Chinese language - Knowledge

15961: 2436: 6443: 6107: 15973: 10400: 3094: 3076: 3085: 3067: 5542: 5756:, introduced in 1956 by the PRC, and later adopted by Singapore and Taiwan. Pinyin is almost universally employed now for teaching standard spoken Chinese in schools and universities across the Americas, Australia, and Europe. Chinese parents also use Pinyin to teach their children the sounds and tones of new words. In school books that teach Chinese, the pinyin romanization is often shown below a picture of the thing the word represents, with the Chinese character alongside. 2317: 2324: 15997: 15985: 15949: 519: 1511: 2124: 57: 11050: 2196:

accepted into Chinese, a language usually resistant to loanwords, because their foreign origin was hidden by their written form. Often different compounds for the same concept were in circulation for some time before a winner emerged, and sometimes the final choice differed between countries. The proportion of vocabulary of Chinese origin thus tends to be greater in technical, abstract, or formal language. For example, in Japan,

4461: 2331: 5486:, were the first to attempt to describe the sounds and enunciation patterns of Chinese in a foreign language. After the 15th century, the efforts of Jesuits and Western court missionaries resulted in some Latin character transcription/writing systems, based on various variants of Chinese languages. Some of these Latin character-based systems are still being used to write various Chinese variants in the modern era. 5422:, which are written within imaginary square blocks, traditionally arranged in vertical columns, read from top to bottom down a column, and right to left across columns, despite alternative arrangement with rows of characters from left to right within a row and from top to bottom across rows (like English and other Western writing systems) having become more popular since the 20th century. Chinese characters denote 5396: 6307:, p. 56. "To call Chinese a single language composed of dialects with varying degrees of difference is to mislead by minimizing disparities that according to Chao are as great as those between English and Dutch. To call Chinese a family of languages is to suggest extralinguistic differences that in fact do not exist and to overlook the unique linguistic situation that exists in China." 2369: 2357: 2345: 5718: 2829:

to major branches of Chinese such as Mandarin, Wu, and so on as "dialects" because the mutual unintelligibility between them is too great. However, calling major Chinese branches "languages" would also be wrong under the same criterion, since a branch such as Wu, itself contains many mutually unintelligible varieties, and could not be properly called a single language.

5455:, based on spoken Standard Chinese, regardless of dialectical background. Written vernacular Chinese largely replaced Literary Chinese in the early 20th century as the country's standard written language. However, vocabularies from different Chinese-speaking areas have diverged, and the divergence can be observed in written Chinese. 3566:: sound changes over time have steadily reduced the number of possible syllables in the language's inventory. In modern Mandarin, there are only around 1,200 possible syllables, including the tonal distinctions, compared with about 5,000 in Vietnamese (still a largely monosyllabic language), and over 8,000 in English. 1580:). These branches are unintelligible to each other, and many of their subgroups are unintelligible with the other varieties within the same branch (e.g. Southern Min). There are, however, transitional areas where varieties from different branches share enough features for some limited intelligibility, including 2774:). Standard Chinese is based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin. The governments of both China and Taiwan intend for speakers of all Chinese speech varieties to use it as a common language of communication. Therefore, it is used in government agencies, in the media, and as a language of instruction in schools. 1514: 5373:

these terms as to whether the Japanese or Chinese coined them first. As a result of this loaning, Chinese, Korean, Japanese, and Vietnamese share a corpus of linguistic terms describing modern terminology, paralleling the similar corpus of terms built from Greco-Latin and shared among European languages.

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respectively. In each, the homophone was disambiguated by the addition of another morpheme, typically either a near-synonym or some sort of generic word (e.g. 'head', 'thing'), the purpose of which is to indicate which of the possible meanings of the other, homophonic syllable is specifically meant.

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roots in European languages. Many new compounds, or new meanings for old phrases, were created in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to name Western concepts and artifacts. These coinages, written in shared Chinese characters, have then been borrowed freely between languages. They have even been

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in Japanese, which in the original Chinese meant 'the workings of the state', narrowed to 'economy' in Japanese; this narrowed definition was then re-imported into Chinese. As a result, these terms are virtually indistinguishable from native Chinese words: indeed, there is some dispute over some of

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The designation of various Chinese branches remains controversial. Some linguists and most ordinary Chinese people consider all the spoken varieties as one single language, as speakers share a common national identity and a common written form. Others instead argue that it is inappropriate to refer

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spread over East Asia between the 2nd and 5th centuries CE, and with it the study of scriptures and literature in Literary Chinese. Later, strong central governments modeled on Chinese institutions were established in Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, with Literary Chinese serving as the language of

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Old Chinese vocabulary already contained many words not generally occurring in the other Sino-Tibetan languages. The words for 'honey' and 'lion', and probably also 'horse', 'dog', and 'goose', are connected with Indo-European and were acquired through trade and early contacts. (The nearest known

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The entire Chinese character corpus since antiquity comprises well over 50,000 characters, of which only roughly 10,000 are in use and only about 3,000 are frequently used in Chinese media and newspapers. However, Chinese characters should not be confused with Chinese words. Because most Chinese

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All varieties of spoken Chinese use tones to distinguish words. A few dialects of north China may have as few as three tones, while some dialects in south China have up to 6 or 12 tones, depending on how one counts. One exception from this is Shanghainese which has reduced the set of tones to a

3035:

The number of sounds in the different spoken dialects varies, but in general, there has been a tendency to a reduction in sounds from Middle Chinese. The Mandarin dialects in particular have experienced a dramatic decrease in sounds and so have far more polysyllabic words than most other spoken

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in many of them, and the effects of language contact. In addition, many of the smaller languages are spoken in mountainous areas that are difficult to reach and are often also sensitive border zones. Without a secure reconstruction of Proto-Sino-Tibetan, the higher-level structure of the family

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There are also viewpoints pointing out that linguists often ignore mutual intelligibility when varieties share intelligibility with a central variety (i.e. prestige variety, such as Standard Mandarin), as the issue requires some careful handling when mutual intelligibility is inconsistent with

2105:, Cantonese is the dominant spoken language due to cultural influence from Guangdong immigrants and colonial-era policies, and is used in education, media, formal speech, and everyday life—though Mandarin is increasingly taught in schools due to the mainland's growing influence. 4862:; 'hysterics'). The bulk of these words were originally coined in Shanghai during the early 20th century and later loaned from there into Mandarin, hence their Mandarin pronunciations occasionally being quite divergent from the English. For example, in Shanghainese 1520: 7449: 1516: 5458:

Due to the divergence of variants, some unique morphemes are not found in Standard Chinese. Characters rarely used in Standard Chinese have also been created or inherited from archaic literary standards to represent these unique morphemes. For example, characters like

5346:, 'Japanese-made Chinese', and many of these words have been re-loaned into modern Chinese. Other terms were coined by the Japanese by giving new senses to existing Chinese terms or by referring to expressions used in classical Chinese literature. For example, 4201:

words are made up of two or more characters, there are many more Chinese words than characters. A more accurate equivalent for a Chinese character is the morpheme, as characters represent the smallest grammatical units with individual meanings in the Chinese language.

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Chinese is often described as a 'monosyllabic' language. However, this is only partially correct. It is largely accurate when describing Old and Middle Chinese; in Classical Chinese, around 90% of words consist of a single character that corresponds one-to-one with a

5699:. The PRC defines literacy amongst workers as a knowledge of 2,000 characters, though this would be only functional literacy. School children typically learn around 2,000 characters whereas scholars may memorize up to 10,000. A large unabridged dictionary like the 4220:

project (2010) contains 97,404 contemporary entries including idioms, technology terms, and names of political figures, businesses, and products. The 2009 version of the Webster's Digital Chinese Dictionary (WDCD), based on CC-CEDICT, contains over 84,000 entries.

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administration and scholarship, a position it would retain until the late 19th century in Korea and (to a lesser extent) Japan, and the early 20th century in Vietnam. Scholars from different lands could communicate, albeit only in writing, using Literary Chinese.

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in Japanese, Vietnamese, and Korean, and transcription evidence. The resulting system is very complex, with a large number of consonants and vowels, but they are probably not all distinguished in any single dialect. Most linguists now believe it represents a

2914: 2400:. Until the late 20th century, Chinese emigrants to Southeast Asia and North America came from southeast coastal areas, where Min, Hakka, and Yue dialects were spoken. Specifically, most Chinese immigrants to North America until the mid-20th century spoke 4236:, a multi-volume encyclopedic dictionary reference work, gives 122,836 vocabulary entry definitions under 19,485 Chinese characters, including proper names, phrases, and common zoological, geographical, sociological, scientific, and technical terms. 1863:

and the phonetic elements found in the majority of Chinese characters. Although many of the finer details remain unclear, most scholars agree that Old Chinese differs from Middle Chinese in lacking retroflex and palatal obstruents but having initial

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When used within European texts, the tone transcriptions in both pinyin and Wade–Giles are often left out for simplicity; Wade–Giles's extensive use of apostrophes is also usually omitted. Thus, most Western readers will be much more familiar with

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Besides Mandarin, Cantonese is the only other Chinese language that is widely taught as a foreign language, largely due to the economic and cultural influence of Hong Kong and its widespread usage among significant Overseas Chinese communities.

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variants and merging characters with similar pronunciations to the one with the least strokes, among other methods. Singapore, which has a large Chinese community, was the second nation to officially adopt simplified characters—first by

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In Mandarin much more than in other spoken varieties, most syllables tend to be open syllables, meaning they have no coda (assuming that a final glide is not analyzed as a coda), but syllables that do have codas are restricted to nasals

5767:, it may be particularly helpful for beginner Chinese speakers of an English-speaking background. Wade–Giles was found in academic use in the United States, particularly before the 1980s, and was widely used in Taiwan until 2009. 4257:

from other cultures. Most Chinese words are formed out of native Chinese morphemes, including words describing imported objects and ideas. However, direct phonetic borrowing of foreign words has gone on since ancient times.

5745:. There are many systems of romanization for the Chinese varieties, due to the lack of a native phonetic transcription until modern times. Chinese is first known to have been written in Latin characters by Western 2396:, in which differences in speech generally become more pronounced as distances increase, though the rate of change varies immensely. Generally, mountainous South China exhibits more linguistic diversity than the 7364:

Indo-European languages were Tocharian and Sogdian, a middle Iranian language.) Some words have Austroasiatic cognates and point to early contacts with the ancestral language of Muong–Vietnamese and Mon–Khmer.

5671:, used in Hong Kong, Taiwan, Macau, and many overseas Chinese-speaking communities, largely take their form from received character forms dating back to the late Han dynasty and standardized during the Ming. 5691:

The Internet provides practice reading each of these systems, and most Chinese readers are capable of, if not necessarily comfortable with, reading the alternative system through experience and guesswork.

3113: 1515: 6253:"Chinese" refers collectively to the various language varieties that have descended from Old Chinese: native speakers often consider these to be "dialects" of a single language—though the Chinese term 6122:

With the growing importance and influence of China's economy globally, Standard Chinese instruction has been gaining popularity in schools throughout East Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Western world.

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system. These works define phonological categories but with little hint of what sounds they represent. Linguists have identified these sounds by comparing the categories with pronunciations in modern

4766:, continue to enter the Chinese language by transcription according to their pronunciations. This is done by employing Chinese characters with similar pronunciations. For example, 'Israel' becomes 1790:. As the language evolved over this period, the various local varieties became mutually unintelligible. In reaction, central governments have repeatedly sought to promulgate a unified standard. 1548:. Investigation of the historical relationships among the varieties of Chinese is ongoing. Currently, most classifications posit 7 to 13 main regional groups based on phonetic developments from 5120:; 'lettered words') spelled with letters from the English alphabet. These have appeared in colloquial usage, as well as in magazines and newspapers, and on websites and television: 2727: 5763:, was invented by Thomas Wade in 1859 and modified by Herbert Giles in 1892. As this system approximates the phonology of Mandarin Chinese into English consonants and vowels–it is largely an 3552:, the smallest unit of meaning in a language. In modern varieties, it usually remains the case that morphemes are monosyllabic—in contrast, English has many multi-syllable morphemes, both 1960:: as spoken, Chinese varieties have evolved at different rates, while the written language used throughout China changed comparatively little, crystallizing into a prestige form known as 1868:

of some sort, and in having voiceless nasals and liquids. Most recent reconstructions also describe an atonal language with consonant clusters at the end of the syllable, developing into

1755:. Although the relationship was first proposed in the early 19th century and is now broadly accepted, reconstruction of Sino-Tibetan is much less developed than that of families such as 2055:

area, though not identical to any single dialect. By the middle of the 19th century, the Beijing dialect had become dominant and was essential for any business with the imperial court.

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languages, and today comprise over half of their vocabularies. This massive influx led to changes in the phonological structure of the languages, contributing to the development of

4180:, another trait shared with neighboring languages such as Japanese and Korean. Other notable grammatical features common to all the spoken varieties of Chinese include the use of 5564:, compound ideographs, phonetic loans, phonetic compounds, and derivative characters. Only 4% were categorized as pictographs, including many of the simplest characters, such as 2380: 4529:, wherein the Latin and Greek components are usually converted one-for-one into the corresponding Chinese characters. The word 'telephone' was initially loaned phonetically as 2231:

script. However, these were limited to popular literature until the late 19th century. Today Japanese is written with a composite script using both Chinese characters called

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A very common example used to illustrate the use of tones in Chinese is the application of the four tones of Standard Chinese, along with the neutral tone, to the syllable

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varieties. The total number of syllables in some varieties is therefore only about a thousand, including tonal variation, which is only about an eighth as many as English.

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respectively, but the Yue variety spoken in Wuzhou is more similar to the Guangzhou dialect than is Taishanese. Wuzhou is located directly upstream from Guangzhou on the

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are actively used in Cantonese and Hakka, while being archaic or unused in standard written Chinese. The most prominent example of a non-Standard Chinese orthography is

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However, when one of the above words forms part of a compound, the disambiguating syllable is generally dropped and the resulting word is still disyllabic. For example,

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dictionary, contains over 40,000 characters, including obscure, variant, rare, and archaic characters; fewer than a quarter of these characters are now commonly used.

6288:(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), p. 312. "The mutual unintelligibility of the varieties is the main ground for referring to them as separate languages." 2239:

is still required, and hanja are increasingly rarely used in South Korea. As a result of its historical colonization by France, Vietnamese now uses the Latin-based

9785: 6060:(invented for use by US troops during World War II), as well as distinct systems for the phonetic requirements of Cantonese, Min Nan, Hakka, and other varieties. 5793:(Wade–Giles). This simplification presents syllables as homophones which are not, and therefore exaggerates the number of homophones almost by a factor of four. 3297:" and thus counted separately for a total of nine tones. However, they are considered to be duplicates in modern linguistics and are no longer counted as such: 10525: 9307: 2917: 4245:, an authoritative one-volume dictionary on modern standard Chinese language as used in mainland China, has 13,000 head characters and defines 70,000 words. 3556:, such as 'seven', 'elephant', 'para-' and '-able'. Some of the more conservative modern varieties, usually found in the south, have largely monosyllabic 15872: 10332: 10322: 4216:(1994) contains 85,568 head entries for character definitions and is the largest reference work based purely on character and its literary variants. The 4947:'coffee'. The influence of English is particularly pronounced: from the early 20th century, many English words were borrowed into Shanghainese, such as 5049:; 'bus'). With the rising popularity of the Internet, there is a current vogue in China for coining English transliterations, for example, 6263:; 'dialect' does not carry the precise connotations of "dialect" in English—while linguists typically analyze them as separate languages. See 4525:. Today, it is much more common to use existing Chinese morphemes to coin new words to represent imported concepts, such as technical expressions and 10327: 10086: 9634: 2187:

Borrowed Chinese morphemes have been used extensively in all these languages to coin compound words for new concepts, in a similar way to the use of

2076:), was adopted. After much dispute between proponents of northern and southern dialects and an abortive attempt at an artificial pronunciation, the 14100: 10241: 7619: 6203: 14528: 8171: 5696: 3562:, especially with basic vocabulary. However, most nouns, adjectives, and verbs in modern Mandarin are disyllabic. A significant cause of this is 13933: 5695:

A well-educated Chinese reader today recognizes approximately 4,000 to 6,000 characters; approximately 3,000 characters are required to read a

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Because of the difficulties involved in determining the difference between language and dialect, other terms have been proposed. These include

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Although they used Chinese solely for written communication, each country had its own tradition of reading texts aloud using what are known as

2094:; 'common speech'. The national language is now used in education, the media, and formal situations in both mainland China and Taiwan. 8218: 3802:. As such, most of these words have been replaced in speech, if not in writing, with less ambiguous disyllabic compounds. Only the first one, 13473: 7991: 2784:; if they grew up elsewhere, they are also likely fluent in the dialect of their home region. In addition to Standard Chinese, a majority of 2200:

account for about 35% of the words in entertainment magazines, over half the words in newspapers, and 60% of the words in science magazines.

7524: 6342:, p. 42 counts Chinese as having 1,277 tonal syllables, and about 398 to 418 if tones are disregarded; he cites Jespersen, Otto (1928) 5688:, then by adopting entirely the PRC simplified characters. It has also become the de facto standard for younger ethnic Chinese in Malaysia. 13386: 11097: 6356: 5664:. Calligraphy artists can write in Traditional and Simplified characters, but they tend to use Traditional characters for traditional art. 2976:. There are some instances where a vowel is not used as a nucleus. An example of this is in Cantonese, where the nasal sonorant consonants 14205: 15721: 10408: 9646: 8944: 5474:

Chinese had no uniform system of phonetic transcription until the mid-20th century, although enunciation patterns were recorded in early

6295:(1989), p. 2. "The Chinese language family is genetically classified as an independent branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family." 2235:, and kana. Korean is written exclusively with hangul in North Korea, although knowledge of the supplementary Chinese characters called 9035: 7319: 4907:

Western foreign words representing Western concepts have influenced Chinese since the 20th century through transcription. From French,

4884:('motor') sound more like their English counterparts. Cantonese differs from Mandarin with some transliterations, such as 4475: 2140:

Historically, the Chinese language has spread to its neighbors through a variety of means. Northern Vietnam was incorporated into the

14570: 4701:('bun'). Sometimes translations are designed so that they sound like the original while incorporating Chinese morphemes ( 7863:"Language or dialect, topolect or regiolect? A comparative study of language attitudes towards the status of Cantonese in Hong Kong" 9610: 9598: 6235:

Standard Chinese is an official language throughout China. Cantonese is a co-official language specifically in Hong Kong and Macao.

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In modern spoken Mandarin, however, tremendous ambiguity would result if all of these words could be used as-is. The 20th century

3573:. In some cases, monosyllabic words have become disyllabic formed from different characters without the use of compounding, as in 15920: 15915: 15865: 12992: 11141: 9622: 9114: 2246: 2025:

Up to the early 20th century, most Chinese people only spoke their local variety. Thus, as a practical measure, officials of the

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Local varieties of Chinese are conventionally classified into seven dialect groups, largely based on the different evolution of

10706: 7501: 7064: 6208: 4508: 4165: 2034: 1673: 3593:; this is especially common in Jin varieties. This phonological collapse has led to a corresponding increase in the number of 15355: 14611: 9945: 8917: 8879: 8852: 8741: 8718: 8699: 8677: 8639: 8584: 8565: 8546: 8523: 8504: 8417: 8398: 8379: 8357: 8338: 8316: 8294: 8268: 8204: 8149: 8111: 8049: 8030: 8011: 7851: 7789: 7684: 7662: 7291: 4512: 2080:

finally settled on the Beijing dialect in 1932. The People's Republic founded in 1949 retained this standard but renamed it

14093: 11159: 10756: 5675:, introduced by the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1954 to promote mass literacy, simplifies most complex traditional 4471: 2114: 14521: 10598: 4526: 559: 6398:; 'she' in writing, but this was only introduced in the 20th century—both characters remain exactly homophonous. 2411:

In parts of South China, the dialect of a major city may be only marginally intelligible to its neighbors. For example,

1968:. Its use in writing remained nearly universal until the late 19th century, culminating with the widespread adoption of 1719:

has been promoted by the government of the People's Republic of China, with Singapore officially adopting them in 1976.

15858: 11286: 4210:, a compendium of Chinese characters, includes 54,678 head entries for characters, including oracle bone versions. The 4087:(changes in the form of a word), to indicate a word's function within a sentence. In other words, Chinese has very few 17: 5332:

Since the 20th century, another source of words has been kanji: Japan re-molded European concepts and inventions into

2051:; 'language of officials'. For most of this period, this language was a koiné based on dialects spoken in the 13466: 8969: 8658: 6153: 3792: 412: 5552:

Each Chinese character represents a monosyllabic Chinese word or morpheme. In 100 CE, the famed Han dynasty scholar

3806:, normally appears in monosyllabic form in spoken Mandarin; the rest are normally used in the polysyllabic forms of 15615: 13379: 11090: 5536: 2423:, whereas Taishan is to Guangzhou's southwest, with the two cities separated by several river valleys. In parts of 1715:, largely shared by readers who may otherwise speak mutually unintelligible varieties. Since the 1950s, the use of 325: 6226:

The colloquial layers of many varieties, particularly Min varieties, reflect features that predate Middle Chinese.

