England in the Middle Ages

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building programmes or to reward their followers, and this meant exercising their feudal rights to interfere in the land-holdings of nobles. This was contentious and a frequent issue of complaint, as there was a growing belief that land should be held by hereditary right, not through the favour of the king. Property and wealth became increasingly focused in the hands of a subset of the nobility, the great magnates, at the expense of the wider baronage, encouraging the breakdown of some aspects of local feudalism. As time went by, the Norman nobility intermarried with many of the great Anglo-Saxon families, and the links with the Duchy began to weaken. By the late 12th century, mobilising the English barons to fight on the continent was proving difficult, and John's attempts to do so ended in civil war. Civil strife re-emerged under Henry III, with the rebel barons in 1258–59 demanding widespread reforms, and an early version of Parliament was summoned in 1265 to represent the rebel interests.

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houses with the halls on the first floor; master and servants frequently lived in the same spaces. Wealthier town-houses were also built using stone, and incorporated business and domestic arrangements into a single functional design. By the 14th century grander houses and castles were sophisticated affairs: expensively tiled, often featuring murals and glass windows, these buildings were often designed as a set of apartments to allow greater privacy. Fashionable brick began to be used in some parts of the country, copying French tastes. Architecture that emulated the older defensive designs remained popular. Less is known about the houses of peasants during this period, although many peasants appear to have lived in relatively substantial, timber-framed long-houses; the quality of these houses improved in the prosperous years following the Black Death, often being built by professional craftsmen.

1871:. Major nobles in turn granted lands to smaller landowners in return for homage and further military support, and eventually the peasantry held land in return for local labour services, creating a web of loyalties and resources enforced in part by new honorial courts. This system had been used in Normandy and concentrated more power in the king and the upper elite than the former Anglo-Saxon system of government. The practice of slavery declined in the years after the conquest, as the Normans considered the practice backward and contrary to the teachings of the church. The more prosperous peasants, however, lost influence and power as the Normans made holding land more dependent on providing labour services to the local lord. They sank down the economic hierarchy, swelling the numbers of unfree 2418: 3374:; Cnut's fleet had as many as 40 vessels, while Edward the Confessor could muster 80 ships. Some ships were manned by sailors called lithesmen and bustsecarls, probably drawn from the coastal towns, while other vessels were mobilised as part of a national levy and manned by their regular crews. Naval forces played an important role during the rest of the Middle Ages, enabling the transportation of troops and supplies, raids into hostile territory and attacks on enemy fleets. English naval power became particularly important after the loss of Normandy in 1204, which turned the English Channel from a friendly transit route into a contested and critical border region. English fleets in the 13th and 14th centuries typically comprised specialist vessels, such as 2215: 1483: 1824: 3944: 2536: 2184:

possibly as early as the 1150, contemporary commentators believed the two peoples to be blending, and the loss of the Duchy in 1204 reinforced this trend. The resulting society still prized wider French cultural values, however, and French remained the language of the court, business and international affairs, even if Parisians mocked the English for their poor pronunciation. By the 14th century, however, French was increasingly having to be formally taught, rather than being learnt naturally in the home, although the aristocracy would typically spend many years of their lives in France and remained entirely comfortable working in French.

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daughter priories and monastic cells across the kingdom. The monasteries were brought firmly into the web of feudal relations, with their holding of land linked to the provision of military support to the crown. The Normans adopted the Anglo-Saxon model of monastic cathedral communities, and within seventy years the majority of English cathedrals were controlled by monks; every English cathedral, however, was rebuilt to some extent by the new rulers. England's bishops remained powerful temporal figures, and in the early 12th-century raised armies against Scottish invaders and built up extensive holdings of castles across the country.

3061: 1934: 3351: 2146: 2901: 3965:'s plays on the lives of the medieval kings have proved to have had long lasting appeal, heavily influencing both popular interpretations and histories of figures such as King John and Henry V. Other playwrights have since taken key medieval events, such as the death of Thomas Becket, and used them to draw out contemporary themes and issues. The medieval mystery plays continue to be enacted in key English towns and cities. Film-makers have drawn extensively on the medieval period, often taking themes from Shakespeare or the Robin Hood ballads for inspiration. 8662: 8524: 1294: 1643: 3013:. The Great Famine shook the English economy severely and population growth ceased; the first outbreak of the Black Death in 1348 then killed around half the English population. The agricultural sector shrank rapidly, with higher wages, lower prices and diminishing profits leading to the final demise of the old demesne system and the advent of the modern farming system centring on the charging of cash rents for lands. As returns on land fell, many estates, and in some cases entire settlements, were simply abandoned, and nearly 1,500 3501: 2242:. During the 12th century, the Jewish financial community grew richer still, operating under royal protection and providing the king with a source of ready credit. All major towns had Jewish centres, and even the smaller towns saw visits by travelling Jewish merchants. Towards the end of Henry II's reign, however, the king ceased to borrow from the Jewish community and instead turned to extracting money from them through arbitrary taxation and fines. The Jews became vilified and accusations were made that they conducted 11619: 2058: 3852: 2285: 11643: 11607: 19: 1129: 2752: 3254: 3775: 2378:. The process was largely complete by the end of the 7th century, but left a confusing and disparate array of local practices and religious ceremonies. This new Christianity reflected the existing military culture of the Anglo-Saxons: as kings began to convert in the 6th and 7th centuries, conversion began to be used as a justification for war against the remaining pagan kingdoms, for example, while Christian saints were imbued with martial properties. 1965:. Edward used Parliament even more than his predecessors to handle general administration, to legislate and to raise the necessary taxes to pay for the wars in France. The royal lands—and incomes from them—had diminished over the years, and increasingly frequent taxation was required to support royal initiatives. Edward held elaborate chivalric events in an effort to unite his supporters around the symbols of knighthood. The ideal of 1848:(successors to the ealdermen), sheriffs and church seniors were all drawn from their ranks. In many areas of society there was continuity, as the Normans adopted many of the Anglo-Saxon governmental institutions, including the tax system, mints and the centralisation of law-making and some judicial matters; initially sheriffs and the hundred courts continued to function as before. The existing tax liabilities were captured in the 11688: 11631: 810: 3417: 3626: 11671: 2196:

lived in the special enclaves in London in the Late Middle Ages; the position of the Jews is described below, but Italian and Baltic traders were also regarded as aliens and were frequently the targets of violence during economic downturns. Even within England, different identities abounded, each with their own sense of status and importance. Regional identities could be important – men and women from

75: 1442:, inherited England in 1199 but lost Normandy and most of Aquitaine after several years of war with France. John fought successive, increasingly expensive, campaigns in a bid to regain these possessions. John's efforts to raise revenues, combined with his fractious relationships with many of the English barons, led to confrontation in 1215, an attempt to restore peace through the signing of 2085:

the 9th century. Anglo-Saxon queens began to hold lands in their own right in the 10th century and their households contributed to the running of the kingdom. Although women could not lead military forces, in the absence of their husbands some noblewomen led the defence of manors and towns. Most Anglo-Saxon women, however, worked on the land as part of the agricultural community, or as

2629:". The English bishops were charged to control and counter this trend, disrupting Lollard preachers and to enforcing the teaching of suitable sermons in local churches. By the early 15th century, combating Lollard teachings had become a key political issue, championed by Henry IV and his Lancastrian followers, who used the powers of both the church and state to combat the 3034:: trade collapsed, driving down agricultural prices, rents and ultimately the acceptable levels of royal taxation. The resulting tensions and discontent played an important part in Jack Cade's popular uprising in 1450 and the subsequent Wars of the Roses. By the end of Middle Ages the economy had begun to recover and considerable improvements were being made in 3477:

Smaller defensible structures called tower houses emerged in the north of England to protect against the Scottish threat. By the late medieval period, town walls were increasingly less military in character and more often expressions of civic pride or part of urban governance: many grand gatehouses were built in the 14th and 15th centuries for these purposes.

3797:- and round-houses were constructed in some settlements, while in others timber buildings were built imitating the older Roman styles. The Germanic immigrants constructed small rectangular buildings from wood, and occasionally grander halls. However, the conversion to Christianity in the 6th and 7th centuries reintroduced Italian and French 3595:, were also famous in this period, featuring rich decoration, a combination of grotesque and natural figures and rich colours. The quality of illuminated art in England declined significantly in the face of competition from Flanders in the 14th century, and later English illuminated medieval pieces generally imitated Flemish styles. 2973:. The next two centuries saw huge growth in the English economy, driven in part by the increase in the population from around 1.5 million in 1086 to between 4 and 5 million in 1300. More land, much of it at the expense of the royal forests, was brought into production to feed the growing population and to produce 3264:

Warfare was endemic in early Anglo-Saxon England, and major conflicts still occurred approximately every generation in the later period. Groups of well-armed noblemen and their households formed the heart of these armies, supported by larger numbers of temporary troops levied from across the kingdom,

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William the Conqueror acquired the support of the Church for the invasion of England by promising ecclesiastical reform. William promoted celibacy amongst the clergy and gave ecclesiastical courts more power, but also reduced the Church's direct links to Rome and made it more accountable to the king.

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carried out against Jewish communities in the reign of Richard I. After an initially peaceful start to John's reign, the king again began to extort money from the Jewish community and, with the breakdown in order in 1215, the Jews were subject to fresh attacks. Henry III restored some protection

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became an essential feature for a fashionable castle. The economics of maintaining castles meant that many were left to decline or abandoned; in contrast, a small number of castles were developed by the very wealthy into palaces that hosted lavish feasts and celebrations amid elaborate architecture.

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Many of the fortifications built by the Romans in England survived into the Middle Ages, including the walls surrounding their military forts and cities. These defences were often reused during the unstable post-Roman period. The Anglo-Saxon kings undertook significant planned urban expansion in the

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After the Norman invasion, the position of women in society changed. The rights and roles of women became more sharply defined, in part as a result of the development of the feudal system and the expansion of the English legal system; some women benefited from this, while others lost out. The rights

2035:. Law and order deteriorated, and the crown was unable to intervene in the factional fighting between different nobles and their followers. The resulting Wars of the Roses saw a savage escalation of violence between the noble leaderships of both sides: captured enemies were executed and family lands 1952:

On becoming king in 1272, Edward I reestablished royal power, overhauling the royal finances and appealing to the broader English elite by using Parliament to authorise the raising of new taxes and to hear petitions concerning abuses of local governance. This political balance collapsed under Edward

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were performed to communicate the Bible in various locations. By the late 14th century, these had been extended into vernacular mystery plays which performed annually over several days, broken up into various cycles of plays; a handful have survived into the 21st century. Guilds competed to produce

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The 1066 Norman conquest brought a new set of Norman and French churchmen to power; some adopted and embraced aspects of the former Anglo-Saxon religious system, while others introduced practices from Normandy. Extensive English lands were granted to monasteries in Normandy, allowing them to create

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industry in the 15th century. Higher status jobs and apprenticeships, however, remained closed to women. As in earlier times, noblewomen exercised power on their estates in their husbands' absence and again, if necessary, defended them in sieges and skirmishes. Wealthy widows who could successfully

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The years after the Black Death left many women widows; in the wider economy labour was in short supply and land was suddenly readily available. In rural areas peasant women could enjoy a better standard of living than ever before, but the amount of work being done by women may have increased. Many

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remarried against their wishes. The growth of governmental institutions under a succession of bishops reduced the role of queens and their households in formal government. Married or widowed noblewomen remained significant cultural and religious patrons and played an important part in political and

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was introduced in 1377 that spread the costs of the war in France more widely across the whole population. The tensions spilled over into violence in the summer of 1381 in the form of the Peasants' Revolt; a violent retribution followed, with as many as 7,000 alleged rebels executed. A new class of

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rapidly became the norm for succession. The kings further bolstered their status by adopting Christian ceremonies and nomenclature, introducing ecclesiastical coronations during the 8th century and terming themselves "Christ's deputy" by the 11th century. Huge estates were initially built up by the

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and promoting the Anglo-Norman colonisation of the country. Henry strengthened England's borders with Wales and Scotland, and used the country's wealth to fund a long-running war with his rivals in France, but arrangements for his succession once again proved problematic. Several revolts broke out,

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were also fashionable, due in part to the interest of Henry II. English continued to be used on a modest scale to write local religious works and some poems in the north of England, but most major works were produced in Latin or French. In the reign of Richard II there was an upsurge in the use of

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in 1346. Soldiers began to be contracted for specific campaigns, a practice which may have hastened the development of the armies of retainers that grew up under bastard feudalism. By the late 15th century, however, English armies were somewhat backward by wider European standards; the Wars of the

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was not new in England, however, as the idea of religiously justified warfare went back to Anglo-Saxon times. Many of those who took up the Cross to go on a Crusade never actually left, often because the individual lacked sufficient funds to undertake the journey. Raising funds to travel typically

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was considered lazy, barbarous and backward. Following the invasion of Ireland in the late 12th century, similar feelings were expressed about the Irish, with the distinctions clarified and reinforced in 14th-century English legislation. The English also felt strongly about the foreign traders who

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An English cultural identity first emerged from the interaction of the Germanic immigrants of the 5th and 6th centuries and the indigenous Romano-British inhabitants. Although early medieval chroniclers described the immigrants as Angles and Saxons, they came from a much wider area across Northern

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In Anglo-Saxon society, noblewomen enjoyed considerable rights and status, although the society was still firmly patriarchal. Some exercised power as abbesses, exerting widespread influence across the early English Church, although their wealth and authority diminished with the monastic reforms of

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became a distinctive form of English art during this later medieval period, although the coloured glass for these works was almost entirely imported from Europe. Little early stained glass in England has survived, but it typically had both an ornamental and educational function, while later works

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to become a small standing army, forming the core of much larger armies up to 28,700 strong, largely comprising foot soldiers, for campaigns in Scotland and France. By the time of Edward III, armies were smaller in size, but the troops were typically better equipped and uniformed, and the archers

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industry grew considerably at the start of the 15th century, and a new class of international English merchant emerged, typically based in London or the South-West, prospering at the expense of the older, shrinking economies of the eastern towns. These new trading systems brought about the end of

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and promoted greater influence for the papacy in church matters. Despite the bishops continuing to play a major part in royal government, tensions emerged between the kings of England and key leaders within the English Church. Kings and archbishops clashed over rights of appointment and religious

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By the time that Richard II was deposed in 1399, the power of the major noble magnates had grown considerably; powerful rulers such as Henry IV would contain them, but during the minority of Henry VI they controlled the country. The magnates depended upon their income from rent and trade to allow

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of monks. These institutions were badly affected in the 9th century by Viking raids and predatory annexations by the nobility. By the start of the 10th century, monastic lands, financial resources and the quality of monasteries' religious work had been much diminished. Reforms followed under the

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and had their own distinctive culture. For many years, to be English was to be associated with military failure and serfdom. During the 12th century, the divisions between the English and Normans began to dissolve as a result of intermarriage and cohabitation. By the end of the 12th century, and

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Many tensions existed within the system of government. Royal landownings and wealth stretched across England, and placed the king in a privileged position above even the most powerful of the noble elite. Successive kings, though, still needed more resources to pay for military campaigns, conduct

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arrived in England. The losses from the epidemic, and the recurring plagues that followed it, significantly affected events in England for many years to come. Meanwhile, Edward, under pressure from France in Aquitaine, made a challenge for the French throne. Over the next century, English forces

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Meanwhile, domestic architecture had continued to develop, with the Normans, having first occupied the older Anglo-Saxon dwellings, rapidly beginning to build larger buildings in stone and timber. The elite preferred houses with large, ground-floor halls but the less wealthy constructed simpler

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territories. By the time of William's death in 1087, England formed the largest part of an Anglo-Norman empire, ruled over by a network of nobles with landholdings across England, Normandy, and Wales. England's growing wealth was critical in allowing the Norman kings to project power across the

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style developed throughout the period, featuring characteristic circular arches. By the 10th and 11th centuries, much larger churches and monastery buildings were being built, featuring square and circular towers after the contemporary European fashion. The palaces constructed for the nobility

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Poetry and stories written in French were popular after the Norman conquest, and by the 12th century some works on English history began to be produced in French verse. Romantic poems about tournaments and courtly love became popular in Paris and this fashion spread into England in the form of

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Medieval England produced art in the form of paintings, carvings, books, fabrics and many functional but beautiful objects. A wide range of materials was used, including gold, glass and ivory, the art usually drawing overt attention to the materials utilised in the designs. Anglo-Saxon artists

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military campaigns, in which commanders tried to raid enemy lands and seize castles in order to allow them to take control of their adversaries' territory, ultimately winning slow but strategic victories. Pitched battles were occasionally fought between armies but these were considered risky

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societies, each based on ties of allegiance between powerful lords and their immediate followers. At the top of the social structure was the king, who stood above many of the normal processes of Anglo-Saxon life and whose household had special privileges and protection. Beneath the king were

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shrines were converted to Christian use and few pagan sites still operated by the 5th century. The collapse of the Roman system in the late 5th century, however, brought about the end of formal Christian religion in the east of England, and the new Germanic immigrants arrived with their own

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to control the major centres of power, granting extensive lands to his main Norman followers and co-opting or eliminating the former Anglo-Saxon elite. Major revolts followed, which William suppressed before intervening in the north-east of England, establishing Norman control of York and

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With the conversion of much of England in the 6th and 7th centuries, there was an explosion of local church building. English monasteries formed the main basis for the church, however, and were often sponsored by local rulers, taking various forms, including mixed communities headed by

3877:'s 18th-century writings were influential, presenting the medieval period as a dark age between the glories of Rome and the rebirth of civilisation in the Early Modern period. Late Victorian historians continued to use the chroniclers as sources, but also deployed documents such as 2546:

The Church had a close relationship with the English state throughout the Middle Ages. The bishops and major monastic leaders played an important part in national government, having key roles on the king's council. Bishops often oversaw towns and cities, managing local taxation and

2081:; whether they were unmarried, married, widowed or remarried; and in which part of the country they lived. Significant gender inequalities persisted throughout the period, as women typically had more limited life-choices, access to employment and trade, and legal rights than men. 1761:

The Anglo-Saxon kings built up a set of written laws, issued either as statutes or codes, but these laws were never written down in their entirety and were always supplemented by an extensive oral tradition of customary law. In the early part of the period local assemblies called

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The Norman conquest introduced northern French artistic styles, particular in illuminated manuscripts and murals, and reduced the demand for carvings. In other artistic areas, including embroidery, the Anglo-Saxon influence remained evident into the 12th century, and the famous

1542:. Despite the challenges involved in raising the revenues to pay for the war, Edward's military successes brought an influx of plundered wealth to many parts of England and enabled substantial building work by the king. Many members of the English elite, including Edward's son 1014:. At times England enjoyed huge military success, with the economy buoyed by profits from the international wool and cloth trade, but by 1450 the country was in crisis, facing military failure in France and an ongoing recession. More social unrest broke out, followed by the 1992:

and the Black Death. The economic and demographic crisis created a sudden surplus of land, undermining the ability of landowners to exert their feudal rights and causing a collapse in incomes from rented lands. Wages soared, as employers competed for a scarce workforce.

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and other medieval institutions which governed the growing trade. Jewish financiers played a significant role in funding the growing economy, along with the new Cistercian and Augustinian religious orders that emerged as major players in the wool trade of the north.

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land, and the majority of the fields that would be cultivated by local peasants. These peasants would pay rent to the landowner either through agricultural labour on the lord's demesne fields or through rent in the form of cash and produce. By the 11th century, a

2621:, combined with the abuses of wealth within the Church and the role of senior churchmen in government, distracted from that study. A loose movement that included many members of the gentry pursued these ideas after Wycliffe's death in 1384 and attempted to pass a 1065:. At the end of the 4th century, however, Roman forces had been largely withdrawn, and this economy collapsed. Germanic settlers began to arrive in increasing numbers during the 5th and 6th centuries, establishing small farms and settlements, and their language, 2827:—which criss-crossed the entire country. The road system was adequate for the needs of the period, although it was significantly cheaper to transport goods by water. The major river networks formed key transport routes, while many English towns formed navigable 2849:

Even at the start of the Middle Ages the English landscape had been shaped by human occupation over many centuries. Much woodland was new, the result of fields being reclaimed by brush after the collapse of the Roman Empire. Human intervention had established

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Academics have discussed the fate of Edward II at length. The majority opinion is that Edward died in 1327 at Berkeley Castle, possibly murdered; a minority opinion holds that Edward was either released or escaped, and lived on elsewhere in Europe for many

3830:, were built in many English buildings. In the 15th century the architectural focus turned away from cathedrals and monasteries in favour of parish churches, often decorated with richly carved woodwork; in turn, these churches influenced the design of new 2838:, a prolonged period of warmer temperatures; in the early 13th century, for example, summers were around 1 °C warmer than today and the climate was slightly drier. These warmer temperatures allowed poorer land to be brought into cultivation and for 3017:

during this period. A new class of gentry emerged who rented farms from the major nobility. Unsuccessful government attempts were made to regulate wages and consumption, but these largely collapsed in the decades following the Peasants' Revolt of 1381.

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levies, drawn up by local nobles for a limited period of service during a campaign. Mercenaries were increasingly employed, driving up the cost of warfare considerably, and adequate supplies of ready cash became essential for the success of campaigns.

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during the late 15th century. Transport links were also improved; many road bridges were either erected or rebuilt in stone during the long economic boom of the 12th and 13th centuries. England's maritime trade benefited from the introduction of

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Europe, and represented a range of different ethnic groups. Over the 6th century, however, these different groups began to coalesce into stratified societies across England, roughly corresponding to the later Angle and Saxon kingdoms recorded by

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Although the Norman invasion caused some damage as soldiers looted the countryside and land was confiscated for castle building, the English economy was not greatly affected. Taxes were increased, however, and the Normans established extensive

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lived wild in England, bears being hunted to extinction by the 11th century and beavers by the 12th. Of the 10,000 miles of roads that had been built by the Romans, many remained in use and four were of particular strategic importance—the

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During the Anglo-Saxon period, many shrines were built on former pagan sites which became popular pilgrimage destinations, while other pilgrims visited prominent monasteries and sites of learning. Senior nobles or kings would travel to

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used by the wealthier nobles; cavalry was probably less common than in wider Europe, but some Anglo-Saxons did fight from horseback. The Viking attacks on England in the 9th century led to developments in tactics, including the use of

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is controversial in current academic debate on the medieval period; depending on the definition used, feudalism may have pre-dated the Conquest instead of being imported by the Normans, and some academics consider the term unreliable

1892:, the military household, emerged to act as a bodyguard and military staff. England's bishops continued to form an important part in local administration, alongside the nobility. Henry I and Henry II both implemented significant 3916:

analysis became influential in the 1970s and 1980s, focusing on identity, gender, interpretation and culture. Many studies focused on particular regions or groups, drawing on new records and new scientific approaches, including

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The Jewish community played an important role in England throughout much of the period. The first Jews arrived in England in the aftermath of the Norman invasion, when William the Conqueror brought over wealthy members of the

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By the 14th century, castles were combining defences with luxurious, sophisticated living arrangements and landscaped gardens and parks. Early gunpowder weapons were used to defend castles by the end of the 14th century and

2944:. In the late Anglo-Saxon period many peasants moved away from living in isolated hamlets and instead came together to form larger villages engaged in arable cultivation. Agricultural land became typically organised around 2663:

were a popular religious practice throughout the Middle Ages in England, with the tradition dating back to the Roman period. Typically pilgrims would travel short distances to a shrine or a particular church, either to do

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then popular on the Continent. A reformed network of around 40 monastic institutions across the south and east of England, under the protection of the king, helped re-establish royal control over the reconquered Danelaw.

2858:, a more intensive approach to managing woodlands. Other agricultural lands included arable fields and pastorage, while in some parts of the country, such as the South-West, waste moorland remained testament to earlier 3666:, but still showing signs of the new Christian influences in England. Old English was also used for academic and courtly writing from the 9th century onwards, including translations of popular foreign works, including 1782:

in which the value of different individuals swearing on behalf of the plaintiff or defendant varied according to their social status – the word of a companion of the king, for example, was worth twelve times that of a

1700:, but in the 9th and 10th centuries these were slowly broken up as a consequence of inheritance arrangements, marriage settlements and church purchases. In the 11th century, the royal position worsened further, as the 3813:

The Normans brought with them architectural styles from their own duchy, where austere stone churches were preferred. Under the early Norman kings this style was adapted to produce large, plain cathedrals with ribbed

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became an important form of music in the 15th century; originally these had been a song sung during a dance with a prominent refrain — the 15th century form lost the dancing and introduced strong religious overtones.

