treatises of Government
523:
120:community to be able to go
10:
4784:
4259:Environmental anthropology
3599:Environmental anthropology
580:Tyranny of small decisions
499:
399:Clearly defined boundaries
269:
4697:
4602:
4504:
4426:
4388:
4320:
4277:
4224:
4213:
4135:
4042:
3891:
3671:
3660:
3581:
3523:
3464:
3329:
3322:
3203:
3064:Types / location
3063:
3054:
2864:
2659:
2572:
2542:
2491:
2482:
2411:
2208:
2010:
1890:
1783:
1776:
1625:
1582:
1527:
1451:
1214:
366:consensus decision-making
351:Common property protocols
245:common property protocols
229:common property resources
131:region, a cooperative of
27:Type of good in economics
4674:Sustainable architecture
4612:Arts and Crafts movement
4476:Environmental journalism
4370:Environmental philosophy
4129:Environmental humanities
3629:Environmental psychology
2339:The Great Transformation
1697:Labor theory of property
1171:Public vs. Private Goods
1080:American Economic Review
1019:Mackenzie, John (2014).
384:to an outsider and as a
314:eg. fish stocks, timber
227:, by communal groups as
4496:Thematic interpretation
4449:Environmental education
4249:Ecological anthropology
4155:Environmental sculpture
3634:Environmental sociology
3609:Environmental economics
3589:Ecological anthropology
1908:Forest-dwelling (India)
1870:restraint on alienation
1650:Common good (economics)
1272:(Post-)experience goods
818:Ostrom, Elinor (1990).
768:Ostrom, Elinor (1977).
604:Ostrom, Elinor (1990).
535:Common good (economics)
144:Common property systems
4647:Landscape architecture
4594:Sustainability studies
4403:Environmental theology
3624:Environmental politics
2347:Pierre-Joseph Proudhon
2121:Primitive accumulation
1976:Right of way (transit)
1761:Tragedy of the commons
1643:fictitious commodities
1383:(Non-)excludable goods
935:10.3200/ENVT.50.4.8-21
575:Tragedy of the commons
510:tragedy of the commons
339:free-to-air television
259:Tragedy of the commons
4466:Environmental history
4365:Environmental justice
3719:Ecological humanities
3619:Environmental history
2400:The Wealth of Nations
2380:Jean-Jacques Rousseau
2372:The Ethics of Liberty
1379:(Non-)rivalrous goods
998:Encyclopedia of Earth
793:Mandal, B.N. (2009).
496:Open access resources
310:Common-pool resources
237:open access resources
4642:Environmental design
4522:Biophilia hypothesis
4360:Environmental ethics
4330:Aesthetics of nature
3811:Integrated geography
3689:Behavioral geography
3594:Ecological economics
3439:remnant natural area
3076:storage and recovery
2742:habitat conservation
2560:Deforestation (REDD)
2263:Progress and Poverty
1597:Common-pool resource
1239:Common-pool resource
1092:10.1257/aer.99.3.725
302:eg. food, clothing,
36:common-pool resource
18:Common pool resource
4684:Sustainable fashion
4082:Research institutes
3604:Environmental crime
3393:Earth Overshoot Day
2967:Marine conservation
2948:non-timber products
2386:The Social Contract
2074:population transfer
1991:prior-appropriation
1670:homestead principle
1301:Global public goods
1267:(Non-)durable goods
1244:Complementary goods
927:2008ESPSD..50d...8O
677:1989Natur.340...91B
436:Adaptive governance
4707:Environment portal
4679:Sustainable design
4312:Outdoor literature
4239:Cultural landscape
4165:Landscape painting
4052:Environment portal
3806:Industrial ecology
3378:Ecosystem services
2501:Ambient standards
2366:Murray N. Rothbard
1677:Free-rider problem
1321:Intermediate goods
1030:on 3 November 2017
4745:
4744:
4637:Educational trail
4627:Ecological design
4486:Outdoor education
4481:Environmental law
4413:Spiritual ecology
4375:Predation problem
4202:Site-specific art
4150:Environmental art
4095:
4094:
3934:Green criminology
3694:Community studies
3649:Political ecology
3541:
3540:
3519:
3518:
3318:
3317:
2997:genetic resources
2933:genetic resources
2568:
2567:
2476:Natural resources
2442:
2441:
2353:What Is Property?