16047: 16037: 14086: 11189: 10678: 4563:; 'electric speech'), built out of native Chinese morphemes became prevalent. Other examples include 1888: 1781: 549: 1663:, recorded a compromise between the pronunciations of different regions. The royal courts of the Ming and early 15060: 14514: 9385: 9028: 7903: 6183: 3320: 1492: 1446: 1287: 1143: 807: 604: 67: 8102:(2011). "A transnational approach to East Asian book history". In Chakravorty, Swapan; Gupta, Abhijit (eds.). 7843: 2392:

has estimated that there are hundreds of mutually unintelligible varieties of Chinese. These varieties form a

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Chinese varieties have been phonetically transcribed into many other writing systems over the centuries. The

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were established in northern Korea in the 1st century BCE but disintegrated in the following centuries.

2145: 2022:, this dictionary describes a language with many of the features characteristic of modern Mandarin dialects. 1809: 1688: 1438: 1271: 1061: 725: 588: 440: 71: 8817: 8434:; Lai, Yunfan; Ryder, Robin J.; Thouzeau, Valentin; Greenhill, Simon J.; List, Johann-Mattis (21 May 2019). 5734:; 'National language' written in traditional and simplified forms, followed by various romanizations 16052: 16027: 15625: 15055: 13459: 12222: 11282: 11053: 10964: 10488: 5685: 2904: 2077: 1736: 1646: 471: 458: 396: 6084:

that is still widely used in Taiwan to aid standard pronunciation. There are also at least two systems of

5635:; 'water'. Almost all characters created since have been made using this format. The 18th-century 5009:('miniskirt'). Contemporary colloquial Cantonese has distinct loanwords from English, such as 4679:

Occasionally, compromises between the transliteration and translation approaches become accepted, such as

3029: 3025: 3021: 3020:. Some varieties allow most of these codas, whereas others, such as Standard Chinese, are limited to only 3017: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2997: 2993: 2989: 2981: 2977: 30:

This article is about the Chinese language, which includes many varieties. For the standardized form, see

16042: 16032: 16022: 13754: 13554: 13372: 11137: 11083: 10969: 10841: 10766: 10423: 8252: 6072:, for example, has been very helpful in reconstructing the pronunciations of premodern forms of Chinese. 5625: 1989: 1830: 1361: 1017: 681: 381: 9003: 8348:

Norman, Jerry (2003). "The Chinese dialects: phonology". In Thurgood, Graham; LaPolla, Randy J. (eds.).

7627: 4230:, records more than 23,000 head Chinese characters and gives over 370,000 definitions. The 1999 revised 2415:

and Taishan are located approximately 260 km (160 mi) and 190 km (120 mi) away from

2323: 15939: 15908: 15893: 15095: 14495: 11011: 10984: 10861: 10773: 10520: 10500: 6115: 6053: 5657: 5452: 4007:) can stand alone as individual words, they more often than not form multi-syllable compounds known as 2900: 2780:

is common among Chinese speakers. For example, a Shanghai resident may speak both Standard Chinese and

2316: 1969: 1951: 1099: 763: 5471:, which is used in tabloids and on the internet among Cantonese speakers in Hong Kong and elsewhere. 16017: 14950: 14616: 12131: 10563: 9261: 9021: 8905: 8326: 6188: 2925:

Syllables in the Chinese languages have some unique characteristics. They are tightly related to the

2908: 2389: 2203:

Vietnam, Korea, and Japan each developed writing systems for their own languages, initially based on

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of Mandarin and was first officially adopted in the 1930s. The language is written primarily using a

1122: 786: 390: 8929: 8556:

Sohn, Ho-Min; Lee, Peter H. (2003). "Language, forms, prosody, and themes". In Lee, Peter H. (ed.).

7723: 6442: 6129:

In 1991, there were 2,000 foreign learners taking China's official Chinese Proficiency Test, called

15898: 14980: 14636: 12612: 12151: 12116: 11217: 10937: 10922: 10912: 10626: 8909: 7982: 6111: 5386: 4181: 4173: 3553: 2926: 2149: 1965: 1856: 1628: 416: 7862: 16057: 15793: 15706: 15437: 15190: 15140: 15120: 15040: 15025: 14960: 14594: 13631: 13313: 13007: 12265: 12176: 12058: 12053: 10949: 9188: 8792: 8021:

Hymes, Dell (1971). "Sociolinguistics and the ethnography of speaking". In Ardener, Edwin (ed.).

7530: 5712: 4786:). A rather small number of direct transliterations have survived as common words, including 4702: 4522: 4487: 4084: 2661: 2118: 1930: 1769: 1601: 10942: 10791: 8233: 8142:

Chinese language(s): a look through the prism of the Great dictionary of modern Chinese dialects

7724:"Variation in the grammaticalization of complementizers from verba dicendi in Sinitic languages" 6326:; "In language classification, Chinese has a status equivalent to a language family." 4517:

Modern neologisms are primarily translated into Chinese in one of three ways: free translation (

4192:. Although the grammars of the spoken varieties share many traits, they do possess differences. 2846:; 'regional speech', whereas the more closely related varieties within these are called 320: 15903: 15821: 15758: 15284: 14945: 14850: 14805: 14745: 14606: 14364: 14184: 14109: 13789: 13594: 13589: 13584: 13579: 13490: 13036: 12853: 12535: 11360: 11355: 11326: 11314: 10883: 10726: 9324: 5668: 4088: 2134: 1752: 1720: 1696: 1593: 1541: 1171: 835: 147: 15255: 8651:

Cantonese as a Second Language: Issues, Experiences, and Suggestions for Teaching and Learning

4027:

can consist of more than one character–morpheme, usually two, but there can be three or more.

1653:

and split into several varieties following prolonged geographic and political separation. The

15663: 15165: 15045: 14790: 14643: 14537: 14210: 14067: 13325: 13301: 13024: 12987: 11485: 10878: 10801: 10515: 10493: 9248: 9081: 8219:"What Is a Chinese "Dialect/Topolect"? Reflections on Some Key Sino-English Linguistic terms" 6318: 6130: 5746: 5672: 4189: 2801: 2746:) and Taiwan, and one of the four official languages of Singapore (where it is called either 1716: 1585: 1533: 400: 13199: 8283: 6137:, but by 2005 the number of candidates had risen sharply to 117,660 and in 2010 to 750,000. 4419:, the liturgical languages of northern India. Words borrowed from the nomadic tribes of the 2804:. A speaker in Taiwan may mix pronunciations and vocabulary from Standard Chinese and other 1903:

dynasties (6th–10th centuries CE). It can be divided into an early period, reflected by the

15816: 15798: 15540: 15519: 15110: 14800: 14631: 14621: 14419: 14322: 13971: 12972: 12833: 12652: 12632: 12617: 12353: 12318: 12126: 10646: 10614: 10443: 9568: 9063: 8694:. Harvard-Yenching Institute monograph series. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. 8575:

Thomason, Sarah Grey (1988). "Languages of the World". In Paulston, Christina Bratt (ed.).

8447: 8367: 7384: 6268: 6168: 4261:

Some early Indo-European loanwords in Chinese have been proposed, notably 'honey' (

4241: 4108: 2836:

The Chinese government's official Chinese designation for the major branches of Chinese is

2307: 1926: 1881: 227: 8839:

On the history of the standardization of Mandarin as the Chinese primary national dialect.

7748: 7564: 5604:; 'water'). Between 80% and 90% were classified as phonetic compounds such as 4483: 4411:), generally have Persian etymologies. Buddhist terminology is generally derived from 8: 15768: 15716: 15681: 15514: 15408: 15299: 15145: 15090: 14835: 14690: 14665: 14475: 14397: 14392: 14305: 14280: 14062: 14050: 13730: 13482: 13409: 13285: 13265: 13029: 12956: 12657: 12607: 12602: 12013: 11580: 11164: 10890: 10856: 10691: 10658: 10505: 10433: 10350: 10191: 10186: 9940: 9750: 9256: 7799: 7477: 6178: 6069: 5649: 5408: 4756: 4204:

Estimates of the total number of Chinese words and lexicalized phrases vary greatly. The

3540: 2805: 2470: 2240: 2197: 2173: 1973: 1589: 185: 12642: 12627: 11242: 8653:. Routledge Studies in Applied Linguistics. Manhattan, New York: Routledge. p. 45. 8451: 5083:; 'blog'). In Taiwan, some of these transliterations are different, such as 2144:(202 BCE – 220 CE) in 111 BCE, marking the beginning of a 1536:

family. The spoken varieties of Chinese are usually considered by native speakers to be

946: 15482: 15388: 15230: 15195: 15160: 15015: 14995: 14965: 14705: 14310: 14045: 13943: 13815: 13649: 13567: 13508: 13499: 13395: 13230: 13002: 12936: 12885: 12838: 12782: 12512: 12455: 12181: 11337: 11106: 11006: 10873: 10836: 10721: 10619: 10553: 10548: 10438: 10428: 10054: 10032: 9925: 9733: 9728: 9651: 9639: 9627: 9615: 9603: 9127: 8885: 8780: 8687: 8618: 8478: 8435: 7969: 7890: 7823: 7761: 7711: 7605: 6508: 6506: 6301:, p. 1. " the modern Chinese dialects are really more like a family of languages " 6198: 6163: 5530: 5419: 4112: 4100: 2973: 2656: 2405: 2204: 2177: 1873: 1869: 1712: 1613: 1500: 1202: 1196: 1185: 862: 851: 300: 217: 175: 35: 14710: 12637: 11247: 4375:). Some words were borrowed from Buddhist scriptures, including 'Buddha' ( 2435: 1224: 882: 509: 16062: 15850: 15733: 15711: 15605: 15504: 15499: 15487: 15477: 15442: 15240: 15205: 15035: 15005: 14875: 14775: 14765: 14626: 14565: 14552: 14455: 14450: 14440: 14414: 14409: 14404: 14372: 14332: 14250: 14215: 14146: 14030: 14025: 13987: 13847: 13798: 13763: 13676: 13616: 13209: 12869: 12743: 12688: 12580: 12488: 12483: 12440: 12362: 12093: 12073: 11998: 11975: 11748: 11630: 11600: 11442: 11433: 11385: 11375: 11222: 11154: 10917: 10907: 10786: 10751: 10606: 10558: 10510: 10277: 10130: 10064: 9920: 9905: 9576: 9553: 9507: 9432: 9358: 9238: 9206: 9160: 9099: 9089: 9054: 8975: 8965: 8913: 8889: 8875: 8848: 8772: 8768: 8737: 8714: 8695: 8673: 8654: 8635: 8634:. Linguistics in the world (1st ed.). Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell. 8580: 8561: 8542: 8535: 8519: 8500: 8483: 8465: 8431: 8413: 8394: 8375: 8353: 8334: 8312: 8304: 8290: 8278: 8264: 8200: 8145: 8107: 8080: 8045: 8026: 8007: 7961: 7923: 7919: 7894: 7882: 7847: 7785: 7765: 7753: 7715: 7680: 7672: 7658: 7354: 7287: 7280: 6264: 5637: 5468: 5390: 4407:). Words borrowed from the peoples along the Silk Road, such as 'grape' ( 4185: 4169: 4104: 4096: 4076: 2881: 2789: 2733: 2397: 2393: 2169: 2129: 2001: 1961: 1947: 1865: 1845: 1839: 1744: 1692: 1617: 1529: 1413: 1405: 1248: 1083: 1075: 915: 747: 739: 39: 14985: 14825: 8784: 8122: 7068: 6503: 6106: 2223:

syllabaries for Japanese, while Vietnamese continued to be written with the complex

1668: 555: 16001: 15989: 15728: 15696: 15691: 15550: 15524: 15509: 15452: 15383: 15225: 15185: 15105: 15100: 15080: 15070: 15030: 15020: 15010: 14955: 14925: 14915: 14870: 14840: 14750: 14715: 14599: 14445: 14387: 14352: 14342: 14327: 14003: 13807: 13722: 13686: 13671: 13666: 13659: 13644: 13440: 13435: 13280: 13275: 13245: 13204: 13184: 13073: 13068: 13012: 12982: 12931: 12820: 12693: 12673: 12622: 12589: 12550: 12545: 12540: 12498: 12493: 12475: 12323: 12313: 12217: 12166: 12161: 12136: 12063: 11756: 11733: 11728: 11658: 11653: 11648: 11610: 11550: 11475: 11418: 11413: 11398: 11169: 11120: 11023: 10543: 10418: 10282: 10272: 10257: 10203: 10125: 10076: 10037: 9986: 9900: 9852: 9836: 9716: 9676: 9671: 9558: 9512: 9458: 9453: 9443: 9437: 9266: 9211: 9196: 9072: 8867: 8764: 8732:

education and language policy in postcolonial Hong Kong". In Zhou, Minglang (ed.).

8610: 8473: 8455: 8072: 7951: 7915: 7874: 7815: 7743: 7735: 7703: 7380: 6173: 6089: 4116: 4021:, which more closely resembles the traditional Western notion of a word. A Chinese 3563: 2937: 2887: 2785: 2721: 2556: 2462: 2458: 2427:, the speech of some neighbouring counties or villages is mutually unintelligible. 2153: 2059: 2006: 1938:

encompassing 6th-century northern and southern standards for reading the classics.

1740: 1724: 1684: 1553: 1320: 976: 640: 234: 212: 31: 12828: 9002:

at the Ohio State University with hundreds of links to Chinese related web pages.

8076: 7956: 7939: 5548:

is often used to illustrate the eight basic types of strokes of Chinese characters

4224:

The most comprehensive pure linguistic Chinese-language dictionary, the 12-volume

3289:

In contrast, Standard Cantonese has six tones. Historically, finals that end in a

2164:. Chinese words with these pronunciations were also extensively imported into the 15953: 15748: 15738: 15592: 15560: 15555: 15545: 15492: 15430: 15423: 15372: 15215: 15130: 15125: 15065: 14970: 14935: 14930: 14920: 14910: 14865: 14855: 14845: 14785: 14780: 14760: 14755: 14586: 14560: 14465: 14460: 14382: 14377: 14347: 14315: 14285: 14035: 13938: 13918: 13852: 13735: 13712: 13707: 13681: 13572: 13562: 13521: 13516: 13430: 13260: 13250: 13240: 13189: 13179: 13053: 12926: 12921: 12916: 12805: 12795: 12790: 12758: 12748: 12733: 12723: 12713: 12683: 12647: 12597: 12560: 12525: 12465: 12445: 12425: 12390: 12375: 12370: 12293: 12232: 12212: 12207: 12202: 12146: 12038: 12008: 11957: 11932: 11917: 11891: 11886: 11866: 11851: 11796: 11738: 11723: 11718: 11703: 11698: 11643: 11575: 11555: 11490: 11465: 11393: 11370: 11272: 11237: 11232: 11207: 11179: 11174: 10974: 10954: 10851: 10811: 10796: 10535: 10385: 10375: 10355: 10312: 10307: 10173: 10137: 10120: 10110: 10049: 9867: 9803: 9745: 9693: 9688: 9590: 9486: 9481: 9390: 9337: 9332: 9312: 9297: 9292: 9233: 9228: 9218: 9201: 9173: 9145: 9122: 9007: 8734:

Language policy in the People's Republic of China: theory and practice since 1949

8197:

Language attitudes and identities in multilingual China: a linguistic ethnography

7878: 6193: 6049: 6014: 5661: 5517:

are primarily Muslim and live mainly in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Russia; many

5502: 5382: 4226: 4206: 3534: 2689: 2675: 2636: 2526: 2474: 2466: 2165: 1964:. Literature written distinctly in the Classical form began to emerge during the 1704: 1678: 1660: 1624: 1545: 1391: 1047: 711: 279: 139: 1294: 1278: 611: 595: 15701: 15418: 15360: 15328: 15323: 15245: 15235: 15220: 15180: 15155: 15150: 15135: 15115: 15085: 15075: 15050: 15000: 14975: 14905: 14900: 14860: 14830: 14770: 14730: 14725: 14720: 14700: 14680: 14660: 14275: 14161: 14151: 14130: 14040: 13923: 13895: 13702: 13654: 13611: 13601: 13544: 13526: 13270: 13214: 13194: 12997: 12962: 12951: 12946: 12941: 12848: 12800: 12738: 12708: 12703: 12565: 12555: 12520: 12430: 12395: 12380: 12328: 12288: 12283: 12278: 12227: 12171: 12141: 12121: 12111: 12106: 12083: 12003: 11988: 11983: 11952: 11927: 11912: 11907: 11876: 11871: 11861: 11856: 11846: 11841: 11836: 11831: 11786: 11761: 11708: 11620: 11605: 11570: 11540: 11535: 11515: 11505: 11500: 11495: 11423: 11408: 11350: 11345: 11252: 11212: 11197: 11028: 11018: 10989: 10979: 10696: 10668: 10380: 10365: 10267: 10218: 10213: 10198: 10142: 10081: 9963: 9935: 9915: 9862: 9831: 9808: 9798: 9793: 9755: 9738: 9683: 9548: 9530: 9448: 9422: 9363: 9283: 9271: 9223: 9178: 9168: 9094: 8752: 8427: 8214: 8099: 7835: 6081: 5760: 5645: 4212: 3692: 3290: 2957: 2930: 2797: 2705: 2451: 1803: 1763:. Difficulties have included the great diversity of the languages, the lack of 1664: 1549: 1504: 1499:. Approximately 1.35 billion people, or 17% of the global population, speak a 1375: 1245: 1031: 959: 912: 695: 315: 290: 190: 11227: 10399: 8979: 5106:

Another result of English influence on Chinese is the appearance of so-called

2226: 1909:

rime dictionary (601 CE), and a late period in the 10th century, reflected by

16011: 15977: 15778: 15763: 15753: 15578: 15308: 15250: 15210: 15200: 15175: 15170: 14990: 14895: 14885: 14648: 14470: 14265: 14057: 13928: 13910: 13875: 13771: 13740: 13639: 13621: 13255: 13129: 13105: 13048: 12877: 12810: 12768: 12753: 12678: 12530: 12435: 12308: 12303: 12156: 12068: 12048: 12043: 12033: 12023: 12018: 11993: 11947: 11942: 11937: 11922: 11881: 11826: 11821: 11816: 11811: 11806: 11801: 11791: 11781: 11776: 11766: 11713: 11693: 11688: 11683: 11678: 11673: 11668: 11663: 11615: 11595: 11590: 11585: 11565: 11545: 11530: 11525: 11520: 11480: 11470: 11455: 11450: 11403: 11365: 11267: 11257: 10829: 10641: 10636: 10208: 10152: 10147: 10115: 10102: 9978: 9930: 9857: 9813: 9703: 9540: 9463: 9302: 9150: 9137: 8939: 8871: 8776: 8469: 8084: 7965: 7927: 7886: 7757: 6472: 6085: 5764: 5514: 5510: 5426:

independent of phonetic variation in different languages. Thus the character

3787: 3570: 2969: 2626: 2616: 2531: 2505: 2192: 2181: 1985: 1956:

The complex relationship between spoken and written Chinese is an example of

1787: 1760: 1756: 1632: 1605: 1115: 779: 264: 254: 11062: 8908:, Society for the Study of Early China and Institute of East Asian Studies, 8460: 5541: 15965: 15743: 15653: 15367: 15345: 14940: 14810: 14018: 13839: 13235: 13100: 13063: 12763: 12728: 12718: 12698: 12570: 12450: 12415: 12405: 12400: 12385: 12273: 12197: 12101: 12078: 11771: 11638: 11560: 11510: 11460: 11262: 11202: 10701: 10651: 10027: 9910: 9883: 9427: 9417: 8797: 8487: 8256: 7935: 7372:

Einige Übereinstimmungen zwischen dem Chinesischen und dem Indogermanischen

5753: 5742: 5738: 5400: 4177: 3294: 3251: 3046: 2781: 2487: 2478: 2440: 2018: 1997: 1993: 1900: 1896: 1834: 1650: 1569: 1561: 1327: 1214: 983: 872: 647: 8060: 7739: 6430: 493: 330: 15673: 15635: 15630: 15340: 15318: 15313: 15289: 14820: 14815: 14740: 14735: 14270: 14078: 13887: 13862: 13830: 13146: 13122: 13095: 13085: 13058: 13043: 13019: 12843: 12420: 12343: 12338: 12298: 12028: 10846: 10820: 10716: 10686: 10663: 10631: 10370: 10360: 10164: 10059: 10044: 10007: 9955: 9776: 9767: 9663: 9502: 9377: 9104: 8822: 8594: 7904:"What is Sino-Tibetan? Snapshot of a Field and a Language Family in Flux" 5954: 5653: 5415: 5341: 4763: 3093: 3075: 2945: 2669: 2606: 2596: 2586: 2566: 2536: 2510: 2500: 2495: 2420: 2141: 1910: 1892: 1859:

by comparing later varieties of Chinese with the rhyming practice of the

1815: 1799: 1642: 1609: 1597: 1573: 1557: 1488: 1470: 1238: 905: 623: 476: 463: 269: 259: 249: 239: 180: 14506: 8499:. ABC Chinese dictionary series. Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press. 6449: 4549:)—this word was widely used in Shanghai during the 1920s, but the later 4399:). Other words came from nomadic peoples to the north, such as ' 4172:

construction to form sentences. Chinese also has an extensive system of

4168:, and like many other languages of East Asia, makes frequent use of the 3084: 3066: 15620: 14795: 14200: 14013: 13870: 13174: 13112: 13090: 12460: 12333: 10262: 10236: 10002: 9968: 9473: 9400: 8622: 8599:"Tones and Prosody in Middle Chinese and The Origin of The Rising Tone" 8598: 8436:"Dated language phylogenies shed light on the ancestry of Sino-Tibetan" 7707: 7695: 6435: 5984: 5557: 5518: 5493:, women in certain areas write their local Chinese language variant in 5404: 4976: 2953: 2875: 2728:

List of countries and territories where Chinese is an official language

2697: 2576: 2540: 2514: 2491: 2483: 2401: 1877: 1826: 1764: 1708: 1565: 1092: 756: 244: 13451: 8753:"Redesigning Culture: Chinese Characters in Alphabet-Encoded Networks" 7973: 7827: 7803: 518: 15600: 15413: 15335: 15294: 14260: 14255: 14225: 14008: 13820: 13414: 13364: 13151: 13139: 13134: 13078: 12410: 11149: 11075: 10711: 10462: 10453: 10181: 10071: 9723: 9711: 9522: 9353: 8962:

Kingdom of Characters: The Language Revolution That Made China Modern

8897: 8518:. Cambridge language surveys. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 6953: 6040: 5680: 5561: 5498: 5475: 4649: 4338: 4217: 3594: 2965: 2961: 2949: 2813: 2809: 2777: 2709: 2518: 2416: 2098: 1957: 1935: 1748: 1581: 1577: 1136: 800: 502: 486: 450: 432: 117: 112: 90: 8709:

Wurm, Stephen Adolphe; Li, Rong; Baumann, Theo; Lee, Mei W. (1987).