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occur in 851, when chroniclers described Wessex ships defeating a Viking fleet. These early fleets were limited in size but grew in size in the 10th century, allowing the power of Wessex to be projected across the

2846:; by the 14th century spring temperatures had dropped considerably, reaching their coldest in the 1340s and 1350s. This cold end to the Middle Ages significantly affected English agriculture and living conditions. 2567:

in 664; some issues were resolved, but arguments between the archbishops of Canterbury and York as to which had primacy across Britain began shortly afterwards and continued throughout most of the medieval period.

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emerged as a result of these changes, renting land from the major nobility to farm out at a profit. The legal system continued to expand during the 14th century, dealing with an ever-wider set of complex problems.

2031:, opposing raising taxes to pay for the French wars. By the 1430s and 1440s the English government was in major financial difficulties, leading to the crisis of 1450 and a popular revolt under the leadership of 1497:

On becoming king, Edward I rebuilt the status of the monarchy, restoring and extending key castles that had fallen into disrepair. Uprisings by the princes of North Wales led to Edward mobilising a huge army,

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rapidly built up huge new estates, making them collectively much more powerful than the king—this contributed to the political instability of the final Anglo-Saxon years. As time went by, the position of the

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had been the official imperial religion of the Roman Empire, and the first churches were built in England in the second half of the 4th century, overseen by a hierarchy of bishops and priests. Many existing

3155:, one of the longest medical works ever written in Latin. Prominent historical and science texts began to be translated into English for the first time in the second half of the 14th century, including the 2601:

were variously forced into exile, arrested by royal knights or even killed. By the early 13th century, however, the church had largely won its argument for independence, answering almost entirely to Rome.

2680:, which was a popular destination from the 7th century onwards; sometimes these trips were a form of convenient political exile. Under the Normans, religious institutions with important shrines, such as 874:

was in tatters and many of the towns abandoned. After several centuries of Germanic immigration, new identities and cultures began to emerge, developing into kingdoms that competed for power. A rich

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Kowalski, Maryanne (2007). "Warfare, Shipping, and Crown Patronage: The Economic Impact of the Hundred Years War on the English Port Towns". In Armstrong, Lawrin; Elbl, Ivana; Elbl, Martin (eds.).

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other women travelled to the towns and cities, to the point where they outnumbered men in some settlements. There they worked with their husbands, or in a limited number of occupations, including

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military events, even if chroniclers were uncertain if this was appropriate behaviour. As in earlier centuries, most women worked in agriculture, but here roles became more clearly gendered, with

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and the lives of women were heavily influenced by contemporary beliefs about gender and authority. However, the position of women varied considerably according to various factors, including their

3818:. During the 12th century the Anglo-Norman style became richer and more ornate, with pointed arches derived from French architecture replacing the curved Romanesque designs; this style is termed 3030:. Fishing in the North Sea expanded into deeper waters, backed by commercial investment from major merchants. Between 1440 and 1480, however, Europe entered a recession and England suffered the 3336:

Roses were fought by inexperienced soldiers, often with outdated weapons, allowing the European forces which intervened in the conflict to have a decisive effect on the outcomes of battles.

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agriculture, while the poorer soils and colder climate of the north and west produced a predominantly pastoral economy. Slightly more land was covered by trees than in the 20th century, and

2200:, for example, had a clear identity within English society, and professional groups with a distinct identity, such as lawyers, engaged in open fighting with others in cities such as London. 2374:, kings of Northumbria, were converted in the 630s and 640s, and the wave of change carried on through the middle of the 7th century across the kingdoms of Mercia, the South Saxons and the 1844:

Within twenty years of the Norman conquest, the former Anglo-Saxon elite were replaced by a new class of Norman nobility, with around 8,000 Normans and French settling in England. The new

3873:. In the 16th century, the first academic histories began to be written, typically drawing primarily on the chroniclers and interpreting them in the light of current political concerns. 982:, catastrophic events that killed around half of England's population, throwing the economy into chaos, and undermining the old political order. Social unrest followed, resulting in the 3712:

Music and singing were important in England during the medieval period, being used in religious ceremonies, court occasions and to accompany theatrical works. Singing techniques called

1156:

covering much of England. Mercia and the remaining kingdoms, led by their warrior elites, continued to compete for territory throughout the 8th century. Massive earthworks, such as the

2238:

community in Normandy to settle in London. The Jewish community expanded out across England and provided essential money-lending and banking services that were otherwise banned by the

3585:

making and embroidery in the early 14th century were of an especially high quality; works produced by nuns and London professionals were exported across Europe, becoming known as the

3213:

transformed the brewing industry in the 14th century, and new techniques were invented to better preserve fish. Glazed pottery became widespread in the 12th and 13th centuries, with

2405:

had survived. The process was largely complete by the early 10th century and enabled England's leading Churchmen to negotiate with the warlords. As the Norse in mainland Scandinavia

1592:, backed by leading nobles and powerful French supporters, vied for power. By 1471 Edward was triumphant and most of his rivals were dead. On his death, power passed to his brother 2490:. By 1215, there were over 600 monastic communities in England, but new endowments slowed during the 13th century, creating long-term financial problems for many institutions. The 916:

seizure of power at the start of the 11th century, it can also be argued that by the 1060s England was a powerful, centralised state with a strong military and successful economy.

2692:

became an important task for ambitious institutions, as these were believed to hold curative powers and lent status to the site. Indeed, by the 12th century reports of posthumous

2097:

of widows were formally laid down in law by the end of the 12th century, clarifying the right of free women to own property, but this did not necessarily prevent women from being

1957:, the common bench and the royal household. This government was better organised and on a larger scale than ever before, and by the 14th century the king's formerly peripatetic 1427:

led by Henry's children who were eager to acquire power and lands, sometimes backed by France, Scotland and the Welsh princes. After a final confrontation with Henry, his son

1259:, had survived in exile in Normandy and returned to claim the throne in 1042. Edward was childless, and the succession again became a concern. England became dominated by the 2179:

The Normans and French who arrived after the conquest saw themselves as different from the English. They had close family and economic links to the Duchy of Normandy, spoke

2176:

was being officially used to refer to a single English people, and promoted for propaganda purposes by chroniclers and kings to inspire resistance to the Danish invasions.

3456:

castles in large numbers to control their newly occupied territories. During the 12th century the Normans began to build more castles in stone, with characteristic square

2401:. The Norse settlers in England were converted relatively quickly, assimilating their beliefs into Christianity in the decades following the occupation of York, which the 1915:

of 1215. The emerging legal system reinvigorated the institution of serfdom in the 13th century by drawing an increasingly sharp distinction between freemen and villeins.

2039:. By the time that Henry VII took the throne in 1485, England's governmental and social structures had been substantially weakened, with whole noble lines extinguished. 3464:

castles were used by the Norman lords to control their widespread estates; a feudal system called the castle-guard was sometimes used to provide garrisons. Castles and

11074: 3568:, inspired by Classical imagery, began to enter from the continent, becoming widely used in the reformed Benedictine monasteries across the south and east of England. 3269:. By the 9th century, armies of 20,000 men could be called up for campaigns, with another 28,000 men available to guard urban defences. The most common weapon was the 1818: 998:

by their inhabitants and many men and women sought new opportunities in the towns and cities. New technologies were introduced, and England produced some of the great

259: 3445:

walls sometimes utilised older Roman fortifications, both for practical reasons and to bolster their owners' reputations through the symbolism of former Roman power.

1911:

around the country. King John extended the royal role in delivering justice, and the extent of appropriate royal intervention was one of the issues addressed in the

3826:

style was created in England, with an emphasis on verticality, immense windows and soaring arcades. Fine timber roofs in a variety of styles, but in particular the

2335:, still reflected in various English place names. Despite the resurgence of paganism in England, Christian communities still survived in more western areas such as 1557:

that broke out across the south of England in 1381. Over the coming decades, Richard and groups of nobles vied for power and control of policy towards France until

10371: 1953:

II and savage civil wars broke out during the 1320s. Edward III restored order once more with the help of a majority of the nobility, exercising power through the

1712:

The kingdom of Wessex, which eventually laid claim to England as a whole, evolved a centralised royal administration. One part of this was the king's council, the

232: 11079: 2732:

involved crusaders selling or mortgaging their lands and possessions, which affected their families and, at times, considerably affected the economy as a whole.

1565:

in 1399. Ruling as Henry IV, he exercised power through a royal council and parliament, while attempting to enforce political and religious conformity. His son,

264: 3929:, continue to challenge previous interpretations, and historical studies of England in the Middle Ages have never been so diverse as in the early 21st century. 1349:

Norman rule, however, proved unstable; successions to the throne were contested, leading to violent conflicts between the claimants and their noble supporters.

2878:

for hunting game, including deer and boars, were built as status symbols by the nobility from the 12th century onwards, but earlier versions of parks, such as

3869:

The first history of medieval England was written by Bede in the 8th century; many more accounts of contemporary and ancient history followed, usually termed

3206:

opening in 1496. New mining methods were developed and horse-powered pumps were installed in English mines by the end of the Middle Ages. The introduction of

1859:, in that the new nobles held their lands on behalf of the king; in return for promising to provide military support and taking an oath of allegiance, called 1208:

to defend his territory and mobilise royal resources. Suppressing internal opposition to his rule, Alfred contained the invaders within a region known as the

2019:

them to maintain groups of paid, armed retainers, often sporting controversial livery, and buy support amongst the wider gentry; this system has been dubbed

1061:

had once been dominated by imperial Roman spending on a large military establishment, which in turn helped to support a complex network of towns, roads, and

9486:

Hughes, Malcolm K.; Diaz, Henry F. (1997). "Was There a 'Medieval Warm Period', and if so, Where and When?". In Hughes, Malcolm K.; Diaz, Henry F. (eds.).

3662:, probably written between 650 and 750, is typical of these poems, portraying a vivid, heroic tale, ending with the protagonist's death at the hands of a 1691:

The balance of power between these different groups changed over time. Early in the period, kings were elected by members of the late king's council, but

3182:

designs; from the 12th century on many more were built, eliminating the use of hand mills, with the older horizontal mills gradually supplanted by a new

2913: 2672:

from an illness or other condition. Some pilgrims travelled further, either to more distant sites within Britain or, in a few cases, onto the continent.

7876:

Barber, Richard (2007a). "Why Did Edward III Hold the Round Table? The Chivalric Background". In Munby, Julian; Barber, Richard; Brown, Richard (eds.).

3981:. English medieval music was revived from the 1950s, with choral and musical groups attempting to authentically reproduce the original sounds. Medieval 3468:

continued to grow in military sophistication during the 12th century, and in the 13th century new defensive town walls were constructed across England.

1787:. If fines were imposed, their size similarly varied accord to the oath-value of the individual. The Anglo-Saxon authorities struggled to deal with the 3801:, and these craftsmen built stone churches, low in height, following a narrow, rectangular plan, plastered inside and fitted with glass and colourful 3532:, embroidered cloths, crosses and stone sculpture, although relatively few of these have survived to the modern period. They produced a wide range of 3282:

in battle, and the Scandinavian seizure of power in the 11th century introduced housecarls, a form of elite household soldier who protected the king.

1674:. The relationship between kings and their nobles was bound up with military symbolism and the ritual exchange of weapons and armour. Freemen, called 123: 252: 2641: 1452:. John died having fought the rebel barons and their French backers to a stalemate, and royal power was re-established by barons loyal to the young 9217: 2834:

For much of the Middle Ages, England's climate differed from that in the 21st century. Between the 9th and 13th centuries England went through the

10193: 3938: 3395: 2991: 2209: 10036:(2003). "Encrypted Visions: Style and Sense in the Anglo-Saxon Minor Arts, AD 400-900". In Karkov, Catherine E.; Hardin Brown, George (eds.). 3656:, some of which was written down as early as the 9th century, although most surviving poems were compiled in the 10th and early 11th century. 2381:

The Viking invasions of the 8th and 9th centuries reintroduced paganism to North-East England, leading in turn to another wave of conversion.

3893:

spurred interest in the various periods of English hegemony during the Middle Ages, including the Angevin Empire and the Hundred Years' War.

1518:

of 1321–22 was followed by instability and the subsequent overthrow, and possible murder, of Edward in 1327 at the hands of his French wife,

242: 8635: 3699:, was uniquely English in style. Major pieces of courtly poetry continued to be produced into the 15th century by Chaucer's disciples, and 2999: 928: 838: 9009:

Blanchard, Ian (2002). "Lothian and Beyond: the Economy of the "English Empire" of David I". In Britnell, Richard; Hatcher, John (eds.).

3178:

Technological advances proceeded in a range of areas. Watermills to grind grain had existed during most of the Anglo-Saxon period, using

912:

was established as the most powerful kingdom and promoted the growth of an English identity. Despite repeated crises of succession and a

3084:

thinking that reached England from the 12th century onwards. Many advances were made in scientific ideas, including the introduction of

2957:

was flourishing across much of England, while the eastern and southern towns were heavily involved in international trade. Around 6,000

2688:, promoted themselves as pilgrimage destinations, maximising the value of the historic miracles associated with the sites. Accumulating 1573:

became king at the age of only nine months and both the English political system and the military situation in France began to unravel.

1514:

inherited the war with Scotland and faced growing opposition to his rule as a result of his royal favourites and military failures. The

11345: 10403: 8749:

Rotherham, Ian D. (2007). "The Historical Ecology of Medieval Parks and the Implications for Conservation". In Liddiard, Robert (ed.).

3969:

set in England during the Middle Ages remains persistently popular, with the 1980s and 1990s seeing a particular growth of historical

3732:. Henry IV sponsored an extensive range of music in England, while his son Henry V brought back many influences from occupied France. 10361: 308: 3448:

Although a small number of castles had been built in England during the 1050s, after the conquest the Normans began to build timber

11718: 10810: 3552:

style, heavily influenced by Germanic fashions, in which animal shapes were distorted into flowing shapes and positioned alongside

1589: 1461: 10752: 3411: 2842:

to be cultivated relatively far north. The Warm Period was followed by several centuries of much cooler temperatures, termed the

1734:

of clergy which travelled with the king, conducting the affairs of government as it went. Under the Danish kings, a bodyguard of

436: 2131:

claim their rightful share of their late husband's property could live as powerful members of the community in their own right.

1688:, formed a lower class still. The very lowest class were slaves, who could be bought and sold and who held only minimal rights. 10858: 3139:" was one of his oft-cited conclusions. English scholars since the time of Bede had believed the world was probably round, but 2696:

by local saints were becoming increasingly common in England, adding to the attractiveness of pilgrimages to prominent relics.

2251:

and Jewish money-lending began to recover. Despite this, the Jewish community became increasingly impoverished and was finally

1754:

were tightly controlled by the kings, providing a high-quality currency, and the whole country was taxed using a system called

10108:

D'haen, Theo (2004). "Stalking Multiculturalism: Historical Sleuths at the end of the Twentieth Century". In Bak, Hans (ed.).

8251:

Vincent, Nicholas (2007). "Introduction: Henry II and the Historians". In Harper-Bill, Christopher; Vincent, Nicholas (eds.).

3823: 1418:

by marriage, and England became a key part of a loose-knit assemblage of lands spread across Western Europe, later termed the

11723: 11233: 10161: 10140: 10119: 10089: 10068: 10047: 10023: 10002: 9961: 9940: 9919: 9898: 9877: 9856: 9835: 9772: 9747: 9726: 9705: 9684: 9663: 9642: 9621: 9600: 9579: 9558: 9518: 9497: 9434: 9413: 9394: 9373: 9352: 9331: 9310: 9289: 9268: 9247: 9205: 9186: 9165: 9144: 9123: 9104: 9083: 9062: 9041: 9018: 8999: 8978: 8957: 8936: 8915: 8894: 8836: 8779: 8758: 8739: 8718: 8699: 8680: 8624: 8603: 8582: 8561: 8498: 8477: 8456: 8435: 8414: 8372: 8304: 8262: 8241: 8220: 8197: 8176: 8155: 8113: 8094: 8073: 8052: 8031: 8010: 7949: 7925: 7904: 7885: 7866: 7845: 7796: 7754: 7712: 7672: 7653: 7634: 7613: 7591: 7570: 4126: 3081: 2891: 2157: 871: 108: 2559:, exchanging some authority and revenue for assistance in defence. The early English church was racked with disagreement on 1637: 1202:, and he exploited the fear of the Viking threat to raise large numbers of men and using a network of defended towns called 11713: 10476: 4005: 2482:

reached England, creating houses with a more austere interpretation of the monastic rules and building the great abbeys of

2027:

at Parliament and through the king's council. The gentry and wealthier townsmen exercised increasing influence through the

1928: 1812: 3789:

In the century after the collapse of the Romano-British economy, very few substantial buildings were constructed and many

1502:

and undertaking a programme of English colonisation and castle building across the region. Further wars were conducted in

11659: 10480: 10186: 9323:

Healing and Society in Medieval England: A Middle English Translation of the Pharmaceutical Writings of Gilberus Anglicus

3985:

events were first held during the 19th and early 20th centuries, and the period has inspired a considerable community of

3144: 2530: 1731: 9198:

Shakespeare and the Middle Ages: Essays on the Performance and Adaptation of the Plays with Medieval Sources or Settings

3912:

analyses continued to be popular in the post-war years, producing seminal works on economic issues and social protests.

1391:, Henry's daughter. Civil war broke out across England and Normandy, resulting in a long period of warfare later termed 927:

and his successors took over the existing state system, repressing local revolts and controlling the population through

11451: 10397: 10393: 10281: 3460:

that supported both military and political functions. Royal castles were used to control key towns and forests, whilst

3163: 1507: 968: 923:

in 1066 led to the defeat and replacement of the Anglo-Saxon elite with Norman and French nobles and their supporters.

9803:

Rahtz, Philip; Watts, Lorna (2005). "Three Ages of Conversion at Kirkdale, North Yorkshire". In Carver, Martin (ed.).

3290:

engagements and usually avoided by prudent commanders. The armies of the period comprised bodies of mounted, armoured

1097:, small polities ruled over by powerful families and individuals. By the 7th century, some rulers, including those of 951:

more than doubled during the 12th and 13th centuries, fueling an expansion of the towns, cities, and trade, helped by

11468: 11187: 10929: 10674: 10366: 10296: 10277: 9814: 9793: 9537: 9507:

Humphrey, Chris (2001). "Time and Urban Culture in Late Medieval England". In Humphrey, Chris; Ormrod, W. M. (eds.).

9476: 9465:

Hooper, Nicholas (1992b). "Some Observations on the Navy in Late Anglo-Saxon England". In Strickland, Matthew (ed.).

9455: 8811: 8542: 8393: 8332: 8283: 8134: 7989: 7970: 7817: 7775: 7733: 7693: 2605:

In the 1380s, several challenges emerged to the traditional teachings of the Church, resulting from the teachings of

1523: 1373:

remained free, however, and formed the focus for fresh revolts until his death in 1128. Henry's only legitimate son,

624: 3398:

on the south of England between 1338 and 1339, could cause devastation from which some towns never fully recovered.

1569:, reinvigorated the war with France and came close to achieving strategic success shortly before his death in 1422. 11768: 11763: 11758: 11753: 11748: 11743: 11544: 10315: 10304: 10300: 10273: 8532: 7895:

Barber, Richard (2007b). "The Order of the Round Table". In Munby, Julian; Barber, Richard; Brown, Richard (eds.).

3782: 1070: 831: 9547:

Johnson, Matthew (2000). "Self-made men and the staging of agency". In Dobres, Marcia-Anne; Robb, John E. (eds.).

3386:, a new form of sailing ship. Battles might be fought when one fleet found another at anchor, such as the English 1823: 1680:, formed the next level of society, often holding land in their own right or controlling businesses in the towns. 1482: 11738: 11733: 11728: 11069: 10853: 10253: 10249: 10202: 10057:

Williams, Gareth (2001). "Military Institutions and Royal Power". In Brown, Michelle P.; Farr, Carol Ann (eds.).

9072:

Coss, Peter (2002). "From Feudalism to Bastard Feudalism". In Fryde, Natalie; Monnet, Pierre; Oexle, Oto (eds.).

7553: 3391: 2406: 2346:

The movement towards Christianity began again in the late 6th and 7th centuries, helped by the conversion of the

1806: 1477: 1284: 656: 298: 247: 147: 130: 3108:

were also considered important forms of knowledge in medieval England, although some doubted their reliability.

1855:

Changes in other areas soon began to be felt. The method of government after the conquest can be described as a

1778:

were also given permission by the king to hold their own local courts. The legal system depended on a system of

11677: 11434: 10919: 10324: 10245: 10179: 10033: 9908:

Spade, Paul Vincent (1999). "Ockham's Nominalist Metaphysics: Some Main Themes". In Spade, Paul Vincent (ed.).

7855:

Aurell, Martin (2007). "Henry II and Arthurian Legend". In Harper-Bill, Christopher; Vincent, Nicholas (eds.).

3689:

in poetry, sometimes termed "Ricardian poetry", although the works still emulated French fashions. The work of

3157: 2509:

that became popular across Europe from the 12th century onwards acquired possessions in England, including the

1626: 1580:, finally broke out in 1455, spurred on by an economic crisis and a widespread perception of poor government. 1044: 716: 328: 323: 293: 118: 2187:

During the 12th and 13th centuries, the English began to consider themselves superior to the Welsh, Scots and

10883: 10332: 10328: 9444:

Hooper, Nicholas (1992a). "The Housecarls in England in the Eleventh Century". In Strickland, Matthew (ed.).

3908:

approaches, supported by a widening body of documentary, archaeological and scientific evidence. Marxist and

1989: 975: 746: 461: 2505:

orders rapidly became popular, particularly in towns, and heavily influenced local preaching. The religious

1510:, but was unable to achieve strategic victory, and the costs created tensions that nearly led to civil war. 11475: 11389: 10878: 10803: 10760: 10756: 10627: 9887:

Skinner, Patricia (2003). "Introduction: Jews in Medieval Britain and Europe". In Skinner, Patricia (ed.).

3943: 2905: 2551:. This frequently became untenable with the Viking incursions of the 9th century, and in locations such as 2264: 2191:. The English perceived themselves as civilised, economically prosperous and properly Christian, while the 1588:, removed Henry from power in 1461 but by 1469 fighting recommenced as Edward, Henry, and Edward's brother 591: 481: 318: 283: 8509: 2535: 11534: 11489: 11350: 10868: 10863: 10843: 10292: 8041:

King, Edmund (2007). "The Accession of Henry II". In Harper-Bill, Christopher; Vincent, Nicholas (eds.).

4009: 3819: 3769: 2150: 2028: 1868: 1726:; the council met to advise the king on policy and legal issues. The royal household included officials, 1526:. Isabella and Mortimer's regime lasted only a few years before falling to a coup, led by Isabella's son 824: 521: 85: 55: 8988:

Bevington, David (2002). "Literature and the theatre". In Loewenstein, David; Mueller, Janel M. (eds.).

2005:

by the lower classes, with prosecutions coming to take up most of the legal system's energy and time. A

1255:, liquidated many of the older English families following his seizure of power in 1016. Æthelred's son, 11623: 11597: 11529: 11497: 11360: 11300: 11182: 11177: 10670: 10408: 10351: 3051: 3031: 1958: 1423: 920: 751: 561: 536: 531: 451: 391: 8123:

Prestwich, J. O. (1992a). "The Military Household of the Norman Kings". In Strickland, Matthew (ed.).

3076:

Technology and science in England advanced considerably during the Middle Ages, driven in part by the

140: 11340: 11192: 10726: 10556: 10413: 10259: 9782:

Prestwich, J. O. (1992b). "War and Finance in the Anglo-Norman State". In Strickland, Matthew (ed.).

8883:

Aston, Margaret; Richmond, Colin (1997). "Introduction". In Aston, Margaret; Richmond, Colin (eds.).