2146:human trafficking
2131:Regulatory taking
2006:
2005:
1751:Right to property
1411:
1410:
1311:Information goods
1252:Independent goods
1140:978-0-472-06546-2
885:978-0-472-06546-2
560:Knowledge commons
530:Carrying capacity
348:
347:
266:Definition matrix
253:collective action
212:negative feedback
16:(Redirected from
4775:
4725:
4724:
4715:
4714:
4705:
4617:Acoustic ecology
4350:Ecophenomenology
4335:Critical realism
4234:Cultural ecology
4219:
4122:
4115:
4108:
4099:
4098:
4060:
4059:
4050:
3982:natural resource
3666:
3654:Regional science
3568:
3561:
3554:
3545:
3544:
3531:
3530:
3482:
3429:Natural heritage
3388:overexploitation
3327:
3326:
3061:
3060:
3007:herbal medicines
2987:FAO Plant Treaty
2527:
2504:
2489:
2488:
2469:
2462:
2455:
2446:
2445:
2419:
2418:
2323:John Stuart Mill
2243:Friedrich Engels
2224:Frédéric Bastiat
2217:
2069:Forced migration
2037:Collectivization
1781:
1780:
1660:First possession
1633:Bundle of rights
1438:
1431:
1424:
1415:
1414:
1316:Intangible goods
1286:Positional goods
1248:Substitute goods
1219:Anti-rival goods
1200:
1193:
1186:
1177:
1176:
1095:
1077:
1040:
1039:
1037:
1035:
1029:
1023:. Archived from
1016:
1010:
1009:
1007:
1005:
989:
983:
979:
973:
970:
964:
961:
955:
954:
906:
900:
896:
890:
889:
869:
860:
855:
849:
848:
846:
845:
830:
824:
823:
815:
809:
808:
790:
784:
783:
765:
756:
753:
738:
737:
735:
734:
718:
705:
704:
685:10.1038/340091a0
656:
645:
640:
634:
633:
626:
620:
619:
601:
570:Overexploitation
426:overexploitation
358:private property
343:national defense
276:
275:
115:Since 1947, the
46:consisting of a
21:
4783:
4782:
4778:
4777:
4776:
4774:
4773:
4772:
4748:
4747:
4746:
4741:
4693:
4598:
4589:Spirit of place
4572:science studies
4556:common property
4552:Property theory
4547:Popular science
4537:Natural history
4500:
4491:Psychogeography
4422:
4384:
4316:
4273:
4220:
4211:
4207:Sustainable art
4197:Sculpture trail
4131:
4126:
4096:
4091:
4038:
3887:
3858:Systems ecology
3842:Sustainability
3836:science studies
3821:Rural sociology
3667:
3658:
3644:Human geography
3577:
3572:
3542:
3537:
3515:
3480:
3460:
3446:Systems ecology
3412:Natural capital
3314:
3199:
3188:reclaimed water
3050:
3012:UPOV Convention
2860:
2655:
2564:
2538:
2534:Ozone depletion
2525:
2502:
2478:
2473:
2443:
2438:
2407:
2211:
2210:
2204:
2154:husband-selling
2091:Illegal logging
2086:Illegal fishing
2015:
2002:
1913:Freedom to roam
1886:
1799:(agrarian land)
1772:
1729:Property rights
1621:
1578:
1540:Estate (landed)
1523:
1447:
1442:
1412:
1407:
1367:Household goods
1350:Necessity goods
1257:Composite goods
1210:
1204:
1162:
1075:
1049:
1044:
1043:
1033:
1031:
1028:(lecture notes)
1027:
1017:
1013:
1003:
1001:
990:
986:
980:
976:
971:
967:
962:
958:
907:
903:
897:
893:
886:
870:
863:
856:
852:
843:
841:
832:
831:
827:
816:
812:
805:
791:
787:
780:
766:
759:
754:
741:
732:
730:
719:
708:
671:(6229): 91–93.