8614: 6346:; London, p. 15 for a count of over 8000 syllables for English. 4253:

Like many other languages, Chinese has absorbed a sizable number of

2123: 1814:

The earliest examples of Old Chinese are divinatory inscriptions on

15948: 15658: 15610: 14220: 13117: 11001: 10587: 10228: 9409: 9013: 7819: 6313: 6073: 5506: 5505:, considered by many a dialect of Mandarin, is nowadays written in 5479: 5423: 5395: 4412: 4254: 3548: 3315: 1786:

The first written records appeared over 3,000 years ago during the

1645:

can be reconstructed from the rhymes of ancient poetry. During the

1484: 1341: 1157: 997: 821: 661: 567: 305: 107: 11033: 8866:, Cambridge Syntax Guides, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 8159:

Lewis, M. Paul; Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D., eds. (2015),

7772: 6512: 5494: 3569:

Most modern varieties tend to form new words through polysyllabic

2808:

in everyday speech. In part due to traditional cultural ties with

1544:

means they are sometimes considered to be separate languages in a

56: 15350: 13156: 10900: 10580: 10467: 10296: 9892: 8793:"Origin of Sino-Tibetan language family revealed by new research" 7338:

Webster's Digital Chinese Dictionary – Advanced Reference Edition

6147: 5898: 5553: 4738: 3769: 3745: 3717: 3665: 3637: 3058:. The tones are exemplified by the following five Chinese words: 2968:; a zero onset is also possible), and followed (optionally) by a 2681: 2646: 2522: 2284: 2268: 2254: 2052: 1916: 1851: 1723:

are used in Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau, and among Chinese-speaking

1537: 1221: 879: 563: 274: 152: 3997:; 'petroleum'. Although many single-syllable morphemes ( 15686: 14435: 10959: 10761: 7420: 6998: 6996: 5928: 5872: 4931:) were borrowed for 'ballet' and 'champagne' respectively; 4518: 4424: 4400: 4092: 4080: 2693: 2424: 2412: 2210: 2033:

dynasties carried out the administration of the empire using a

1905: 1880:, and indicated grammatical relationships using word order and 1655: 1454: 310: 102: 8862:

Huang, Cheng-Teh James; Li, Yen-Hui Audrey; Li, Yafei (2009),

8577:

International Handbook of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education

7620:"Chinese language proficiency test becoming popular in Mexico" 6530: 5641:

classified characters under a now-common set of 214 radicals.

5431: 3912: 3895: 3874: 3853: 3832: 3797: 3274: 3239: 3212: 3185: 3162: 3103: 3053: 2016:

verse form in this language. Together with the slightly later

2010:

was a dictionary that codified the rhyming conventions of new

1921:

constructed by ancient Chinese philologists as a guide to the

1772:

is often assumed, but has not been convincingly demonstrated.

1253: 920: 15447: 14337: 10472: 8999: 7320:"Languages - Real Chinese - Mini-guides - Chinese characters" 5842: 5676: 5490: 5443: 4720: 4232: 4030:

Examples of Chinese words of more than two syllables include

3558: 2941: 2817: 2701: 2236: 2232: 2188: 2102: 2012: 1496: 1229: 887: 97: 8160: 7259: 6993: 6878: 15457: 8579:(1st ed.). New York: Greenwood Press. pp. 17–45. 7545: 5752:

Today the most common romanization for Standard Chinese is

5483: 4723:'. This is often done for commercial purposes, for example 4420: 4416: 2869: 2218: 2030: 2026: 1735:

Linguists classify all varieties of Chinese as part of the

8333:. Cambridge language surveys. Cambridge University Press. 8071:(6). Centre d'études français sur la Chine Contemporaine. 7172: 7170: 7131: 6734: 4447:), but from exactly which source is not always clear. 4119:. In Mandarin, this involves the use of particles such as 3796:

exploits this, consisting of 92 characters all pronounced

566:

characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see

8827: 7143: 7044: 7032: 7020: 6842: 6770: 6758: 6626: 6566: 6312:

Linguists in China often use a formulation introduced by

5437: 3776: 3752: 3724: 3700: 3672: 3644: 3515: 3508: 3485: 3478: 3455: 3448: 3421: 3414: 3391: 3384: 3352: 3345: 1996:

dynasties in northern China, a common speech (now called

1941: 1190: 1176: 1162: 1148: 856: 840: 826: 812: 8815: 8736:. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 143–161. 8410:

Language in Society: an Introduction to Sociolinguistics

6926: 6902: 5717: 5679:

to fewer strokes, especially by adopting common cursive

5667:

There are currently two systems for Chinese characters.

4544: 4437:), the Chinese lute, or 'cheese or yogurt' ( 1768:

remains unclear. A top-level branching into Chinese and

1104: 768: 8165:(Eighteenth ed.), Dallas, Texas: SIL International 8006:(2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 7583: 7167: 6943: 6941: 6914: 6866: 6830: 6722: 6710: 6674: 6650: 6638: 6602: 6518: 5478:

and dictionaries. Early Indian translators, working in

4341:

during the Old Chinese period include 'grape' (

3693: 15880: 6854: 6782: 6578: 5614:; 'pour'), combining a phonetic component 5367: 5339: 2929:

and also to the characters of the writing system, and

2216: 1556:

with 66%, or around 800 million speakers, followed by

15937: 8426: 8124:

New dialect formation: the case of Taiwanese Mandarin

7867:

Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development

7784:] (2nd ed.). Beijing: The Commercial Press. 7775:

Zhōngguó yǔyán dìtú jí (dì 2 bǎn): Hànyǔ fāngyán juǎn

7211: 7119: 7008: 6981: 6818: 6806: 6794: 6746: 6662: 6614: 6590: 6554: 6542: 6491: 6033: 6026: 6007: 6000: 5977: 5970: 5947: 5940: 5921: 5914: 5891: 5884: 5865: 5858: 5835: 5828: 5788: 5782: 5776: 4538: 4022: 3602: 1914: 1410: 1396: 1380: 1366: 1346: 1332: 1080: 1066: 1052: 1036: 1022: 1002: 988: 744: 730: 716: 700: 686: 666: 652: 75: 61: 8993: 8144:. Trends in linguistics. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. 8104:

New Word Order: Transnational Themes in Book History

7300: 7247: 7223: 7155: 6969: 6938: 6698: 6686: 5401:

Preface to the Poems Composed at the Orchid Pavilion

2404:, a variety of Yue from a small coastal area around 2208: 8374:. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. 8042:

The Chinese language: its history and current usage

7401: 5741:is the process of transcribing a language into the 5521:, living mainly in China, also speak the language. 5103:; 'interconnected tribes') for 'blog'. 2148:that ran almost continuously for a millennium. The 1127: 791: 540: Status as an official or educational language 8928: 8816:Arablouei, Ramtin; Rund Abdelfatah (26 May 2022). 8534: 8282: 8232:. University of Pennsylvania: 1–31. Archived from 7279: 7235: 7095: 6890: 6367:There are plural markers in the language, such as 6247: 3953:, appears in compounds as meaning 'stone' such as 3108:with each of the primary tones in Standard Chinese 2688:Some varieties remain unclassified, including the 1876:have also been identified, but the language lacks 8158: 7657:. Arlington, Va: Center for Applied Linguistics. 7430: 7182: 4755:; 'better-than hundred tastes') for ' 4083:(word order and sentence structure), rather than 16009: 8708: 7773:Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, ed. (2012). 7002: 6335: 6333: 6293:Mandarin Chinese: A Functional Reference Grammar 6204:North American Conference on Chinese Linguistics 6063: 5759:The second-most common romanization system, the 5648:. Various other written styles are also used in 4423:, Mongolian or northeast regions generally have 3601:lists six words that are commonly pronounced as 2224: 8440:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 8372:Middle Chinese: A study in Historical Phonology 7990:(in Chinese). Chinese University of Hong Kong. 7107: 2921:A man speaking Mandarin with a Malaysian accent 2812:, Cantonese is used as an everyday language in 8667: 8560:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 15–51. 7702:, vol. 84, no. 3, pp. 636–641, 7083: 5451:Most modern written Chinese is in the form of 5361: 5333: 2933:they are structured according to fixed rules. 15866: 14522: 14094: 13467: 13380: 11091: 11067: 9029: 6330: 6114:, giving Chinese language instruction at the 4961:; 'golf') and the aforementioned 4942: 4337:). Ancient words borrowed from along the 2936:The structure of each syllable consists of a 1855:. Scholars have attempted to reconstruct the 1540:of a single language. However, their lack of 1292: 1276: 943: 609: 593: 534: Significant Chinese-speaking population 10828: 2665:(1987), distinguishes three further groups: 2180:structure in Japanese and the disruption of 1988:dynasty and subsequent reign of the Jurchen 1979: 1887:Middle Chinese was the language used during 8366: 8251: 8127:(Doctor of Philosophy). University of Essex 7265: 6459: 5556:classified characters into six categories: 2035:common language based on Mandarin varieties 1483:; 'Chinese writing') is a group of 1464: 15873: 15859: 14529: 14515: 14108: 14101: 14087: 13474: 13460: 13387: 13373: 11313: 11098: 11084: 11049: 10819: 9036: 9022: 8750: 8497:ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese 8106:. Worldview Publications. pp. 65–79. 7551: 4852:; 'smart (fashionable)'), and 2215:alphabet for Korean and supplemented with 517: 55: 14536: 8904:, translated by Gilbert Louis Mattos and 8727: 8686: 8648: 8513: 8494: 8477: 8459: 8061:"Language Policy in the KMT and DPP eras" 7955: 7834: 7782:Language Atlas of China: Chinese dialects 7747: 7589: 7385:"Indo-European Vocabulary in Old Chinese" 7369: 7353:Egerod, Søren Christian (12 April 2024). 7176: 7137: 6932: 6920: 6908: 6884: 6812: 6644: 6584: 6513:Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (2012) 6357:Baxter's transcription for Middle Chinese 6339: 6304: 4130: 2000:) developed based on the dialects of the 1793: 1616:at least to some degree, and are largely 8926: 8668:Wardaugh, Ronald; Fuller, Janet (2014). 8629: 8574: 8139: 8098: 7808:Journal of the American Oriental Society 7721: 7693: 7617: 7161: 7149: 7050: 7038: 7026: 6860: 6848: 6105: 6095: 6088:for Chinese. The most widespread is the 5716: 5540: 5394: 5045: 5035: 5025: 5015: 4900: 4890: 4486:by adding descriptive text and removing 2912: 2434: 2294: 2278: 2122: 2078:National Language Unification Commission 1872:distinctions in Middle Chinese. Several 1701:official languages of the United Nations 1509: 407:Chinese Language Standardisation Council 14551: 13498: 13481: 10744: 8728:Zhang, Bennan; Yang, Robin R. (2004). " 8593: 8555: 8407: 8309:Old Japanese: A Phonetic Reconstruction 7421:"Requirements for Chinese Text Layout" 7282:Langenscheidt Pocket Chinese Dictionary 7277: 6824: 5644:Modern characters are styled after the 5624:) with a semantic component of the 4975:; 'sofa'). Later, American 4521:), phonetic translation (by sound), or 3599:Langenscheidt Pocket Chinese Dictionary 2984:can stand alone as their own syllable. 2549:Proportions of first-language speakers 1747:and many other languages spoken in the 560:question marks, boxes, or other symbols 14: 16010: 13797: 13762: 13394: 11105: 8388: 8347: 8325: 8303: 8277: 8058: 8001: 7934: 7901: 7860: 7840:The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy 7798: 7671: 7652: 7352: 7306: 7253: 7229: 7217: 7205: 7201: 7125: 7101: 7014: 6987: 6975: 6963: 6959: 6947: 6872: 6836: 6800: 6788: 6776: 6764: 6752: 6740: 6728: 6716: 6704: 6692: 6680: 6668: 6656: 6632: 6620: 6608: 6596: 6572: 6560: 6548: 6536: 6524: 6455: 6298: 6286:The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language 6209:Protection of the Varieties of Chinese 5686:creating its own simplified characters 4737:; 'dashing-leaping') for ' 4509:Translation of neologisms into Chinese 3619: 2956:in certain varieties), preceded by an 1942:Classical and vernacular written forms 1649:, Middle Chinese went through several 1412: 1201: 1195: 1082: 861: 746: 15854: 15356:Southern Peninsular Malaysian Hokkien 14510: 14082: 13455: 13368: 12253: 11312: 11079: 11066: 9017: 8194: 8020: 7997:from the original on 10 October 2022. 7980: 7436: 7379: 5800:Comparison of Mandarin romanizations 5524: 5501:derived from Chinese characters. The 5430:('one') is pronounced as 4513:Transcription into Chinese characters 3301:Examples of Standard Cantonese tones 3265: 2972:consonant; a syllable also carries a 2909:Varieties of Chinese § Phonology 1552:, of which the most spoken by far is 9043: 8937:(blog): Language Borrowing (topic). 8532: 8213: 8039: 7407: 7241: 7188: 6896: 6497: 4719:) for the video game character ' 4454: 4450: 4285:), and perhaps 'horse' ( 4075:All varieties of modern Chinese are 2115:Adoption of Chinese literary culture 1829:. The next attested stage came from 1687:is an official language of both the 34:. For other languages in China, see 12254: 8959: 8930:"Why So Little Chinese in English?" 8670:An Introduction to Sociolinguistics 8120: 7677:A Handbook of Old Chinese Phonology 7653:Bailey, Charles James Nice (1973). 7113: 6291:Charles N. Li, Sandra A. Thompson. 6110:Yang Lingfu, former curator of the 4527:international scientific vocabulary 3125:Examples of Standard Chinese tones 2715: 1703:. Standard Chinese is based on the 24: 8809: 8603:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 8261:Cantonese: A Comprehensive Grammar 8169: 8162:Ethnologue: Languages of the World 7565:"How hard is it to learn Chinese?" 7336:Timothy Uy and Jim Hsia, Editors, 7089: 6424: 5509:and was previously written in the 3109: 3049:system much like modern Japanese. 2672:, previously included in Mandarin. 1604:and certain divergent dialects of 523:Map of the Chinese-speaking world 25: 16074: 8987: 8947:from the original on 20 June 2013 8818:"The Characters That Built China" 7062: 6154:Chinese computational linguistics 6133:(HSK), comparable to the English 5376: 5129:'third generation of cell phones' 4670:; 'internet logbook') 4385:) and 'bodhisattva' ( 3793:Lion-Eating Poet in the Stone Den 1730: 15995: 15983: 15971: 15959: 15947: 15616:Malay trade and creole languages 11048: 10526:Literary and colloquial readings 10398: 8769:10.2752/175470710X12593419555126 8649:Wakefield, John C., ed. (2019). 8023:Social Anthropology and Language 7920:10.1111/j.1749-818X.2008.00061.x 7908:Language and Linguistics Compass 6441: 5537:Chinese character classification 5122: 4941:) was borrowed from Italian 4693:; 'hamburger') from 4582:; 'electric vision') 4565: 4459: 3808: 3609: 3280: 3269: 3092: 3083: 3074: 3065: 2367: 2355: 2343: 2329: 2322: 2315: 1831:inscriptions on bronze artifacts 1524:Ying, a speaker of Henan Chinese 14571:comparison with British English 8289:. University of Chicago Press. 8044:. North Clarendon, VT: Tuttle. 7655:Variation and linguistic theory 7611: 7595: 7557: 7517: 7499: 7493: 7470: 7442: 7413: 7343: 7330: 7312: 7271: 7194: 7056: 6401: 6384: 6361: 6349: 5706: 5594:; 'mountain'), and 4603:; 'electric brain') 2823: 2262: 2247:English words of Chinese origin 1889:Northern and Southern dynasties 1782:History of the Chinese language 1697:official languages of Singapore 1612:. All varieties of Chinese are 1266:Second alternative Chinese name 1254: 1230: 1191: 1177: 1163: 1149: 1128: 1105: 921: 888: 857: 841: 827: 813: 792: 769: 528: Majority Chinese-speaking 38:. For different varieties, see 8847:, University of Hawaii Press, 8558:A History of Korean Literature 8541:. Cambridge University Press. 8393:. Princeton University Press. 8170:Li, Siok-Hong (1 March 2010). 7749:11858/00-001M-0000-0013-1A8D-4 6465: 6390:A distinction is made between 6381:, used with personal pronouns. 6377: 6372: 6368: 6274: 6259: 6238: 6229: 6220: 6184:Chinese word-segmented writing 5995: 5991: 5965: 5961: 5909: 5905: 5853: 5849: 5823: 5819: 5730: 5725: 5721: 5620: 5610: 5600: 5590: 5580: 5570: 5356: 5351: 5347: 5322: 5290: 5285: 5267: 5258: 5226: 5221: 5204: 5195: 5164: 5159: 5140: 5126: 5116: 5111: 5107: 5099: 5089: 5079: 5069: 5059: 5054: 5050: 5005: 4999: 4994: 4990: 4985: 4971: 4966: 4962: 4957: 4952: 4948: 4937: 4927: 4922: 4918: 4913: 4881: 4877: 4872: 4867: 4863: 4858: 4848: 4843: 4839: 4834: 4829: 4825: 4820: 4810: 4805: 4801: 4796: 4791: 4787: 4782: 4772: 4751: 4746: 4742: 4733: 4728: 4724: 4715: 4710: 4706: 4694: 4689: 4684: 4680: 4666: 4661: 4657: 4641: 4636: 4632: 4620: 4615: 4611: 4599: 4594: 4590: 4578: 4573: 4569: 4559: 4554: 4550: 4534: 4530: 4443: 4433: 4395: 4390: 4386: 4381: 4371: 4366: 4362: 4357: 4351:), 'pomegranate' ( 4347: 4333: 4328: 4324: 4319: 4309: 4304: 4300: 4295: 4290: 4286: 4281: 4276: 4272: 4267: 4166:subject–verb–object word order 4157: 4152: 4148: 4143: 4138: 4134: 4125: 4068: 4063: 4059: 4054: 4049: 4045: 4040: 4035: 4031: 4017: 4012: 4008: 4003: 3993: 3979: 3969: 3959: 3949: 3944: 3940: 3935: 3890: 3886: 3869: 3865: 3848: 3844: 3827: 3823: 3737: 3733: 3685: 3681: 3657: 3653: 3589: 3579: 3440: 3436: 3337: 3333: 3260: 3256: 3231: 3227: 3204: 3200: 3154: 3150: 2856: 2851: 2847: 2842: 2793: 2770: 2765: 2761: 2756: 2751: 2747: 2742: 2737: 2207:, but later replaced with the 2090: 2085: 2081: 2072: 2067: 2063: 2047: 2042: 2038: 1487:spoken natively by the ethnic 1479: 1459: 1450: 1442: 1411: 1397: 1381: 1367: 1348: 1347: 1333: 1293: 1277: 1081: 1067: 1053: 1037: 1023: 1004: 1003: 989: 944: 745: 731: 717: 701: 687: 668: 667: 653: 610: 594: 13: 1: 8964:. New York: Riverhead Books. 8514:Shibatani, Masayoshi (1990). 8352:. Routledge. pp. 72–83. 8077:10.4000/chinaperspectives.442 8025:. Routledge. pp. 47–92. 7957:10.1525/aa.1966.68.4.02a00040 7804:"A Brief History of Mandarin" 7679:. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. 7604:"汉语水平考试中心：2005年外国考生总人数近12万", 6413: 6407:Hong Kong and Macau Cantonese 6244:Mandarin, Hakka, and Hokkien. 6159:Chinese exclamative particles 6102:Chinese as a foreign language 6064:Other phonetic transcriptions 5073:; 'hacker'), and 5029:; 'gay people'), 4624:; 'hand machine') 4195: 2736:of China (where it is called 2684:, previously included in Yue. 2133:, a Korean collection of the 2004:around the capital. The 1324 1962:Classical or Literary Chinese 1819: 1810:Reconstruction of Old Chinese 1641:. The phonetic categories of 1635: 132:1.35 billion (2017–2022) 11054:List of varieties of Chinese 8801:(Press release). 6 May 2019. 7879:10.1080/01434632.2010.509507 7529:(in Chinese). Archived from 7454:(in Chinese). Archived from 7278:Terrell, Peter, ed. (2005). 6418: 5444: 5438: 5432: 5093:; 'hacker') and 4545: 4323:), and 'goose' ( 4248: 4058:; 'goalkeeper', and 3913: 3896: 3875: 3854: 3833: 3798: 3777: 3770: 3753: 3746: 3725: 3718: 3701: 3694: 3673: 3666: 3645: 3638: 3516: 3509: 3486: 3479: 3456: 3449: 3422: 3415: 3392: 3385: 3353: 3346: 3275: 3240: 3213: 3186: 3163: 3104: 3054: 3000:, the retroflex approximant 2905:Historical Chinese phonology 2894: 2678:, previously included in Wu. 2443:and Taiwan according to the 2301: 2108: 1737:Sino-Tibetan language family 1647:Northern and Southern period 397:National Languages Committee 7: 8845:Asia's Orthographic Dilemma 8843:Hannas, William C. (1997), 8751:Zimmermann, Basile (2010). 8412:. Oxford University Press. 7940:"Dialect, Language, Nation" 7844:University of Hawaiʻi Press 6140: 6034: 6027: 6008: 6001: 5978: 5971: 5948: 5941: 5922: 5915: 5892: 5885: 5866: 5859: 5836: 5829: 5789: 5783: 5777: 5448:in Hokkien, a form of Min. 5368: 5340: 5168:('cell phone') 5039:; 'taxi'), and 5003:; 'cola'), and 4776:), and 'Paris' becomes 4645:; 'blue tooth') 4539: 4361:), and 'lion' ( 4023: 3603: 3597:. As an example, the small 2439:Range of dialect groups in 2430: 2217: 2209: 1915: 1837:period (1046–771 BCE), the 1528:Chinese languages form the 1493:many minority ethnic groups 76: 62: 10: 16079: 11012:Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols 9000:Marjorie Chan's ChinaLinks 8688:Wilkinson, Endymion Porter 8389:Ramsey, S. Robert (1987). 8350:The Sino-Tibetan languages 7861:Groves, Julie May (2010). 7645: 6473:"Summary by language size" 6116:Civil Affairs Staging Area 6099: 5710: 5534: 5528: 5453:written vernacular Chinese 5380: 5207:'Cost, Insurance, Freight' 5199:; 'industry') 5019:; 'cartoon'), 4894:; 'sofa') and 4506: 3538: 3532: 3528: 2901:Standard Chinese phonology 2898: 2860:; 'local speech'. 2725: 2719: 2539:, including Cantonese and 2305: 2112: 2060:standard national language 1970:written vernacular Chinese 1952:Written vernacular Chinese 1945: 1807: 1797: 1779: 1775: 1695:(Taiwan), one of the four 1689:People's Republic of China 29: 27:National language of China 15889: 15834: 15809: 15786: 15777: 15722:comparison with Malaysian 15672: 15646: 15591: 15571: 15533: 15468: 15401: 15277: 15268: 14884: 14689: 14673: 14659: 14585: 14544: 14496:Singaporean Sign Language 14488: 14428: 14363: 14296: 14241: 14234: 14193: 14174: 14139: 14123: 14116: 13996: 13980: 13962: 13909: 13886: 13861: 13838: 13829: 13806: 13788: 13753: 13721: 13695: 13630: 13553: 13537: 13507: 13489: 13423: 13402: 13336: 13309:Southern (Shanghai) Sign 13294: 13223: 13167: 12971: 12909: 12862: 12819: 12781: 12666: 12588: 12579: 12511: 12474: 12361: 12352: 12264: 12260: 12249: 12190: 12092: 11974: 11900: 11747: 11629: 11441: 11432: 11384: 11336: 11325: 11321: 11308: 11301: 11281: 11188: 11136: 11129: 11113: 11073: 11068:Links to related articles 11046: 10930: 10899: 10810: 10735: 10677: 10597: 10572: 10534: 10481: 10407: 10396: 10343: 10295: 10250: 10227: 10172: 10163: 10101: 10020: 9995: 9977: 9954: 9891: 9882: 9845: 9822: 9784: 9775: 9766: 9702: 9662: 9589: 9567: 9539: 9521: 9495: 9472: 9408: 9399: 9376: 9346: 9323: 9247: 9187: 9159: 9136: 9113: 9080: 9071: 9062: 9051: 8692:Chinese History: A Manual 8672:. John Wiley & Sons. 8632:What is sociolinguistics? 8630:Van Herk, Gerard (2012). 8408:Romaine, Suzanne (1994). 7722:Chappell, Hilary (2008). 7618:Liu lili (27 June 2011). 7479:粤语：中国最强方言是如何炼成的_私家历史_澎湃新闻 7266:Matthews & Yip (1994) 6395: 6391: 6323: 6280:Various examples include: 6254: 6189:Classical Chinese grammar 6021: 5935: 5879: 5632: 5628: 5615: 5605: 5595: 5585: 5575: 5565: 5545: 5464: 5460: 5427: 5362: 5334: 5317: 5299: 5253: 5235: 5190: 5173: 5135: 5094: 5084: 5074: 5064: 5040: 5030: 5020: 5010: 4980: 4932: 4908: 4895: 4885: 4853: 4815: 4777: 4767: 4698: 4438: 4428: 4408: 4404: 4376: 4352: 4342: 4314: 4262: 4120: 4107:. They make heavy use of 3998: 3988: 3984: 3974: 3964: 3954: 3930: 3907: 3803: 3761: 3709: 3629: 3584: 3574: 3500: 3496: 3470: 3466: 3432: 3406: 3402: 3376: 3372: 3329: 3324: 3319: 3314: 3311: 3308: 3305: 3250: 3223: 3219:low falling, then rising 3196: 3177: 3173: 3146: 3141: 3138: 3135: 3132: 3129: 2837: 2289: 2273: 2257: 2162:Sino-Xenic pronunciations 2146:period of Chinese control 1980:Rise of northern dialects 1474: 1425: 1404: 1390: 1374: 1360: 1340: 1326: 1319: 1314: 1310: 1302: 1286: 1270: 1265: 1244: 1237: 1220: 1213: 1184: 1170: 1156: 1142: 1135: 1121: 1114: 1098: 1091: 1074: 1060: 1046: 1030: 1016: 996: 982: 975: 970: 966: 955: 945: 937: 932: 911: 904: 878: 871: 850: 834: 820: 806: 799: 785: 778: 762: 755: 738: 724: 710: 694: 680: 660: 646: 639: 634: 630: 619: 603: 587: 583: 578: 546: 516: 500: 484: 448: 430: 425: 391:State Language Commission 380: 366: 346:Official language in 344: 339: 287: 226: 203: 168: 136: 126: 85: 54: 49: 15841:Nearly extinct languages 8927:R. L. G. (6 June 2013). 