8231: 3922: 3822:

and continued, with variation, throughout the rest of the Middle Ages. In the early 14th century the

3616: 3612: 3014: 2501:

arrived in England during the 1220s, establishing 150 friaries by the end of the 13th century; these

2140: 1994: 1896:, extending and widening the scope of centralised, royal law; by the 1180s, the basis for the future 1411: 1272: 1228:, York was finally permanently retaken from the Vikings. The West Saxon rulers were now kings of the 995: 611: 601: 526: 496: 456: 396: 8802:

From the Brink of the Apocalypse: Confronting Famine, War, Plague and Death in the Later Middle Ages

8661: 8523: 1546:, were heavily involved in campaigning in France and administering the new continental territories. 1499: 11429: 11335: 11305: 11250: 11202: 10320: 10310: 10287: 10264: 10236: 9383:

Happé, Peter (2003). "A Guide to Criticism of Medieval English Theatre". In Beadle, Richard (ed.).

9196:

Driver, Martha W.; Ray, Sid (2009). "General Introduction". In Driver, Martha W.; Ray, Sid (eds.).

3765: 3077: 2506: 2363: 2279: 2048: 1982: 1543: 1407: 1384: 1338: 1263:, who had taken advantage of the Danish killings to acquire huge wealth. When Edward died in 1066, 944: 711: 581: 566: 476: 471: 351: 8361:

Cantor, Leonard (1982). "Introduction: The English Medieval Landscape". In Cantor, Leonard (ed.).

8273: 2580:, which advocated greater autonomy from royal authority for the clergy, condemned the practice of 11441: 11315: 10914: 10796: 10692: 10658: 9341:

Hackett, Jeremiah (1997). "Roger Bacon: His Career, Life and Works". In Hackett, Jeremiah (ed.).

8383: 5194:

Rubin, pp. 109–112; Barber (2007a), pp. 84–86, 95–96; Barber (2007b), pp. 151–152.

3947: 3806: 3779: 3608: 2895: 2359: 1608:

in 1485, bringing an end to the majority of the fighting, although lesser rebellions against his

948: 586: 501: 376: 188: 10605: 2214: 1766:

were gathered to apply the laws to particular cases; in the 10th century these were replaced by

1651: 1236: 11458: 11370: 11240: 11105: 11100: 10745: 10741: 10653: 10520: 9423:

Hillaby, Joe (2003). "Jewish Colonisation in the Twelfth Century". In Skinner, Patricia (ed.).

3986: 3633: 3604: 3529: 3345: 3140: 2879: 1593: 1220:, Wessex expanded further north into Mercia and the Danelaw, and by the 950s and the reigns of 1188: 1173: 1102: 913: 766: 636: 596: 541: 441: 313: 152: 2866:. England's environment continued to be shaped throughout the period, through the building of 2478:

spread quickly from the beginning of the 12th century onwards, while later in the century the

1933: 11507: 11502: 11446: 11255: 3918: 3743: 2617:

was the best guide to understanding God's intentions, and that the superficial nature of the

2367: 2145: 1938: 1658: 1562: 1550: 1539: 1533:

Like his grandfather, Edward III took steps to restore royal power, but during the 1340s the

1527: 1486: 1457: 1439: 1361:. In 1100, William II died while hunting. Despite Robert's rival claims, his younger brother 1350: 1326: 1305: 1011: 924: 761: 741: 721: 701: 676: 661: 631: 551: 511: 491: 416: 2900: 2417: 2355: 1797:, a payment of blood money, as a way of providing an alternative to long-running vendettas. 1709:

deteriorated, as their rights were slowly eroded and their duties to their lords increased.

1553:, faced political and economic problems, many resulting from the Black Death, including the 1434:

Richard spent his reign focused on protecting his possessions in France and fighting in the

1073:

as more settlers arrived and those of the previous inhabitants who had not moved west or to

11647: 11463: 11417: 11320: 11245: 11172: 11155: 11131: 10700: 10511: 9715:

Normore, Calvin G. (1999). "Some Aspects of Ockham's Logic". In Spade, Paul Vincent (ed.).

3951: 3815: 3705: 3645: 3637: 3168: 3006: 2961:

were built to grind flour, freeing up labour for other more productive agricultural tasks.

2835: 2746: 2685: 2654: 2586: 2371: 2153: 1856: 1601: 1581: 1511: 1453: 1449: 1428: 1400: 1366: 1288: 1256: 1019: 952: 932: 863: 786: 771: 756: 696: 686: 606: 466: 381: 4053:

has been extensively discussed by historians, with many different conclusions being drawn.

3005:

Economic growth began to falter at the end of the 13th century, owing to a combination of

2560: 8: 11424: 11377: 11216: 11167: 10995: 10990: 10899: 10596: 10591: 10580: 10560: 10530: 9988: 8000: 3962: 3926: 3756:

the best plays in each town and performances were often an expression of civic identity.

3564:

of form and incorporating both animals and people into the designs. In the 10th century,

3172: 3143:

estimated the circumference of the earth in the 13th century. Despite the limitations of

3055: 2782:. Despite this, medieval England broadly formed two zones, roughly divided by the rivers 2518: 2366:

and started to build new churches across the South-East, reusing existing pagan shrines.

2115: 2057: 1974: 1946: 1597: 1570: 1558: 1554: 1490: 1465: 1396: 1027: 999: 983: 791: 781: 731: 666: 641: 556: 406: 401: 369: 203: 171: 93: 39: 10427: 8925:

Bailey, Mark (1996). "Population and Economic Resources". In Given-Wilson, Chris (ed.).

3190:

began to be built in the late 12th century and slowly became more common. Water-powered

1791:

between families that emerged following violent killings, attempting to use a system of

1353:

inherited the throne but faced revolts attempting to replace him with his older brother

1320:

on 14 October 1066 and rapidly occupied the south of England. William used a network of

11611: 11570: 11412: 11269: 11228: 11197: 11136: 11015: 10947: 10848: 10828: 10722: 10621: 10586: 10576: 10570: 10564: 10542: 10538: 10501: 10472: 10419: 10269: 9230: 9052: 8926: 8871: 8863: 8821:

Airlie, Stuart (2001). "Strange Eventful Histories: The Middle Ages in the Cinema". In

8800: 8209: 7807: 7624: 4013: 3966: 3886: 3716:

were introduced in England in the 13th century, accompanied by instruments such as the

3592: 3148: 3116: 3101: 2948:, and was divided between some fields that the landowner would manage directly, called 2875: 2756: 2552: 2540: 2454: 2402: 2252: 2062: 1833: 1605: 1604:, aided by French and Scottish troops, returned to England and defeated Richard at the 1566: 1519: 1415: 1362: 1317: 1298: 1293: 1225: 1199: 1180: 855: 776: 706: 651: 646: 571: 546: 516: 411: 386: 346: 303: 198: 64: 10534: 9932:

The English and the Normans: Ethnic Hostility, Assimilation, and Identity, 1066-c.1220

9634:

Money, Markets and Trade in Late Medieval Europe: Essays in Honour of John H. A. Munro

8904:

Bachrach, Bernard S. (2005). "On Roman Ramparts 300-1300". In Parker, Geoffrey (ed.).

3885:, alongside newly discovered financial, legal and commercial records. They produced a 3332: 2970: 2470:

New orders began to be introduced into England. As ties to Normandy waned, the French

986:

of 1381, while the changes in the economy resulted in the emergence of a new class of

11382: 11115: 11110: 11010: 10962: 10772: 10737: 10733: 10711: 10688: 10684: 10617: 10613: 10552: 10516: 10506: 10496: 10491: 10468: 10157: 10136: 10115: 10085: 10064: 10043: 10019: 9998: 9976: 9957: 9936: 9915: 9894: 9873: 9852: 9831: 9810: 9789: 9768: 9743: 9722: 9701: 9680: 9659: 9638: 9617: 9596: 9575: 9554: 9533: 9514: 9493: 9472: 9451: 9430: 9409: 9390: 9369: 9348: 9327: 9306: 9285: 9264: 9243: 9201: 9182: 9161: 9140: 9119: 9116:

The Birth of Nobility: Constructing Aristocracy in England and France : 900–1300

9100: 9079: 9058: 9037: 9030: 9014: 8995: 8974: 8953: 8932: 8911: 8890: 8875: 8832: 8807: 8775: 8754: 8735: 8714: 8695: 8676: 8620: 8599: 8578: 8557: 8538: 8494: 8473: 8452: 8431: 8410: 8389: 8368: 8349: 8328: 8300: 8279: 8258: 8237: 8216: 8193: 8172: 8151: 8130: 8109: 8090: 8069: 8048: 8027: 8006: 7985: 7966: 7945: 7935: 7921: 7900: 7881: 7862: 7841: 7813: 7792: 7771: 7765: 7750: 7729: 7723: 7708: 7689: 7668: 7649: 7630: 7609: 7587: 7566: 4050: 3970: 3955: 3725: 3630: 3557: 3545: 3286: 3136: 3132: 3128: 2978: 2929: 2681: 2622: 2610: 2573: 2409:, many mainland rulers recruited missionaries from England to assist in the process. 2275: 2052: 2020: 1908: 1642: 1577: 1358: 1240: 1145: 1085:

to the migrants' language. New political and social identities emerged, including an

1015: 1007: 991: 955:

across Northern Europe. A new wave of monasteries and friaries was established while

726: 691: 576: 506: 431: 426: 183: 113: 6882:

Turner (1971), pp. 19–20: Lavelle, p. 10; Creighton and Higham, pp. 56–58.

1468:, defeated the rebel factions between 1265 and 1267, restoring his father to power. 967:, infighting between the Anglo-Norman elite resulted in multiple civil wars and the 11579: 11519: 11404: 11325: 11095: 10707: 10696: 10666: 10645: 10526: 10431: 10382: 10376: 10356: 10231: 9890:

The Jews in Medieval Britain: Historical, Literary, and Archaeological Perspectives

9655:

Alfred's Wars: Sources and Interpretations of Anglo-Saxon Warfare in the Viking Age

9569: 9426:

The Jews in Medieval Britain: Historical, Literary, and Archaeological Perspectives

9226: 8855: 8654: 8650: 3974: 3695: 3690: 3641: 3620: 3500: 3449: 3425: 3248: 3010: 2577: 2548: 2459: 1988:

Society and government in England in the early 14th century were challenged by the

1264: 1213: 1192: 1106: 1078: 956: 736: 681: 671: 446: 421: 237: 193: 27: 9950:

Timmons, Daniel (2000). "Introduction". In Clark, George; Timmons, Daniel (eds.).

3810:

centred on great timber halls, while manor houses began to appear in rural areas.

896:. The Anglo-Saxons converted to Christianity in the 7th century, and a network of 11512: 11310: 11000: 10952: 10873: 10768: 10680: 10548: 10171: 10151: 10130: 10109: 10079: 10058: 10037: 10013: 9992: 9951: 9930: 9909: 9888: 9867: 9846: 9825: 9804: 9783: 9762: 9737: 9716: 9695: 9674: 9653: 9632: 9611: 9590: 9548: 9508: 9487: 9466: 9445: 9424: 9384: 9363: 9342: 9321: 9300: 9279: 9258: 9178:

Domination and Conquest: The Experience of Ireland, Scotland and Wales, 1100–1300

9176: 9155: 9134: 9094: 9073: 8989: 8968: 8947: 8905: 8884: 8826: 8769: 8729: 8670: 8614: 8593: 8572: 8488: 8467: 8446: 8425: 8404: 8362: 8343: 8294: 8252: 8211:

The Reign of Stephen: Kingship, Warfare and Government in Twelfth-Century England

8187: 8166: 8145: 8124: 8084: 8063: 8042: 8021: 7960: 7939: 7915: 7856: 7786: 7744: 7683: 7646:

Archaeology, Economy and Society: England from the Fifth to the Fifteenth Century

7581: 7560: 3827: 3587: 3573: 3565: 3491: 3421: 3407: 3387: 3371: 3258: 3222: 3171:

were established during the 11th and 12th centuries, drawing on the model of the

3135:

helped to fuse Latin, Greek and Islamic writing into a general theory of logic; "

3085: 2803: 2598: 2590: 2564: 2491: 2487: 2421: 2336: 2292: 2243: 2098: 1970: 1883: 1860: 1668:, nobles, the more powerful of which maintained their own courts and were termed 1388: 1354: 1309: 1268: 1260: 1244: 1198:

However, in the same year Alfred won a decisive victory against the Danes at the

1149: 1110: 1058: 1003: 875: 796: 486: 288: 166: 135: 23: 9697:

The Greatest Traitor: The Life of Sir Roger Mortimer, Ruler of England 1327–1330

4583:

Rubin, p. 54; Doherty, pp. 213–215; Mortimer (2004), pp. 244–264.

2790:: the south and east of England had lighter, richer soils, able to support both 1903:

had largely been established, with a standing law court in Westminster—an early

11635: 11584: 11365: 11355: 10957: 10764: 10718: 10386: 8846:

Alexander, James W. (1970). "The Becket Controversy in Recent Historiography".

4413: 3982: 3890: 3851: 3686: 3226: 3218: 3183: 3179: 3093: 3065: 3027: 2954: 2843: 2824: 2712: 2707:, was sometimes applied to both activities. While English participation in the 2625:

in 1395: the movement was rapidly condemned by the authorities and was termed "

2514: 2483: 2382: 2351: 2161: 2024: 2002: 1998: 1419: 1374: 1252: 1161: 1157: 1086: 814: 356: 35: 8406:

Castles and Landscapes: Power, Community and Fortification in Medieval England

3310:, the permanent military household of the king, which was supported in war by 2385:

were very similar to other Germanic groups, with a pantheon of gods including

2284: 1742:

played an important part in government, defence and taxation, and the post of

904:

were built across England. In the 8th and 9th centuries, England faced fierce

11707: 11285: 11141: 11048: 11043: 10985: 10904: 10423: 10111:

Uneasy Alliance: Twentieth-Century American Literature, Culture and Biography

9980: 9806:

The Cross Goes North: Processes of Conversion in Northern Europe, AD 300-1300

8822: 8571:

Marks, Richard (2001). "Window Glass". In Blair, John; Ramsay, Nigel (eds.).

7601: 5902:

Huscroft, pp. 126–127; Bradbury, p. 36; Pounds (1994), pp. 142–143.

3897: 3874: 3857: 3733: 3729: 3700: 3668: 3577: 3541: 3525: 3203: 3092:. Clocks were first built in England in the late 13th century, and the first 2820: 2720: 2716: 2708: 2669: 2606: 2594: 2471: 2450: 2375: 2192: 2180: 2107: 1969:

continued to develop throughout the 14th century, reflected in the growth of

1888: 1849: 1767: 1692: 1609: 1585: 1515: 1435: 1370: 1122: 1082: 1050: 227: 222: 178: 98: 9824:

Ramsay, Nigel (2001). "Introduction". In Blair, John; Ramsay, Nigel (eds.).

9011:

Progress and Problems in Medieval England: Essays in Honour of Edward Miller

5059:

Carpenter, p. 291; Danziger and Gillingham, p. 41; Postan, pp. 167–169.

3889:

account of political and economic development in England. The growth of the

11606: 11539: 11394: 11020: 11005: 10980: 10972: 10486: 9530:

Noblewomen, Aristocracy and Power in the Twelfth-Century Anglo-Norman Realm

8353: 6010:

Hollister, p. 168; Alexander, pp. 2–3, 10; Barlow (1986), pp. 83–84, 88–89.

3978: 3862: 3798: 3752: 3561: 3549: 3513: 3495: 3382:

merchant vessels conscripted into action; the latter increasingly included

3362: 3198:

first appeared in the 12th century; water power was harnessed to assist in

3195: 3191: 3105: 3089: 3039: 3035: 2986: 2859: 2851: 2812: 2475: 2320: 2310: 2296: 2078: 2006: 1904: 1893: 1342: 1235:

With the death of Edgar, however, the royal succession became problematic.

1054: 879: 867: 210: 161: 43: 31: 18: 3234:, and many docks were improved and fitted with cranes for the first time. 2711:

between 1095 and 1099 was limited, England played a prominent part in the

1831:, illustrating soldiers presenting a sheep to a figure seated on a throne. 1538:

fought many campaigns in a long-running conflict that became known as the

1217: 1152:. Mercia invaded neighbouring lands until it loosely controlled around 50 11295: 11038: 11030: 8469:

Norwich Cathedral Close: The Evolution of the English Cathedral Landscape

5566:

Davies, pp. 18–20; Carpenter, p. 9; Danziger and Gillingham, p. 219.

3913: 3909: 3905: 3790: 3681: 3653: 3544:

particularly favoured designs. Early designs, such as those found at the

3429: 3379: 3350: 3279: 3112: 2945: 2828: 2795: 2791: 2767: 2479: 2425: 2218: 2119: 1962: 1897: 1751: 1714: 1534: 1444: 1392: 1334: 1330: 1165: 1133: 1128: 1066: 1062: 1023: 979: 964: 883: 859: 215: 11694: 8672:

The Medieval Castle in England and Wales: A Social and Political History

7941:

The Empress Matilda: Queen Consort, Queen Mother and Lady of the English

3581:

also commemorated the sponsors of the windows into the designs. English

3253: 2751: 2350:

in Northern France, who carried considerable influence in England. Pope

1247:, the son of a Danish king. Attempts to bribe Sweyn not to attack using 11551: 11290: 10601: 9215:

Duggan, Charles (1962). "The Becket Dispute and the Criminous Clerks".

8427:

Medieval Town Walls: An Archaeology and Social History of Urban Defence

5095:

Carpenter, p. 87; Barlow (1999), p. 320; Dyer (2009), pp. 108–109.

3774: 3748: 3383: 3355: 3231: 2863: 2799: 2787: 2724: 2703:

was also seen as a form of pilgrimage, and indeed the same Latin word,

2660: 2650: 2495: 2303: 2074: 1978: 1900: 1828: 1771: 1456:. England's power structures remained unstable and the outbreak of the 1379: 1329:. Some Norman lords used England as a launching point for attacks into 1164:, helped to defend key frontiers and towns. In 789, however, the first 1137: 960: 9281:

The Military Orders From the Twelfth to the Early Fourteenth Centuries

8867: 8106:

The Perfect King: The Life of Edward III, Father of the English Nation

4556:

Carpenter, pp. 477, 524; Prestwich (1988), pp. 412–415; 554.

3896:

By the 1930s, older historical analyses were challenged by a range of

3420:

A reconstruction of the city of York in the 15th century, showing the

3096:

were certainly being installed in cathedrals and abbeys by the 1320s.

2727:

during the intervening years. The idea of undertaking a pilgrimage to

2126:

brewers, until they were pushed out of business by the male-dominated

1489:

meets the rebels calling for economic and political reform during the

1383:

disaster of 1120, sparking a fresh succession crisis: Henry's nephew,

1365:

immediately seized power. War broke out, ending in Robert's defeat at

11053: 10924: 8595:

The Origins of Medieval Architecture: Building in Europe, A.D 600-900

7788:

Restoration and Reform, 1153–1165: Recovery From Civil War in England

4036: 4008:, but she still used the title of Empress from her first marriage to 3870: 3794: 3576:

is an example of older styles being reemployed under the new regime.

3553: 3533: 3509: 3367: 3214: 3120: 3097: 2958: 2855: 2839: 2816: 2807: 2783: 2779: 2728: 2614: 2502: 2446: 2289: 2239: 2197: 2103: 2036: 2032: 1954: 1942: 1882:

At the centre of power, the kings employed a succession of clergy as

1837: 1788: 1735: 1670: 1346:

region, including funding campaigns along the frontiers of Normandy.

897: 893: 6864:

Turner (1971), pp. 20–21; Creighton and Higham, pp. 56–58.

3741:

were also popular from the late 14th century onwards, including the

3217:

pots largely replacing wooden plates and bowls by the 15th century.

2474:

became fashionable and their houses were introduced in England. The

10788: 9299:

Geddes, Jane (2001). "Iron". In Blair, John; Ramsay, Nigel (eds.).

8859: 6426:

Jordan, p. 12; Bailey, p. 46; Aberth, pp. 26–7; Cantor 1982, p. 18.

6001:

Barlow (1999), p. 104; Duggan (1965), p. 67, cited Alexander, p. 3.

4004:

At the time of the succession crisis, Matilda was married to Count

3802: 3582: 3505: 3453: 3303: 3299: 3295: 3199: 3187: 3069: 3060: 2870:

to drain marshes, tree clearance and the large-scale extraction of

2775: 2763: 2700: 2626: 2510: 2398: 2340: 1966: 1793: 1763: 1503: 1422:. Henry reasserted royal authority and rebuilt the royal finances, 1248: 1074: 990:, and the nobility began to exercise power through a system termed 9260:

Making a Living in the Middle Ages: The People of Britain 850-1520

7583:

The Struggle for Mastery: The Penguin History of Britain 1066–1284

6422: 6420: 5104:

Pounds (1994), pp. 146–147; Carpenter, pp. 399–401, 410.

3961:

The period has also been used in a wide range of popular culture.

3416: 10909: 10819: 10463: 10135:. Cardiff, UK: National Museums and Galleries of Wales and Cadw. 9953:

J.R.R. Tolkien and His Literary Resonances: Views of Middle-Earth

9592:

The Great Famine: Northern Europe in the Early Fourteenth Century

7494:

Airlie, pp. 163–164, 177-179; Driver and Ray, pp. 7–14.

3901: 3831: 3658: 3625: 3473: 3324: 3124: 2969:

that were exploited for their natural resources and protected by

2949: 2762:

England had a diverse geography in the medieval period, from the

2693: 2665: 2646: 2618: 2188: 2066: 1879:, forbidden to leave their manor or seek alternative employment. 1872: 1743: 1313: 1209: 1006:. English kings in the 14th and 15th centuries laid claim to the 936: 901: 888: 11330: 9767:. Berkeley and Los Angeles, US: University of California Press. 9157:

The Sword in Anglo-Saxon England: Its Archaeology and Literature

8970:

London in the Later Middle Ages: Government and People 1200–1500

8534:

Castles in Context: Power, Symbolism and Landscape, 1066 to 1500

8150:. Berkeley and Los Angeles, US: University of California Press. 7173:

Happé, p. 335–336; Danziger and Gillingham, pp. 29–30.

3693:

from the 1370s onwards, however, culminating in the influential

2106:

and managing the fields defined as men's work, for example, and

6918:

Pounds (1994), pp. 107–112; Turner (1971), pp. 23–25.

6417: 3738: 3717: 3663: 3537: 3375: 3328: 3311: 3291: 2995: 2977:

for export to Europe. Many hundreds of new towns, some of them

2966: 2937: 2921: 2630: 2581: 2442: 2434: 2397:, combined with a belief in a final, apocalyptic battle called 2347: 2328: 2299: 2255:

in 1290 by Edward I, being replaced by foreign merchants.

2247: 2226: 2086: 2011: 1774:

dealing with larger regions of the kingdom. Many churchmen and

1755: 1676: 1664: 1647: 1321: 1308:, took advantage of the English succession crisis to begin the 1297:

Section of the Bayeux Tapestry showing the final stages of the

1221: 1169: 1098: 987: 909: 908:

attacks, and the fighting lasted for many decades. Eventually,

905: 3302:

become more numerous in the 12th century, alongside the older

2332: 1251:

payments failed, and he took the throne in 1013. Swein's son,

862:, from the end of the 5th century through to the start of the 11653: 10609: 9054:

The Medieval Universities: Their Development and Organization

8315: 5938:

Carpenter, pp. 448–450; Danziger and Gillingham, p. 209.

3713: 3465: 3461: 3274: 3270: 3022: 2982: 2933: 2917: 2867: 2771: 2723:

over the next two centuries, with many crusaders leaving for

2689: 2498: 2324: 2315: 2235: 2090: 1876: 1747: 1600:

before seizing the throne himself as Richard III. The future

1117:, royal centres, and collecting tribute from the surrounding 1090: 9827:

English Medieval Industries: Craftsmen, Techniques, Products

9302:

English Medieval Industries: Craftsmen, Techniques, Products

8574:

English Medieval Industries: Craftsmen, Techniques, Products

6519:

Gillingham and Danziger, p. 237; Humphrey, pp. 106–107.

2555:

the local bishops came to new accommodations with the local

2358:

and his household, starting the process of converting Kent.

1267:

claimed the throne, defeating his rival Norwegian claimant,

939:, but creating a much wider body of unfree labourers called 4601:

Mortimer (2008), pp. 84–90; Rubin, pp. 89, 92–93.