657:
648:
641:
637:
628:
627:
623:
616:
602:
598:
593:
588:
526:
505:
498:
489:
468:
438:
353:
336:
327:
313:
301:
286:Non-excludable
274:
268:
249:self-management
221:
208:
146:
122:lobster fishing
81:
42:) is a type of
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4781:
4771:
4770:
4765:
4760:
4758:Market failure
4743:
4742:
4740:
4739:
4734:
4729:
4719:
4709:
4698:
4695:
4694:
4692:
4691:
4686:
4681:
4676:
4671:
4666:
4661:
4660:
4659:
4654:
4644:
4639:
4634:
4629:
4624:
4619:
4614:
4608:
4606:
4600:
4599:
4597:
4596:
4591:
4586:
4581:
4576:
4575:
4574:
4564:
4559:
4549:
4544:
4534:
4527:Do it yourself
4524:
4519:
4514:
4512:Animal studies
4508:
4506:
4502:
4501:
4499:
4498:
4493:
4488:
4483:
4478:
4473:
4468:
4463:
4462:
4461:
4456:
4446:
4441:
4436:
4430:
4428:
4424:
4423:
4421:
4420:
4415:
4410:
4405:
4400:
4394:
4392:
4386:
4385:
4383:
4382:
4380:Social ecology
4377:
4372:
4367:
4362:
4357:
4352:
4347:
4342:
4337:
4332:
4326:
4324:
4318:
4317:
4315:
4314:
4309:
4307:Nature writing
4304:
4299:
4294:
4289:
4287:Ecocomposition
4283:
4281:
4275:
4274:
4272:
4271:
4266:
4261:
4256:
4251:
4246:
4244:Ecolinguistics
4241:
4236:
4230:
4228:
4222:
4221:
4214:
4212:
4210:
4209:
4204:
4199:
4194:
4193:
4192:
4187:
4182:
4177:
4167:
4162:
4157:
4152:
4147:
4141:
4139:
4133:
4132:
4125:
4124:
4117:
4110:
4102:
4093:
4092:
4090:
4089:
4084:
4079:
4074:
4069:
4064:
4054:
4043:
4040:
4039:
4037:
4036:
4035:
4034:
4029:
4021:
4020:
4019:
4014:
4009:
4004:
3999:
3991:
3990:
3989:
3984:
3979:
3974:
3969:
3961:
3960:
3959:
3954:
3949:
3944:
3936:
3931:
3930:
3929:
3924:
3916:
3911:
3910:
3909:
3904:
3895:
3893:
3889:
3888:
3886:
3885:
3884:
3883:
3878:
3873:
3868:
3860:
3855:
3854:
3853:
3848:
3840:
3839:
3838:
3828:
3823:
3818:
3813:
3808:
3803:
3798:
3797:
3796:
3791:
3786:
3776:
3775:
3774:
3769:
3764:
3759:
3754:
3749:
3744:
3738:Environmental
3736:
3735:
3734:
3729:
3721:
3716:
3715:
3714:
3709:
3701:
3696:
3691:
3686:
3681:
3675:
3673:
3669:
3668:
3661:
3659:
3657:
3656:
3651:
3646:
3641:
3636:
3631:
3626:
3621:
3616:
3611:
3606:
3601:
3596:
3591:
3585:
3583:
3579:
3578:
3571:
3570:
3563:
3556:
3548:
3539:
3538:
3536:
3535:
3524:
3521:
3520:
3517:
3516:
3514:
3513:
3504:
3499:
3494:
3489:
3484:
3481:(perpetuation)
3476:
3470:
3468:
3462:
3461:
3459:
3458:
3453:
3448:
3443:
3442:
3441:
3434:Nature reserve
3431:
3426:
3425:
3424:
3419:
3409:
3408:
3407:
3397:
3396:
3395:
3390:
3380:
3375:
3374:
3373:
3368:
3358:
3357:
3356:
3351:
3346:
3341:
3330:
3324:
3320:
3319:
3316:
3315:
3313:
3312:
3311:
3310:
3305:
3295:
3290:
3285:
3280:
3275:
3270:
3265:
3260:
3255:
3250:
3245:
3240:
3239:
3238:
3228:
3223:
3218:
3213:
3207:
3205:
3201:
3200:
3198:
3197:
3192:
3191:
3190:
3180:
3175:
3170:
3169:
3168:
3158:
3153:
3152:
3151:
3139:
3138:
3137:
3132:
3127:
3117:
3112:
3111:
3110:
3105:
3100:
3090:
3085:
3080:
3079:
3078:
3067:
3065:
3058:
3052:
3051:
3049:
3048:
3047:
3046:
3041:
3031:
3026:
3021:
3020:
3019:
3014:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2979:
2974:
2969:
2964:
2963:
2962:
2952:
2951:
2950:
2945:
2940:
2935:
2925:
2924:
2923:
2918:
2913:
2911:climate change
2903:
2898:
2893:
2888:
2887:
2886:
2879:Bioprospecting
2876:
2870:
2868:
2862:
2861:
2859:
2858:
2857:
2856:
2851:
2841:
2840:
2839:
2834:
2829:
2824:
2814:
2813:
2812:
2807:
2806:
2805:
2800:
2790:
2789:
2788:
2783:
2773:
2772:
2771:
2761:
2756:
2746:
2745:
2744:
2734:
2733:
2732:
2722:
2721:
2720:
2715:
2710:
2705:
2695:
2690:
2685:
2684:
2683:
2682:
2681:
2665:
2663:
2657:
2656:
2654:
2653:
2648:
2647:
2646:
2641:
2631:
2626:
2621:
2616:
2594:
2589:
2584:
2578:
2576:
2570:
2569:
2566:
2565:
2563:
2562:
2557:
2552:
2546:
2544:
2540:
2539:
2537:
2536:
2531:
2530:
2529:
2524:Clean Air Act
2516:
2511:
2506:
2497:
2495:
2486:
2480:
2479:
2472:
2471:
2464:
2457:
2449:
2440:
2439:
2437:
2436:
2435:
2434:
2424:
2412:
2409:
2408:
2406:
2405:
2404:
2403:
2391:
2390:
2389:
2377:
2376:
2375:
2363:
2358:
2357:
2356:
2344:
2343:
2342:
2330:
2325:
2320:
2319:
2318:
2306:
2305:
2304:
2292:
2291:
2290:
2278:
2273:
2271:Garrett Hardin
2268:
2267:
2266:
2254:
2253:
2252:
2240:
2235:
2234:
2233:
2220:
2218:
2206:
2205:
2203:
2202:
2197:
2196:
2195:
2190:
2185:
2180:
2170:
2169:
2168:
2163:
2162:
2161:
2156:
2148:
2143:
2133:
2128:
2123:
2118:
2113:
2108:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2088:
2083:
2082:
2081:
2076:
2066:
2059:
2054:
2049:
2044:
2042:Eminent domain
2039:
2034:
2033:
2032:
2025:Bioprospecting
2021:
2019:
2017:redistribution
2008:
2007:
2004:
2003:
2001:
2000:
1999:
1998:
1993:
1983:
1978:
1973:
1972:
1971:
1959:
1954:
1953:
1952:
1947:
1942:
1932:
1927:
1926:
1925:
1915:
1910:
1905:
1900:
1894:
1892:
1888:
1887:
1885:
1884:
1883:
1882:
1877:
1872:
1867:
1862:
1852:
1847:
1846:
1845:
1835:
1828:
1823:
1822:
1821:
1816:
1811:
1801:
1793:
1784:
1778:
1774:
1773:
1771:
1770:
1769:
1768:
1758:
1753:
1748:
1747:
1746:
1741:
1736:
1726:
1721:
1719:Natural rights
1716:
1711:
1710:
1709:
1699:
1694:
1689:
1684:
1679:
1674:
1673:
1672:
1667:
1657:
1652:
1647:
1646:
1645:
1635:
1629:
1627:
1623:
1622:
1620:
1619:
1614:
1609:
1604:
1599:
1594:
1588:
1586:
1580:
1579:
1577:
1576:
1575:
1574:
1564:
1559:
1558:
1557:
1547:
1542:
1537:
1531:
1529:
1525:
1524:
1522:
1521:
1516:
1511:
1506:
1501:
1496:
1491:
1486:
1481:
1476:
1471:
1466:
1461:
1455:
1453:
1449:
1448:
1441:
1440:
1433:
1426:
1418:
1409:
1408:
1406:
1405:
1400:
1395:
1393:Superior goods
1390:
1385:
1376:
1371:
1370:
1369:
1359:
1357:Ordinary goods
1354:
1353:
1352:
1342:
1337:
1328:
1323:
1318:
1313:
1308:
1306:Inferior goods
1303:
1298:
1296:Global commons
1293:
1288:
1279:
1274:
1269:
1264:
1262:Credence goods
1259:
1254:
1241:
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1160:External links
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3967:environmental
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3178:Surface water
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2679:peak farmland
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2361:David Ricardo
2359:
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2328:Elinor Ostrom
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2139:
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2134:
2132:
2129:
2127:
2126:Privatization
2124:
2122:
2119:
2117:
2114:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2106:Legal plunder
2104:
2102:
2099:
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2084:
2080:
2077:
2075:
2072:
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2057:Expropriation
2055:
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2050:
2048:
2045:
2043:
2040:
2038:
2035:
2031:
2028:
2027:
2026:
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2018:
2013:
2009:
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1989:
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1791:(watercourse)
1790:
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1779:
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1762:
1759:
1757:
1754:
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1749:
1745:
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1737:
1735:
1734:primogeniture
1732:
1731:
1730:
1727:
1725:
1722:
1720:
1717:
1715:
1714:Legal plunder
1712:
1708:
1705:
1704:
1703:
1700:
1698:
1695:
1693:
1690:
1688:
1685:
1683:
1680:
1678:
1675:
1671:
1668:
1666:
1665:appropriation
1663:
1662:
1661:
1658:
1656:
1655:Excludability
1653:
1651:
1648:
1644:
1641:
1640:
1639:
1636:
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1391:
1389:
1386:
1384:
1380:
1377:
1375:
1372:
1368:
1365:
1364:
1363:
1362:Private goods
1360:
1358:
1355:
1351:
1348:
1347:
1346:
1343:
1341:
1340:Neutral goods
1338:
1336:
1335:demerit goods
1332:
1329:
1327:
1324:
1322:
1319:
1317:
1314:
1312:
1309:
1307:
1304:
1302:
1299:
1297:
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1255:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1242:
1240:
1237:
1235:
1232:
1230:
1227:
1225:
1224:Capital goods
1222:
1220:
1217:
1216:
1213:
1209:
1201:
1196:
1194:
1189:
1187:
1182:
1181:
1178:
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1167:
1164:
1163:
1154:
1152:
1149:
1147:
1143:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1131:
1130:0-521-40599-8
1127:
1123:
1120:
1118:
1115:
1113:
1110:
1108:
1105:
1103:
1100:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1086:(3): 725–49.