8910:University of California 8872:10.1017/CBO9781139166935 8495:Schüssler, Axel (2007). 8140:Kurpaska, Maria (2010). 8059:Klöter, Henning (2004). 7983: 7777: 7525: 7510: 7502: 7486: 7478: 7450: 7422: 7204:, p. 11), cited in 7063:何, 信翰 (10 August 2019). 6539:, pp. 422, 434–436. 6344:Monosyllabism in English 6214: 6112:National Museum of China 5574:; 'human'), 5387:Mainland Chinese Braille 4989:; 'disco'), 4904:; 'motor'). 4838:; 'logic'), 4824:; 'humor'), 4814:; 'motor'), 4523:a combination of the two 4182:serial verb construction 3987:; 'quartz', and 3039: 2796:; 'Taiwanese'), 2732:Standard Chinese is the 2150:Four Commanderies of Han 1966:Spring and Autumn period 1857:phonology of Old Chinese 1629:oracle bone inscriptions 1288:Traditional Chinese 933:Alternative Chinese name 859:Cantonese pronunciation: 605:Traditional Chinese 417:Promote Mandarin Council 15794:Malaysian Sign Language 13306:Northern (Beijing) Sign 8994:Classical Chinese texts 8711:Language Atlas of China 8461:10.1073/pnas.1817972116 8121:Kuo, Yun-Hsuan (2005). 7981:Huang Hua (黃華) (2014). 7944:American Anthropologist 7694:Campbell, Lyle (2008), 7370:Ulenbrook, Jan (1967), 7359:Encyclopædia Britannica 6813:Zhang & Yang (2004) 6324:《汉语在语言系属分类中相当于一个语族的地位。》 5999: 5990: 5775:than they will be with 5713:Romanization of Chinese 5063:; 'fans'), 4800:; 'sofa'), 4703:phono-semantic matching 4488:less pertinent examples 4271:), 'lion' ( 4147:; 'still', and 4089:grammatical inflections 4085:inflectional morphology 4044:; 'hamburger', 3293:were considered to be " 2662:Language Atlas of China 2659:, which is used in the 2445:Language Atlas of China 2119:Sino-Xenic vocabularies 1770:Tibeto-Burman languages 1602:Central Plains Mandarin 1272:Simplified Chinese 589:Simplified Chinese 16048:Languages of Singapore 16038:Languages of Hong Kong 15822:Selangor Sign Language 14941:Bruneian/Kedayan Malay 14746:Kelantan-Pattani Malay 14110:Languages of Singapore 11315:Sino-Tibetan languages 8996:– Chinese Text Project 8516:The Languages of Japan 8391:The Languages of China 8002:Hudson, R. A. (1996). 7067:. 自由時報. Archived from 6119: 6048:Other systems include 5747:Christian missionaries 5735: 5669:Traditional characters 5584:; 'Sun'), 5549: 5411: 5144:; 'three') 4943: 4762:Foreign words, mainly 4697:; 'Hamburg' + 4313:), 'dog' ( 4299:), 'pig' ( 3117: 3004:, and voiceless stops 2922: 2655:The classification of 2447: 2225: 2137: 2135:Chinese Buddhist canon 1984:After the fall of the 1931:borrowed Chinese words 1794:Old and Middle Chinese 1753:Southeast Asian Massif 1721:Traditional characters 1623:The earliest attested 1594:Lower Yangtze Mandarin 1542:mutual intelligibility 1525: 548:This article contains 15061:Kota Marudu Talantang 14791:Negeri Sembilan Malay 14538:Languages of Malaysia 14068:Yilan Creole Japanese 8864:The Syntax of Chinese 8533:Sohn, Ho-Min (2001). 8368:Pulleyblank, Edwin G. 8285:The Japanese Language 8195:Liang, Sihua (2015). 8172:"台、華語接觸所引起的台語語音的變化趨勢" 8040:Kane, Daniel (2006). 7740:10.1515/LITY.2008.032 6825:Sohn & Lee (2003) 6319:Encyclopedia of China 6135:Cambridge Certificate 6131:Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi 6109: 6096:As a foreign language 5749:in the 16th century. 5720: 5673:Simplified characters 5544: 5436:in Standard Chinese, 5398: 4427:etymologies, such as 4161:; 'already'. 4109:grammatical particles 3963:; 'plaster', 3607:in Standard Chinese: 3116: 2920: 2899:Further information: 2802:Austronesian language 2438: 2126: 1882:grammatical particles 1808:Further information: 1717:simplified characters 1699:, and one of the six 1586:Southwestern Mandarin 1534:Sino-Tibetan language 1523: 413:Ministry of Education 401:Hakka Affairs Council 15817:Penang Sign Language 15799:Manually Coded Malay 14175:Indigenous languages 13972:Taiwan Sign Language 9006:20 July 2011 at the 8311:. Routledge–Curzon. 8226:Sino-Platonic Papers 7902:Handel, Zev (2008). 7392:Sino-Platonic Papers 7286:. Langenscheidt KG. 6962:, pp. 189–191; 6743:, pp. 133, 247. 6458:, pp. 211–214; 6269:Varieties of Chinese 6169:Chinese language law 5631:, a reduced form of 4242:Xiandai Hanyu Cidian 4239:The 2016 edition of 4072:; 'e-mail'. 3983:; 'grotto', 3839:'actual-connection' 2308:Varieties of Chinese 1927:varieties of Chinese 1874:derivational affixes 1843:and portions of the 1725:communities overseas 1639: 1250 BCE 863:[hɔ̄ːn.jy̬ː] 16053:Languages of Taiwan 16028:Isolating languages 15300:Malaysian Cantonese 15056:Klias River Kadazan 14235:Immigrant languages 13483:Languages of Taiwan 13349:NM = Inner Mongolia 8537:The Korean Language 8452:2019PNAS..11610317S 8446:(21): 10317–10322. 7728:Linguistic Typology 7458:on 15 February 2020 7355:"Chinese languages" 6887:, pp. 120–121. 6779:, pp. 540–541. 6767:, pp. 549–550. 6635:, pp. 181–183. 6575:, pp. 183–185. 6394:; 'he' and 6179:Chinese punctuation 5801: 5781:(pinyin), and with 5650:Chinese calligraphy 4484:improve the article 3541:Chinese classifiers 3302: 3126: 2833:language identity. 2806:languages of Taiwan 2708:spoken in northern 2241:Vietnamese alphabet 2198:Sino-Japanese words 1976:beginning in 1919. 1974:May Fourth Movement 1631:created during the 1590:Xuanzhou Wu Chinese 1447:traditional Chinese 1172:Canton Romanization 836:Canton Romanization 368:Recognised minority 186:Eastern Han Chinese 16043:Languages of Macau 16033:Languages of China 16023:Analytic languages 15647:Mixed & Others 15389:Malaysian Mandarin 13816:Taiwanese Mandarin 13396:Languages of Macau 12886:Formosan languages 11107:Languages of China 11007:Cantonese Bopomofo 10874:Chinese characters 10802:Written Sichuanese 9386:Zhangjiakou–Hohhot 8960:Tsu, Jing (2022). 8757:Design and Culture 8432:Jacques, Guillaume 8305:Miyake, Marc Hideo 8279:Miller, Roy Andrew 8199:. Cham: Springer. 8065:China Perspectives 7778:中国语言地图集(第2版):汉语方言卷 7708:10.1353/lan.0.0054 7673:Baxter, William H. 7608:, 16 January 2006. 7606:Xinhua News Agency 7376:proposes 57 items. 7003:Wurm et al. (1987) 6515:, pp. 3, 125. 6500:, pp. 10, 21. 6460:Pulleyblank (1984) 6199:Languages of China 6164:Chinese honorifics 6120: 5799: 5736: 5697:mainland newspaper 5550: 5531:Chinese characters 5525:Chinese characters 5420:Chinese characters 5412: 5409:semi-cursive style 5230:; 'price' 4188:, and the related 4101:grammatical number 4077:analytic languages 3973:; 'lime', 3300: 3124: 3118: 2923: 2700:spoken in western 2448: 2406:Taishan, Guangdong 2205:Chinese characters 2138: 1866:consonant clusters 1713:Chinese characters 1576:(68 million, e.g. 1568:(74 million, e.g. 1560:(75 million, e.g. 1526: 1501:variety of Chinese 1439:simplified Chinese 301:Chinese characters 218:Standard Cantonese 176:Proto-Sino-Tibetan 36:Languages of China 18:Chinese (language) 15935: 15934: 15929: 15928: 15884:loan vocabularies 15848: 15847: 15838:Extinct languages 15830: 15829: 15587: 15586: 15264: 15263: 15096:Mainstream Kenyah 14581: 14580: 14504: 14503: 14484: 14483: 14170: 14169: 14076: 14075: 13988:Taiwanese Braille 13958: 13957: 13954: 13953: 13905: 13904: 13848:Taiwanese Hokkien 13784: 13783: 13780: 13779: 13755:Malayo-Polynesian 13749: 13748: 13449: 13448: 13362: 13361: 12905: 12904: 12901: 12900: 12897: 12896: 12890: 12882: 12874: 12777: 12776: 12507: 12506: 12245: 12244: 12241: 12240: 11970: 11969: 11966: 11965: 11297: 11296: 11060: 11059: 11042: 11041: 10869: 10868: 10787:Written Cantonese 10782: 10781: 10564:Classical grammar 10559:Cantonese grammar 10394: 10393: 10291: 10290: 10097: 10096: 10016: 10015: 9878: 9877: 9585: 9584: 9372: 9371: 9262:Chengdu–Chongqing 9055:Sinitic languages 8919:978-1-55729-071-7 8881:978-0-521-59958-0 8854:978-0-8248-1892-0 8743:978-1-4020-8038-8 8720:978-962-359-085-3 8701:978-0-674-00249-4 8679:978-1-118-73229-8 8641:978-1-4051-9319-1 8586:978-0-313-24484-1 8567:978-0-521-82858-1 8548:978-0-521-36943-5 8525:978-0-521-36918-3 8506:978-0-8248-2975-9 8419:978-0-19-875133-5 8400:978-0-691-01468-5 8381:978-0-7748-0192-8 8359:978-0-7007-1129-1 8340:978-0-521-29653-3 8318:978-0-415-30575-4 8296:978-0-226-52717-8 8270:978-0-415-08945-6 8253:Matthews, Stephen 8206:978-3-319-12619-7 8151:978-3-11-021914-2 8113:978-81-920651-1-3 8051:978-0-8048-3853-5 8032:978-1-136-53941-1 8013:978-0-521-56514-1 7853:978-0-8248-1068-9 7791:978-7-100-07054-6 7686:978-3-11-012324-1 7664:978-0-87281-032-7 7571:. 17 January 2006 7554:, pp. 27–43. 7552:Zimmermann (2010) 7508:The New Messenger 7381:Chang, Tsung-tung 7293:978-1-58573-057-5 7268:, pp. 20–22. 7152:, pp. 27–28. 7140:, pp. 55–57. 7053:, pp. 72–73. 7041:, pp. 55–56. 7029:, pp. 53–55. 6875:, pp. 98–99. 6851:, pp. 75–77. 6839:, pp. 29–30. 6731:, pp. 49–51. 6719:, pp. 48–49. 6683:, pp. 34–42. 6659:, pp. 14–15. 6611:, pp. 42–45. 6527:, pp. 12–13. 6439:(27th ed., 2024) 6265:Dialect continuum 6046: 6045: 6002:Chiang Chieh-shih 5638:Kangxi Dictionary 5469:Written Cantonese 5442:in Cantonese and 5391:Taiwanese Braille 5330: 5329: 5326:; 'clan' 5262:; 'home' 4677: 4676: 4505: 4504: 4451:Modern borrowings 4103:, and only a few 4091:—it possesses no 4079:: they depend on 3923: 3922: 3860:'recognize-know' 3784: 3783: 3526: 3525: 3287: 3286: 3114: 2964:, or consonant + 2918: 2790:Taiwanese Hokkien 2734:standard language 2454:voiced initials: 2398:North China Plain 2394:dialect continuum 2130:Tripitaka Koreana 2002:North China Plain 1948:Classical Chinese 1861:Classic of Poetry 1846:Book of Documents 1840:Classic of Poetry 1693:Republic of China 1667:operated using a 1521: 1473:language' or 1467: 1429: 1428: 1421: 1420: 1321:Standard Mandarin 1261: 1260: 1144:Yale Romanization 1062:Yale Romanization 977:Standard Mandarin 928: 927: 808:Yale Romanization 726:Yale Romanization 641:Standard Mandarin 574: 573: 556:rendering support 552:phonetic symbols. 382:Regulated by 40:Sinitic languages 16:(Redirected from 16070: 16018:Chinese language 16000: 15999: 15998: 15988: 15987: 15986: 15976: 15975: 15974: 15964: 15963: 15962: 15952: 15951: 15943: 15882:Chinese language 15875: 15868: 15861: 15852: 15851: 15784: 15783: 15384:Mandarin Chinese 15275: 15274: 14871:Terengganu Malay 14671: 14670: 14549: 14548: 14531: 14524: 14517: 14508: 14507: 14239: 14238: 14194:Creole languages 14181:Johor-Riau Malay 14121: 14120: 14103: 14096: 14089: 14080: 14079: 13836: 13835: 13804: 13803: 13795: 13794: 13760: 13759: 13505: 13504: 13496: 13495: 13476: 13469: 13462: 13453: 13452: 13441:Mandarin Chinese 13389: 13382: 13375: 13366: 13365: 13318: 12888: 12880: 12872: 12586: 12585: 12359: 12358: 12262: 12261: 12251: 12250: 11439: 11438: 11334: 11333: 11323: 11322: 11310: 11309: 11306: 11305: 11134: 11133: 11121:Standard Chinese 11100: 11093: 11086: 11077: 11076: 11064: 11063: 11052: 11051: 11024:Taiwanese Hangul 10913:Mainland Chinese 10826: 10825: 10817: 10816: 10742: 10741: 10419:Standard Chinese 10402: 10170: 10169: 9889: 9888: 9782: 9781: 9773: 9772: 9655: 9643: 9631: 9619: 9607: 9406: 9405: 9078: 9077: 9069: 9068: 9045:Chinese language 9038: 9031: 9024: 9015: 9014: 8983: 8956: 8954: 8952: 8932: 8923: 8893: 8858: 8838: 8836: 8834: 8802: 8788: 8747: 8724: 8705: 8683: 8664: 8645: 8626: 8590: 8571: 8552: 8540: 8529: 8510: 8491: 8481: 8463: 8423: 8404: 8385: 8363: 8344: 8322: 8300: 8288: 8274: 8248: 8246: 8244: 8238: 8223: 8210: 8191: 8189: 8187: 8166: 8155: 8136: 8134: 8132: 8117: 8095: 8093: 8091: 8055: 8036: 8017: 8004:Sociolinguistics 7998: 7996: 7989: 7984:白話為何在五四時期「活」起來了？ 7977: 7959: 7931: 7898: 7857: 7831: 7800:Coblin, W. South 7795: 7769: 7751: 7718: 7690: 7668: 7640: 7639: 7637: 7635: 7626:. Archived from 7615: 7609: 7603: 7599: 7593: 7590:Wakefield (2019) 7587: 7581: 7580: 7578: 7576: 7561: 7555: 7549: 7543: 7542: 7540: 7538: 7533:on 6 August 2020 7521: 7515: 7514: 7497: 7491: 7490: 7474: 7468: 7467: 7465: 7463: 7446: 7440: 7434: 7428: 7427: 7417: 7411: 7405: 7399: 7395: 7389: 7375: 7366: 7347: 7341: 7334: 7328: 7327: 7316: 7310: 7304: 7298: 7297: 7285: 7275: 7269: 7263: 7257: 7251: 7245: 7239: 7233: 7227: 7221: 7215: 7209: 7198: 7192: 7186: 7180: 7177:DeFrancis (1984) 7174: 7165: 7159: 7153: 7147: 7141: 7138:DeFrancis (1984) 7135: 7129: 7123: 7117: 7111: 7105: 7099: 7093: 7087: 7081: 7080: 7078: 7076: 7060: 7054: 7048: 7042: 7036: 7030: 7024: 7018: 7012: 7006: 7000: 6991: 6985: 6979: 6973: 6967: 6957: 6951: 6945: 6936: 6933:Shibatani (1990) 6930: 6924: 6921:Wilkinson (2000) 6918: 6912: 6909:Shibatani (1990) 6906: 6900: 6894: 6888: 6885:Shibatani (1990) 6882: 6876: 6870: 6864: 6858: 6852: 6846: 6840: 6834: 6828: 6822: 6816: 6810: 6804: 6798: 6792: 6791:, pp. 3–15. 6786: 6780: 6774: 6768: 6762: 6756: 6750: 6744: 6738: 6732: 6726: 6720: 6714: 6708: 6702: 6696: 6690: 6684: 6678: 6672: 6666: 6660: 6654: 6648: 6645:Schüssler (2007) 6642: 6636: 6630: 6624: 6618: 6612: 6606: 6600: 6594: 6588: 6585:Schüssler (2007) 6582: 6576: 6570: 6564: 6558: 6552: 6546: 6540: 6534: 6528: 6522: 6516: 6510: 6501: 6495: 6489: 6488: 6486: 6484: 6479:. 3 October 2018 6469: 6463: 6453: 6447: 6446: 6445: 6428: 6408: 6405: 6399: 6397: 6393: 6388: 6382: 6379: 6374: 6370: 6365: 6359: 6353: 6347: 6340:DeFrancis (1984) 6337: 6328: 6325: 6305:DeFrancis (1984) 6278: 6272: 6261: 6256: 6251: 6245: 6242: 6236: 6233: 6227: 6224: 6174:Chinese numerals 6090:Palladius system 6070:'Phags-pa script 6037: 6030: 6023: 6011: 6004: 5997: 5993: 5981: 5974: 5967: 5963: 5951: 5944: 5937: 5925: 5918: 5911: 5907: 5895: 5888: 5881: 5869: 5862: 5855: 5851: 5839: 5832: 5825: 5821: 5802: 5798: 5796:For comparison: 5792: 5786: 5780: 5732: 5727: 5723: 5634: 5630: 5622: 5617: 5612: 5607: 5602: 5597: 5592: 5587: 5582: 5577: 5572: 5567: 5547: 5466: 5462: 5447: 5441: 5435: 5429: 5371: 5365: 5364: 5358: 5353: 5349: 5345: 5337: 5336: 5324: 5319: 5301: 5294:; 'era' 5292: 5287: 5269: 5260: 5255: 5237: 5228: 5223: 5206: 5197: 5192: 5175: 5166: 5161: 5142: 5137: 5128: 5123: 5118: 5113: 5109: 5101: 5096: 5091: 5086: 5081: 5076: 5071: 5066: 5061: 5056: 5052: 5047: 5042: 5037: 5032: 5027: 5022: 5017: 5012: 5007: 5001: 4996: 4992: 4987: 4982: 4973: 4968: 4964: 4959: 4954: 4950: 4946: 4939: 4934: 4929: 4924: 4920: 4915: 4910: 4902: 4897: 4892: 4887: 4883: 4879: 4874: 4869: 4865: 4860: 4855: 4850: 4845: 4841: 4836: 4831: 4827: 4822: 4817: 4812: 4807: 4803: 4798: 4793: 4789: 4784: 4779: 4774: 4769: 4753: 4748: 4744: 4735: 4730: 4726: 4717: 4712: 4708: 4700: 4696: 4691: 4686: 4682: 4668: 4663: 4659: 4643: 4638: 4634: 4622: 4617: 4613: 4601: 4596: 4592: 4580: 4575: 4571: 4566: 4561: 4556: 4552: 4548: 4542: 4536: 4532: 4500: 4497: 4491: 4463: 4462: 4455: 4445: 4440: 4435: 4430: 4410: 4406: 4397: 4392: 4388: 4383: 4378: 4373: 4368: 4364: 4359: 4354: 4349: 4344: 4335: 4330: 4326: 4321: 4316: 4311: 4306: 4302: 4297: 4292: 4288: 4283: 4278: 4274: 4269: 4264: 4190:subject dropping 4186:pronoun dropping 4159: 4154: 4150: 4145: 4140: 4136: 4132: 4127: 4122: 4070: 4065: 4061: 4056: 4051: 4047: 4042: 4037: 4033: 4026: 4019: 4014: 4010: 4005: 4000: 3995: 3990: 3986: 3981: 3976: 3971: 3966: 3961: 3956: 3951: 3946: 3942: 3937: 3932: 3916: 3909: 3902:'time-interval' 3899: 3892: 3888: 3878: 3871: 3867: 3857: 3850: 3846: 3836: 3829: 3825: 3809: 3805: 3801: 3780: 3773: 3763: 3756: 3749: 3739: 3735: 3728: 3721: 3711: 3704: 3697: 3687: 3683: 3676: 3669: 3659: 3655: 3648: 3641: 3631: 3621: 3610: 3606: 3591: 3586: 3581: 3576: 3564:phonetic erosion 3519: 3512: 3502: 3489: 3482: 3472: 3459: 3452: 3442: 3438: 3425: 3418: 3408: 3395: 3388: 3378: 3356: 3349: 3339: 3335: 3303: 3299: 3278: 3271: 3267: 3262: 3258: 3243: 3233: 3229: 3216: 3206: 3202: 3189: 3179: 3166: 3156: 3152: 3127: 3123: 3115: 3107: 3096: 3087: 3078: 3069: 3057: 3031: 3027: 3023: 3019: 3015: 3011: 3007: 3003: 2999: 2995: 2991: 2983: 2979: 2944:(which can be a 2919: 2858: 2853: 2849: 2844: 2839: 2795: 2786:Taiwanese people 2772: 2767: 2763: 2758: 2753: 2749: 2744: 2739: 2722:Standard Chinese 2716:Standard Chinese 2644: 2634: 2624: 2614: 2604: 2594: 2584: 2574: 2564: 2554: 2463:Standard Chinese 2382: 2376: 2371: 2370: 2364: 2359: 2358: 2352: 2347: 2346: 2340: 2333: 2332: 2326: 2319: 2296: 2291: 2280: 2275: 2264: 2259: 2230: 2222: 2214: 2154:Chinese Buddhism 2092: 2087: 2083: 2074: 2069: 2065: 2058:In the 1930s, a 