3721: 3516: 3457: 3266: 3210: 3207: 2974: 2925: 2871: 2677: 2438: 2394: 2390: 2386: 2222: 2169: 2127: 1864: 1845: 1779: 1387:, claimed the throne in 1135, but this was disputed by the 1204: 1184: 940: 9739:

In Search of The Holy Grail: The Quest for the Middle Ages

9492:. Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. 7746:

The Hollow Crown: The Penguin History of Britain 1272–1485

6843:

Turner (2009), p. 106; Warren (1991), p. 123; Rose, p. 69.

6046:

Rubin, pp. 150–151; Aston and Richmond, pp. 1–4.

4682:

Rubin, pp. 213–214, 220–223; Myers, pp. 120–121.

3973:. The period has also inspired fantasy writers, including 1819:

List of nobles and magnates of England in the 13th century

11524: 8731:

Castles and Tower Houses of the Scottish Clans, 1450–1650

8510:"Twelfth Century Great Towers – The Case for the Defence" 8299:(Yale ed.). New Haven, U.S.: Yale University Press. 8026:(Yale ed.). New Haven, U.S.: Yale University Press. 6452: 6450: 4969:

Carpenter, pp. 84–85; Barlow (1999), pp. 88–89.

4619:

Rubin, pp. 74–75; Mortimer (2008), pp. 134–136.

2941: 2123: 1018:, fought between rival factions of the English nobility. 8991:

The Cambridge History of Early Modern English Literature

8490:

A History of Engineering in Classical and Medieval Times

6249:

Danziger and Gillingham, p. 33; Hughes and Diaz, p. 111.

4834:

Whitelock, pp. 54–55; Barlow (1999), pp. 27, 34–35.

3115:, a philosopher and Franciscan friar, produced works on 2981:, were built across England, supporting the creation of 2854:, an ancient system for managing woods and animals, and 1886:, responsible for running the royal chancery, while the 6860: 6858: 4767: 4765: 4258: 4256: 3111:

The period produced some influential English scholars.

2908:, originally built with the profits from European trade 2649:'s flask, carried as a protective talisman, containing 1049:

At the start of the Middle Ages, England was a part of

1022:'s victory in 1485 conventionally marks the end of the 866:

in 1485. When England emerged from the collapse of the

11075:

Political history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)

9869:

Kings and Vikings: Scandinavia and Europe, AD 700-1100

8168:

The Three Edwards: War and State in England, 1272–1377

6945:

Pounds (1994), pp. 250–251, 271; Johnson, p. 226.

6447: 5410:

Johns, pp. 30, 69; Johns, pp. 22–25; Mate, p. 25.

1239:

took power in 978 following the murder of his brother

260:

Political history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)

11595: 8002:

William the Conqueror: The Norman Impact Upon England

7550:

England Under the Norman and Angevin Kings, 1075–1225

6381: 5122:

Carpenter, pp. 369–370; Stenton, pp. 56–57.

4384:

Huscroft, pp. 65, 69–71; Carpenter, pp. 124, 138-140.

4115:(New Haven: Yale University Press, 2013), pp. 97–101. 3331:

were first used by English forces at battles such as

2172:

in the 8th century. By the 9th century, the term the

1414:

in Northern France. Henry had also acquired the huge

1410:

rulers of England, so-called because he was also the

1093:

culture in the south, with local groups establishing

947:

changed as laws regarding land and lordship shifted.

22:

Clockwise, from top left: Detail of the 11th-century

8711:

A Few Well-Positioned Castles: The Norman Art of War

6855: 6396:

Hodgett, p. 57; Bailey, p. 47; Pounds (2005), p. 15.

6387:

Bailey, p. 41; Bartlett, p. 321; Cantor 1982, p. 19.

6372: 6329: 6327: 5791:

Lavelle, pp. 319; Rahtz and Watts, pp. 303–305.

5601: 5599: 4762: 4253: 3127:; his work set out the theoretical basis for future 3026:

many of the international fairs and the rise of the

1187:

and defeated the kingdom of East Anglia. Mercia and

11080:

Social history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)

10153:

A Textbook of Historiography, 500 B.C. to A.D. 2000

9761:Heresy". In Knighton, Tess; Fallows, David (eds.). 9386:

The Cambridge Companion to Medieval English Theatre

9263:. New Haven, US and London: Yale University Press. 9032:

Monastic and Religious Orders in Britain, 1000–1300

8424:Creighton, Oliver Hamilton; Robert, Higham (2005). 7767:

English Society in the Early Middle Ages, 1066–1307

6680: 6678: 5929:

Carpenter, p. 446; Danziger and Gillingham, p. 208.

4312:

Carpenter, pp. 74–77; Prior, pp. 225–228.

2882:, may have originated as early as the 7th century. 2453:in the European tradition or, uniquely to England, 1620: 1369:and his subsequent life imprisonment. Robert's son 963:. Despite developments in England's governance and 265:

Social history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)