1085:
1081:
1074:
1069:
1067:
1064:
1062:
1061:0-87451-451-7
1058:
1054:
1051:
1050:
1026:
1022:
1015:
1000:
999:
994:
988:
978:
969:
960:
952:
948:
944:
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936:
932:
928:
924:
920:
916:
912:
905:
895:
887:
881:
877:
876:
868:
866:
859:
854:
840:on 2012-08-02
839:
835:
829:
821:
814:
806:
800:
796:
789:
781:
779:9780429047978
775:
771:
764:
762:
752:
750:
748:
746:
744:
729:on 2013-07-03
728:
724:
717:
715:
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4669:New Urbanism
4555:
4340:Deep ecology
4302:Geocriticism
4292:Ecocriticism
4264:Ethnoecology
4254:Ecosemiotics
4175:conservation
3952:occupational
3947:epidemiology
3918:Engineering
3816:Permaculture
3779:Ethnobiology
3509: /
3473:
3383:Exploitation
3268:Conservation
3211:Desalination
3146:
3039:conservation
2874:Biodiversity
2822:conservation
2669:Agricultural
2597:Fossil fuels
2427:Property law
2398:
2384:
2370:
2351:
2337:
2333:Karl Polanyi
2313:
2309:Marcel Mauss
2299:
2285:
2276:David Harvey
2261:
2257:Henry George
2247:
2238:Ronald Coase
2228:
2213:
2159:wife selling
2141:bride buying
2079:repatriation
2061:
2012:Disposession
1966:
1855:Property law
1830:
1826:Forest types
1796:
1788:
1777:Applications
1707:rent-seeking
1692:Gift economy
1596:
1550:Intellectual
1403:Veblen goods
1388:Search goods
1374:Public goods
1345:Normal goods
1326:Luxury goods
1291:Giffen goods
1238:
1234:Common goods
1083:
1079:
1047:Bibliography
1032:. Retrieved
1025:the original
1014:
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4689:Themed walk
4418:Stewardship
4398:Ecotheology
4345:Ecofeminism
4170:Photography
3963:Management
3907:sustainable
3679:Agroecology
3502:Nationalism
3474:Common-pool
3115:Hydrosphere
3108:remediation
3093:Groundwater
2688:Degradation
2301:Das Kapital
2188:progressive
2178:inheritance
2101:Land reform
1875:real estate
1850:Land tenure
1838:Inheritance
1766:anticommons
1702:Law of rent
1682:Game theory
1612:Information
1592:Common land
1489:Cooperative
1331:Merit goods
1277:Final goods
921:(4): 8–21.
518:externality
502:Open access
386:common good
194:, overuse,
158:consumption
4752:Categories
4652:assessment
4622:Biomimicry
4562:Sexecology
4459:arts-based
4322:Philosophy
4279:Literature
3922:ecological
3876:metabolism
3826:Sexecology
3723:Economics
3707:ecological
3699:Demography
3497:Extraction
3456:Wilderness
3417:accounting
3400:Management
3366:ecological
3354:tragedy of
3273:Peak water
3258:Efficiency
3231:Sanitation
3173:Stormwater
3166:harvesting
3142:Irrigation
3044:management
3002:gene banks
2943:management
2921:management
2837:resilience
2803:phosphorus
2759:industrial
2737:Management
2713:soundscape
2619:Geothermal
2432:by country
2394:Adam Smith
2281:John Locke
1945:indigenous
1940:aboriginal
1860:alienation
1555:indigenous
1545:Intangible
1459:Collective
1398:Used goods
1282:Free goods
1229:Club goods
844:2014-01-19
733:2014-01-19
586:References
370:technology
324:Club goods
282:Excludable
257:see also
206:Management
192:congestion
183:atmosphere
163:irrigation
154:regulating
105:Amerindian
86:California
65:congestion
4632:Ecomuseum
4584:Slow food
4517:Bioethics
4297:Ecopoetry
4180:landscape
3993:Planning
3972:fisheries
3902:landscape
3871:geography
3742:education
3507:Renewable
3492:Depletion
3479:Conflict
3361:Economics
3339:enclosure
3298:Resources
3278:Pollution
3195:Watershed
3098:pollution
3029:Seed bank
3024:Rangeland
2906:Fisheries
2891:Biosphere
2884:biopiracy
2827:fertility
2703:cityscape
2698:Landscape
2605:peak coal
2592:Resources
2543:Emissions
2295:Karl Marx
2096:Land Back
2047:Enclosure
2030:biopiracy
1968:Bergregal
1950:squatting
1724:Ownership
1638:Commodity
1617:Knowledge
1528:By nature
1484:Customary
1474:Community