2049: 2044: 2040: 2007:Zhongyuan Yinyun 1920: 1824: 1821: 1739:, together with 1685:Standard Chinese 1640: 1637: 1627:consists of the 1522: 1481: 1476: 1468: 1465: 1461: 1452: 1444: 1417: 1416: 1415: 1400: 1399: 1386: 1385: 1384: 1370: 1369: 1356: 1355: 1354: 1352: 1336: 1335: 1312: 1311: 1298: 1297: 1282: 1281: 1257: 1256: 1233: 1232: 1209: 1208: 1204: 1198: 1180: 1179: 1166: 1165: 1152: 1151: 1131: 1130: 1110: 1109: 1108: 1087: 1086: 1085: 1070: 1069: 1056: 1055: 1042: 1041: 1040: 1026: 1025: 1012: 1011: 1010: 1008: 992: 991: 968: 967: 951: 950: 949: 924: 923: 900: 899: 867: 866: 865: 860: 846: 845: 844: 830: 829: 816: 815: 795: 794: 774: 773: 772: 751: 750: 749: 734: 733: 720: 719: 706: 705: 704: 690: 689: 676: 675: 674: 672: 656: 655: 632: 631: 615: 614: 599: 598: 579:Chinese language 576: 575: 539: 533: 527: 521: 512: 496: 489: 480: 474: 467: 461: 453: 444: 443: 435: 370:language in 293: 213:Standard Chinese 142: 79: 74:(middle) forms, 65: 59: 47: 46: 32:Standard Chinese 21: 16078: 16077: 16073: 16072: 16071: 16069: 16068: 16067: 16008: 16007: 16006: 15996: 15994: 15984: 15982: 15972: 15970: 15960: 15958: 15946: 15938: 15936: 15931: 15930: 15925: 15885: 15879: 15849: 15844: 15826: 15805: 15773: 15668: 15642: 15583: 15567: 15529: 15470: 15464: 15424:Malaysian Tamil 15397: 15270: 15260: 14981:Eastern Kadazan 14961:Coastal Kadazan 14887: 14880: 14692: 14685: 14664: 14655: 14577: 14540: 14535: 14505: 14500: 14480: 14424: 14359: 14292: 14230: 14189: 14166: 14135: 14112: 14107: 14077: 14072: 13997:Other languages 13992: 13976: 13950: 13919:Taiwanese Hakka 13901: 13898:(Wuqiu dialect) 13882: 13857: 13853:Teochew dialect 13825: 13776: 13745: 13717: 13691: 13626: 13549: 13533: 13485: 13480: 13450: 13445: 13431:Macanese Patois 13419: 13398: 13393: 13363: 13358: 13332: 13312: 13290: 13219: 13163: 12974: 12967: 12893: 12873:(Indo-European) 12858: 12815: 12773: 12662: 12575: 12503: 12470: 12348: 12256: 12255:Other languages 12237: 12186: 12117:Central Tibetan 12088: 11962: 11896: 11743: 11625: 11428: 11380: 11328: 11317: 11293: 11277: 11184: 11125: 11109: 11104: 11069: 11061: 11056: 11038: 10975:Tongyong Pinyin 10955:Gwoyeu Romatzyh 10943:Dungan Cyrillic 10926: 10895: 10865: 10806: 10797:Written Hokkien 10778: 10737: 10731: 10707:Middle Mandarin 10673: 10593: 10568: 10530: 10477: 10410: 10403: 10390: 10339: 10287: 10246: 10223: 10159: 10093: 10012: 9991: 9973: 9950: 9874: 9841: 9818: 9762: 9698: 9658: 9649: 9637: 9625: 9613: 9601: 9581: 9563: 9535: 9517: 9491: 9468: 9395: 9368: 9342: 9319: 9243: 9183: 9155: 9132: 9109: 9058: 9047: 9042: 9008:Wayback Machine 8990: 8972: 8950: 8948: 8920: 8902:Chinese Writing 8896: 8882: 8861: 8855: 8842: 8832: 8830: 8812: 8810:Further reading 8807: 8791: 8744: 8721: 8702: 8680: 8661: 8642: 8615:10.2307/2718766 8587: 8568: 8549: 8526: 8507: 8428:Sagart, Laurent 8420: 8401: 8382: 8360: 8341: 8319: 8297: 8271: 8242: 8240: 8236: 8221: 8215:Mair, Victor H. 8207: 8185: 8183: 8152: 8130: 8128: 8114: 8089: 8087: 8052: 8033: 8014: 7994: 7987: 7985: 7854: 7836:DeFrancis, John 7792: 7779: 7687: 7665: 7648: 7643: 7633: 7631: 7630:on 29 June 2011 7616: 7612: 7601: 7600: 7596: 7588: 7584: 7574: 7572: 7563: 7562: 7558: 7550: 7546: 7536: 7534: 7527: 7526:全球華文網-華文世界，數位之最 7523: 7522: 7518: 7512: 7504: 7498: 7494: 7488: 7480: 7476: 7475: 7471: 7461: 7459: 7452: 7448: 7447: 7443: 7435: 7431: 7424: 7419: 7418: 7414: 7406: 7402: 7398: 7387: 7348: 7344: 7335: 7331: 7318: 7317: 7313: 7305: 7301: 7294: 7276: 7272: 7264: 7260: 7252: 7248: 7240: 7236: 7228: 7224: 7216: 7212: 7199: 7195: 7187: 7183: 7175: 7168: 7162:Campbell (2008) 7160: 7156: 7150:Thomason (1988) 7148: 7144: 7136: 7132: 7128:, pp. 7–8. 7124: 7120: 7112: 7108: 7100: 7096: 7088: 7084: 7074: 7072: 7071:on 11 July 2021 7065:"自由廣場》Taigi與台語" 7061: 7057: 7051:Kurpaska (2010) 7049: 7045: 7039:Kurpaska (2010) 7037: 7033: 7027:Kurpaska (2010) 7025: 7021: 7013: 7009: 7001: 6994: 6986: 6982: 6974: 6970: 6958: 6954: 6946: 6939: 6931: 6927: 6919: 6915: 6907: 6903: 6895: 6891: 6883: 6879: 6871: 6867: 6861:Kornicki (2011) 6859: 6855: 6849:Kornicki (2011) 6847: 6843: 6835: 6831: 6823: 6819: 6811: 6807: 6799: 6795: 6787: 6783: 6775: 6771: 6763: 6759: 6751: 6747: 6739: 6735: 6727: 6723: 6715: 6711: 6703: 6699: 6691: 6687: 6679: 6675: 6667: 6663: 6655: 6651: 6643: 6639: 6631: 6627: 6619: 6615: 6607: 6603: 6599:, pp. 2–3. 6595: 6591: 6583: 6579: 6571: 6567: 6559: 6555: 6547: 6543: 6535: 6531: 6523: 6519: 6511: 6504: 6496: 6492: 6482: 6480: 6471: 6470: 6466: 6454: 6450: 6440: 6429: 6425: 6421: 6416: 6411: 6406: 6402: 6389: 6385: 6366: 6362: 6354: 6350: 6338: 6331: 6310: 6284:David Crystal, 6279: 6275: 6252: 6248: 6243: 6239: 6234: 6230: 6225: 6221: 6217: 6194:Han unification 6143: 6104: 6098: 6066: 6050:Gwoyeu Romatzyh 6015:Chiang Kai-shek 5715: 5709: 5662:clerical script 5539: 5533: 5527: 5503:Dungan language 5393: 5383:Written Chinese 5381:Main articles: 5379: 4627:'mobile phone' 4543:; Shanghainese 4515: 4501: 4495: 4492: 4481: 4464: 4460: 4453: 4251: 4227:Hanyu Da Cidian 4207:Hanyu Da Zidian 4198: 3939:alone, and not 3543: 3537: 3535:Chinese grammar 3531: 3368: 3122: 3121: 3120: 3119: 3110: 3099: 3098: 3097: 3089: 3088: 3080: 3079: 3071: 3070: 3042: 2913: 2911: 2897: 2826: 2730: 2724: 2718: 2690:Danzhou dialect 2653: 2652: 2651: 2650: 2649:, others (0.6%) 2642: 2640: 2632: 2630: 2622: 2620: 2612: 2610: 2602: 2600: 2592: 2590: 2582: 2580: 2572: 2570: 2562: 2560: 2552: 2475:Dungan language 2473:, and also the 2467:Beijing dialect 2433: 2388:The sinologist 2386: 2385: 2384: 2383: 2379: 2377: 2374: 2372: 2368: 2365: 2362: 2360: 2356: 2353: 2350: 2348: 2344: 2341: 2338: 2336: 2334: 2330: 2327: 2320: 2310: 2304: 2288:from Cantonese 2272:from Cantonese 2121: 2111: 1982: 1954: 1946:Main articles: 1944: 1823: 1250 BCE 1822: 1812: 1806: 1798:Main articles: 1796: 1784: 1778: 1733: 1705:Beijing dialect 1679:Nanjing dialect 1677:, based on the 1661:rime dictionary 1638: 1625:written Chinese 1510: 1431: 1392:Tongyong Pinyin 1382: 1362:Gwoyeu Romatzyh 1350: 1303:Literal meaning 1207: 1106: 1048:Tongyong Pinyin 1038: 1018:Gwoyeu Romatzyh 1006: 956:Literal meaning 898: 858: 842: 770: 712:Tongyong Pinyin 702: 682:Gwoyeu Romatzyh 670: 620:Literal meaning 554:Without proper 542: 541: 537: 535: 531: 529: 525: 508: 492: 485: 470: 469: 468: 457: 456: 449: 439: 438: 431: 421: 376: 371: 369: 362: 347: 340:Official status 335: 326:Chinese Braille 294: 289: 222: 206: 199: 171: 164: 143: 140:Language family 138: 129: 128:Native speakers 122: 81: 43: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 16076: 16066: 16065: 16060: 16058:Lingua francas 16055: 16050: 16045: 16040: 16035: 16030: 16025: 16020: 16005: 16004: 15992: 15980: 15968: 15956: 15933: 15932: 15927: 15926: 15924: 15923: 15918: 15913: 15912: 15911: 15906: 15901: 15890: 15887: 15886: 15878: 15877: 15870: 15863: 15855: 15846: 15845: 15843: 15842: 15839: 15835: 15832: 15831: 15828: 15827: 15825: 15824: 15819: 15813: 15811: 15807: 15806: 15804: 15803: 15802: 15801: 15790: 15788: 15781: 15775: 15774: 15772: 15771: 15766: 15761: 15756: 15751: 15746: 15741: 15736: 15731: 15726: 15725: 15724: 15714: 15709: 15704: 15699: 15694: 15689: 15684: 15678: 15676: 15670: 15669: 15667: 15666: 15661: 15656: 15650: 15648: 15644: 15643: 15641: 15640: 15639: 15638: 15633: 15628: 15623: 15613: 15608: 15603: 15597: 15595: 15589: 15588: 15585: 15584: 15582: 15581: 15575: 15573: 15569: 15568: 15566: 15565: 15564: 15563: 15558: 15553: 15548: 15537: 15535: 15531: 15530: 15528: 15527: 15522: 15517: 15512: 15507: 15502: 15497: 15496: 15495: 15485: 15480: 15474: 15472: 15466: 15465: 15463: 15462: 15461: 15460: 15455: 15450: 15445: 15435: 15434: 15433: 15428: 15427: 15426: 15416: 15405: 15403: 15399: 15398: 15396: 15395: 15394: 15393: 15392: 15391: 15381: 15380: 15379: 15378: 15377: 15376: 15375: 15365: 15364: 15363: 15361:Penang Hokkien 15358: 15343: 15338: 15333: 15332: 15331: 15326: 15311: 15306: 15305: 15304: 15303: 15302: 15281: 15279: 15272: 15266: 15265: 15262: 15261: 15259: 15258: 15253: 15248: 15243: 15238: 15233: 15228: 15223: 15218: 15213: 15208: 15203: 15198: 15193: 15191:Selungai Murut 15188: 15183: 15178: 15173: 15168: 15163: 15158: 15153: 15148: 15143: 15141:Punan Bah-Biau 15138: 15133: 15128: 15123: 15121:Nonukan Tidong 15118: 15113: 15108: 15103: 15098: 15093: 15088: 15083: 15078: 15073: 15068: 15063: 15058: 15053: 15048: 15043: 15041:Keningau Murut 15038: 15033: 15028: 15023: 15018: 15013: 15008: 15003: 14998: 14993: 14988: 14983: 14978: 14973: 14968: 14963: 14958: 14953: 14948: 14943: 14938: 14933: 14928: 14923: 14918: 14913: 14908: 14903: 14898: 14892: 14890: 14882: 14881: 14879: 14878: 14873: 14868: 14863: 14858: 14853: 14848: 14843: 14838: 14833: 14828: 14823: 14818: 14813: 14808: 14803: 14798: 14793: 14788: 14783: 14778: 14773: 14768: 14763: 14758: 14753: 14748: 14743: 14738: 14733: 14728: 14723: 14718: 14713: 14708: 14703: 14697: 14695: 14687: 14686: 14684: 14683: 14677: 14675: 14668: 14657: 14656: 14654: 14653: 14652: 14651: 14641: 14640: 14639: 14634: 14629: 14624: 14619: 14614: 14604: 14603: 14602: 14591: 14589: 14583: 14582: 14579: 14578: 14576: 14575: 14574: 14573: 14563: 14557: 14555: 14546: 14542: 14541: 14534: 14533: 14526: 14519: 14511: 14502: 14501: 14499: 14498: 14492: 14490: 14489:Sign languages 14486: 14485: 14482: 14481: 14479: 14478: 14473: 14468: 14463: 14458: 14453: 14448: 14443: 14438: 14432: 14430: 14426: 14425: 14423: 14422: 14417: 14412: 14407: 14402: 14401: 14400: 14395: 14390: 14380: 14375: 14369: 14367: 14361: 14360: 14358: 14357: 14356: 14355: 14350: 14345: 14340: 14335: 14330: 14320: 14319: 14318: 14313: 14302: 14300: 14294: 14293: 14291: 14290: 14289: 14288: 14283: 14278: 14273: 14268: 14263: 14258: 14247: 14245: 14236: 14232: 14231: 14229: 14228: 14223: 14218: 14213: 14208: 14203: 14197: 14195: 14191: 14190: 14188: 14187: 14182: 14178: 14176: 14172: 14171: 14168: 14167: 14165: 14164: 14159: 14154: 14149: 14143: 14141: 14137: 14136: 14134: 14133: 14127: 14125: 14118: 14117:Main languages 14114: 14113: 14106: 14105: 14098: 14091: 14083: 14074: 14073: 14071: 14070: 14065: 14060: 14055: 14054: 14053: 14048: 14038: 14033: 14028: 14023: 14022: 14021: 14011: 14006: 14000: 13998: 13994: 13993: 13991: 13990: 13984: 13982: 13978: 13977: 13975: 13974: 13968: 13966: 13960: 13959: 13956: 13955: 13952: 13951: 13949: 13948: 13947: 13946: 13941: 13936: 13931: 13926: 13915: 13913: 13907: 13906: 13903: 13902: 13900: 13899: 13896:Putian dialect 13892: 13890: 13884: 13883: 13881: 13880: 13879: 13878: 13867: 13865: 13859: 13858: 13856: 13855: 13850: 13844: 13842: 13833: 13827: 13826: 13824: 13823: 13818: 13812: 13810: 13801: 13792: 13786: 13785: 13782: 13781: 13778: 13777: 13775: 13774: 13768: 13766: 13757: 13751: 13750: 13747: 13746: 13744: 13743: 13738: 13733: 13727: 13725: 13719: 13718: 13716: 13715: 13710: 13705: 13699: 13697: 13693: 13692: 13690: 13689: 13684: 13679: 13674: 13669: 13664: 13663: 13662: 13657: 13647: 13642: 13636: 13634: 13628: 13627: 13625: 13624: 13619: 13614: 13609: 13608: 13607: 13599: 13598: 13597: 13592: 13582: 13577: 13576: 13575: 13570: 13559: 13557: 13551: 13550: 13548: 13547: 13541: 13539: 13535: 13534: 13532: 13531: 13530: 13529: 13519: 13513: 13511: 13502: 13493: 13487: 13486: 13479: 13478: 13471: 13464: 13456: 13447: 13446: 13444: 13443: 13438: 13433: 13427: 13425: 13421: 13420: 13418: 13417: 13412: 13406: 13404: 13400: 13399: 13392: 13391: 13384: 13377: 13369: 13360: 13359: 13357: 13356: 13353: 13350: 13347: 13344: 13343:HK = Hong Kong 13341: 13337: 13334: 13333: 13331: 13330: 13323: 13322: 13321: 13320: 13319: 13314:Hong Kong Sign 13307: 13298: 13296: 13292: 13291: 13289: 13288: 13283: 13278: 13273: 13268: 13263: 13258: 13253: 13248: 13243: 13238: 13233: 13227: 13225: 13221: 13220: 13218: 13217: 13212: 13207: 13202: 13197: 13192: 13187: 13182: 13177: 13171: 13169: 13165: 13164: 13162: 13161: 13160: 13159: 13154: 13144: 13143: 13142: 13137: 13127: 13126: 13125: 13120: 13110: 13109: 13108: 13103: 13098: 13093: 13088: 13083: 13082: 13081: 13076: 13071: 13056: 13051: 13046: 13041: 13040: 13039: 13034: 13033: 13032: 13022: 13017: 13016: 13015: 13005: 13000: 12995: 12990: 12979: 12977: 12969: 12968: 12966: 12965: 12960: 12954: 12949: 12944: 12939: 12934: 12929: 12924: 12919: 12913: 12911: 12907: 12906: 12903: 12902: 12899: 12898: 12895: 12894: 12892: 12891: 12889:(Austronesian) 12883: 12881:(Austronesian) 12875: 12866: 12864: 12860: 12859: 12857: 12856: 12851: 12846: 12841: 12836: 12831: 12825: 12823: 12817: 12816: 12814: 12813: 12808: 12803: 12798: 12793: 12787: 12785: 12779: 12778: 12775: 12774: 12772: 12771: 12766: 12761: 12756: 12751: 12746: 12741: 12736: 12731: 12726: 12721: 12716: 12711: 12706: 12701: 12696: 12691: 12686: 12681: 12676: 12670: 12668: 12664: 12663: 12661: 12660: 12655: 12650: 12645: 12640: 12635: 12630: 12625: 12620: 12615: 12610: 12605: 12600: 12594: 12592: 12583: 12577: 12576: 12574: 12573: 12568: 12563: 12558: 12553: 12548: 12543: 12538: 12533: 12528: 12523: 12517: 12515: 12509: 12508: 12505: 12504: 12502: 12501: 12496: 12491: 12486: 12480: 12478: 12472: 12471: 12469: 12468: 12463: 12458: 12453: 12448: 12443: 12438: 12433: 12428: 12423: 12418: 12413: 12408: 12403: 12398: 12393: 12388: 12383: 12378: 12373: 12367: 12365: 12356: 12350: 12349: 12347: 12346: 12341: 12336: 12331: 12326: 12321: 12316: 12311: 12306: 12301: 12296: 12291: 12286: 12281: 12276: 12270: 12268: 12258: 12257: 12247: 12246: 12243: 12242: 12239: 12238: 12236: 12235: 12230: 12225: 12220: 12215: 12210: 12205: 12200: 12194: 12192: 12188: 12187: 12185: 12184: 12179: 12174: 12169: 12164: 12159: 12154: 12149: 12144: 12139: 12134: 12129: 12124: 12119: 12114: 12109: 12104: 12098: 12096: 12090: 12089: 12087: 12086: 12081: 12076: 12071: 12066: 12061: 12059:Southern Qiang 12056: 12054:Northern Qiang 12051: 12046: 12041: 12036: 12031: 12026: 12021: 12016: 12011: 12006: 12001: 11996: 11991: 11986: 11980: 11978: 11972: 11971: 11968: 11967: 11964: 11963: 11961: 11960: 11955: 11950: 11945: 11940: 11935: 11930: 11925: 11920: 11915: 11910: 11904: 11902: 11898: 11897: 11895: 11894: 11889: 11884: 11879: 11874: 11869: 11864: 11859: 11854: 11849: 11844: 11839: 11834: 11829: 11824: 11819: 11814: 11809: 11804: 11799: 11794: 11789: 11784: 11779: 11774: 11769: 11764: 11759: 11753: 11751: 11745: 11744: 11742: 11741: 11736: 11731: 11726: 11721: 11716: 11711: 11706: 11701: 11696: 11691: 11686: 11681: 11676: 11671: 11666: 11661: 11656: 11651: 11646: 11641: 11635: 11633: 11627: 11626: 11624: 11623: 11618: 11613: 11608: 11603: 11598: 11593: 11588: 11583: 11578: 11573: 11568: 11563: 11558: 11553: 11548: 11543: 11538: 11533: 11528: 11523: 11518: 11513: 11508: 11503: 11498: 11493: 11488: 11483: 11478: 11473: 11468: 11463: 11458: 11453: 11447: 11445: 11436: 11430: 11429: 11427: 11426: 11421: 11416: 11411: 11406: 11401: 11396: 11390: 11388: 11382: 11381: 11379: 11378: 11373: 11368: 11363: 11358: 11353: 11348: 11342: 11340: 11331: 11319: 11318: 11303: 11299: 11298: 11295: 11294: 11291: 11289: 11279: 11278: 11276: 11275: 11270: 11265: 11260: 11255: 11250: 11245: 11240: 11235: 11230: 11225: 11220: 11215: 11210: 11205: 11200: 11194: 11192: 11186: 11185: 11183: 11182: 11177: 11172: 11167: 11162: 11157: 11152: 11146: 11144: 11131: 11127: 11126: 11124: 11123: 11117: 11115: 11111: 11110: 11103: 11102: 11095: 11088: 11080: 11074: 11071: 11070: 11058: 11057: 11047: 11044: 11043: 11040: 11039: 11037: 11036: 11031: 11026: 11021: 11019:Taiwanese kana 11016: 11015: 11014: 11009: 10999: 10998: 10997: 10992: 10990:Lessing-Othmer 10987: 10982: 10977: 10972: 10967: 10962: 10957: 10947: 10946: 10945: 10934: 10932: 10928: 10927: 10925: 10920: 10915: 10910: 10905: 10903: 10897: 10896: 10894: 10893: 10888: 10887: 10886: 10881: 10870: 10867: 10866: 10864: 10859: 10854: 10849: 10844: 10839: 10834: 10832: 10823: 10814: 10808: 10807: 10805: 10804: 10799: 10794: 10792:Written Dungan 10789: 10783: 10780: 10779: 10777: 10776: 10771: 10770: 10769: 10764: 10759: 10748: 10746: 10739: 10733: 10732: 10730: 10729: 10724: 10719: 10714: 10709: 10704: 10699: 10697:Middle Chinese 10694: 10689: 10683: 10681: 10675: 10674: 10672: 10671: 10666: 10664:Wubi (Wang Ma) 10661: 10656: 10655: 10654: 10649: 10644: 10634: 10629: 10624: 10623: 10622: 10612: 10609: 10603: 10601: 10595: 10594: 10592: 10591: 10584: 10576: 10574: 10570: 10569: 10567: 10566: 10561: 10556: 10551: 10546: 10540: 10538: 10532: 10531: 10529: 10528: 10523: 10518: 10513: 10508: 10503: 10498: 10497: 10496: 10485: 10483: 10479: 10478: 10476: 10475: 10470: 10465: 10460: 10459: 10458: 10457: 