10201: 9365:Warfare and Society in the Barbarian West, 450-900 9344:Roger Bacon and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays 9132: 9029: 8799: 8208: 7812:(2nd ed.). Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin Books. 7725:English Society in the Late Middle Ages, 1066–1307 7606:Britain After Rome: The Fall and Rise, 400 to 1070 6735:Morillo, p. 52; Prestwich (1992a), pp. 97–99. 6456:Hodgett, p. 148; Ramsay, p.xxxi; Kowalesk, p. 248. 1576:A sequence of bloody civil wars, later termed the 1172:attacks grew in number and scale until in 865 the 935:to governing England, eradicating the practice of 7334: 7332: 7290:Whitelock, pp. 88–89; Emery, pp. 21–22. 6324: 5596: 4691:Rubin, pp. 224–227; Myers, pp. 122–125. 4673:Rubin, pp. 182–183, 186; Myers, p. 133. 4156: 4154: 1922: 1800: 1746:emerged in the 10th century, administering local 1738:also accompanied the court. At a regional level, 1631: 11705: 9616:. Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press. 9326:. Wisconsin, US: University of Wisconsin Press. 9218:Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research 9078:. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht. 8886:Lollardy and the Gentry in the Later Middle Ages 8771:The Archaeology of the Medieval English Monarchy 8005:. Berkeley, US: University of California Press. 7665:A Social and Economic History of Medieval Europe 6780:Prestwich (2003), pp. 173–174; Coss, p. 91. 6675: 5835: 5833: 5703: 5701: 4987:Carpenter, pp. 84–85, 94; Huscroft, p. 104. 4933:Carpenter, p. 4; Davies, p. 20; Huscroft, p. 81. 3441:, often protected with earth and wood ramparts. 2061:A depiction of an English woman c. 1170 using a 1113:, had begun to term themselves kings, living in 9532:. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press. 9408:. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. 8931:. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press. 8928:An Illustrated History of Late Medieval England 8598:. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. 8554:Stained Glass in England During the Middle Ages 8423: 8189:England Under Edward I and Edward II, 1259–1327 7629:. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press. 7626:An Illustrated History of Late Medieval England 6971: 6969: 6722: 6720: 6710: 6708: 6209: 6207: 6205: 5733: 5731: 5526: 5524: 5293:Myers, pp. 140–141; Hicks, pp. 65–72. 4664:Rubin, pp. 168–172; Myers, pp. 30–35. 4655:Rubin, pp. 120–121; Jones, pp. 21–22. 4637:Rubin, pp. 78–80, 83; Steane, p. 110. 4448:White (2000), pp. 2–7; King (2007), p. 40. 3989:, part of England's growing heritage industry. 3939:Depiction of the Middle Ages in popular culture 3318:In the late 13th century Edward I expanded the 2572:Tensions arose between these practices and the 2023:. Their influence was exerted both through the 1471: 1278: 1038: 10042:. New York, US: State University of New York. 9676:Warfare Under the Anglo-Norman Kings 1066–1135 7329: 6591:Cobban, p. 101; Danziger and Gillingham, p. 9. 6474:Myers, pp. 161–4; Raban, p. 50; Barron, p. 78. 4272: 4270: 4268: 4151: 3703:compiled the older Arthurian tales to produce 3652:The Anglo-Saxons produced extensive poetry in 3598: 10804: 10187: 9914:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 9721:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 9595:. Princeton, US: Princeton University Press. 9571:Summer of Blood: The Peasants' Revolt of 1381 9389:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 9181:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 9099:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 9036:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 9013:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 8994:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 8910:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 8882: 8675:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 7917:Stephen and Matilda: the Civil War of 1139–53 7707:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 6852:Rose, pp. 64–66, 71; Coppack, pp. 19–20. 6360:Douglas, p. 310; Dyer (2009), pp. 87–88. 5830: 5698: 5392:Johns, pp. 25, 195-196; Mate, pp. 20–21. 4610:Rubin, pp. 63–67; Myers, pp. 23–24. 4502:Turner (2009), p. 195; Barlow (1999), p. 357. 4285:Fleming, p. 311; Huscroft, pp. 11, 13, 22-24. 2998:boom in the 12th century helping to fuel the 2585:policy, and successive archbishops including 2122:and as servants. Some women became full-time 1612:would continue for several years afterwards. 1596:, who initially ruled on behalf of the young 959:led to tensions between successive kings and 832: 42:, built in the 13th century; the 9th century 9997:. Chicago, US: University of Chicago Press. 9096:Climate Change: Biological and Human Aspects 8325:English Stained Glass of the Medieval Period 8065:The Plantagenets: The Kings Who Made England 7728:(8th ed.). Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin. 7622: 7503:Ortenberg, p. 175; D'haen, pp. 336–337. 7355: 7353: 7263:McClendon, pp. 60, 83-84; Whitelock, p. 225. 6966: 6753:Prestwich (1992a), p. 93; Carpenter, p. 524. 6744:Stringer, pp. 24–25; Morillo, pp. 16–17, 52. 6717: 6705: 6573:Getz, p.liii; Danziger and Gillingham, p. 9. 6438: 6202: 5728: 5521: 5017: 3556:patterns. From the 7th century onwards more 2354:sent a team of missionaries to convert King 9764:Companion to Medieval and Renaissance Music 7982:Isabella and the Strange Death of Edward II 6181:Carpenter, p. 458; Tyerman, pp. 16–17. 5716:Whitelock, pp. 21–22; Fleming, p. 127. 4265: 3042:that would shape the Early Modern economy. 2885: 2636: 2524: 1316:and mercenaries, he defeated Harold at the 1148:rose to prominence under the leadership of 10811: 10797: 10194: 10180: 10149: 10107: 9802: 9781: 9485: 9133:Danziger, Danny; Gillingham, John (2004). 8507: 8316:Architecture, castles, churches, landscape 8122: 6702:Hooper (1992a), p. 1, 11; Halsall, p. 185. 6564:Gillingham and Danziger, pp. 234–235. 4710: 4708: 4706: 3932: 3925:. Fresh archaeological finds, such as the 3540:, with brooches, buckles, sword hilts and 3285:Anglo-Norman warfare was characterised by 2210:History of the Jews in England (1066–1290) 1684:, peasants who worked land belonging to a 1460:in 1264 resulted in the king's capture by 1399:, finally agreed to a peace settlement at 1121:; these kingdoms are often referred to as 839: 825: 9735: 9195: 9008: 8987: 8845: 8748: 8591: 8465: 8402: 8164: 8143: 8019: 7805: 7791:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 7579: 7350: 6909:Pounds (1994), pp. 44–45, 66, 75-77. 6369:Dyer (2009), p. 89; Barlow (1999), p. 98. 4466:Warren (2000), pp. 131–136, 619-622. 4414:Review of King Stephen, (review no. 1038) 3591:. English illuminated books, such as the 3045: 2735: 2412: 1615: 309:History of monarchy in the United Kingdom 10060:Mercia: An Anglo-Saxon Kingdom In Europe 10056: 9693: 9630: 9506: 9153: 8903: 8530: 8206: 8103: 8089:. New Haven, US: Yale University Press. 7934: 7913: 7681: 7562:The Feudal Kingdom of England, 1042–1216 7449:Hinton, pp. vii–viii; Crouch, pp. 178–9. 6954:Pounds (1994), p. 287; Reid, pp. 12, 46. 6693:Halsall, p. 185; Davidson, pp. 8–9. 6240:Prior, p. 83; Creighton, pp. 41–42. 6222:Danziger and Gillingham, pp. 48–49. 5239:Jones, pp. 41–43, 149–155, 199-201. 4861:Lavelle, pp. 2–3; Whitelock, p. 80. 4439:Carpenter, p. 191; Aurell (2003), p. 15. 3950:of English medieval events, such as the 3942: 3850: 3773: 3747:and others describing the activities of 3624: 3499: 3415: 3394:in 1350; raiding campaigns, such as the 3349: 3252: 3059: 2899: 2750: 2640: 2534: 2416: 2283: 2213: 2144: 2056: 1932: 1822: 1641: 1481: 1292: 1127: 17: 10128: 10032: 9987: 9949: 9935:. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 9886: 9757:Page, Christopher (1997). "The English 9714: 9672: 9651: 9609: 9546: 9464: 9443: 9422: 9361: 9340: 8973:. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 8381: 8250: 7998: 7979: 7894: 7875: 7763: 7662: 7600: 7552:(New Oxford History of England) (2002) 6891:Liddiard, pp. 22, 24, 37; Brown, p. 24. 6789:Hicks, pp. 9–10; 231-232, 234-235. 6618:Dyer (2009), pp. 212–213, 324-325. 6267:Hughes and Diaz, p. 131; Cowie, p. 194. 4703: 4111:Nicholas J. Higham and Martin J. Ryan, 3412:List of town walls in England and Wales 3306:. At the heart of these armies was the 2269: 2003:prevent the consumption of luxury goods 1750:on behalf of an ealdorman. Anglo-Saxon 1638:Social history of the Early Middle Ages 1195:was driven into internal exile in 878. 11706: 10114:. Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Rodopi. 10084:. London: Leicester University Press. 9970: 9928: 9865: 9823: 9588: 9298: 9214: 9174: 9113: 9050: 9027: 8966: 8945: 8924: 8820: 8797: 8790: 8767: 8753:. Macclesfield, UK: Windgather Press. 8689: 8668: 8633: 8612: 8537:. Macclesfield, UK: Windgather Press. 8451:. Risborough, UK: Shire Publications. 8385:Medieval Merchant's House, Southampton 8360: 8292: 8271: 8229: 7854: 7835: 7643: 7558: 6963:Creighton and Higham, p. 166–167. 6537:Gillingham and Danziger, pp. 239, 241. 5893:Burton, pp. 28–29; Nilson, p. 70. 5857:Fleming, p. 322; Burton, pp. 3–4. 5248:Myers, pp. 132–133; Hicks, p. 23. 4348:Prestwich (1992b), pp. 70–71, 74. 3088:and a sequence of improvements in the 2912:The English economy was fundamentally 2449:were constructed, staffed either with 1961:had to take up permanent residence in 1929:Social history of the Late Middle Ages 1813:Social history of the High Middle Ages 1561:seized the throne with the support of 10792: 10175: 10077: 9907: 9567: 9527: 9403: 9382: 9277: 9092: 8952:. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. 8708: 8690:Pounds, Norman John Greville (2005). 8669:Pounds, Norman John Greville (1994). 8616:Cathedral Shrines of Medieval England 8570: 8551: 8444: 8341: 8322: 8185: 8061: 7958: 7784: 7742: 7721: 7440:Aurell (2003), p. 15; Vincent, p. 16. 7146:Rubin, p. 158; Myers, pp. 98–99. 7128:Myers, p. 275; Aurell (2007), p. 363. 6342:Bartlett, p. 313; Dyer (2009), p. 14. 6303:Rotherham, p. 80; Dyer (2009), p. 13. 4493:Turner (2009), pp. 139, 173–174, 189. 4475:Carpenter, pp. 245, 261-262, 265-268. 4214:Fleming, p. 270; Yorke, pp. 114, 122. 4127:Early Germanic Literature and Culture 2916:, depending on growing crops such as 2892:Economy of England in the Middle Ages 2755:15th-century depiction of an English 2428:monasteries built in the 12th century 1424:intervening to claim power in Ireland 1232:, that is of the whole English folk. 1089:culture in the east of England and a 11660: 10818: 10156:. Hyderabad, India: Orient Longman. 10011: 9844: 9756: 9319: 9256: 9237: 9071: 8727: 8486: 8082: 8040: 7702: 6405:Hillaby, p. 16; Dyer (2009), p. 115. 5983:Burton, p. 21; Barlow (1999), p. 75. 5623:Hillaby, pp. 16–17; Douglas, p. 314. 4942:Burton, p. 21; Barlow (1999), p. 87. 4124:Fred C. Robinson, "Old English," in 3954:shown here, form part of the modern 3390:in 1340, or in more open waters, as 3327:, a potentially devastating weapon. 3202:by the 14th century, with the first 2653:from the shrine of Thomas Becket in 1033: 974:The 14th century in England saw the 10100: 9994:England and the Crusades, 1095–1588 8751:The Medieval Park: New Perspectives 8636:"Medieval English Town-House Plans" 8403:Creighton, Oliver Hamilton (2005). 8171:(2nd ed.). London: Routledge. 7959:Davis, Ralph Henry Carless (1977). 7897:Edward III's Round Table at Windsor 7878:Edward III's Round Table at Windsor 7838:L'Empire des Plantagenêt, 1154–1224 6807:Hooper (1992b), pp. 18–19, 22. 6762:Prestwich (2003), pp. 172, 176-177. 5818:Fleming, pp. 128–129, 170-173. 4411:Davis, p. 78; King (2010), p. 281; 3072:established during the 13th century 2531:Church and state in medieval Europe 2441:, and others formed around married 2042: 1863:, they were granted lands termed a 13: 10132:Re-Creations: Visualising Our Past 9973:Town Defences in England and Wales 9637:. Leiden, the Netherlands: BRILL. 9347:. Leiden, the Netherlands: BRILL. 9231:10.1111/j.1468-2281.1962.tb01411.x 7002:Whitelock, p. 224; Webster, p. 11. 4205:Fleming, p. 220; Williams, p. 327. 3560:designs became popular, showing a 3164:The Travels of Sir John Mandeville 2539:Mid-13th-century depiction of the 1907:—and travelling judges conducting 1506:and Aquitaine. Edward also fought 1448:, and finally the outbreak of the 1243:, but England was then invaded by 319:History of the politics of England 30:; 15th-century stained glass from 14: 11780: 9956:. Westport, US: Greenwood Press. 9911:The Cambridge Companion to Ockham 9893:. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. 9848:Medieval Naval Warfare, 1000–1500 9809:. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. 9788:. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. 9718:The Cambridge Companion to Ockham 9679:. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. 9658:. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. 9513:. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. 9471:. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. 9450:. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. 9429:. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. 9240:Everyday Life in Medieval England 9160:. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. 8734:. Botley, UK: Osprey Publishing. 8694:. Westport, US: Greenwood Press. 8619:. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. 8472:. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. 8257:. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. 8129:. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. 8047:. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. 7965:(1st ed.). London: Longman. 7920:. Stroud, UK: The History Press. 7899:. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. 7880:. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. 7861:. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. 7809:The Beginnings of English Society 7705:Women in Medieval English Society 7623:Given-Wilson, Chris, ed. (1996). 7565:. Harlow, UK: Pearson Education. 7413:Bevington, p. 432; Vincent, p. 3. 7164:Myers, pp. 182–183, 250-251. 6064:Rubin, pp. 188–189; 198-199. 5329:Mate, pp. 2–3; Johns, p. 14. 4538:Carpenter, pp. 495, 505–512. 4139:Fleming, pp. 76–77, 106-107. 3846: 3834:chapels for existing cathedrals. 3401: 3167:. The universities of Oxford and 2541:death of Archbishop Thomas Becket 2458:kings of Wessex who promoted the 1722:, and some of the more important 1584:, leading a faction known as the 1431:succeeded to the throne in 1189. 314:History of the economy of England 11686: 11669: 11641: 11629: 11617: 11605: 9589:Jordan, William Chester (1997). 9242:. London: Hambledon and London. 9139:. London: Hodder and Stoughton. 8907:The Cambridge History Of Warfare 8660: 8522: 8517:The Castle Studies Group Journal 7524: 7515: 7506: 7497: 7488: 7479: 7470: 7461: 7452: 7443: 7434: 7425: 7416: 7407: 7398: 7389: 7380: 7371: 7362: 7341: 7320: 7311: 7302: 7293: 7284: 7275: 7266: 7257: 7248: 7239: 7230: 7221: 7212: 7203: 7194: 7185: 7176: 7167: 7158: 7149: 7140: 7131: 7122: 7113: 7104: 7095: 7086: 7077: 7068: 7059: 7056:Baker, p. 2; Marks (1993), p. 3. 7050: 7041: 7032: 7023: 7014: 7005: 6996: 6987: 6978: 6957: 6948: 6939: 6936:Pounds (1994), pp. 253–255. 6930: 6921: 6912: 6903: 6894: 6885: 6876: 6867: 6846: 6837: 6828: 6819: 6810: 6801: 6792: 6783: 6774: 6765: 6756: 6747: 6738: 6729: 6696: 6687: 6666: 6657: 6648: 6639: 6630: 6621: 6612: 6603: 6594: 6585: 6576: 6567: 6558: 6549: 6540: 6531: 6522: 6513: 6510:Gillingham and Danziger, p. 237. 6504: 6495: 6486: 6477: 6468: 6459: 6429: 6408: 6399: 6390: 6363: 6354: 6345: 6336: 6315: 6306: 6297: 6288: 6279: 6270: 6261: 6252: 6243: 6234: 6225: 6216: 6193: 6184: 6175: 6166: 6157: 6148: 6139: 6130: 6121: 6112: 6103: 6094: 6085: 6076: 6067: 6058: 6049: 6040: 6031: 6022: 6013: 6004: 5995: 5986: 5977: 5968: 5959: 5950: 5941: 5932: 5923: 5914: 5905: 5896: 5887: 5878: 5869: 5860: 5851: 5842: 5821: 5812: 5803: 5794: 5785: 5776: 5767: 5758: 5749: 5740: 5719: 5710: 5689: 5680: 5677:Stenton, p. 200; Hillaby, p. 35. 5671: 5662: 5659:Hillaby, p. 29; Stenton, p. 200. 5653: 5644: 5635: 5626: 5617: 5608: 5587: 5578: 5569: 5560: 5551: 5542: 5533: 5512: 5503: 5494: 5485: 5476: 5467: 5458: 5449: 5440: 5431: 5422: 5413: 5404: 5395: 5386: 5377: 5368: 5359: 5350: 5341: 5332: 5323: 5314: 5305: 5296: 5287: 5278: 5269: 5260: 5251: 5242: 5233: 5224: 5215: 5206: 5197: 5188: 5179: 5170: 5161: 5152: 5143: 5134: 5125: 5116: 5113:Barlow (1999), pp. 308–309. 5107: 5098: 5089: 5080: 5071: 5062: 5053: 5044: 5035: 5026: 5008: 4999: 4990: 4981: 4592:Mortimer (2008), pp. 80–83. 4457:Warren (2000), pp. 161, 561–562. 4043: 4029: 3437:8th and 9th centuries, creating 2069:, while caring for a young child 1937:Early 15th-century depiction of 1718:, comprising the senior clergy, 1621:Governance and social structures 1026:in England and the start of the 808: 74: 11719:England in the High Middle Ages 10081:Wessex in the Early Middle Ages 9742:. London: Hambledon Continuum. 8487:Hill, Donald Routledge (1996). 8233:King John: England's Evil King? 7999:Douglas, David Charles (1962). 7536: 7431:Dyer (2009), p. 4; Coss, p. 81. 7047:Marks (2001), pp. 265–266. 6816:Hooper (1992b), pp. 20–24. 6465:Dyers (2009), pp. 291–293. 6435:Hodgett, p. 206; Bailey, p. 46. 6258:Danziger and Gillingham, p. 33. 5992:Barlow (1999), pp. 98, 103-104. 5947:Forey, pp. 98–99, 106-107. 5839:Fleming, pp. 318–319, 321. 5668:Skinner, p. 9; Stenton, p. 199. 5641:Stenton, pp. 193–194, 197. 5284:Myers, pp. 48–49, 137–138. 5005:Danziger and Gillingham, p. 40. 4972: 4963: 4954: 4945: 4936: 4927: 4918: 4909: 4900: 4891: 4882: 4873: 4864: 4855: 4846: 4837: 4828: 4819: 4810: 4801: 4792: 4783: 4774: 4753: 4744: 4735: 4726: 4717: 4694: 4685: 4676: 4667: 4658: 4649: 4640: 4631: 4622: 4613: 4604: 4595: 4586: 4577: 4568: 4559: 4550: 4541: 4532: 4523: 4514: 4505: 4496: 4487: 4478: 4469: 4460: 4451: 4442: 4433: 4424: 4405: 4396: 4387: 4378: 4369: 4360: 4351: 4342: 4333: 4324: 4315: 4306: 4297: 4288: 4279: 4244: 4235: 4226: 4223:Yorke, p. 122; Carpenter, p. 3. 4217: 4208: 4199: 4190: 4181: 4172: 4163: 4098:Richard Hogg and Rhona Alcorn, 4019: 3998: 3759: 3378:and large transport ships, and 3354:A reconstruction of a medieval 2383:Indigenous Scandinavian beliefs 1807:England in the High Middle Ages 1696:king, bishops, monasteries and 1478:England in the Late Middle Ages 1403:and succeeded as king in 1154. 1285:England in the High Middle Ages 299:History of education in England 10203:European Middle Ages by region 10015:Pilgrimage in Medieval England 9284:. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan. 9154:Davidson, Hilda Ellis (1998). 8848:The Journal of British Studies 8655:10.1080/00766097.1962.11735667 8592:McClendon, Charles B. (2005). 8364:The English Medieval Landscape 7770:. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin. 7476:Driver and Ray, pp. 7–14. 7395:Dyer (2000), pp. 153–162. 6873:Turner (1971), pp. 19–20. 6627:Dyer (2009), pp. 326–327. 6555:Normore, p. 31; Spade, p. 101. 6546:Hackett, pp. 9, 16, 19, 20-21. 6294:Dyer (2009), pp. 25, 161, 236. 6231:Dyer (2000), pp. 261–263. 5557:Carpenter, pp. 3–4, p. 8. 5212:Dyer (2009), pp. 268–269. 4960:Barlow (1999), pp. 78–79. 4732:Whitelock, pp. 29–21, 33. 4574:Rubin, pp. 35–36, 52, 54. 4142: 4133: 4118: 4105: 4100:An Introduction to Old English 4092: 4083: 4074: 4065: 3793:and towns were abandoned. New 3644:, early 15th-century, showing 1657:The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were 1627:Government in medieval England 1406:Henry II was the first of the 1168:raids on England began; these 1045:History of Anglo-Saxon England 931:. The new rulers introduced a 294:Government in medieval England 1: 9136:1215: The Year of Magna Carta 8327:. London: Thames and Hudson. 8254:Henry II: New Interpretations 8236:. Stroud, UK: History Press. 8044:Henry II: New Interpretations 8020:Hollister, C. Warren (2003). 7858:Henry II: New Interpretations 7422:Sreedharan, pp. 122–123. 6927:Liddiard, pp. 61–63, 98. 6663:Dyer (2009) pp. 214–215. 5575:Rubin, p. 8; Carpenter, p. 9. 4393:Chibnall, pp. 64–65, 75. 4059: 3865:; a key source for historians 3783:All Saints' Church, Brixworth 3680:; stories about the court of 3090:units used for measuring time 3000:expansion of the money supply 2994:increased in England, with a 2563:, which was addressed by the 2225:, the site of an anti-Jewish 2110:becoming dominated by women. 1549:Edward's grandson, the young 11724:History of England by period 10628:Hereditary Kingdom of Norway 9736:Ortenberg, Veronica (2006). 9610:Kessler, Herbert L. (2004). 9200:. Jefferson, US: McFarland. 8508:Hulme, Richard (2007–2008). 8388:. London: English Heritage. 8068:. HarperCollins Publishers. 7840:(in French). Paris: Tempus. 7764:Stenton, Doris Mary (1976). 7281:Whitelock, pp. 238–239. 7245:Fleming, pp. 34–35, 38. 7110:Whitelock, pp. 214–217. 7101:Whitelock, pp. 211–213. 6984:Whitelock, pp. 224–225. 6600:Dyer (2009), pp. 25–26. 5974:Whitelock, pp. 160–163. 5920:Carpenter, pp. 444–445. 5149:Carpenter, pp. 473–474. 5131:Carpenter, pp. 477–479. 5050:Carpenter, pp. 290–292. 4879:Whitelock, pp. 134–135. 4789:Whitelock, pp. 108–109. 4520:Carpenter, pp. 380–381. 4375:Carpenter, pp. 134–135. 4366:Carpenter, pp. 131–133. 4339:Carpenter, pp. 125–126. 4330:Carpenter, pp. 110–112. 3536:, frequently using gold and 3068:showing one of the many new 2740: 2437:, bishop-led communities of 2265:Religion in Medieval England 1923:Late Middle Ages (1272–1485) 1801:High Middle Ages (1066–1272) 1632:Early Middle Ages (600–1066) 1472:Late Middle Ages (1272–1485) 1279:High Middle Ages (1066–1272) 1183:, invaded England, captured 1039:Early Middle Ages (600–1066) 945:position of women in society 284:English overseas possessions 7: 11714:Medieval history of England 11351:English language in England 11346:Innovations and discoveries 11070:Postwar Britain (1945–1979) 9830:. London: Hambledon Press. 