1206:Types of
951:154884533
943:0013-9157
693:0028-0836
591:Citations
545:Enclosure
364:norms of
362:community
292:Rivalrous
219:Ownership
196:pollution
169:grounds,
165:systems,
93:James Bay
32:economics
4763:Property
4732:Journals
4717:Category
4657:planning
4390:Religion
4355:Ecosophy
4190:wildlife
4160:Land art
4145:Crop art
4087:Scholars
4077:Journals
4067:Concepts
4062:Category
4007:regional
4002:land use
3801:Forestry
3533:Category
3466:Resource
3405:adaptive
3303:improved
3263:Conflict
3248:Security
3243:Scarcity
3236:improved
3226:Leaching
3103:recharge
3083:Drinking
3034:Wildlife
2901:Bushmeat
2896:Bushfood
2849:planning
2754:gemstone
2749:Minerals
2730:property
2718:viewshed
2708:seascape
2639:sunlight
2613:peak oil
2609:peak gas
2422:Property
2315:The Gift
2214:key work
2209:Scholars
2193:property
2150:spousal
2116:Poaching
2052:Eviction
1996:riparian
1957:Littoral
1865:easement
1843:executor
1814:literary
1739:usufruct
1687:Georgism
1567:Tangible
1562:Personal
1469:Communal
1452:By owner
1445:Property
524:See also
171:pastures
56:resource
4737:Degrees
4727:Commons
4604:Applied
4541:museums
4505:Related
4226:Culture
4072:Degrees
4023:Policy
4012:spatial
3938:Health
3892:Applied
3881:studies
3866:ecology
3851:studies
3846:science
3794:zoology
3789:ecology
3767:justice
3762:studies
3757:science
3703:Design
3672:Related
3334:Commons
3323:Related
3288:Quality
3204:Aspects
3130:glacial
3071:Aquifer
2977:Pasture
2928:Forests
2854:reserve
2629:Nuclear
2599: (
2555:Trading
2550:Airshed
2230:The Law
2136:Slavery
1962:Mineral
1930:Hunting
1923:pannage
1918:Grazing
1903:Fishing
1789:Acequia
1756:Rivalry
1744:women's
1602:Digital
1584:Commons
1519:Unowned
1494:Private
923:Bibcode
701:4310769
673:Bibcode
540:Commons
341:, air,
187:grazing
181:or the
175:forests
167:fishing
137:whiting
127:In the
48:natural
4185:nature
4027:energy
3977:forest
3957:public
3862:Urban
3784:botany
3772:racism
3747:ethics
3732:thermo
3727:energy
3582:Fields
3344:global
3308:policy
3253:Supply
3216:Floods
3183:Sewage
3156:Marine
3148:huerta
2982:Plants
2972:Meadow
2832:health
2810:rights
2798:copper
2776:mining
2674:arable
2574:Energy
2514:Indoor
2111:Piracy
2063:Farhud
1891:Rights
1832:Huerta
1804:Estate
1626:Theory
1607:Global
1509:Social
1499:Public
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1004:4 July
982:18(3).
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665:Nature
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150:social
101:beaver
99:, the
97:Quebec
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4531:ethic
4454:adult
4427:Other
4017:urban
3987:waste
3487:Curse
3293:Right
3135:polar
3125:bergs
3088:Fresh
3056:Water
2769:metal
2693:Field
2644:shade
2634:Solar
2624:Hydro
2509:Index
2200:Theft
1986:Water
1880:title
1809:legal
1797:Ejido
1535:Croft
1514:State
1479:Crown
1208:goods
1076:(PDF)
947:S2CID
899:Cham.
697:S2CID
179:water
133:trawl
52:human
3422:good
3371:land
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3161:Rain
3017:wood
2992:food
2955:Game
2866:Life
2817:Soil
2793:peak
2786:sand
2661:Land
2651:Wind
2526:(US)
2503:(US)
2183:poll
2166:wage
1935:Land
1819:real
1572:real
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1381:and
1333:and
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1250:vs.
1246:vs.
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1126:ISBN
1057:ISBN
1036:2017
1006:2017
939:ISSN
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774:ISBN
689:ISSN
610:ISBN
337:eg.
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4137:Art
3752:law
3221:Law
3120:Ice
2960:law
2938:law
2916:law
2844:Use
2781:law
2764:ore
2725:Law
2601:gas
2587:Law
2582:Bio
2519:Law
2484:Air
2173:Tax
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