10456: 10451: 10441: 10436: 10431: 10426: 10415: 10413: 10405: 10404: 10397: 10395: 10392: 10391: 10389: 10388: 10383: 10381:Xiangnan Tuhua 10378: 10373: 10368: 10366:Shaozhou Tuhua 10363: 10358: 10353: 10347: 10345: 10341: 10340: 10338: 10337: 10336: 10335: 10330: 10325: 10317: 10316: 10315: 10310: 10301: 10299: 10293: 10292: 10289: 10288: 10286: 10285: 10280: 10275: 10270: 10265: 10260: 10254: 10252: 10248: 10247: 10245: 10244: 10239: 10233: 10231: 10225: 10224: 10222: 10221: 10216: 10211: 10206: 10201: 10196: 10195: 10194: 10189: 10178: 10176: 10167: 10161: 10160: 10158: 10157: 10156: 10155: 10150: 10145: 10135: 10134: 10133: 10123: 10118: 10113: 10107: 10105: 10099: 10098: 10095: 10094: 10092: 10091: 10090: 10089: 10084: 10079: 10069: 10068: 10067: 10057: 10052: 10047: 10042: 10041: 10040: 10035: 10024: 10022: 10018: 10017: 10014: 10013: 10011: 10010: 10005: 9999: 9997: 9993: 9992: 9990: 9989: 9983: 9981: 9975: 9974: 9972: 9971: 9966: 9960: 9958: 9952: 9951: 9949: 9948: 9943: 9938: 9933: 9928: 9923: 9918: 9913: 9908: 9903: 9897: 9895: 9886: 9880: 9879: 9876: 9875: 9873: 9872: 9871: 9870: 9865: 9855: 9849: 9847: 9843: 9842: 9840: 9839: 9834: 9828: 9826: 9820: 9819: 9817: 9816: 9811: 9806: 9801: 9796: 9790: 9788: 9779: 9770: 9764: 9763: 9761: 9760: 9759: 9758: 9748: 9743: 9742: 9741: 9736: 9731: 9721: 9720: 9719: 9708: 9706: 9700: 9699: 9697: 9696: 9691: 9686: 9681: 9680: 9679: 9668: 9666: 9660: 9659: 9657: 9656: 9644: 9632: 9620: 9608: 9595: 9593: 9587: 9586: 9583: 9582: 9580: 9579: 9573: 9571: 9565: 9564: 9562: 9561: 9556: 9551: 9545: 9543: 9537: 9536: 9534: 9533: 9527: 9525: 9519: 9518: 9516: 9515: 9510: 9505: 9499: 9497: 9493: 9492: 9490: 9489: 9484: 9478: 9476: 9470: 9469: 9467: 9466: 9461: 9456: 9451: 9446: 9441: 9435: 9430: 9425: 9420: 9414: 9412: 9403: 9397: 9396: 9394: 9393: 9388: 9382: 9380: 9374: 9373: 9370: 9369: 9367: 9366: 9361: 9356: 9350: 9348: 9344: 9343: 9341: 9340: 9335: 9329: 9327: 9321: 9320: 9318: 9317: 9316: 9315: 9305: 9300: 9295: 9290: 9289: 9288: 9287: 9286: 9279:Renshou–Fushun 9276: 9275: 9274: 9264: 9253: 9251: 9245: 9244: 9242: 9241: 9236: 9231: 9226: 9221: 9216: 9215: 9214: 9204: 9199: 9193: 9191: 9189:Central Plains 9185: 9184: 9182: 9181: 9176: 9171: 9165: 9163: 9157: 9156: 9154: 9153: 9148: 9142: 9140: 9134: 9133: 9131: 9130: 9125: 9119: 9117: 9111: 9110: 9108: 9107: 9102: 9097: 9092: 9086: 9084: 9075: 9066: 9060: 9059: 9052: 9049: 9048: 9041: 9040: 9033: 9026: 9018: 9012: 9011: 8997: 8989: 8988:External links 8986: 8985: 8984: 8970: 8957: 8924: 8918: 8894: 8880: 8859: 8853: 8840: 8811: 8808: 8806: 8805: 8804: 8803: 8748: 8742: 8725: 8719: 8706: 8700: 8684: 8678: 8665: 8659: 8646: 8640: 8627: 8591: 8585: 8572: 8566: 8553: 8547: 8530: 8524: 8511: 8505: 8492: 8424: 8418: 8405: 8399: 8386: 8380: 8364: 8358: 8345: 8339: 8323: 8317: 8301: 8295: 8275: 8269: 8249: 8239:on 10 May 2018 8211: 8205: 8192: 8167: 8156: 8150: 8137: 8118: 8112: 8100:Kornicki, P.F. 8096: 8056: 8050: 8037: 8031: 8018: 8012: 7999: 7978: 7950:(4): 922–935. 7932: 7914:(3): 422–441. 7899: 7873:(6): 531–551. 7858: 7852: 7832: 7820:10.2307/606615 7814:(4): 537–552. 7796: 7790: 7770: 7719: 7691: 7685: 7669: 7663: 7649: 7647: 7644: 7642: 7641: 7610: 7594: 7582: 7556: 7544: 7516: 7492: 7469: 7441: 7429: 7412: 7410:, p. 161. 7400: 7397: 7396: 7377: 7367: 7349: 7342: 7329: 7311: 7299: 7292: 7270: 7258: 7246: 7234: 7222: 7220:, p. 927. 7210: 7193: 7181: 7166: 7154: 7142: 7130: 7118: 7106: 7094: 7082: 7055: 7043: 7031: 7019: 7017:, p. 181. 7007: 6992: 6990:, p. 188. 6980: 6968: 6952: 6937: 6935:, p. 143. 6925: 6913: 6911:, p. 146. 6901: 6889: 6877: 6865: 6853: 6841: 6829: 6817: 6805: 6803:, p. 133. 6793: 6781: 6769: 6757: 6755:, p. 136. 6745: 6733: 6721: 6709: 6697: 6685: 6673: 6671:, p. 125. 6661: 6649: 6637: 6625: 6623:, p. 177. 6613: 6601: 6589: 6577: 6565: 6563:, p. 431. 6553: 6551:, p. 426. 6541: 6529: 6517: 6502: 6490: 6464: 6448: 6422: 6420: 6417: 6415: 6412: 6410: 6409: 6400: 6383: 6360: 6348: 6329: 6309: 6308: 6302: 6296: 6289: 6281: 6273: 6246: 6237: 6228: 6218: 6216: 6213: 6212: 6211: 6206: 6201: 6196: 6191: 6186: 6181: 6176: 6171: 6166: 6161: 6156: 6151: 6142: 6139: 6100:Main article: 6097: 6094: 6082:semi-syllabary 6065: 6062: 6044: 6043: 6038: 6031: 6024: 6018: 6017: 6012: 6005: 5998: 5988: 5987: 5982: 5975: 5968: 5958: 5957: 5952: 5945: 5938: 5932: 5931: 5926: 5919: 5912: 5902: 5901: 5896: 5889: 5882: 5876: 5875: 5870: 5863: 5856: 5846: 5845: 5840: 5833: 5826: 5816: 5815: 5812: 5809: 5806: 5711:Main article: 5708: 5705: 5658:cursive script 5646:regular script 5529:Main article: 5526: 5523: 5378: 5377:Writing system 5375: 5328: 5327: 5315: 5312: 5311:; 'television' 5306: 5303: 5296: 5295: 5283: 5280: 5274: 5271: 5270:'wireless era' 5264: 5263: 5251: 5248: 5247:; 'electronic' 5242: 5239: 5232: 5231: 5219: 5216: 5211: 5208: 5201: 5200: 5188: 5185: 5180: 5177: 5170: 5169: 5157: 5154: 5153:; 'generation' 5148: 5145: 5133: 5130: 4675: 4674: 4671: 4654: 4653: 4646: 4629: 4628: 4625: 4608: 4607: 4604: 4587: 4586: 4583: 4503: 4502: 4467: 4465: 4458: 4452: 4449: 4250: 4247: 4213:Zhonghua Zihai 4197: 4194: 4164:Chinese has a 3921: 3920: 3917: 3910: 3904: 3903: 3900: 3893: 3883: 3882: 3879: 3872: 3862: 3861: 3858: 3851: 3841: 3840: 3837: 3830: 3820: 3819: 3816: 3813: 3782: 3781: 3774: 3767: 3764: 3758: 3757: 3750: 3743: 3740: 3730: 3729: 3722: 3715: 3712: 3706: 3705: 3698: 3691: 3688: 3678: 3677: 3670: 3663: 3660: 3650: 3649: 3642: 3635: 3632: 3626: 3625: 3622: 3617: 3614: 3561: 3554:bound and free 3533:Main article: 3530: 3527: 3524: 3523: 3520: 3513: 3506: 3503: 3498: 3494: 3493: 3490: 3483: 3476: 3473: 3468: 3464: 3463: 3460: 3453: 3446: 3443: 3434: 3430: 3429: 3426: 3419: 3412: 3409: 3404: 3400: 3399: 3396: 3389: 3382: 3379: 3374: 3370: 3369: 3367: 3366: 3363: 3359: 3357: 3350: 3343: 3340: 3331: 3327: 3326: 3325:Pitch contour 3323: 3318: 3313: 3310: 3307: 3291:stop consonant 3285: 3284: 3279: 3272: 3263: 3254: 3248: 3247: 3244: 3237: 3234: 3225: 3221: 3220: 3217: 3210: 3207: 3198: 3194: 3193: 3190: 3183: 3180: 3175: 3171: 3170: 3167: 3160: 3157: 3148: 3144: 3143: 3142:Pitch contour 3140: 3137: 3134: 3131: 3101: 3100: 3091: 3090: 3082: 3081: 3073: 3072: 3064: 3063: 3062: 3061: 3060: 3041: 3038: 2931:phonologically 2896: 2893: 2857:dìdiǎn fāngyán 2825: 2822: 2720:Main article: 2717: 2714: 2706:Shaozhou Tuhua 2686: 2685: 2679: 2673: 2641: 2631: 2621: 2611: 2601: 2591: 2581: 2571: 2561: 2551: 2547: 2546: 2545: 2544: 2543: 2534: 2529: 2508: 2503: 2498: 2481: 2452:Middle Chinese 2432: 2429: 2378: 2373: 2366: 2361: 2354: 2349: 2342: 2335: 2328: 2321: 2314: 2313: 2312: 2311: 2306:Main article: 2303: 2300: 2110: 2107: 1981: 1978: 1943: 1940: 1833:dating to the 1804:Middle Chinese 1795: 1792: 1780:Main article: 1777: 1774: 1732: 1731:Classification 1729: 1669:koiné language 1665:Qing dynasties 1550:Middle Chinese 1530:Sinitic branch 1505:first language 1427: 1426: 1423: 1422: 1419: 1418: 1408: 1402: 1401: 1394: 1388: 1387: 1378: 1372: 1371: 1364: 1358: 1357: 1344: 1338: 1337: 1330: 1324: 1323: 1317: 1316: 1315:Transcriptions 1308: 1307: 1304: 1300: 1299: 1290: 1284: 1283: 1274: 1268: 1267: 1263: 1262: 1259: 1258: 1251: 1242: 1241: 1235: 1234: 1227: 1218: 1217: 1211: 1210: 1206: 1205: 1199: 1192: 1188: 1182: 1181: 1174: 1168: 1167: 1160: 1154: 1153: 1146: 1140: 1139: 1137:Yue: Cantonese 1133: 1132: 1125: 1119: 1118: 1112: 1111: 1102: 1096: 1095: 1089: 1088: 1078: 1072: 1071: 1064: 1058: 1057: 1050: 1044: 1043: 1034: 1028: 1027: 1020: 1014: 1013: 1000: 994: 993: 986: 980: 979: 973: 972: 971:Transcriptions 964: 963: 957: 953: 952: 941: 935: 934: 930: 929: 926: 925: 918: 909: 908: 902: 901: 897: 896: 893: 889: 885: 876: 875: 869: 868: 854: 848: 847: 838: 832: 831: 824: 818: 817: 810: 804: 803: 801:Yue: Cantonese 797: 796: 789: 783: 782: 776: 775: 766: 760: 759: 753: 752: 742: 736: 735: 728: 722: 721: 714: 708: 707: 698: 692: 691: 684: 678: 677: 664: 658: 657: 650: 644: 643: 637: 636: 635:Transcriptions 628: 627: 621: 617: 616: 607: 601: 600: 591: 585: 584: 581: 580: 572: 571: 558:, you may see 544: 543: 536: 530: 524: 522: 514: 513: 506: 498: 497: 490: 482: 481: 454: 446: 445: 436: 428: 427: 426:Language codes 423: 422: 420: 419: 409: 403: 393: 386: 384: 378: 377: 374: 372: 367: 364: 363: 361: 360: 357: 354: 350: 348: 345: 342: 341: 337: 336: 334: 333: 328: 323: 318: 313: 308: 303: 297: 295: 291:Writing system 288: 285: 284: 283: 282: 277: 272: 267: 262: 257: 252: 247: 242: 237: 230: 224: 223: 221: 220: 215: 209: 207: 205:Standard forms 204: 201: 200: 198: 197: 196: 195: 194: 193: 191:Middle Chinese 174: 172: 169: 166: 165: 163: 162: 161: 160: 146: 144: 137: 134: 133: 130: 127: 124: 123: 121: 120: 115: 110: 105: 100: 94: 87: 86:Native to 83: 82: 60: 52: 51: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 16075: 16064: 16061: 16059: 16056: 16054: 16051: 16049: 16046: 16044: 16041: 16039: 16036: 16034: 16031: 16029: 16026: 16024: 16021: 16019: 16016: 16015: 16013: 16003: 15993: 15991: 15981: 15979: 15969: 15967: 15957: 15955: 15950: 15945: 15944: 15941: 15922: 15919: 15917: 15914: 15910: 15907: 15905: 15902: 15900: 15897: 15896: 15895: 15892: 15891: 15888: 15883: 15876: 15871: 15869: 15864: 15862: 15857: 15856: 15853: 15840: 15837: 15836: 15833: 15823: 15820: 15818: 15815: 15814: 15812: 15808: 15800: 15797: 15796: 15795: 15792: 15791: 15789: 15785: 15782: 15780: 15776: 15770: 15767: 15765: 15762: 15760: 15757: 15755: 15752: 15750: 15747: 15745: 15742: 15740: 15737: 15735: 15732: 15730: 15727: 15723: 15720: 15719: 15718: 15715: 15713: 15710: 15708: 15707:East Timorese 15705: 15703: 15700: 15698: 15695: 15693: 15690: 15688: 15685: 15683: 15680: 15679: 15677: 15675: 15671: 15665: 15662: 15660: 15657: 15655: 15652: 15651: 15649: 15645: 15637: 15634: 15632: 15629: 15627: 15624: 15622: 15619: 15618: 15617: 15614: 15612: 15609: 15607: 15604: 15602: 15599: 15598: 15596: 15594: 15590: 15580: 15577: 15576: 15574: 15570: 15562: 15559: 15557: 15554: 15552: 15549: 15547: 15544: 15543: 15542: 15539: 15538: 15536: 15532: 15526: 15523: 15521: 15518: 15516: 15513: 15511: 15508: 15506: 15503: 15501: 15498: 15494: 15491: 15490: 15489: 15486: 15484: 15481: 15479: 15476: 15475: 15473: 15467: 15459: 15456: 15454: 15451: 15449: 15446: 15444: 15441: 15440: 15439: 15438:Indo-European 15436: 15432: 15429: 15425: 15422: 15421: 15420: 15417: 15415: 15412: 15411: 15410: 15407: 15406: 15404: 15400: 15390: 15387: 15386: 15385: 15382: 15374: 15371: 15370: 15369: 15366: 15362: 15359: 15357: 15354: 15353: 15352: 15349: 15348: 15347: 15344: 15342: 15339: 15337: 15334: 15330: 15327: 15325: 15322: 15321: 15320: 15317: 15316: 15315: 15312: 15310: 15307: 15301: 15298: 15297: 15296: 15293: 15292: 15291: 15288: 15287: 15286: 15283: 15282: 15280: 15276: 15273: 15267: 15257: 15254: 15252: 15249: 15247: 15244: 15242: 15239: 15237: 15234: 15232: 15229: 15227: 15224: 15222: 15219: 15217: 15214: 15212: 15209: 15207: 15204: 15202: 15199: 15197: 15194: 15192: 15189: 15187: 15184: 15182: 15179: 15177: 15176:Sarawak Malay 15174: 15172: 15169: 15167: 15164: 15162: 15159: 15157: 15154: 15152: 15149: 15147: 15144: 15142: 15139: 15137: 15134: 15132: 15129: 15127: 15124: 15122: 15119: 15117: 15114: 15112: 15109: 15107: 15104: 15102: 15099: 15097: 15094: 15092: 15089: 15087: 15084: 15082: 15079: 15077: 15074: 15072: 15069: 15067: 15064: 15062: 15059: 15057: 15054: 15052: 15049: 15047: 15044: 15042: 15039: 15037: 15034: 15032: 15029: 15027: 15024: 15022: 15019: 15017: 15014: 15012: 15009: 15007: 15004: 15002: 14999: 14997: 14994: 14992: 14989: 14987: 14984: 14982: 14979: 14977: 14974: 14972: 14969: 14967: 14964: 14962: 14959: 14957: 14954: 14952: 14949: 14947: 14946:Brunei Bisaya 14944: 14942: 14939: 14937: 14934: 14932: 14929: 14927: 14924: 14922: 14919: 14917: 14914: 14912: 14909: 14907: 14904: 14902: 14899: 14897: 14894: 14893: 14891: 14889: 14883: 14877: 14874: 14872: 14869: 14867: 14864: 14862: 14859: 14857: 14854: 14852: 14851:Southern Thai 14849: 14847: 14844: 14842: 14839: 14837: 14834: 14832: 14829: 14827: 14824: 14822: 14819: 14817: 14814: 14812: 14809: 14807: 14806:Orang Seletar 14804: 14802: 14799: 14797: 14794: 14792: 14789: 14787: 14784: 14782: 14779: 14777: 14774: 14772: 14769: 14767: 14764: 14762: 14759: 14757: 14754: 14752: 14749: 14747: 14744: 14742: 14739: 14737: 14734: 14732: 14729: 14727: 14724: 14722: 14719: 14717: 14714: 14712: 14709: 14707: 14704: 14702: 14699: 14698: 14696: 14694: 14688: 14682: 14679: 14678: 14676: 14672: 14669: 14667: 14662: 14658: 14650: 14647: 14646: 14645: 14642: 14638: 14635: 14633: 14630: 14628: 14625: 14623: 14620: 14618: 14615: 14613: 14612:North Bornean 14610: 14609: 14608: 14605: 14601: 14598: 14597: 14596: 14595:Austroasiatic 14593: 14592: 14590: 14588: 14584: 14572: 14569: 14568: 14567: 14564: 14562: 14559: 14558: 14556: 14554: 14550: 14547: 14543: 14539: 14532: 14527: 14525: 14520: 14518: 14513: 14512: 14509: 14497: 14494: 14493: 14491: 14487: 14477: 14474: 14472: 14469: 14467: 14464: 14462: 14459: 14457: 14454: 14452: 14449: 14447: 14444: 14442: 14439: 14437: 14434: 14433: 14431: 14427: 14421: 14418: 14416: 14413: 14411: 14408: 14406: 14403: 14399: 14396: 14394: 14391: 14389: 14386: 14385: 14384: 14381: 14379: 14376: 14374: 14371: 14370: 14368: 14366: 14362: 14354: 14351: 14349: 14346: 14344: 14341: 14339: 14336: 14334: 14331: 14329: 14326: 14325: 14324: 14321: 14317: 14314: 14312: 14309: 14308: 14307: 14304: 14303: 14301: 14299: 14295: 14287: 14284: 14282: 14279: 14277: 14274: 14272: 14269: 14267: 14264: 14262: 14259: 14257: 14254: 14253: 14252: 14249: 14248: 14246: 14244: 14240: 14237: 14233: 14227: 14224: 14222: 14219: 14217: 14214: 14212: 14209: 14207: 14204: 14202: 14199: 14198: 14196: 14192: 14186: 14185:Orang Seletar 14183: 14180: 14179: 14177: 14173: 14163: 14160: 14158: 14155: 14153: 14150: 14148: 14145: 14144: 14142: 14138: 14132: 14129: 14128: 14126: 14122: 14119: 14115: 14111: 14104: 14099: 14097: 14092: 14090: 14085: 14084: 14081: 14069: 14066: 14064: 14061: 14059: 14056: 14052: 14049: 14047: 14044: 14043: 14042: 14039: 14037: 14034: 14032: 14029: 14027: 14024: 14020: 14017: 14016: 14015: 14012: 14010: 14007: 14005: 14002: 14001: 13999: 13995: 13989: 13986: 13985: 13983: 13979: 13973: 13970: 13969: 13967: 13965: 13961: 13945: 13942: 13940: 13937: 13935: 13932: 13930: 13927: 13925: 13922: 13921: 13920: 13917: 13916: 13914: 13912: 13908: 13897: 13894: 13893: 13891: 13889: 13885: 13877: 13876:Matsu dialect 13874: 13873: 13872: 13869: 13868: 13866: 13864: 13860: 13854: 13851: 13849: 13846: 13845: 13843: 13841: 13837: 13834: 13832: 13828: 13822: 13819: 13817: 13814: 13813: 13811: 13809: 13805: 13802: 13800: 13796: 13793: 13791: 13787: 13773: 13770: 13769: 13767: 13765: 13761: 13758: 13756: 13752: 13742: 13739: 13737: 13734: 13732: 13729: 13728: 13726: 13724: 13720: 13714: 13711: 13709: 13706: 13704: 13701: 13700: 13698: 13694: 13688: 13685: 13683: 13680: 13678: 13675: 13673: 13670: 13668: 13665: 13661: 13658: 13656: 13653: 13652: 13651: 13648: 13646: 13643: 13641: 13638: 13637: 13635: 13633: 13629: 13623: 13620: 13618: 13615: 13613: 13610: 13605: 13604: 13603: 13600: 13596: 13593: 13591: 13588: 13587: 13586: 13583: 13581: 13578: 13574: 13571: 13569: 13566: 13565: 13564: 13561: 13560: 13558: 13556: 13552: 13546: 13543: 13542: 13540: 13536: 13528: 13525: 13524: 13523: 13520: 13518: 13515: 13514: 13512: 13510: 13506: 13503: 13501: 13497: 13494: 13492: 13488: 13484: 13477: 13472: 13470: 13465: 13463: 13458: 13457: 13454: 13442: 13439: 13437: 13434: 13432: 13429: 13428: 13426: 13422: 13416: 13413: 13411: 13408: 13407: 13405: 13401: 13397: 13390: 13385: 13383: 13378: 13376: 13371: 13370: 13367: 13354: 13352:XJ = Xinjiang 13351: 13348: 13345: 13342: 13339: 13338: 13335: 13329: 13327: 13324: 13317: 13315: 13311: 13310: 13308: 13305: 13304: 13303: 13300: 13299: 13297: 13293: 13287: 13284: 13282: 13279: 13277: 13274: 13272: 13269: 13267: 13264: 13262: 13259: 13257: 13254: 13252: 13249: 13247: 13244: 13242: 13239: 13237: 13234: 13232: 13229: 13228: 13226: 13222: 13216: 13213: 13211: 13208: 13206: 13203: 13201: 13198: 13196: 13193: 13191: 13188: 13186: 13183: 13181: 13178: 13176: 13173: 13172: 13170: 13166: 13158: 13155: 13153: 13150: 13149: 13148: 13145: 13141: 13138: 13136: 13133: 13132: 13131: 13128: 13124: 13121: 13119: 13116: 13115: 13114: 13111: 13107: 13104: 13102: 13099: 13097: 13094: 13092: 13089: 13087: 13084: 13080: 13077: 13075: 13072: 13070: 13067: 13066: 13065: 13062: 13061: 13060: 13057: 13055: 13052: 13050: 13047: 13045: 13042: 13038: 13035: 13031: 13028: 13027: 13026: 13023: 13021: 