9305:. London: Hambledon Press. 8825:; Nelson, Janet L. (eds.). 8577:. London: Hambledon Press. 8466:Gilchrist, Roberta (2006). 8448:Discovering Medieval Houses 8207:Stringer, Keith J. (1993). 8165:Prestwich, Michael (2003). 8144:Prestwich, Michael (1988). 7806:Whitelock, Dorothy (1972). 7667:. Abingdon, UK: Routledge. 7648:. Abingdon, UK: Routledge. 5176:Myers, p. 38; Rubin, p. 78. 4906:Whitelock pp. 140–141. 4870:Dyer (2009), pp. 52, 55–56. 4723:Hicks, pp. 8, 238–245. 4646:Rubin, p. 96; 113–114. 4529:Carpener, pp. 468–469. 3770:English Gothic architecture 3599:Literature, drama and music 3392:off the coast of Winchelsea 3361:The first references to an 2906:restored 13th-century house 2668:for a perceived sin, or to 2258: 2134: 1770:, serving local areas, and 1053:, a former province of the 10: 11785: 11656:England in the Middle Ages 9971:Turner, Hilary L. (1971). 9510:Time in the Medieval World 9257:Dyer, Christopher (2009). 9238:Dyer, Christopher (2000). 8062:Jones, Dan (10 May 2012). 7682:Huscroft, Richard (2005). 7541: 7458:Dyer (2009), pp. 4–6. 7317:Stenton, pp. 270–271. 7299:Stenton, pp. 268–269. 7119:Stenton, pp. 274–275. 6645:Dyer (2009), pp. 214, 324. 6492:Hicks, pp. 50–51, 65. 5965:Fleming, pp. 246–247. 5956:Whitelock, pp. 54–55. 5848:Fleming, pp. 322–323. 5764:Fleming, pp. 160–161. 5746:Fleming, pp. 152–153. 5725:Fleming, pp. 156–157. 5695:Stenton, pp. 193–194. 5320:Mate, pp. 6–7, 97-99. 5041:Bartlett, pp. 395–402 4924:Whitelock, pp. 41–45. 4807:Whitelock, pp. 52–53. 4771:Whitelock, pp. 97–99. 4741:Whitelock, pp. 50–51. 4303:Carpenter, pp. 72–74. 4262:Fleming, pp. 314–315. 4169:Fleming, pp. 205–207. 3936: 3763: 3602: 3489: 3405: 3343: 3246: 3237: 3052:Science in the Middle Ages 3049: 2889: 2744: 2528: 2273: 2262: 2207: 2138: 2046: 1926: 1827:Anglo-Norman 12th-century 1816: 1810: 1804: 1635: 1624: 1500:defeating the native Welsh 1475: 1282: 1042: 921:Norman invasion of England 852:England in the Middle Ages 109:Economy in the Middle Ages 11564: 11488: 11403: 11281: 11277: 11268: 11224: 11215: 11163: 11154: 11124: 11088: 11062: 11029: 10971: 10940: 10892: 10836: 10827: 10727:Principality of Chernigov 10636: 10557:Principality of Catalonia 10454: 10445: 10342: 10222: 10209: 9700:. London: Pimlico Press. 9673:Morillo, Stephen (1994). 9320:Getz, Faye Marie (1991). 9075:The Presence of Feudalism 9028:Burton, Janet E. (1994). 8967:Barron, Caroline (2005). 8531:Liddiard, Robert (2005). 8272:Warren, W. Lewis (1991). 8230:Turner, Ralph V. (2009). 8192:. Oxford, UK: Blackwell. 7944:. Oxford, UK: Blackwell. 7785:White, Graeme J. (2000). 7685:Ruling England, 1042–1217 7608:. London: Penguin Books. 7580:Carpenter, David (2004). 7485:Tiwawi and Tiwawi, p. 90. 7386:Liddiard, pp. 64–66. 7377:Liddiard, pp. 60–62. 7368:Pantin, pp. 205–206. 7038:Thomas, pp. 372–373. 7029:Thomas, pp. 368–369. 6771:Prestwich (2003), p. 156. 4951:Huscroft, pp. 78–79. 4843:Whitelock, pp. 56–5. 4294:Carpenter, pp. 67, 72-73. 3923:environmental archaeology 3841: 3617:Music in Medieval England 3613:Middle English literature 3339: 3242: 3131:in the natural sciences. 2141:English national identity 1995:Statute of Labourers 1351 1306:William, Duke of Normandy 1273:battle of Stamford Bridge 1191:fell in 875 and 876, and 11430:The Football Association 10706:Bosnia and Herzegovina ( 9929:Thomas, Hugh M. (2003). 9574:. London: Harper Press. 9528:Johns, Susan M. (2003). 9489:The Medieval Warm Period 9093:Cowie, Jonathan (2007). 9051:Cobban, Alan B. (1975). 8342:Brown, R. Allen (1962). 7828: 7663:Hodgett, Gerald (2006). 7530:Redknap, pp. 45–46. 7347:Myers, pp. 190–192. 7236:Fleming, pp. 32–33. 7227:Myers, pp. 187–188. 7182:Myers, pp. 112–113. 7155:Myers, pp. 100–101. 7092:Whitelock, pp. 207, 213. 7074:Myers, pp. 108–109. 6321:Dyer (2009), pp. 19, 22. 6037:Rubin, pp. 149–150. 6028:Rubin, pp. 148–149. 5539:Carpenter, pp. 6–7. 5518:Fleming, pp. 62, 65, 75. 5302:Myers, pp. 142–143. 5185:Rubin, pp. 109–111. 4915:Whitelock, pp. 140, 145. 4816:Dyer (2009), pp. 27, 29. 4511:Carpenter, pp. 369, 380. 4049:The utility of the term 3992: 3766:Anglo-Saxon architecture 3064:A medieval carving from 2886:Economy and demographics 2774:, through to the upland 2637:Pilgrimages and Crusades 2525:Church, state and heresy 2364:Archbishop of Canterbury 2280:Hiberno-Scottish mission 2049:Women in the Middle Ages 1339:spreading up the valleys 1144:In the 7th century, the 437:East Riding of Yorkshire 352:Kingdom of Great Britain 11769:15th century in England 11764:14th century in England 11759:13th century in England 11754:12th century in England 11749:11th century in England 11744:10th century in England 10915:History of Anglo-Saxons 10637:Central, Eastern Europe 10343:Central, Eastern Europe 10150:Sreedharan, E. (2004). 10078:Yorke, Barbara (1995). 9404:Hicks, Michael (2012). 8552:Marks, Richard (1993). 8445:Emery, Anthony (2007). 7980:Doherty, P. C. (2003). 7836:Aurell, Martin (2003). 7703:Mate, Mavis E. (2001). 7688:. Harlow, UK: Pearson. 7554:excerpt and text search 7200:Myers, pp. 184–85. 6199:Cantor, pp. 22–23. 5911:Burton, pp. 36–38. 5875:Burton, pp. 29–30. 5866:Burton, pp. 23–24. 5632:Hillaby, pp. 16, 21-22. 5584:Davies, pp. 20–22. 5275:Myers, p. 134–135. 4547:Carpenter, p. 477. 4421:, accessed 12 May 2011. 3933:Popular representations 3609:Anglo-Norman literature 3530:illuminated manuscripts 3480: 2896:Demographics of England 2613:. Wycliffe argued that 2203: 2073:Medieval England was a 34:, showing a scene from 11739:9th century in England 11734:8th century in England 11729:7th century in England 11241:Elizabethan government 11106:Kingdom of East Anglia 11101:Kingdom of Northumbria 10521:Burgundian Netherlands 10362:Bosnia and Herzegovina 10129:Redknap, Mark (2002). 9975:. London: John Baker. 9866:Sawyer, P. H. (1982). 9694:Mortimer, Ian (2004). 9652:Lavelle, Ryan (2010). 9175:Davies, R. R. (1990). 9114:Crouch, David (2005). 8946:Barlow, Frank (1986). 8889:. Stroud, UK: Sutton. 8713:. Stroud, UK: Tempus. 8709:Prior, Stuart (2006). 8634:Pantin, W. A. (1963). 8430:. Stroud, UK: Tempus. 8382:Coppack, Glyn (2003). 8367:. London: Croon Helm. 8293:Warren, W. L. (2000). 8186:Raban, Sandra (2000). 8104:Mortimer, Ian (2008). 7914:Bradbury, Jim (2009). 7644:Hinton, David (2002). 7559:Barlow, Frank (1999). 7512:Timmons, pp. 5–6. 7137:Myers, pp. 96–98. 6834:Warren (1991), p. 123. 6798:Hooper (1992b), p. 17. 6672:Lavelle, pp. 8, 14-15. 6019:Barlow (1999), p. 361. 5773:Lavelle, pp. 8, 11-12. 5707:Fleming, pp. 121, 126. 5605:Hicks, pp. 52–53. 5257:Hicks, pp. 28–30. 5140:Rubin, pp. 34–36. 5086:Barlow (1999), p. 320. 4750:Whitelock, pp. 85, 90. 4565:Rubin, pp. 31–34. 4484:Turner (2009), p. 107. 4071:Fleming, pp. 2–3. 3987:historical re-enactors 3958: 3866: 3786: 3785:, late 7th–8th century 3649: 3634:illuminated manuscript 3605:Old English literature 3520: 3485: 3433: 3358: 3346:Medieval naval warfare 3261: 3141:Johannes de Sacrobosco 3073: 3046:Technology and science 3015:villages were deserted 2909: 2904:The central hall of a 2770:or the heavily wooded 2759: 2736:Economy and technology 2657: 2543: 2429: 2413:Religious institutions 2307: 2295:, with English-carved 2230: 2164: 2070: 1949: 1841: 1654: 1650:, showing the face of 1616:Government and society 1494: 1327:devastating the region 1301: 1141: 996:villages were deserted 957:ecclesiastical reforms 153:Black Death in England 47: 11447:Rugby Football League 10930:Settlement of Britain 10398:Late Medieval Kingdom 10394:High Medieval Kingdom 10063:. London: Continuum. 10018:. London: Hambledon. 9872:. London: Routledge. 9851:. London: Routledge. 9553:. London: Routledge. 9550:Agency in Archaeology 9406:The Wars of the Roses 9368:. London: Routledge. 9362:Halsall, Guy (2003). 8831:. London: Routledge. 8806:. London: Routledge. 8798:Aberth, John (2001). 8774:. London: Routledge. 8768:Steane, John (1999). 8728:Reid, Stuart (2006). 8556:. London: Routledge. 8493:. London: Routledge. 8215:. London: Routledge. 8083:King, Edmund (2010). 7722:Myers, A. R. (1978). 7521:Page, pp. 25–26. 6136:Webb, pp. 35–38. 6127:Webb, pp. 24–27. 6118:Webb, pp. 19–21. 5491:Mate, pp. 81–82. 5482:Mate, pp. 64–65. 5446:Mate, pp. 46–47. 5401:Mate, pp. 21–23. 5383:Mate, pp. 14–15. 5338:Mate, pp. 98–99. 4196:Fleming, pp. 219–221. 4113:The Anglo-Saxon World 3946: 3854: 3777: 3744:Ballad of Chevy Chase 3628: 3503: 3419: 3353: 3256: 3063: 3009:, land shortages and 2903: 2754: 2699:Participation in the 2644: 2538: 2420: 2287: 2253:expelled from England 2217: 2148: 2060: 1936: 1826: 1817:Further information: 1811:Further information: 1645: 1594:Richard of Gloucester 1522:, and a rebel baron, 1508:campaigns in Scotland 1485: 1296: 1131: 1000:medieval philosophers 925:William the Conqueror 878:flourished under the 21: 11464:Rugby Football Union 11132:House of Plantagenet 10606:Caliphate of Córdoba 10512:Republic of Florence 10012:Webb, Diana (2000). 9989:Tyerman, Christopher 9845:Rose, Susan (2002). 9785:Anglo-Norman Warfare 9468:Anglo-Norman Warfare 9447:Anglo-Norman Warfare 9278:Forey, Alan (1992). 8643:Medieval Archaeology 8613:Nilson, Ben (2001). 8348:. London: Batsford. 8323:Baker, John (1978). 8126:Anglo-Norman Warfare 7984:. London: Robinson. 7743:Rubin, Miri (2006). 7326:Myers, pp. 102, 105. 6975:Kessler, pp. 14, 19. 6636:Dyer (2009), p. 323. 6609:Dyer (2009), p. 131. 6163:Tyerman, pp. 11, 13. 6082:Webb, pp. xiii, xvi. 5203:Dyer (2009), p. 228. 4700:Hicks, pp. 3–8. 4089:Fleming, pp. 30, 40. 3952:battle of Tewkesbury 3824:Perpendicular Gothic 3820:Early English Gothic 3638:the Canterbury Tales 3153:Compendium Medicinae 2836:Medieval Warm Period 2747:Geography of England 2655:Canterbury Cathedral 2445:and their families. 2302:and German gold and 2270:Rise of Christianity 1941:, shown wearing the 1852:, produced in 1086. 1652:Æthelred the Unready 1559:Henry of Bolingbroke 1289:Anglo-Norman England 1257:Edward the Confessor 1216:, and his grandson, 949:England's population 929:a network of castles 11624:Anglo-Saxon England 11016:Union with Scotland 10996:English Reformation 10991:English Renaissance 10920:Anglo-Saxon England 10597:Lordship of Ireland 10592:Kingdom of Scotland 10581:Kingdom of Portugal 10561:Kingdom of Valencia 10531:Kingdom of Asturias 9613:Seeing Medieval Art 9568:Jones, Dan (2010). 9118:. Harlow: Pearson. 9057:. London: Methuen. 8791:Specialized studies 8409:. London: Equinox. 8278:. London: Methuen. 8108:. London: Vintage. 7749:. London: Penguin. 7586:. London: Penguin. 6378:Cantor 1982, p. 18. 6351:Dyer (2009), p. 26. 6312:Dyer (2009), p. 14. 6213:Dyer (2009), p. 13. 6109:Webb, pp. 5–6. 6100:Webb, pp. 3–5. 6091:Webb, pp. xvi-xvii. 5347:Mate, pp. 6–7. 3963:William Shakespeare 3927:Staffordshire Hoard 3173:University of Paris 3056:Medieval technology 2979:planned communities 2244:ritual child murder 2075:patriarchal society 1975:Order of the Garter 1947:Order of the Garter 1140:burial, 7th century 1028:Early Modern period 1010:, resulting in the 953:warmer temperatures 864:early modern period 204:Glorious Revolution 172:English Renaissance 124:English unification 94:Prehistoric Britain 40:Salisbury Cathedral 11545:Saint George's Day 11137:House of Lancaster 10948:Kingdom of England 10849:History of England 10757:Grand Principality 10675:Kingdom of Croatia 10622:Emirate of Granada 10587:Kingdom of England 10571:Kingdom of Navarre 10565:Kingdom of Majorca 10543:Kingdom of Galicia 10539:Kingdom of Castile 10502:Republic of Venice 10473:Kingdom of Bohemia 10039:Anglo-Saxon Styles 8828:The Medieval World 7936:Chibnall, Marjorie 7548:Bartlett, Robert. 7272:Whitelock, p. 239. 6993:Whitelock, p. 224. 6172:Carpenter, p. 456. 6154:Carpenter, p. 455. 5167:Carpenter, p. 479. 5158:Carpenter, p. 475. 4897:Whitelock, p. 140. 4888:Whitelock, p. 137. 4780:Whitelock, p. 100. 4628:Myers, p. 21. 4430:Carpenter, p. 191. 4419:Reviews in History 4402:Carpenter, p. 161. 4321:Carpenter, pp. 76. 4014:Holy Roman Emperor 3967:Historical fiction 3959: 3867: 3787: 3650: 3593:Queen Mary Psalter 3566:Carolingian styles 3521: 3434: 3359: 3262: 3149:Gilbertus Anglicus 3117:natural philosophy 3074: 2910: 2760: 2658: 2623:Parliamentary bill 2574:reforming movement 2544: 2430: 2407:started to convert 2356:Æthelberht of Kent 2308: 2246:, encouraging the 2231: 2165: 2158:St George's Chapel 2118:, making clothes, 2071: 1997:was introduced to 1950: 1842: 1834:Walters Art Museum 1655: 1606:battle of Bosworth 1540:Hundred Years' War 1495: 1458:Second Barons' War 1416:duchy of Aquitaine 1377:, died aboard the 1318:Battle of Hastings 1312:. With an army of 1302: 1299:Battle of Hastings 1200:Battle of Edington 1142: 1012:Hundred Years' War 1004:natural scientists 892:and sophisticated 856:history of England 815:England portal 462:Greater Manchester 347:Kingdom of England 304:History of English 119:Anglo-Saxon period 48: 11593: 11592: 11560: 11559: 11484: 11483: 11390:Science education 11383:Church of England 11264: 11263: 11211: 11210: 11150: 11149: 11116:Kingdom of Sussex 11111:Kingdom of Mercia 10963:Wars of the Roses 10786: 10785: 10782: 10781: 10738:Novgorod Republic 10712:Kingdom of Bosnia 10650:Bulgarian Empire 10553:Kingdom of Aragon 10517:Duchy of Burgundy 10507:Republic of Genoa 10497:Kingdom of Naples 10492:Kingdom of Sicily 10481:Swiss Confederacy 10469:Holy Roman Empire 10441: 10440: 10163:978-81-250-2657-0 10142:978-0-7200-0519-6 10121:978-90-420-1611-8 10091:978-0-7185-1856-1 10070:978-0-8264-7765-1 10049:978-0-7914-5869-3 10025:978-1-85285-250-4 10004:978-0-226-82013-2 9963:978-0-313-30845-1 9942:978-0-19-925123-0 9921:978-0-521-58790-7 9900:978-0-85115-931-7 9879:978-0-415-04590-2 9858:978-0-415-23976-9 9837:978-1-85285-326-6 9774:978-0-520-21081-3 9749:978-1-85285-383-9 9728:978-0-521-58790-7 9707:978-0-7126-9715-6 9686:978-0-85115-689-7 9665:978-1-84383-569-1 9644:978-1-84383-340-6 9623:978-1-55111-535-1 9602:978-0-691-05891-7 9581:978-0-00-721393-1 9560:978-0-415-20760-7 9520:978-1-903153-08-6 9499:978-0-7923-2842-1 9436:978-0-85115-931-7 9415:978-0-300-18157-9 9396:978-0-521-45916-7 9375:978-0-415-23940-0 9354:978-90-04-10015-2 9333:978-0-299-12930-9 9312:978-1-85285-326-6 9291:978-0-333-46235-5 9270:978-0-300-10191-1 9249:978-1-85285-201-6 9207:978-0-7864-3405-3 9188:978-0-521-02977-3 9167:978-0-85115-716-0 9146:978-0-340-82475-7 9125:978-0-582-36981-8 9106:978-0-521-69619-7 9085:978-3-525-35391-2 9064:978-0-416-81250-3 9043:978-0-521-37797-3 9020:978-0-521-52273-1 9001:978-0-521-63156-3 8980:978-0-19-928441-2 8959:978-0-297-79189-8 8938:978-0-7190-4152-5 8917:978-0-521-85359-0 8896:978-0-312-17388-3 8838:978-0-415-30234-0 8781:978-0-415-19788-5 8760:978-1-905119-16-5 8741:978-1-84176-962-2 8720:978-0-7524-3651-7 8701:978-0-313-32498-7 8692:The Medieval City 8682:978-0-521-45828-3 8626:978-0-85115-808-2 8605:978-0-300-10688-6 8584:978-1-85285-326-6 8563:978-0-415-03345-9 8500:978-0-415-15291-4 8479:978-1-84383-173-0 8458:978-0-7478-0655-4 8437:978-0-7524-1445-4 8416:978-1-904768-67-8 8374:978-0-7099-0707-7 8306:978-0-300-08474-0 8264:978-1-84383-340-6 8243:978-0-7524-4850-3 8222:978-0-415-01415-1 8199:978-0-631-22320-7 8178:978-0-415-30309-5 8157:978-0-520-06266-5 8115:978-0-09-952709-1 8096:978-0-300-11223-8 8075:978-0-00-745749-6 8054:978-1-84383-340-6 8033:978-0-300-09829-7 8012:978-0-520-00348-4 7951:978-0-631-19028-8 7927:978-0-7509-3793-1 7906:978-1-84383-391-8 7887:978-1-84383-391-8 7868:978-1-84383-340-6 7847:978-2-262-02282-2 7798:978-0-521-55459-6 7756:978-0-14-014825-1 7714:978-0-521-58733-4 7674:978-0-415-37707-2 7655:978-0-203-03984-7 7636:978-0-7190-4152-5 7615:978-0-14-014823-7 7593:978-0-14-014824-4 7572:978-0-582-03081-7 7404:Whitelock, p. 11. 7254:McClendon, p. 59. 6414:Blanchard, p. 29. 6333:Bartlett, p. 313. 6285:Rotherham, p. 79. 5428:Mate, pp. 32, 36. 5068:Huscroft, p. 104. 5014:Carpenter, p. 52. 4996:Carpenter, p. 87. 4978:Carpenter, p. 84. 4852:Whitelock, p. 57. 4798:Whitelock, p. 54. 4759:Whitelock, p. 35. 4714:Hicks, p. 5. 4051:bastard feudalism 4006:Geoffrey of Anjou 3971:detective fiction 3956:heritage industry 3706:Le Morte d'Arthur 3669:The Pastoral Care 3546:Sutton Hoo burial 3257:The 15th-century 3145:medieval medicine 3133:William of Ockham 3094:mechanical clocks 3028:chartered company 2932:, and husbanding 2930:open field system 2684:, Canterbury and 2611:Oxford University 2424:, one of the new 2362:became the first 2276:Gregorian mission 2053:Anglo-Saxon women 2021:bastard feudalism 1578:Wars of the Roses 1462:Simon de Montfort 1450:First Barons' War 1395:. Matilda's son, 1359:Stephen of Aumale 1212:. Under his son, 1146:Kingdom of Mercia 1034:Political history 1016:Wars of the Roses 992:bastard feudalism 849: 848: 184:English Civil War 114:Sub-Roman Britain 11776: 11699: 11691: 11690: 11689: 11682: 11674: 11673: 11672: 11662: 11646: 11645: 11644: 11634: 11633: 11632: 11622: 11621: 11620: 11610: 11609: 11601: 11573: 11535:Royal supporters 11336:Landscape garden 11306:Country clothing 11279: 11278: 11275: 11274: 11222: 11221: 11161: 11160: 11096:Kingdom of Essex 10859:Local government 10834: 10833: 10813: 10806: 10799: 10790: 10789: 10708:Banate of Bosnia 10646:Byzantine Empire 10527:Crown of Castile 10477:Kingdom of Italy 10452: 10451: 10220: 10219: 10196: 10189: 10182: 10173: 10172: 10167: 10146: 10125: 10095: 10074: 10053: 10029: 10008: 9984: 9967: 9946: 9925: 9904: 9883: 9862: 9841: 9820: 9799: 9778: 9753: 9732: 9711: 9690: 9669: 9648: 9627: 9606: 9585: 9564: 9543: 9524: 9503: 9482: 9461: 9440: 9419: 9400: 9379: 9358: 9337: 9316: 9295: 9274: 9253: 9234: 9211: 9192: 9171: 9150: 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7162: 7156: 7153: 7147: 7144: 7138: 7135: 7129: 7126: 7120: 7117: 7111: 7108: 7102: 7099: 7093: 7090: 7084: 7081: 7075: 7072: 7066: 7063: 7057: 7054: 7048: 7045: 7039: 7036: 7030: 7027: 7021: 7018: 7012: 7009: 7003: 7000: 6994: 6991: 6985: 6982: 6976: 6973: 6964: 6961: 6955: 6952: 6946: 6943: 6937: 6934: 6928: 6925: 6919: 6916: 6910: 6907: 6901: 6898: 6892: 6889: 6883: 6880: 6874: 6871: 6865: 6862: 6853: 6850: 6844: 6841: 6835: 6832: 6826: 6823: 6817: 6814: 6808: 6805: 6799: 6796: 6790: 6787: 6781: 6778: 6772: 6769: 6763: 6760: 6754: 6751: 6745: 6742: 6736: 6733: 6727: 6726:Bradbury, p. 74. 6724: 6715: 6714:Bradbury, p. 71. 6712: 6703: 6700: 6694: 6691: 6685: 6684:Bachrach, p. 76. 6682: 6673: 6670: 6664: 6661: 6655: 6652: 6646: 6643: 6637: 6634: 6628: 6625: 6619: 6616: 6610: 6607: 6601: 6598: 6592: 6589: 6583: 6580: 6574: 6571: 6565: 6562: 6556: 6553: 6547: 6544: 6538: 6535: 6529: 6526: 6520: 6517: 6511: 6508: 6502: 6499: 6493: 6490: 6484: 6481: 6475: 6472: 6466: 6463: 6457: 6454: 6445: 6444:Hodgett, p. 206. 6442: 6436: 6433: 6427: 6424: 6415: 6412: 6406: 6403: 6397: 6394: 6388: 6385: 6379: 6376: 6370: 6367: 6361: 6358: 6352: 6349: 6343: 6340: 6334: 6331: 6322: 6319: 6313: 6310: 6304: 6301: 6295: 6292: 6286: 6283: 6277: 6274: 6268: 6265: 6259: 6256: 6250: 6247: 6241: 6238: 6232: 6229: 6223: 6220: 6214: 6211: 6200: 6197: 6191: 6188: 6182: 6179: 6173: 6170: 6164: 6161: 6155: 6152: 6146: 6143: 6137: 6134: 6128: 6125: 6119: 6116: 6110: 6107: 6101: 6098: 6092: 6089: 6083: 6080: 6074: 6071: 6065: 6062: 6056: 6053: 6047: 6044: 6038: 6035: 6029: 6026: 6020: 6017: 6011: 6008: 6002: 5999: 5993: 5990: 5984: 5981: 5975: 5972: 5966: 5963: 5957: 5954: 5948: 5945: 5939: 5936: 5930: 5927: 5921: 5918: 5912: 5909: 5903: 5900: 5894: 5891: 5885: 5882: 5876: 5873: 5867: 5864: 5858: 5855: 5849: 5846: 5840: 5837: 5828: 5827:Gilchrist, p. 2. 5825: 5819: 5816: 5810: 5807: 5801: 5798: 5792: 5789: 5783: 5780: 5774: 5771: 5765: 5762: 5756: 5755:Fleming, p. 153. 5753: 5747: 5744: 5738: 5737:Fleming, p. 152. 5735: 5726: 5723: 5717: 5714: 5708: 5705: 5696: 5693: 5687: 5684: 5678: 5675: 5669: 5666: 5660: 5657: 5651: 5650:Stenton, p. 194. 5648: 5642: 5639: 5633: 5630: 5624: 5621: 5615: 5612: 5606: 5603: 5594: 5591: 5585: 5582: 5576: 5573: 5567: 5564: 5558: 5555: 5549: 5548:Carpenter, p. 6. 5546: 5540: 5537: 5531: 5530:Carpenter, p. 3. 5528: 5519: 5516: 5510: 5507: 5501: 5500:Carpenter, p. 1. 5498: 5492: 5489: 5483: 5480: 5474: 5471: 5465: 5462: 5456: 5453: 5447: 5444: 5438: 5435: 5429: 5426: 5420: 5417: 5411: 5408: 5402: 5399: 5393: 5390: 5384: 5381: 5375: 5372: 5366: 5363: 5357: 5354: 5348: 5345: 5339: 5336: 5330: 5327: 5321: 5318: 5312: 5309: 5303: 5300: 5294: 5291: 5285: 5282: 5276: 5273: 5267: 5264: 5258: 5255: 5249: 5246: 5240: 5237: 5231: 5228: 5222: 5219: 5213: 5210: 5204: 5201: 5195: 5192: 5186: 5183: 5177: 5174: 5168: 5165: 5159: 5156: 5150: 5147: 5141: 5138: 5132: 5129: 5123: 5120: 5114: 5111: 5105: 5102: 5096: 5093: 5087: 5084: 5078: 5077:Huscroft, p. 95. 5075: 5069: 5066: 5060: 5057: 5051: 5048: 5042: 5039: 5033: 5032:Huscroft, p. 85. 5030: 5024: 5023:Douglas, p. 312. 5021: 5015: 5012: 5006: 5003: 4997: 4994: 4988: 4985: 4979: 4976: 4970: 4967: 4961: 4958: 4952: 4949: 4943: 4940: 4934: 4931: 4925: 4922: 4916: 4913: 4907: 4904: 4898: 4895: 4889: 4886: 4880: 4877: 4871: 4868: 4862: 4859: 4853: 4850: 4844: 4841: 4835: 4832: 4826: 4825:Huscroft, p. 22. 4823: 4817: 4814: 4808: 4805: 4799: 4796: 4790: 4787: 4781: 4778: 4772: 4769: 4760: 4757: 4751: 4748: 4742: 4739: 4733: 4730: 4724: 4721: 4715: 4712: 4701: 4698: 4692: 4689: 4683: 4680: 4674: 4671: 4665: 4662: 4656: 4653: 4647: 4644: 4638: 4635: 4629: 4626: 4620: 4617: 4611: 4608: 4602: 4599: 4593: 4590: 4584: 4581: 4575: 4572: 4566: 4563: 4557: 4554: 4548: 4545: 4539: 4536: 4530: 4527: 4521: 4518: 4512: 4509: 4503: 4500: 4494: 4491: 4485: 4482: 4476: 4473: 4467: 4464: 4458: 4455: 4449: 4446: 4440: 4437: 4431: 4428: 4422: 4417:, David Crouch, 4409: 4403: 4400: 4394: 4391: 4385: 4382: 4376: 4373: 4367: 4364: 4358: 4357:Chibnall, p. 64. 4355: 4349: 4346: 4340: 4337: 4331: 4328: 4322: 4319: 4313: 4310: 4304: 4301: 4295: 4292: 4286: 4283: 4277: 4276:Fleming, p. 315. 4274: 4263: 4260: 4251: 4250:Fleming, p. 314. 4248: 4242: 4239: 4233: 4232:Fleming, p. 270. 4230: 4224: 4221: 4215: 4212: 4206: 4203: 4197: 4194: 4188: 4187:Fleming, p. 271. 4185: 4179: 4178:Fleming, p. 208. 4176: 4170: 4167: 4161: 4160:Fleming, p. 205. 4158: 4149: 4148:Fleming, p. 110. 4146: 4140: 4137: 4131: 4122: 4116: 4109: 4103: 4096: 4090: 4087: 4081: 4078: 4072: 4069: 4054: 4047: 4041: 4033: 4027: 4023: 4017: 4002: 3975:J. R. R. Tolkien 3696:Canterbury Tales 3691:Geoffrey Chaucer 3642:Geoffrey Chaucer 3621:Medieval theatre 3450:motte and bailey 3388:victory at Sluys 3249:Medieval warfare 3225:began using the 2460:Benedictine rule 2323:gods, including 2219:Clifford's Tower 2108:dairy production 2043:Women in society 2029:House of Commons 1555:Peasants' Revolt 1544:the Black Prince 1491:Peasants' Revolt 1385:Stephen of Blois 1314:Norman followers 1265:Harold Godwinson 1214:Edward the Elder 1193:Alfred of Wessex 1136:helmet from the 1079:Common Brittonic 984:Peasants' Revolt 969:loss of Normandy 876:artistic culture 841: 834: 827: 813: 812: 811: 522:Northamptonshire 243:Second World War 148:Late Middle Ages 131:High Middle Ages 78: 68: 50: 49: 28:Harold Godwinson 11784: 11783: 11779: 11778: 11777: 11775: 11774: 11773: 11704: 11703: 11702: 11692: 11687: 11685: 11675: 11670: 11668: 11665: 11661:sister projects 11658:at Knowledge's 11652: 11642: 11640: 11630: 11628: 11618: 11616: 11604: 11596: 11594: 11589: 11576: 11569: 11556: 11530:Royal standards 11480: 11399: 11260: 11207: 11146: 11120: 11084: 11058: 11025: 11001:Elizabethan era 10967: 10953:Norman Conquest 10936: 10888: 10874:English society 10823: 10817: 10787: 10778: 10723:Kingdom of Rus' 10681:Crusader states 10638: 10632: 10549:Crown of Aragon 10535:Kingdom of León 10464:Frankish Empire 10457:Northern Europe 10456: 10447: 10437: 10344: 10338: 10225:Northern Europe 10224: 10216:political units 10215: 10213: 10211: 10205: 10200: 10170: 10164: 10143: 10122: 10103: 10098: 10092: 10071: 10050: 10034:Webster, Leslie 10026: 10005: 9964: 9943: 9922: 9901: 9880: 9859: 9838: 9817: 9796: 9775: 9750: 9729: 9708: 9687: 9666: 9645: 9624: 9603: 9582: 9561: 9540: 9521: 9500: 9479: 9458: 9437: 9416: 9397: 9376: 9355: 9334: 9313: 9292: 9271: 9250: 9208: 9189: 9168: 9147: 9126: 9107: 9086: 9065: 9044: 9021: 9002: 8981: 8960: 8939: 8918: 8897: 8839: 8814: 8793: 8788: 8782: 8761: 8742: 8721: 8702: 8683: 8659: 8638: 8627: 8606: 8585: 8564: 8545: 8521: 8512: 8501: 8480: 8459: 8438: 8417: 8396: 8375: 8345:English Castles 8335: 8318: 8313: 8307: 8286: 8265: 8244: 8223: 8200: 8179: 8158: 8137: 8116: 8097: 8076: 8055: 8034: 8013: 7992: 7973: 7952: 7928: 7907: 7888: 7869: 7848: 7831: 7826: 7820: 7799: 7778: 7757: 7736: 7715: 7696: 7675: 7656: 7637: 7616: 7594: 7573: 7544: 7539: 7534: 7529: 7525: 7520: 7516: 7511: 7507: 7502: 7498: 7493: 7489: 7484: 7480: 7475: 7471: 7466: 7462: 7457: 7453: 7448: 7444: 7439: 7435: 7430: 7426: 7421: 7417: 7412: 7408: 7403: 7399: 7394: 7390: 7385: 7381: 7376: 7372: 7367: 7363: 7358: 7351: 7346: 7342: 7337: 7330: 7325: 7321: 7316: 7312: 7307: 7303: 7298: 7294: 7289: 7285: 7280: 7276: 7271: 7267: 7262: 7258: 7253: 7249: 7244: 7240: 7235: 7231: 7226: 7222: 7217: 7213: 7208: 7204: 7199: 7195: 7190: 7186: 7181: 7177: 7172: 7168: 7163: 7159: 7154: 7150: 7145: 7141: 7136: 7132: 7127: 7123: 7118: 7114: 7109: 7105: 7100: 7096: 7091: 7087: 7082: 7078: 7073: 7069: 7064: 7060: 7055: 7051: 7046: 7042: 7037: 7033: 7028: 7024: 7020:Webster, p. 20. 7019: 7015: 7011:Webster, p. 11. 7010: 7006: 7001: 6997: 6992: 6988: 6983: 6979: 6974: 6967: 6962: 6958: 6953: 6949: 6944: 6940: 6935: 6931: 6926: 6922: 6917: 6913: 6908: 6904: 6899: 6895: 6890: 6886: 6881: 6877: 6872: 6868: 6863: 6856: 6851: 6847: 6842: 6838: 6833: 6829: 6824: 6820: 6815: 6811: 6806: 6802: 6797: 6793: 6788: 6784: 6779: 6775: 6770: 6766: 6761: 6757: 6752: 6748: 6743: 6739: 6734: 6730: 6725: 6718: 6713: 6706: 6701: 6697: 6692: 6688: 6683: 6676: 6671: 6667: 6662: 6658: 6653: 6649: 6644: 6640: 6635: 6631: 6626: 6622: 6617: 6613: 6608: 6604: 6599: 6595: 6590: 6586: 6581: 6577: 6572: 6568: 6563: 6559: 6554: 6550: 6545: 6541: 6536: 6532: 6527: 6523: 6518: 6514: 6509: 6505: 6500: 6496: 6491: 6487: 6482: 6478: 6473: 6469: 6464: 6460: 6455: 6448: 6443: 6439: 6434: 6430: 6425: 6418: 6413: 6409: 6404: 6400: 6395: 6391: 6386: 6382: 6377: 6373: 6368: 6364: 6359: 6355: 6350: 6346: 6341: 6337: 6332: 6325: 6320: 6316: 6311: 6307: 6302: 6298: 6293: 6289: 6284: 6280: 6275: 6271: 6266: 6262: 6257: 6253: 6248: 6244: 6239: 6235: 6230: 6226: 6221: 6217: 6212: 6203: 6198: 6194: 6189: 6185: 6180: 6176: 6171: 6167: 6162: 6158: 6153: 6149: 6144: 6140: 6135: 6131: 6126: 6122: 6117: 6113: 6108: 6104: 6099: 6095: 6090: 6086: 6081: 6077: 6072: 6068: 6063: 6059: 6054: 6050: 6045: 6041: 6036: 6032: 6027: 6023: 6018: 6014: 6009: 6005: 6000: 5996: 5991: 5987: 5982: 5978: 5973: 5969: 5964: 5960: 5955: 5951: 5946: 5942: 5937: 5933: 5928: 5924: 5919: 5915: 5910: 5906: 5901: 5897: 5892: 5888: 5883: 5879: 5874: 5870: 5865: 5861: 5856: 5852: 5847: 5843: 5838: 5831: 5826: 5822: 5817: 5813: 5808: 5804: 5800:Sawyer, p. 140. 5799: 5795: 5790: 5786: 5782:Sawyer, p. 131. 5781: 5777: 5772: 5768: 5763: 5759: 5754: 5750: 5745: 5741: 5736: 5729: 5724: 5720: 5715: 5711: 5706: 5699: 5694: 5690: 5685: 5681: 5676: 5672: 5667: 5663: 5658: 5654: 5649: 5645: 5640: 5636: 5631: 5627: 5622: 5618: 5613: 5609: 5604: 5597: 5592: 5588: 5583: 5579: 5574: 5570: 5565: 5561: 5556: 5552: 5547: 5543: 5538: 5534: 5529: 5522: 5517: 5513: 5509:Fleming, p. 61. 5508: 5504: 5499: 5495: 5490: 5486: 5481: 5477: 5472: 5468: 5463: 5459: 5454: 5450: 5445: 5441: 5436: 5432: 5427: 5423: 5418: 5414: 5409: 5405: 5400: 5396: 5391: 5387: 5382: 5378: 5373: 5369: 5364: 5360: 5355: 5351: 5346: 5342: 5337: 5333: 5328: 5324: 5319: 5315: 5310: 5306: 5301: 5297: 5292: 5288: 5283: 5279: 5274: 5270: 5265: 5261: 5256: 5252: 5247: 5243: 5238: 5234: 5229: 5225: 5220: 5216: 5211: 5207: 5202: 5198: 5193: 5189: 5184: 5180: 5175: 5171: 5166: 5162: 5157: 5153: 5148: 5144: 5139: 5135: 5130: 5126: 5121: 5117: 5112: 5108: 5103: 5099: 5094: 5090: 5085: 5081: 5076: 5072: 5067: 5063: 5058: 5054: 5049: 5045: 5040: 5036: 5031: 5027: 5022: 5018: 5013: 5009: 5004: 5000: 4995: 4991: 4986: 4982: 4977: 4973: 4968: 4964: 4959: 4955: 4950: 4946: 4941: 4937: 4932: 4928: 4923: 4919: 4914: 4910: 4905: 4901: 4896: 4892: 4887: 4883: 4878: 4874: 4869: 4865: 4860: 4856: 4851: 4847: 4842: 4838: 4833: 4829: 4824: 4820: 4815: 4811: 4806: 4802: 4797: 4793: 4788: 4784: 4779: 4775: 4770: 4763: 4758: 4754: 4749: 4745: 4740: 4736: 4731: 4727: 4722: 4718: 4713: 4704: 4699: 4695: 4690: 4686: 4681: 4677: 4672: 4668: 4663: 4659: 4654: 4650: 4645: 4641: 4636: 4632: 4627: 4623: 4618: 4614: 4609: 4605: 4600: 4596: 4591: 4587: 4582: 4578: 4573: 4569: 4564: 4560: 4555: 4551: 4546: 4542: 4537: 4533: 4528: 4524: 4519: 4515: 4510: 4506: 4501: 4497: 4492: 4488: 4483: 4479: 4474: 4470: 4465: 4461: 4456: 4452: 4447: 4443: 4438: 4434: 4429: 4425: 4410: 4406: 4401: 4397: 4392: 4388: 4383: 4379: 4374: 4370: 4365: 4361: 4356: 4352: 4347: 4343: 4338: 4334: 4329: 4325: 4320: 4316: 4311: 4307: 4302: 4298: 4293: 4289: 4284: 4280: 4275: 4266: 4261: 4254: 4249: 4245: 4241:Fleming, p. 221 4240: 4236: 4231: 4227: 4222: 4218: 4213: 4209: 4204: 4200: 4195: 4191: 4186: 4182: 4177: 4173: 4168: 4164: 4159: 4152: 4147: 4143: 4138: 4134: 4123: 4119: 4110: 4106: 4102:(2012), pp. 3-4 4097: 4093: 4088: 4084: 4080:Fleming, p. 24. 4079: 4075: 4070: 4066: 4062: 4057: 4048: 4044: 4034: 4030: 4024: 4020: 4003: 3999: 3995: 3941: 3935: 3849: 3844: 3772: 3764:Main articles: 3762: 3623: 3603:Main articles: 3601: 3588:opus anglicanum 3574:Bayeux Tapestry 3524:created carved 3498: 3492:Anglo-Saxon art 3490:Main articles: 3488: 3483: 3414: 3408:English castles 3406:Main articles: 3404: 3372:English Channel 3348: 3342: 3294:, supported by 3259:Coventry Sallet 3251: 3245: 3240: 3223:Wynkyn de Worde 3196:powered hammers 3180:horizontal mill 3129:experimentation 3086:Arabic numerals 3058: 3050:Main articles: 3048: 2898: 2890:Main articles: 2888: 2749: 2743: 2738: 2639: 2599:Stephen Langton 2591:Theobald of Bec 2565:Synod of Whitby 2533: 2527: 2507:military orders 2422:Fountains Abbey 2415: 2337:Gloucestershire 2282: 2274:Main articles: 2272: 2267: 2261: 2221:in the city of 2212: 2206: 2154:vaulted ceiling 2143: 2137: 2055: 2047:Main articles: 2045: 1973:(including the 1971:knightly orders 1945:symbols of the 1931: 1925: 1832: 1821: 1815: 1809: 1803: 1646:An Anglo-Saxon 1640: 1634: 1629: 1623: 1618: 1487:Richard II 1480: 1474: 1464:. Henry's son, 1438:; his brother, 1389:Empress Matilda 1310:Norman Conquest 1291: 1283:Main articles: 1281: 1269:Harald Hardrada 1245:Sweyn Forkbeard 1047: 1041: 1036: 994:. Nearly 1,500 933:feudal approach 860:medieval period 845: 809: 807: 802: 801: 627: 625:By city or town 617: 616: 562:South Yorkshire 537:Nottinghamshire 532:North Yorkshire 452:Gloucestershire 392:Buckinghamshire 387:City of Bristol 372: 362: 361: 342: 334: 333: 289:English society 279: 271: 270: 269: 248:Postwar Britain 238:Interwar period 233:First World War 167:Elizabethan era 136:Norman Conquest 104:Medieval period 88: 66: 59: 24:Bayeux Tapestry 12: 11: 5: 11782: 11772: 11771: 11766: 11761: 11756: 11751: 11746: 11741: 11736: 11731: 11726: 11721: 11716: 11701: 11700: 11683: 11654: 11651: 11650: 11638: 11626: 11614: 11591: 11590: 11588: 11587: 11582: 11575: 11574: 11566: 11565: 11562: 11561: 11558: 11557: 11555: 11554: 11549: 11548: 11547: 11537: 11532: 11527: 11522: 11517: 11516: 11515: 11505: 11500: 11494: 11492: 11486: 11485: 11482: 11481: 11479: 11478: 11473: 11472: 11471: 11466: 11456: 11455: 11454: 11449: 11439: 11438: 11437: 11432: 11422: 11421: 11420: 11409: 11407: 11401: 11400: 11398: 11397: 11392: 11387: 11386: 11385: 11375: 11374: 11373: 11363: 11358: 11356:Middle England 11353: 11348: 11343: 11338: 11333: 11328: 11323: 11318: 11313: 11308: 11303: 11298: 11293: 11288: 11282: 11272: 11266: 11265: 11262: 11261: 11259: 11258: 11253: 11248: 11243: 11238: 11237: 11236: 11225: 11219: 11213: 11212: 11209: 11208: 11206: 11205: 11200: 11195: 11190: 11185: 11180: 11175: 11170: 11164: 11158: 11152: 11151: 11148: 11147: 11145: 11144: 11139: 11134: 11128: 11126: 11122: 11121: 11119: 11118: 11113: 11108: 11103: 11098: 11092: 11090: 11089:Prior Kingdoms 11086: 11085: 11083: 11082: 11077: 11072: 11066: 11064: 11060: 11059: 11057: 11056: 11051: 11046: 11041: 11035: 11033: 11027: 11026: 11024: 11023: 11018: 11013: 11008: 11003: 10998: 10993: 10988: 10983: 10977: 10975: 10969: 10968: 10966: 10965: 10960: 10958:Angevin Empire 10955: 10950: 10944: 10942: 10938: 10937: 10935: 10934: 10933: 10932: 10927: 10922: 10912: 10907: 10902: 10896: 10894: 10890: 10889: 10887: 10886: 10884:United Kingdom 10881: 10876: 10871: 10866: 10861: 10856: 10851: 10846: 10840: 10838: 10831: 10825: 10824: 10822: articles 10816: 10815: 10808: 10801: 10793: 10784: 10783: 10780: 10779: 10777: 10776: 10749: 10734:Rus' Khaganate 10730: 10715: 10704: 10678: 10663: 10662: 10661: 10656: 10648: 10642: 10640: 10634: 10633: 10631: 10630: 10625: 10599: 10594: 10589: 10584: 10573: 10568: 10546: 10524: 10514: 10509: 10504: 10499: 10494: 10489: 10484: 10466: 10460: 10458: 10449: 10443: 10442: 10439: 10438: 10436: 10435: 10416: 10411: 10406: 10401: 10390: 10379: 10374: 10369: 10364: 10359: 10354: 10348: 10346: 10340: 10339: 10337: 10336: 10318: 10313: 10308: 10290: 10285: 10267: 10262: 10257: 10239: 10234: 10228: 10226: 10217: 10207: 10206: 10199: 10198: 10191: 10184: 10176: 10169: 10168: 10162: 10147: 10141: 10126: 10120: 10104: 10102: 10101:Historiography 10099: 10097: 10096: 10090: 10075: 10069: 10054: 10048: 10030: 10024: 10009: 10003: 9985: 9968: 9962: 9947: 9941: 9926: 9920: 9905: 9899: 9884: 9878: 9863: 9857: 9842: 9836: 9821: 9815: 9800: 9794: 9779: 9773: 9754: 9748: 9733: 9727: 9712: 9706: 9691: 9685: 9670: 9664: 9649: 9643: 9628: 9622: 9607: 9601: 9586: 9580: 9565: 9559: 9544: 9538: 9525: 9519: 9504: 9498: 9483: 9477: 9462: 9456: 9441: 9435: 9420: 9414: 9401: 9395: 9380: 9374: 9359: 9353: 9338: 9332: 9317: 9311: 9296: 9290: 9275: 9269: 9254: 9248: 9235: 9212: 9206: 9193: 9187: 9172: 9166: 9151: 9145: 9130: 9124: 9111: 9105: 9090: 9084: 9069: 9063: 9048: 9042: 9025: 9019: 9006: 9000: 8985: 8979: 8964: 8958: 8943: 8937: 8922: 8916: 8901: 8895: 8880: 8860:10.1086/385589 8843: 8837: 8823:Linehan, Peter 8818: 8812: 8794: 8792: 8789: 8787: 8786: 8780: 8765: 8759: 8746: 8740: 8725: 8719: 8706: 8700: 8687: 8681: 8666: 8631: 8625: 8610: 8604: 8589: 8583: 8568: 8562: 8549: 8543: 8528: 8519:(21): 209–229. 8505: 8499: 8484: 8478: 8463: 8457: 8442: 8436: 8421: 8415: 8400: 8394: 8379: 8373: 8358: 8339: 8333: 8319: 8317: 8314: 8312: 8311: 8305: 8290: 8284: 8269: 8263: 8248: 8242: 8227: 8221: 8204: 8198: 8183: 8177: 8162: 8156: 8141: 8135: 8120: 8114: 8101: 8095: 8080: 8074: 8059: 8053: 8038: 8032: 8017: 8011: 7996: 7990: 7977: 7971: 7956: 7950: 7932: 7926: 7911: 7905: 7892: 7886: 7873: 7867: 7852: 7846: 7832: 7830: 7827: 7825: 7824: 7818: 7803: 7797: 7782: 7776: 7761: 7755: 7740: 7734: 7719: 7713: 7700: 7694: 7679: 7673: 7660: 7654: 7641: 7635: 7620: 7614: 7602:Fleming, Robin 7598: 7592: 7577: 7571: 7556: 7545: 7543: 7540: 7538: 7535: 7533: 7532: 7523: 7514: 7505: 7496: 7487: 7478: 7469: 7467:Rubin, p. 325. 7460: 7451: 7442: 7433: 7424: 7415: 7406: 7397: 7388: 7379: 7370: 7361: 7349: 7340: 7338:Myers, p. 105. 7328: 7319: 7310: 7301: 7292: 7283: 7274: 7265: 7256: 7247: 7238: 7229: 7220: 7211: 7209:Myers, p. 186. 7202: 7193: 7191:Myers, p. 197. 7184: 7175: 7166: 7157: 7148: 7139: 7130: 7121: 7112: 7103: 7094: 7085: 7076: 7067: 7065:Myers, p. 107. 7058: 7049: 7040: 7031: 7022: 7013: 7004: 6995: 6986: 6977: 6965: 6956: 6947: 6938: 6929: 6920: 6911: 6902: 6900:Hulme, p. 213. 6893: 6884: 6875: 6866: 6854: 6845: 6836: 6827: 6818: 6809: 6800: 6791: 6782: 6773: 6764: 6755: 6746: 6737: 6728: 6716: 6704: 6695: 6686: 6674: 6665: 6656: 6654:Myers, p. 250. 6647: 6638: 6629: 6620: 6611: 6602: 6593: 6584: 6575: 6566: 6557: 6548: 6539: 6530: 6521: 6512: 6503: 6501:Geddes, p. 181 6494: 6485: 6483:Bailey, p. 53. 6476: 6467: 6458: 6446: 6437: 6428: 6416: 6407: 6398: 6389: 6380: 6371: 6362: 6353: 6344: 6335: 6323: 6314: 6305: 6296: 6287: 6278: 6276:Cowie, p. 194. 6269: 6260: 6251: 6242: 6233: 6224: 6215: 6201: 6192: 6190:Cantor, p. 22. 6183: 6174: 6165: 6156: 6147: 6138: 6129: 6120: 6111: 6102: 6093: 6084: 6075: 6066: 6057: 6055:Rubin, p. 154. 6048: 6039: 6030: 6021: 6012: 6003: 5994: 5985: 5976: 5967: 5958: 5949: 5940: 5931: 5922: 5913: 5904: 5895: 5886: 5884:Burton, p. 28. 5877: 5868: 5859: 5850: 5841: 5829: 5820: 5811: 5809:Nilson, p. 70. 5802: 5793: 5784: 5775: 5766: 5757: 5748: 5739: 5727: 5718: 5709: 5697: 5688: 5686:Stacey, p. 44. 5679: 5670: 5661: 5652: 5643: 5634: 5625: 5616: 5607: 5595: 5593:Rubin, p. 106. 5586: 5577: 5568: 5559: 5550: 5541: 5532: 5520: 5511: 5502: 5493: 5484: 5475: 5466: 5457: 5448: 5439: 5430: 5421: 5412: 5403: 5394: 5385: 5376: 5367: 5358: 5349: 5340: 5331: 5322: 5313: 5311:Hicks, p. 269. 5304: 5295: 5286: 5277: 5268: 5259: 5250: 5241: 5232: 5223: 5214: 5205: 5196: 5187: 5178: 5169: 5160: 5151: 5142: 5133: 5124: 5115: 5106: 5097: 5088: 5079: 5070: 5061: 5052: 5043: 5034: 5025: 5016: 5007: 4998: 4989: 4980: 4971: 4962: 4953: 4944: 4935: 4926: 4917: 4908: 4899: 4890: 4881: 4872: 4863: 4854: 4845: 4836: 4827: 4818: 4809: 4800: 4791: 4782: 4773: 4761: 4752: 4743: 4734: 4725: 4716: 4702: 4693: 4684: 4675: 4666: 4657: 4648: 4639: 4630: 4621: 4612: 4603: 4594: 4585: 4576: 4567: 4558: 4549: 4540: 4531: 4522: 4513: 4504: 4495: 4486: 4477: 4468: 4459: 4450: 4441: 4432: 4423: 4404: 4395: 4386: 4377: 4368: 4359: 4350: 4341: 4332: 4323: 4314: 4305: 4296: 4287: 4278: 4264: 4252: 4243: 4234: 4225: 4216: 4207: 4198: 4189: 4180: 4171: 4162: 4150: 4141: 4132: 4130:(2004), p. 205 4117: 4104: 4091: 4082: 4073: 4063: 4061: 4058: 4056: 4055: 4042: 4028: 4018: 3996: 3994: 3991: 3983:living history 3977:'s stories of 3937:Main article: 3934: 3931: 3898:neo-positivist 3891:British Empire 3848: 3847:Historiography 3845: 3843: 3840: 3761: 3758: 3687:Middle English 3600: 3597: 3542:drinking horns 3506:shoulder clasp 3487: 3484: 3482: 3479: 3403: 3402:Fortifications 3400: 3396:French attacks 3344:Main article: 3341: 3338: 3247:Main article: 3244: 3241: 3239: 3236: 3227:printing press 3219:William Caxton 3151:published the 3137:Ockham's Razor 3066:Rievaulx Abbey 3047: 3044: 3011:depleted soils 3007:overpopulation 2955:market economy 2887: 2884: 2844:Little Ice Age 2825:Watling Street 2745:Main article: 2742: 2739: 2737: 2734: 2721:Fifth Crusades 2638: 2635: 2609:, a member of 2529:Main article: 2526: 2523: 2451:secular canons 2414: 2411: 2306:cross, c. 1000 2271: 2268: 2263:Main article: 2260: 2257: 2208:Main article: 2205: 2202: 2162:Windsor Castle 2151:English Gothic 2139:Main article: 2136: 2133: 2044: 2041: 2025:House of Lords 1927:Main article: 1924: 1921: 1805:Main article: 1802: 1799: 1768:hundred courts 1636:Main article: 1633: 1630: 1625:Main article: 1622: 1619: 1617: 1614: 1524:Roger Mortimer 1476:Main article: 1473: 1470: 1420:Angevin Empire 1412:Count of Anjou 1357:or his cousin 1341:to create new 1280: 1277: 1162:Offa of Mercia 1158:defensive dyke 1115:villae regales 1077:switched from 1071:swiftly spread 1043:Main article: 1040: 1037: 1035: 1032: 847: 846: 844: 843: 836: 829: 821: 818: 817: 804: 803: 800: 799: 794: 789: 784: 779: 774: 769: 764: 759: 754: 749: 744: 739: 734: 729: 724: 719: 714: 709: 704: 699: 694: 689: 684: 679: 674: 669: 664: 659: 654: 649: 644: 639: 634: 628: 623: 622: 619: 618: 615: 614: 612:Worcestershire 609: 604: 602:West Yorkshire 599: 594: 589: 584: 579: 574: 569: 564: 559: 554: 549: 544: 539: 534: 529: 527:Northumberland 524: 519: 514: 509: 507:City of London 504: 499: 497:Leicestershire 494: 489: 484: 479: 474: 469: 464: 459: 457:Greater London 454: 449: 444: 439: 434: 429: 424: 419: 414: 409: 404: 399: 397:Cambridgeshire 394: 389: 384: 379: 373: 368: 367: 364: 363: 360: 359: 357:United Kingdom 354: 349: 343: 340: 339: 336: 335: 332: 331: 326: 321: 316: 311: 306: 301: 296: 291: 286: 280: 277: 276: 273: 272: 268: 267: 262: 257: 256: 255: 253:Social history 245: 240: 235: 230: 225: 220: 219: 218: 208: 207: 206: 201: 196: 191: 186: 176: 175: 174: 169: 159: 158: 157: 156: 155: 145: 144: 143: 138: 128: 127: 126: 116: 111: 101: 96: 90: 89: 84: 83: 80: 79: 71: 70: 61: 60: 53: 36:the Apocalypse 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 11781: 11770: 11767: 11765: 11762: 11760: 11757: 11755: 11752: 11750: 11747: 11745: 11742: 11740: 11737: 11735: 11732: 11730: 11727: 11725: 11722: 11720: 11717: 11715: 11712: 11711: 11709: 11698:from Wikidata 11697: 11696: 11684: 11680: 11679: 11667: 11666: 11663: 11657: 11649: 11648:Great Britain 11639: 11637: 11627: 11625: 11615: 11613: 11608: 11603: 11602: 11599: 11586: 11583: 11581: 11578: 11577: 11572: 11568: 11567: 11563: 11553: 11550: 11546: 11543: 11542: 11541: 11538: 11536: 11533: 11531: 11528: 11526: 11523: 11521: 11518: 11514: 11513:national flag 11511: 11510: 11509: 11506: 11504: 11501: 11499: 11496: 11495: 11493: 11491: 11487: 11477: 11474: 11470: 11469:national team 11467: 11465: 11462: 11461: 11460: 11457: 11453: 11452:national team 11450: 11448: 11445: 11444: 11443: 11440: 11436: 11435:national team 11433: 11431: 11428: 11427: 11426: 11423: 11419: 11418:national team 11416: 11415: 11414: 11411: 11410: 11408: 11406: 11402: 11396: 11393: 11391: 11388: 11384: 11381: 11380: 11379: 11376: 11372: 11369: 11368: 11367: 11364: 11362: 11359: 11357: 11354: 11352: 11349: 11347: 11344: 11342: 11339: 11337: 11334: 11332: 11329: 11327: 11324: 11322: 11319: 11317: 11314: 11312: 11309: 11307: 11304: 11302: 11299: 11297: 11294: 11292: 11289: 11287: 11286:Afternoon tea 11284: 11283: 11280: 11276: 11273: 11271: 11267: 11257: 11254: 11252: 11249: 11247: 11244: 11242: 11239: 11235: 11232: 11231: 11230: 11227: 11226: 11223: 11220: 11218: 11214: 11204: 11201: 11199: 11196: 11194: 11191: 11189: 11186: 11184: 11181: 11179: 11176: 11174: 11171: 11169: 11166: 11165: 11162: 11159: 11157: 11153: 11143: 11142:House of York 11140: 11138: 11135: 11133: 11130: 11129: 11127: 11123: 11117: 11114: 11112: 11109: 11107: 11104: 11102: 11099: 11097: 11094: 11093: 11091: 11087: 11081: 11078: 11076: 11073: 11071: 11068: 11067: 11065: 11061: 11055: 11052: 11050: 11049:Edwardian era 11047: 11045: 11044:Victorian era 11042: 11040: 11037: 11036: 11034: 11032: 11028: 11022: 11019: 11017: 11014: 11012: 11009: 11007: 11004: 11002: 10999: 10997: 10994: 10992: 10989: 10987: 10986:Stuart period 10984: 10982: 10979: 10978: 10976: 10974: 10970: 10964: 10961: 10959: 10956: 10954: 10951: 10949: 10946: 10945: 10943: 10939: 10931: 10928: 10926: 10923: 10921: 10918: 10917: 10916: 10913: 10911: 10908: 10906: 10905:Roman Britain 10903: 10901: 10898: 10897: 10895: 10891: 10885: 10882: 10880: 10879:British Isles 10877: 10875: 10872: 10870: 10867: 10865: 10862: 10860: 10857: 10855: 10852: 10850: 10847: 10845: 10842: 10841: 10839: 10835: 10832: 10830: 10826: 10821: 10814: 10809: 10807: 10802: 10800: 10795: 10794: 10791: 10774: 10770: 10766: 10762: 10758: 10754: 10750: 10747: 10743: 10739: 10735: 10731: 10728: 10724: 10720: 10716: 10713: 10709: 10705: 10702: 10698: 10694: 10690: 10686: 10682: 10679: 10676: 10672: 10668: 10664: 10660: 10657: 10655: 10652: 10651: 10649: 10647: 10644: 10643: 10641: 10639:and Near East 10635: 10629: 10626: 10623: 10619: 10615: 10611: 10607: 10603: 10600: 10598: 10595: 10593: 10590: 10588: 10585: 10582: 10578: 10574: 10572: 10569: 10566: 10562: 10558: 10554: 10550: 10547: 10544: 10540: 10536: 10532: 10528: 10525: 10522: 10518: 10515: 10513: 10510: 10508: 10505: 10503: 10500: 10498: 10495: 10493: 10490: 10488: 10485: 10482: 10478: 10474: 10470: 10467: 10465: 10462: 10461: 10459: 10453: 10450: 10444: 10433: 10429: 10425: 10421: 10417: 10415: 10412: 10410: 10407: 10405: 10402: 10399: 10395: 10391: 10388: 10384: 10380: 10378: 10375: 10373: 10370: 10368: 10365: 10363: 10360: 10358: 10355: 10353: 10350: 10349: 10347: 10345:and Near East 10341: 10334: 10330: 10326: 10322: 10319: 10317: 10314: 10312: 10309: 10306: 10302: 10298: 10294: 10291: 10289: 10286: 10283: 10279: 10275: 10271: 10268: 10266: 10263: 10261: 10258: 10255: 10251: 10247: 10243: 10240: 10238: 10235: 10233: 10230: 10229: 10227: 10221: 10218: 10208: 10204: 10197: 10192: 10190: 10185: 10183: 10178: 10177: 10174: 10165: 10159: 10155: 10154: 10148: 10144: 10138: 10134: 10133: 10127: 10123: 10117: 10113: 10112: 10106: 10105: 10093: 10087: 10083: 10082: 10076: 10072: 10066: 10062: 10061: 10055: 10051: 10045: 10041: 10040: 10035: 10031: 10027: 10021: 10017: 10016: 10010: 10006: 10000: 9996: 9995: 9990: 9986: 9982: 9978: 9974: 9969: 9965: 9959: 9955: 9954: 9948: 9944: 9938: 9934: 9933: 9927: 9923: 9917: 9913: 9912: 9906: 9902: 9896: 9892: 9891: 9885: 9881: 9875: 9871: 9870: 9864: 9860: 9854: 9850: 9849: 9843: 9839: 9833: 9829: 9828: 9822: 9818: 9816:9781843831259 9812: 9808: 9807: 9801: 9797: 9795:0-85115-327-5 9791: 9787: 9786: 9780: 9776: 9770: 9766: 9765: 9760: 9755: 9751: 9745: 9741: 9740: 9734: 9730: 9724: 9720: 9719: 9713: 9709: 9703: 9699: 9698: 9692: 9688: 9682: 9678: 9677: 9671: 9667: 9661: 9657: 9656: 9650: 9646: 9640: 9636: 9635: 9629: 9625: 9619: 9615: 9614: 9608: 9604: 9598: 9594: 9593: 9587: 9583: 9577: 9573: 9572: 9566: 9562: 9556: 9552: 9551: 9545: 9541: 9539:0-7190-6305-1 9535: 9531: 9526: 9522: 9516: 9512: 9511: 9505: 9501: 9495: 9491: 9490: 9484: 9480: 9478:0-85115-327-5 9474: 9470: 9469: 9463: 9459: 9457:0-85115-327-5 9453: 9449: 9448: 9442: 9438: 9432: 9428: 9427: 9421: 9417: 9411: 9407: 9402: 9398: 9392: 9388: 9387: 9381: 9377: 9371: 9367: 9366: 9360: 9356: 9350: 9346: 9345: 9339: 9335: 9329: 9325: 9324: 9318: 9314: 9308: 9304: 9303: 9297: 9293: 9287: 9283: 9282: 9276: 9272: 9266: 9262: 9261: 9255: 9251: 9245: 9241: 9236: 9232: 9228: 9224: 9220: 9219: 9213: 9209: 9203: 9199: 9194: 9190: 9184: 9180: 9179: 9173: 9169: 9163: 9159: 9158: 9152: 9148: 9142: 9138: 9137: 9131: 9127: 9121: 9117: 9112: 9108: 9102: 9098: 9097: 9091: 9087: 9081: 9077: 9076: 9070: 9066: 9060: 9056: 9055: 9049: 9045: 9039: 9034: 9033: 9026: 9022: 9016: 9012: 9007: 9003: 8997: 8993: 8992: 8986: 8982: 8976: 8972: 8971: 8965: 8961: 8955: 8951: 8950: 8949:Thomas Becket 8944: 8940: 8934: 8930: 8929: 8923: 8919: 8913: 8909: 8908: 8902: 8898: 8892: 8888: 8887: 8881: 8877: 8873: 8869: 8865: 8861: 8857: 8853: 8849: 8844: 8840: 8834: 8830: 8829: 8824: 8819: 8815: 8813:0-415-92715-3 8809: 8804: 8803: 8796: 8795: 8783: 8777: 8773: 8772: 8766: 8762: 8756: 8752: 8747: 8743: 8737: 8733: 8732: 8726: 8722: 8716: 8712: 8707: 8703: 8697: 8693: 8688: 8684: 8678: 8674: 8673: 8667: 8663: 8656: 8652: 8648: 8644: 8637: 8632: 8628: 8622: 8618: 8617: 8611: 8607: 8601: 8597: 8596: 8590: 8586: 8580: 8576: 8575: 8569: 8565: 8559: 8555: 8550: 8546: 8544:0-9545575-2-2 8540: 8536: 8535: 8529: 8525: 8518: 8511: 8506: 8502: 8496: 8492: 8491: 8485: 8481: 8475: 8471: 8470: 8464: 8460: 8454: 8450: 8449: 8443: 8439: 8433: 8429: 8428: 8422: 8418: 8412: 8408: 8407: 8401: 8397: 8395:1-85074-354-1 8391: 8387: 8386: 8380: 8376: 8370: 8366: 8365: 8359: 8355: 8351: 8347: 8346: 8340: 8336: 8334:0-500-27128-3 8330: 8326: 8321: 8320: 8308: 8302: 8298: 8297: 8291: 8287: 8285:0-413-45520-3 8281: 8277: 8276: 8270: 8266: 8260: 8256: 8255: 8249: 8245: 8239: 8235: 8234: 8228: 8224: 8218: 8213: 8212: 8205: 8201: 8195: 8191: 8190: 8184: 8180: 8174: 8170: 8169: 8163: 8159: 8153: 8149: 8148: 8142: 8138: 8136:0-85115-327-5 8132: 8128: 8127: 8121: 8117: 8111: 8107: 8102: 8098: 8092: 8088: 8087: 8081: 8077: 8071: 8067: 8066: 8060: 8056: 8050: 8046: 8045: 8039: 8035: 8029: 8025: 8024: 8018: 8014: 8008: 8004: 8003: 7997: 7993: 7991:1-84119-843-9 7987: 7983: 7978: 7974: 7972:0-582-48727-7 7968: 7964: 7963: 7957: 7953: 7947: 7943: 7942: 7937: 7933: 7929: 7923: 7919: 7918: 7912: 7908: 7902: 7898: 7893: 7889: 7883: 7879: 7874: 7870: 7864: 7860: 7859: 7853: 7849: 7843: 7839: 7834: 7833: 7821: 7819:0-14-020245-5 7815: 7811: 7810: 7804: 7800: 7794: 7790: 7789: 7783: 7779: 7777:0-14-020252-8 7773: 7769: 7768: 7762: 7758: 7752: 7748: 7747: 7741: 7737: 7735:0-14-020234-X 7731: 7727: 7726: 7720: 7716: 7710: 7706: 7701: 7697: 7695:0-582-84882-2 7691: 7687: 7686: 7680: 7676: 7670: 7666: 7661: 7657: 7651: 7647: 7642: 7638: 7632: 7628: 7627: 7621: 7617: 7611: 7607: 7603: 7599: 7595: 7589: 7585: 7584: 7578: 7574: 7568: 7564: 7563: 7557: 7555: 7551: 7547: 7546: 7527: 7518: 7509: 7500: 7491: 7482: 7473: 7464: 7455: 7446: 7437: 7428: 7419: 7410: 7401: 7392: 7383: 7374: 7365: 7359:Emery, p. 24. 7356: 7354: 7344: 7335: 7333: 7323: 7314: 7305: 7296: 7287: 7278: 7269: 7260: 7251: 7242: 7233: 7224: 7218:Myers, p. 97. 7215: 7206: 7197: 7188: 7179: 7170: 7161: 7152: 7143: 7134: 7125: 7116: 7107: 7098: 7089: 7083:Myers, p,255. 7080: 7071: 7062: 7053: 7044: 7035: 7026: 7017: 7008: 6999: 6990: 6981: 6972: 6970: 6960: 6951: 6942: 6933: 6924: 6915: 6906: 6897: 6888: 6879: 6870: 6861: 6859: 6849: 6840: 6831: 6822: 6813: 6804: 6795: 6786: 6777: 6768: 6759: 6750: 6741: 6732: 6723: 6721: 6711: 6709: 6699: 6690: 6681: 6679: 6669: 6660: 6651: 6642: 6633: 6624: 6615: 6606: 6597: 6588: 6582:Myers, p. 99. 6579: 6570: 6561: 6552: 6543: 6534: 6528:Hill, p. 245. 6525: 6516: 6507: 6498: 6489: 6480: 6471: 6462: 6453: 6451: 6441: 6432: 6423: 6421: 6411: 6402: 6393: 6384: 6375: 6366: 6357: 6348: 6339: 6330: 6328: 6318: 6309: 6300: 6291: 6282: 6273: 6264: 6255: 6246: 6237: 6228: 6219: 6210: 6208: 6206: 6196: 6187: 6178: 6169: 6160: 6151: 6142: 6133: 6124: 6115: 6106: 6097: 6088: 6079: 6070: 6061: 6052: 6043: 6034: 6025: 6016: 6007: 5998: 5989: 5980: 5971: 5962: 5953: 5944: 5935: 5926: 5917: 5908: 5899: 5890: 5881: 5872: 5863: 5854: 5845: 5836: 5834: 5824: 5815: 5806: 5797: 5788: 5779: 5770: 5761: 5752: 5743: 5734: 5732: 5722: 5713: 5704: 5702: 5692: 5683: 5674: 5665: 5656: 5647: 5638: 5629: 5620: 5611: 5602: 5600: 5590: 5581: 5572: 5563: 5554: 5545: 5536: 5527: 5525: 5515: 5506: 5497: 5488: 5479: 5470: 5461: 5452: 5443: 5434: 5425: 5416: 5407: 5398: 5389: 5380: 5371: 5362: 5356:Mate, pp. 78. 5353: 5344: 5335: 5326: 5317: 5308: 5299: 5290: 5281: 5272: 5266:Coss, p. 102. 5263: 5254: 5245: 5236: 5230:Jones, p. 21. 5227: 5221:Jones, p. 15. 5218: 5209: 5200: 5191: 5182: 5173: 5164: 5155: 5146: 5137: 5128: 5119: 5110: 5101: 5092: 5083: 5074: 5065: 5056: 5047: 5038: 5029: 5020: 5011: 5002: 4993: 4984: 4975: 4966: 4957: 4948: 4939: 4930: 4921: 4912: 4903: 4894: 4885: 4876: 4867: 4858: 4849: 4840: 4831: 4822: 4813: 4804: 4795: 4786: 4777: 4768: 4766: 4756: 4747: 4738: 4729: 4720: 4711: 4709: 4707: 4697: 4688: 4679: 4670: 4661: 4652: 4643: 4634: 4625: 4616: 4607: 4598: 4589: 4580: 4571: 4562: 4553: 4544: 4535: 4526: 4517: 4508: 4499: 4490: 4481: 4472: 4463: 4454: 4445: 4436: 4427: 4420: 4416: 4415: 4408: 4399: 4390: 4381: 4372: 4363: 4354: 4345: 4336: 4327: 4318: 4309: 4300: 4291: 4282: 4273: 4271: 4269: 4259: 4257: 4247: 4238: 4229: 4220: 4211: 4202: 4193: 4184: 4175: 4166: 4157: 4155: 4145: 4136: 4129: 4128: 4121: 4114: 4108: 4101: 4095: 4086: 4077: 4068: 4064: 4052: 4046: 4038: 4032: 4022: 4015: 4011: 4007: 4001: 3997: 3990: 3988: 3984: 3980: 3976: 3972: 3968: 3964: 3957: 3953: 3949: 3948:Re-enactments 3945: 3940: 3930: 3928: 3924: 3920: 3915: 3911: 3907: 3903: 3899: 3894: 3892: 3888: 3884: 3880: 3879:Domesday Book 3876: 3875:Edward Gibbon 3872: 3864: 3860: 3859: 3858:Domesday Book 3853: 3839: 3835: 3833: 3829: 3825: 3821: 3817: 3811: 3808: 3804: 3800: 3796: 3792: 3784: 3781: 3776: 3771: 3767: 3757: 3754: 3753:Miracle plays 3750: 3746: 3745: 3740: 3735: 3731: 3727: 3723: 3719: 3715: 3710: 3708: 3707: 3702: 3701:Thomas Malory 3698: 3697: 3692: 3688: 3683: 3679: 3673: 3671: 3670: 3665: 3661: 3660: 3655: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3635: 3632: 3627: 3622: 3618: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3596: 3594: 3590: 3589: 3584: 3579: 3578:Stained glass 3575: 3569: 3567: 3563: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3547: 3543: 3539: 3535: 3531: 3527: 3518: 3515: 3511: 3507: 3502: 3497: 3493: 3478: 3475: 3469: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3446: 3444: 3440: 3431: 3427: 3423: 3418: 3413: 3409: 3399: 3397: 3393: 3389: 3385: 3381: 3377: 3373: 3369: 3364: 3357: 3352: 3347: 3337: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3321: 3320:familia regis 3316: 3313: 3309: 3308:familia regis 3305: 3301: 3297: 3293: 3288: 3283: 3281: 3276: 3272: 3268: 3260: 3255: 3250: 3235: 3233: 3228: 3224: 3220: 3216: 3212: 3209: 3205: 3204:blast furnace 3201: 3197: 3193: 3192:fulling mills 3189: 3185: 3184:vertical mill 3181: 3176: 3174: 3170: 3166: 3165: 3160: 3159: 3158:Polychronicon 3154: 3150: 3146: 3142: 3138: 3134: 3130: 3126: 3122: 3118: 3114: 3109: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3071: 3067: 3062: 3057: 3053: 3043: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3024: 3019: 3016: 3012: 3008: 3003: 3001: 2997: 2993: 2988: 2987:charter fairs 2984: 2980: 2976: 2972: 2968: 2962: 2960: 2956: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2907: 2902: 2897: 2893: 2883: 2881: 2877: 2873: 2869: 2865: 2861: 2857: 2853: 2852:wood pastures 2847: 2845: 2841: 2837: 2832: 2830: 2826: 2822: 2821:Ermine Street 2818: 2814: 2809: 2805: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2758: 2753: 2748: 2733: 2730: 2726: 2722: 2718: 2714: 2710: 2709:First Crusade 2706: 2702: 2697: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2673: 2671: 2667: 2662: 2656: 2652: 2648: 2643: 2634: 2632: 2628: 2624: 2620: 2616: 2612: 2608: 2607:John Wycliffe 2603: 2600: 2596: 2595:Thomas Becket 2592: 2588: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2569: 2566: 2562: 2558: 2554: 2550: 2542: 2537: 2532: 2522: 2520: 2516: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2473: 2472:Cluniac order 2468: 2464: 2461: 2456: 2452: 2448: 2444: 2440: 2436: 2427: 2423: 2419: 2410: 2408: 2404: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2384: 2379: 2377: 2376:Isle of Wight 2373: 2369: 2365: 2361: 2357: 2353: 2349: 2344: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2322: 2317: 2312: 2305: 2301: 2298: 2294: 2291: 2286: 2281: 2277: 2266: 2256: 2254: 2249: 2245: 2241: 2237: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2211: 2201: 2199: 2194: 2193:Celtic fringe 2190: 2185: 2182: 2181:Norman French 2177: 2175: 2171: 2163: 2159: 2155: 2152: 2147: 2142: 2132: 2129: 2125: 2121: 2117: 2111: 2109: 2105: 2100: 2094: 2092: 2088: 2082: 2080: 2076: 2068: 2064: 2059: 2054: 2050: 2040: 2038: 2034: 2030: 2026: 2022: 2016: 2013: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1996: 1991: 1986: 1984: 1980: 1976: 1972: 1968: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1948: 1944: 1940: 1935: 1930: 1920: 1916: 1914: 1910: 1906: 1902: 1899: 1895: 1894:legal reforms 1891: 1890: 1889:familia regis 1885: 1880: 1878: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1857:feudal system 1853: 1851: 1850:Domesday Book 1847: 1839: 1835: 1830: 1825: 1820: 1814: 1808: 1798: 1796: 1795: 1790: 1786: 1781: 1777: 1773: 1769: 1765: 1759: 1757: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1716: 1710: 1708: 1703: 1699: 1694: 1693:primogeniture 1689: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1678: 1673: 1672: 1667: 1666: 1660: 1653: 1649: 1644: 1639: 1628: 1613: 1611: 1610:Tudor dynasty 1607: 1603: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1574: 1572: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1547: 1545: 1541: 1536: 1531: 1529: 1525: 1521: 1517: 1516:Despenser War 1513: 1509: 1505: 1501: 1492: 1488: 1484: 1479: 1469: 1467: 1463: 1459: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1446: 1441: 1437: 1436:Third Crusade 1432: 1430: 1425: 1421: 1417: 1413: 1409: 1404: 1402: 1398: 1394: 1390: 1386: 1382: 1381: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1347: 1344: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1328: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1300: 1295: 1290: 1286: 1276: 1274: 1270: 1266: 1262: 1261:Godwin family 1258: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1238: 1233: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1206: 1201: 1196: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1175: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1159: 1155: 1151: 1147: 1139: 1135: 1130: 1126: 1124: 1123:the Heptarchy 1120: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1100: 1096: 1092: 1088: 1084: 1083:British Latin 1080: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1059:local economy 1056: 1052: 1046: 1031: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1008:French throne 1005: 1001: 997: 993: 989: 985: 981: 977: 972: 970: 966: 962: 958: 954: 950: 946: 942: 938: 934: 930: 926: 922: 917: 915: 911: 907: 903: 899: 895: 891: 890: 885: 881: 877: 873: 869: 865: 861: 857: 854:concerns the 853: 842: 837: 835: 830: 828: 823: 822: 820: 819: 816: 806: 805: 798: 795: 793: 790: 788: 785: 783: 780: 778: 775: 773: 770: 768: 765: 763: 760: 758: 755: 753: 750: 748: 745: 743: 740: 738: 735: 733: 730: 728: 725: 723: 720: 718: 715: 713: 712:Milton Keynes 710: 708: 705: 703: 700: 698: 695: 693: 690: 688: 685: 683: 680: 678: 675: 673: 670: 668: 665: 663: 660: 658: 655: 653: 650: 648: 645: 643: 640: 638: 635: 633: 630: 629: 626: 621: 620: 613: 610: 608: 605: 603: 600: 598: 595: 593: 592:West Midlands 590: 588: 585: 583: 582:Tyne and Wear 580: 578: 575: 573: 570: 568: 567:Staffordshire 565: 563: 560: 558: 555: 553: 550: 548: 545: 543: 540: 538: 535: 533: 530: 528: 525: 523: 520: 518: 515: 513: 510: 508: 505: 503: 500: 498: 495: 493: 490: 488: 485: 483: 482:Isle of Wight 480: 478: 477:Hertfordshire 475: 473: 472:Herefordshire 470: 468: 465: 463: 460: 458: 455: 453: 450: 448: 445: 443: 440: 438: 435: 433: 430: 428: 425: 423: 420: 418: 415: 413: 410: 408: 405: 403: 400: 398: 395: 393: 390: 388: 385: 383: 380: 378: 375: 374: 371: 366: 365: 358: 355: 353: 350: 348: 345: 344: 338: 337: 330: 327: 325: 322: 320: 317: 315: 312: 310: 307: 305: 302: 300: 297: 295: 292: 290: 287: 285: 282: 281: 275: 274: 266: 263: 261: 258: 254: 251: 250: 249: 246: 244: 241: 239: 236: 234: 231: 229: 228:Edwardian era 226: 224: 223:Victorian era 221: 217: 214: 213: 212: 209: 205: 202: 200: 197: 195: 192: 190: 187: 185: 182: 181: 180: 179:Stuart period 177: 173: 170: 168: 165: 164: 163: 160: 154: 151: 150: 149: 146: 142: 141:Norman period 139: 137: 134: 133: 132: 129: 125: 122: 121: 120: 117: 115: 112: 110: 107: 106: 105: 102: 100: 99:Roman Britain 97: 95: 92: 91: 87: 82: 81: 77: 73: 72: 69: 63: 62: 57: 52: 51: 45: 41: 37: 33: 29: 25: 20: 16: 11693: 11681:from Commons 11676: 11655: 11540:Saint George 11503:Coat of arms 11442:Rugby league 11395:Sunday Roast 11316:Demographics 11246:Independence 11063:Contemporary 11021:Georgian era 11006:Jacobean era 10981:Tudor period 10973:Early Modern 10753:Principality 10487:Papal States 10241: 10212:histories of 10152: 10131: 10110: 10080: 10059: 10038: 10014: 9993: 9972: 9952: 9931: 9910: 9889: 9868: 9847: 9826: 9805: 9784: 9763: 9758: 9738: 9717: 9696: 9675: 9654: 9633: 9612: 9591: 9570: 9549: 9529: 9509: 9488: 9467: 9446: 9425: 9405: 9385: 9364: 9343: 9322: 9301: 9280: 9259: 9239: 9225:(91): 1–28. 9222: 9216: 9197: 9177: 9156: 9135: 9115: 9095: 9074: 9053: 9031: 9010: 8990: 8969: 8948: 8927: 8906: 8885: 8851: 8847: 8827: 8801: 8770: 8750: 8730: 8710: 8691: 8671: 8646: 8642: 8615: 8594: 8573: 8553: 8533: 8516: 8489: 8468: 8447: 8426: 8405: 8384: 8363: 8344: 8324: 8295: 8274: 8253: 8232: 8210: 8188: 8167: 8146: 8125: 8105: 8086:King Stephen 8085: 8064: 8043: 8022: 8001: 7981: 7962:King Stephen 7961: 7940: 7916: 7896: 7877: 7857: 7837: 7808: 7787: 7766: 7745: 7724: 7704: 7684: 7664: 7645: 7625: 7605: 7582: 7561: 7549: 7537:Bibliography 7526: 7517: 7508: 7499: 7490: 7481: 7472: 7463: 7454: 7445: 7436: 7427: 7418: 7409: 7400: 7391: 7382: 7373: 7364: 7343: 7322: 7313: 7304: 7295: 7286: 7277: 7268: 7259: 7250: 7241: 7232: 7223: 7214: 7205: 7196: 7187: 7178: 7169: 7160: 7151: 7142: 7133: 7124: 7115: 7106: 7097: 7088: 7079: 7070: 7061: 7052: 7043: 7034: 7025: 7016: 7007: 6998: 6989: 6980: 6959: 6950: 6941: 6932: 6923: 6914: 6905: 6896: 6887: 6878: 6869: 6848: 6839: 6830: 6825:Rose, p. 57. 6821: 6812: 6803: 6794: 6785: 6776: 6767: 6758: 6749: 6740: 6731: 6698: 6689: 6668: 6659: 6650: 6641: 6632: 6623: 6614: 6605: 6596: 6587: 6578: 6569: 6560: 6551: 6542: 6533: 6524: 6515: 6506: 6497: 6488: 6479: 6470: 6461: 6440: 6431: 6410: 6401: 6392: 6383: 6374: 6365: 6356: 6347: 6338: 6317: 6308: 6299: 6290: 6281: 6272: 6263: 6254: 6245: 6236: 6227: 6218: 6195: 6186: 6177: 6168: 6159: 6150: 6145:Webb, p.xii. 6141: 6132: 6123: 6114: 6105: 6096: 6087: 6078: 6069: 6060: 6051: 6042: 6033: 6024: 6015: 6006: 5997: 5988: 5979: 5970: 5961: 5952: 5943: 5934: 5925: 5916: 5907: 5898: 5889: 5880: 5871: 5862: 5853: 5844: 5823: 5814: 5805: 5796: 5787: 5778: 5769: 5760: 5751: 5742: 5721: 5712: 5691: 5682: 5673: 5664: 5655: 5646: 5637: 5628: 5619: 5614:Rubin, p. 8. 5610: 5589: 5580: 5571: 5562: 5553: 5544: 5535: 5514: 5505: 5496: 5487: 5478: 5473:Mate, p. 57. 5469: 5464:Mate, p. 41. 5460: 5455:Mate, p. 47. 5451: 5442: 5437:Mate, p. 33. 5433: 5424: 5419:Mate, p. 26. 5415: 5406: 5397: 5388: 5379: 5374:Mate, p. 12. 5370: 5365:Mate, p. 11. 5361: 5352: 5343: 5334: 5325: 5316: 5307: 5298: 5289: 5280: 5271: 5262: 5253: 5244: 5235: 5226: 5217: 5208: 5199: 5190: 5181: 5172: 5163: 5154: 5145: 5136: 5127: 5118: 5109: 5100: 5091: 5082: 5073: 5064: 5055: 5046: 5037: 5028: 5019: 5010: 5001: 4992: 4983: 4974: 4965: 4956: 4947: 4938: 4929: 4920: 4911: 4902: 4893: 4884: 4875: 4866: 4857: 4848: 4839: 4830: 4821: 4812: 4803: 4794: 4785: 4776: 4755: 4746: 4737: 4728: 4719: 4696: 4687: 4678: 4669: 4660: 4651: 4642: 4633: 4624: 4615: 4606: 4597: 4588: 4579: 4570: 4561: 4552: 4543: 4534: 4525: 4516: 4507: 4498: 4489: 4480: 4471: 4462: 4453: 4444: 4435: 4426: 4418: 4412: 4407: 4398: 4389: 4380: 4371: 4362: 4353: 4344: 4335: 4326: 4317: 4308: 4299: 4290: 4281: 4246: 4237: 4228: 4219: 4210: 4201: 4192: 4183: 4174: 4165: 4144: 4135: 4125: 4120: 4112: 4107: 4099: 4094: 4085: 4076: 4067: 4045: 4031: 4021: 4000: 3979:Middle-earth 3960: 3895: 3882: 3878: 3868: 3863:Warwickshire 3856: 3836: 3812: 3788: 3760:Architecture 3742: 3711: 3704: 3694: 3677: 3674: 3667: 3657: 3651: 3586: 3570: 3558:naturalistic 3522: 3512:designs and 3504:Anglo-Saxon 3496:Medieval art 3470: 3447: 3442: 3438: 3435: 3363:English navy 3360: 3323:carried the 3319: 3317: 3307: 3284: 3280:shield walls 3263: 3177: 3162: 3156: 3152: 3110: 3106:palm reading 3075: 3040:shipbuilding 3036:metalworking 3021:The English 3020: 3004: 2963: 2914:agricultural 2911: 2860:over-farming 2848: 2833: 2829:inland ports 2813:Icknield Way 2761: 2757:hunting park 2705:peregrinatio 2704: 2698: 2674: 2659: 2604: 2570: 2556: 2545: 2519:Hospitallers 2476:Augustinians 2469: 2465: 2431: 2380: 2345: 2321:polytheistic 2311:Christianity 2309: 2297:walrus ivory 2288:Anglo-Saxon 2232: 2186: 2178: 2173: 2166: 2112: 2095: 2083: 2079:social class 2072: 2017: 1990:Great Famine 1987: 1951: 1917: 1912: 1905:Common Bench 1887: 1881: 1854: 1843: 1829:gaming piece 1792: 1784: 1775: 1760: 1739: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1713: 1711: 1706: 1701: 1697: 1690: 1685: 1681: 1675: 1669: 1663: 1659:hierarchical 1656: 1575: 1548: 1532: 1496: 1443: 1433: 1405: 1378: 1348: 1303: 1234: 1229: 1203: 1197: 1176: 1166:Scandinavian 1153: 1143: 1118: 1114: 1094: 1055:Roman Empire 1048: 976:Great Famine 973: 965:legal system 918: 887: 882:, producing 880:Anglo-Saxons 868:Roman Empire 851: 850: 657:Christchurch 587:Warwickshire 502:Lincolnshire 377:Bedfordshire 211:Georgian era 194:Protectorate 189:Commonwealth 162:Tudor period 103: 44:Ormside Bowl 32:York Minster 15: 11612:Middle Ages 11459:Rugby union 11291:Anglophilia 11234:Middle Ages 11039:Regency era 11031:Late Modern 10941:Middle Ages 10900:Prehistoric 10719:Kievan Rus' 10455:Western and 10448:territories 10372:Czech lands 10223:Western and 8854:(2): 1–26. 8649:: 202–239. 6073:Webb, p. 1. 4040:altogether. 3914:Post-modern 3910:Neo-Marxist 3906:econometric 3887:progressive 3883:Magna Carta 3682:King Arthur 3654:Old English 3519:on the ends 3430:York Castle 3428:(left) and 3300:Crossbowmen 3287:attritional 3265:called the 3113:Roger Bacon 3032:Great Slump 2768:East Anglia 2682:Glastonbury 2670:seek relief 2661:Pilgrimages 2578:Gregory VII 2480:Cistercians 2120:victualling 1999:limit wages 1983:round table 1979:tournaments 1963:Westminster 1913:Magna Carta 1884:chancellors 1772:shire moots 1732:secretariat 1715:witenagemot 1535:Black Death 1530:, in 1330. 1445:Magna Carta 1393:the Anarchy 1335:North Wales 1189:Northumbria 1134:Anglo-Saxon 1132:Ceremonial 1103:East Anglia 1067:Old English 1024:Middle Ages 980:Black Death 961:archbishops 898:monasteries 858:during the 767:Southampton 637:Bournemouth 597:West Sussex 542:Oxfordshire 442:East Sussex 216:Regency era 199:Restoration 65:History of 11708:Categories 11552:Tudor rose 11256:Parliament 10614:Almoravids 10602:al-Andalus 10575:Portugal ( 10418:Anatolia ( 4060:References 3871:chronicles 3855:A page of 3828:hammerbeam 3807:Romanesque 3780:Romanesque 3749:Robin Hood 3646:the Knight 3562:plasticity 3550:zoomorphic 3514:zoomorphic 3422:city walls 2971:royal laws 2959:watermills 2874:. 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