13018: 13014: 13011: 13010: 13009: 13006: 13004: 13001: 12999: 12996: 12994: 12991: 12989: 12986: 12985: 12984: 12981: 12980: 12978: 12976: 12970: 12964: 12961: 12958: 12955: 12953: 12950: 12948: 12945: 12943: 12940: 12938: 12935: 12933: 12930: 12928: 12925: 12923: 12920: 12918: 12915: 12914: 12912: 12908: 12887: 12884: 12879: 12876: 12871: 12868: 12867: 12865: 12861: 12855: 12854:Western Yugur 12852: 12850: 12847: 12845: 12842: 12840: 12837: 12835: 12832: 12830: 12827: 12826: 12824: 12822: 12818: 12812: 12809: 12807: 12804: 12802: 12799: 12797: 12794: 12792: 12789: 12788: 12786: 12784: 12780: 12770: 12767: 12765: 12762: 12760: 12757: 12755: 12752: 12750: 12747: 12745: 12742: 12740: 12737: 12735: 12732: 12730: 12727: 12725: 12722: 12720: 12717: 12715: 12712: 12710: 12707: 12705: 12702: 12700: 12697: 12695: 12692: 12690: 12687: 12685: 12682: 12680: 12677: 12675: 12672: 12671: 12669: 12665: 12659: 12656: 12654: 12651: 12649: 12646: 12644: 12641: 12639: 12636: 12634: 12631: 12629: 12626: 12624: 12621: 12619: 12616: 12614: 12611: 12609: 12606: 12604: 12601: 12599: 12596: 12595: 12593: 12591: 12587: 12584: 12582: 12578: 12572: 12569: 12567: 12564: 12562: 12559: 12557: 12554: 12552: 12549: 12547: 12544: 12542: 12539: 12537: 12536:Eastern Yugur 12534: 12532: 12529: 12527: 12524: 12522: 12519: 12518: 12516: 12514: 12510: 12500: 12497: 12495: 12492: 12490: 12487: 12485: 12482: 12481: 12479: 12477: 12473: 12467: 12464: 12462: 12459: 12457: 12456:Small Flowery 12454: 12452: 12449: 12447: 12444: 12442: 12439: 12437: 12434: 12432: 12429: 12427: 12424: 12422: 12419: 12417: 12414: 12412: 12409: 12407: 12404: 12402: 12399: 12397: 12394: 12392: 12389: 12387: 12384: 12382: 12379: 12377: 12374: 12372: 12369: 12368: 12366: 12364: 12360: 12357: 12355: 12351: 12345: 12342: 12340: 12337: 12335: 12332: 12330: 12327: 12325: 12322: 12320: 12317: 12315: 12312: 12310: 12307: 12305: 12302: 12300: 12297: 12295: 12292: 12290: 12287: 12285: 12282: 12280: 12277: 12275: 12272: 12271: 12269: 12267: 12266:Austroasiatic 12263: 12259: 12252: 12248: 12234: 12231: 12229: 12226: 12224: 12221: 12219: 12216: 12214: 12211: 12209: 12206: 12204: 12201: 12199: 12196: 12195: 12193: 12189: 12183: 12180: 12178: 12175: 12173: 12170: 12168: 12165: 12163: 12160: 12158: 12155: 12153: 12150: 12148: 12145: 12143: 12140: 12138: 12135: 12133: 12130: 12128: 12125: 12123: 12120: 12118: 12115: 12113: 12110: 12108: 12105: 12103: 12100: 12099: 12097: 12095: 12091: 12085: 12082: 12080: 12077: 12075: 12072: 12070: 12067: 12065: 12062: 12060: 12057: 12055: 12052: 12050: 12047: 12045: 12042: 12040: 12037: 12035: 12032: 12030: 12027: 12025: 12022: 12020: 12017: 12015: 12012: 12010: 12007: 12005: 12002: 12000: 11997: 11995: 11992: 11990: 11987: 11985: 11982: 11981: 11979: 11977: 11973: 11959: 11956: 11954: 11951: 11949: 11946: 11944: 11941: 11939: 11936: 11934: 11931: 11929: 11926: 11924: 11921: 11919: 11916: 11914: 11911: 11909: 11906: 11905: 11903: 11899: 11893: 11890: 11888: 11885: 11883: 11880: 11878: 11875: 11873: 11870: 11868: 11865: 11863: 11860: 11858: 11855: 11853: 11850: 11848: 11845: 11843: 11840: 11838: 11835: 11833: 11830: 11828: 11825: 11823: 11820: 11818: 11815: 11813: 11810: 11808: 11805: 11803: 11800: 11798: 11795: 11793: 11790: 11788: 11785: 11783: 11780: 11778: 11775: 11773: 11770: 11768: 11765: 11763: 11760: 11758: 11755: 11754: 11752: 11750: 11746: 11740: 11737: 11735: 11732: 11730: 11727: 11725: 11722: 11720: 11717: 11715: 11712: 11710: 11707: 11705: 11702: 11700: 11697: 11695: 11692: 11690: 11687: 11685: 11682: 11680: 11677: 11675: 11672: 11670: 11667: 11665: 11662: 11660: 11657: 11655: 11652: 11650: 11647: 11645: 11642: 11640: 11637: 11636: 11634: 11632: 11628: 11622: 11619: 11617: 11614: 11612: 11609: 11607: 11604: 11602: 11599: 11597: 11594: 11592: 11589: 11587: 11584: 11582: 11579: 11577: 11574: 11572: 11569: 11567: 11564: 11562: 11559: 11557: 11554: 11552: 11549: 11547: 11544: 11542: 11539: 11537: 11534: 11532: 11529: 11527: 11524: 11522: 11519: 11517: 11514: 11512: 11509: 11507: 11504: 11502: 11499: 11497: 11494: 11492: 11489: 11487: 11484: 11482: 11479: 11477: 11474: 11472: 11469: 11467: 11464: 11462: 11459: 11457: 11454: 11452: 11449: 11448: 11446: 11444: 11440: 11437: 11435: 11431: 11425: 11422: 11420: 11417: 11415: 11412: 11410: 11407: 11405: 11402: 11400: 11397: 11395: 11392: 11391: 11389: 11387: 11383: 11377: 11374: 11372: 11369: 11367: 11364: 11362: 11359: 11357: 11354: 11352: 11349: 11347: 11344: 11343: 11341: 11339: 11335: 11332: 11330: 11324: 11320: 11316: 11311: 11307: 11304: 11300: 11290: 11288: 11284: 11280: 11274: 11271: 11269: 11266: 11264: 11261: 11259: 11256: 11254: 11251: 11249: 11246: 11244: 11241: 11239: 11236: 11234: 11231: 11229: 11226: 11224: 11221: 11219: 11216: 11214: 11211: 11209: 11206: 11204: 11201: 11199: 11196: 11195: 11193: 11191: 11187: 11181: 11178: 11176: 11173: 11171: 11168: 11166: 11163: 11161: 11158: 11156: 11153: 11151: 11148: 11147: 11145: 11143: 11139: 11135: 11132: 11128: 11122: 11119: 11118: 11116: 11112: 11108: 11101: 11096: 11094: 11089: 11087: 11082: 11081: 11078: 11072: 11065: 11055: 11045: 11035: 11032: 11030: 11027: 11025: 11022: 11020: 11017: 11013: 11010: 11008: 11005: 11004: 11003: 11000: 10996: 10993: 10991: 10988: 10986: 10983: 10981: 10978: 10976: 10973: 10971: 10968: 10966: 10963: 10961: 10958: 10956: 10953: 10952: 10951: 10948: 10944: 10941: 10940: 10939: 10938:Cyrillization 10936: 10935: 10933: 10929: 10924: 10921: 10919: 10916: 10914: 10911: 10909: 10906: 10904: 10902: 10898: 10892: 10889: 10885: 10882: 10880: 10877: 10876: 10875: 10872: 10871: 10863: 10860: 10858: 10855: 10853: 10850: 10848: 10845: 10843: 10840: 10838: 10835: 10833: 10831: 10830:Script styles 10827: 10824: 10822: 10818: 10815: 10813: 10809: 10803: 10800: 10798: 10795: 10793: 10790: 10788: 10785: 10784: 10775: 10772: 10768: 10765: 10763: 10760: 10758: 10755: 10754: 10753: 10750: 10749: 10747: 10743: 10740: 10734: 10728: 10725: 10723: 10720: 10718: 10715: 10713: 10710: 10708: 10705: 10703: 10700: 10698: 10695: 10693: 10690: 10688: 10685: 10684: 10682: 10680: 10676: 10670: 10667: 10665: 10662: 10660: 10657: 10653: 10650: 10648: 10645: 10643: 10640: 10639: 10638: 10635: 10633: 10630: 10628: 10625: 10621: 10618: 10617: 10616: 10613: 10610: 10608: 10605: 10604: 10602: 10600: 10596: 10590: 10589: 10585: 10583: 10582: 10578: 10577: 10575: 10571: 10565: 10562: 10560: 10557: 10555: 10552: 10550: 10547: 10545: 10542: 10541: 10539: 10537: 10533: 10527: 10524: 10522: 10519: 10517: 10514: 10512: 10509: 10507: 10504: 10502: 10499: 10495: 10492: 10491: 10490: 10487: 10486: 10484: 10480: 10474: 10471: 10469: 10466: 10464: 10461: 10455: 10452: 10450: 10447: 10446: 10445: 10442: 10440: 10437: 10435: 10432: 10430: 10427: 10425: 10422: 10421: 10420: 10417: 10416: 10414: 10412: 10406: 10401: 10387: 10384: 10382: 10379: 10377: 10374: 10372: 10369: 10367: 10364: 10362: 10359: 10357: 10354: 10352: 10349: 10348: 10346: 10342: 10334: 10331: 10329: 10326: 10324: 10321: 10320: 10318: 10314: 10311: 10309: 10306: 10305: 10303: 10302: 10300: 10298: 10294: 10284: 10281: 10279: 10276: 10274: 10271: 10269: 10266: 10264: 10261: 10259: 10256: 10255: 10253: 10249: 10243: 10240: 10238: 10235: 10234: 10232: 10230: 10226: 10220: 10217: 10215: 10212: 10210: 10207: 10205: 10202: 10200: 10197: 10193: 10190: 10188: 10185: 10184: 10183: 10180: 10179: 10177: 10175: 10171: 10168: 10166: 10162: 10154: 10151: 10149: 10146: 10144: 10141: 10140: 10139: 10136: 10132: 10129: 10128: 10127: 10124: 10122: 10119: 10117: 10114: 10112: 10109: 10108: 10106: 10104: 10100: 10088: 10085: 10083: 10080: 10078: 10075: 10074: 10073: 10070: 10066: 10063: 10062: 10061: 10058: 10056: 10053: 10051: 10048: 10046: 10043: 10039: 10036: 10034: 10031: 10030: 10029: 10026: 10025: 10023: 10019: 10009: 10006: 10004: 10001: 10000: 9998: 9994: 9988: 9985: 9984: 9982: 9980: 9976: 9970: 9967: 9965: 9962: 9961: 9959: 9957: 9953: 9947: 9944: 9942: 9939: 9937: 9934: 9932: 9929: 9927: 9924: 9922: 9919: 9917: 9914: 9912: 9909: 9907: 9904: 9902: 9899: 9898: 9896: 9894: 9890: 9887: 9885: 9881: 9869: 9866: 9864: 9861: 9860: 9859: 9856: 9854: 9851: 9850: 9848: 9844: 9838: 9835: 9833: 9830: 9829: 9827: 9825: 9821: 9815: 9812: 9810: 9807: 9805: 9802: 9800: 9797: 9795: 9792: 9791: 9789: 9787: 9783: 9780: 9778: 9774: 9771: 9769: 9765: 9757: 9754: 9753: 9752: 9749: 9747: 9744: 9740: 9737: 9735: 9732: 9730: 9727: 9726: 9725: 9722: 9718: 9715: 9714: 9713: 9710: 9709: 9707: 9705: 9701: 9695: 9692: 9690: 9687: 9685: 9682: 9678: 9675: 9674: 9673: 9670: 9669: 9667: 9665: 9661: 9653: 9648: 9645: 9641: 9636: 9633: 9629: 9624: 9621: 9617: 9612: 9609: 9605: 9600: 9597: 9596: 9594: 9592: 9588: 9578: 9575: 9574: 9572: 9570: 9566: 9560: 9557: 9555: 9552: 9550: 9547: 9546: 9544: 9542: 9538: 9532: 9529: 9528: 9526: 9524: 9520: 9514: 9511: 9509: 9506: 9504: 9501: 9500: 9498: 9494: 9488: 9485: 9483: 9480: 9479: 9477: 9475: 9471: 9465: 9462: 9460: 9457: 9455: 9452: 9450: 9447: 9445: 9442: 9439: 9436: 9434: 9431: 9429: 9426: 9424: 9421: 9419: 9416: 9415: 9413: 9411: 9407: 9404: 9402: 9398: 9392: 9389: 9387: 9384: 9383: 9381: 9379: 9375: 9365: 9362: 9360: 9357: 9355: 9352: 9351: 9349: 9345: 9339: 9336: 9334: 9331: 9330: 9328: 9326: 9322: 9314: 9311: 9310: 9309: 9306: 9304: 9301: 9299: 9296: 9294: 9291: 9285: 9282: 9281: 9280: 9277: 9273: 9270: 9269: 9268: 9265: 9263: 9260: 9259: 9258: 9255: 9254: 9252: 9250: 9246: 9240: 9237: 9235: 9232: 9230: 9227: 9225: 9222: 9220: 9217: 9213: 9210: 9209: 9208: 9205: 9203: 9200: 9198: 9195: 9194: 9192: 9190: 9186: 9180: 9177: 9175: 9172: 9170: 9167: 9166: 9164: 9162: 9158: 9152: 9149: 9147: 9144: 9143: 9141: 9139: 9135: 9129: 9126: 9124: 9121: 9120: 9118: 9116: 9112: 9106: 9103: 9101: 9098: 9096: 9093: 9091: 9088: 9087: 9085: 9083: 9079: 9076: 9074: 9070: 9067: 9065: 9061: 9057: 9056: 9050: 9046: 9039: 9034: 9032: 9027: 9025: 9020: 9019: 9016: 9009: 9005: 9001: 8998: 8995: 8992: 8991: 8981: 8977: 8973: 8971:9780735214729 8967: 8963: 8958: 8946: 8942: 8941: 8940:The Economist 8936: 8931: 8925: 8921: 8915: 8911: 8907: 8903: 8899: 8895: 8891: 8887: 8883: 8877: 8873: 8869: 8865: 8860: 8856: 8850: 8846: 8841: 8829: 8825: 8824: 8819: 8814: 8813: 8800: 8799: 8794: 8790: 8789: 8786: 8782: 8778: 8774: 8770: 8766: 8762: 8758: 8754: 8749: 8745: 8739: 8735: 8731: 8726: 8722: 8716: 8712: 8707: 8703: 8697: 8693: 8689: 8685: 8681: 8675: 8671: 8666: 8662: 8660:9781032093161 8656: 8652: 8647: 8643: 8637: 8633: 8628: 8624: 8620: 8616: 8612: 8608: 8604: 8600: 8596: 8592: 8588: 8582: 8578: 8573: 8569: 8563: 8559: 8554: 8550: 8544: 8539: 8538: 8531: 8527: 8521: 8517: 8512: 8508: 8502: 8498: 8493: 8489: 8485: 8480: 8475: 8471: 8467: 8462: 8457: 8453: 8449: 8445: 8441: 8437: 8433: 8429: 8425: 8421: 8415: 8411: 8406: 8402: 8396: 8392: 8387: 8383: 8377: 8373: 8369: 8365: 8361: 8355: 8351: 8346: 8342: 8336: 8332: 8328: 8327:Norman, Jerry 8324: 8320: 8314: 8310: 8306: 8302: 8298: 8292: 8287: 8286: 8280: 8276: 8272: 8266: 8263:. Routledge. 8262: 8258: 8257:Yip, Virginia 8254: 8250: 8235: 8231: 8227: 8220: 8216: 8212: 8208: 8202: 8198: 8193: 8181: 8177: 8173: 8168: 8164: 8163: 8157: 8153: 8147: 8143: 8138: 8126: 8125: 8119: 8115: 8109: 8105: 8101: 8097: 8086: 8082: 8078: 8074: 8070: 8066: 8062: 8057: 8053: 8047: 8043: 8038: 8034: 8028: 8024: 8019: 8015: 8009: 8005: 8000: 7993: 7986: 7979: 7975: 7971: 7967: 7963: 7958: 7953: 7949: 7945: 7941: 7937: 7936:Haugen, Einar 7933: 7929: 7925: 7921: 7917: 7913: 7909: 7905: 7900: 7896: 7892: 7888: 7884: 7880: 7876: 7872: 7868: 7864: 7859: 7855: 7849: 7845: 7841: 7837: 7833: 7829: 7825: 7821: 7817: 7813: 7809: 7805: 7801: 7797: 7793: 7787: 7783: 7776: 7771: 7767: 7763: 7759: 7755: 7750: 7745: 7741: 7737: 7733: 7729: 7725: 7720: 7717: 7713: 7709: 7705: 7701: 7697: 7692: 7688: 7682: 7678: 7674: 7670: 7666: 7660: 7656: 7651: 7650: 7629: 7625: 7621: 7614: 7607: 7598: 7592:, p. 45. 7591: 7586: 7570: 7566: 7560: 7553: 7548: 7532: 7528: 7520: 7513:(in Chinese). 7509: 7505: 7496: 7485: 7481: 7473: 7457: 7453: 7445: 7438: 7433: 7425: 7416: 7409: 7404: 7393: 7386: 7382: 7378: 7373: 7368: 7365: 7360: 7356: 7351: 7350: 7346: 7339: 7333: 7325: 7321: 7315: 7309:, p. 10. 7308: 7307:Norman (1988) 7303: 7295: 7289: 7284: 7283: 7274: 7267: 7262: 7256:, p. 52. 7255: 7254:Norman (1988) 7250: 7244:, p. 17. 7243: 7238: 7232:, p. 22. 7231: 7230:Hudson (1996) 7226: 7219: 7218:Haugen (1966) 7214: 7208:, p. 531 7207: 7206:Groves (2010) 7203: 7197: 7190: 7185: 7179:, p. 57. 7178: 7173: 7171: 7163: 7158: 7151: 7146: 7139: 7134: 7127: 7126:Baxter (1992) 7122: 7115: 7110: 7103: 7102:Klöter (2004) 7098: 7091: 7086: 7070: 7066: 7059: 7052: 7047: 7040: 7035: 7028: 7023: 7016: 7015:Norman (1988) 7011: 7004: 6999: 6997: 6989: 6988:Norman (1988) 6984: 6978:, p. 23. 6977: 6976:Ramsey (1987) 6972: 6966:, p. 98. 6965: 6964:Ramsey (1987) 6961: 6960:Norman (1988) 6956: 6950:, p. 72. 6949: 6948:Norman (2003) 6944: 6942: 6934: 6929: 6923:, p. 43. 6922: 6917: 6910: 6905: 6899:, p. 89. 6898: 6893: 6886: 6881: 6874: 6873:Miyake (2004) 6869: 6863:, p. 67. 6862: 6857: 6850: 6845: 6838: 6837:Miller (1967) 6833: 6827:, p. 23. 6826: 6821: 6814: 6809: 6802: 6801:Norman (1988) 6797: 6790: 6789:Ramsey (1987) 6785: 6778: 6777:Coblin (2000) 6773: 6766: 6765:Coblin (2000) 6761: 6754: 6753:Norman (1988) 6749: 6742: 6741:Norman (1988) 6737: 6730: 6729:Norman (1988) 6725: 6718: 6717:Norman (1988) 6713: 6707:, p. 48. 6706: 6705:Norman (1988) 6701: 6695:, p. 24. 6694: 6693:Norman (1988) 6689: 6682: 6681:Norman (1988) 6677: 6670: 6669:Ramsey (1987) 6665: 6658: 6657:Baxter (1992) 6653: 6647:, p. 12. 6646: 6641: 6634: 6633:Baxter (1992) 6629: 6622: 6621:Baxter (1992) 6617: 6610: 6609:Norman (1988) 6605: 6598: 6597:Baxter (1992) 6593: 6586: 6581: 6574: 6573:Norman (1988) 6569: 6562: 6561:Handel (2008) 6557: 6550: 6549:Handel (2008) 6545: 6538: 6537:Handel (2008) 6533: 6526: 6525:Norman (1988) 6521: 6514: 6509: 6507: 6499: 6494: 6478: 6474: 6468: 6461: 6457: 6456:Norman (1988) 6452: 6444: 6438: 6437: 6432: 6427: 6423: 6404: 6387: 6380: 6364: 6358: 6352: 6345: 6341: 6336: 6334: 6327: 6321: 6320: 6315: 6306: 6303: 6300: 6299:Norman (1988) 6297: 6294: 6290: 6287: 6283: 6282: 6277: 6270: 6266: 6262: 6250: 6241: 6232: 6223: 6219: 6210: 6207: 6205: 6202: 6200: 6197: 6195: 6192: 6190: 6187: 6185: 6182: 6180: 6177: 6175: 6172: 6170: 6167: 6165: 6162: 6160: 6157: 6155: 6152: 6150: 6149: 6145: 6144: 6138: 6136: 6132: 6127: 6123: 6117: 6113: 6108: 6103: 6093: 6091: 6087: 6086:cyrillization 6083: 6079: 6075: 6071: 6061: 6059: 6055: 6052:, the French 6051: 6042: 6039: 6036: 6032: 6029: 6025: 6020: 6019: 6016: 6013: 6010: 6006: 6003: 5989: 5986: 5983: 5980: 5976: 5973: 5969: 5960: 5959: 5956: 5953: 5950: 5946: 5943: 5939: 5934: 5933: 5930: 5927: 5924: 5920: 5917: 5913: 5904: 5903: 5900: 5897: 5894: 5890: 5887: 5883: 5878: 5877: 5874: 5871: 5868: 5864: 5861: 5857: 5848: 5847: 5844: 5841: 5838: 5834: 5831: 5827: 5818: 5817: 5813: 5810: 5807: 5804: 5803: 5797: 5794: 5791: 5785: 5779: 5774: 5768: 5766: 5765:anglicization 5762: 5757: 5755: 5750: 5748: 5744: 5740: 5733: 5719: 5714: 5704: 5702: 5698: 5693: 5689: 5687: 5682: 5678: 5674: 5670: 5665: 5663: 5659: 5655: 5651: 5647: 5642: 5640: 5639: 5627: 5623: 5613: 5603: 5593: 5583: 5573: 5563: 5559: 5555: 5543: 5538: 5532: 5522: 5520: 5516: 5515:Dungan people 5512: 5511:Arabic script 5508: 5504: 5500: 5496: 5492: 5487: 5485: 5481: 5477: 5472: 5470: 5456: 5454: 5449: 5446: 5440: 5434: 5425: 5421: 5417: 5410: 5407:, written in 5406: 5402: 5397: 5392: 5388: 5384: 5374: 5370: 5359: 5344: 5343: 5325: 5316: 5313: 5310: 5307: 5304: 5302:'TV-watchers' 5298: 5297: 5293: 5284: 5281: 5278: 5275: 5272: 5266: 5265: 5261: 5252: 5249: 5246: 5243: 5240: 5234: 5233: 5229: 5220: 5217: 5215: 5212: 5209: 5203: 5202: 5198: 5189: 5186: 5184: 5181: 5178: 5172: 5171: 5167: 5158: 5155: 5152: 5149: 5146: 5143: 5134: 5131: 5125: 5124: 5121: 5119: 5104: 5102: 5092: 5082: 5072: 5062: 5048: 5038: 5028: 5018: 5008: 5002: 4988: 4979:gave rise to 4978: 4974: 4960: 4945: 4940: 4930: 4916: 4905: 4903: 4893: 4875: 4861: 4851: 4837: 4823: 4813: 4799: 4785: 4775: 4765: 4760: 4758: 4754: 4740: 4736: 4722: 4718: 4704: 4692: 4672: 4669: 4656: 4655: 4651: 4647: 4644: 4631: 4630: 4626: 4623: 4610: 4609: 4605: 4602: 4589: 4588: 4585:'television' 4584: 4581: 4568: 4567: 4564: 4562: 4547: 4541: 4528: 4524: 4520: 4514: 4510: 4499: 4489: 4485: 4479: 4477: 4473: 4468:This section 4466: 4457: 4456: 4448: 4446: 4436: 4426: 4422: 4418: 4414: 4402: 4398: 4384: 4374: 4360: 4350: 4340: 4336: 4322: 4312: 4298: 4284: 4270: 4259: 4256: 4246: 4244: 4243: 4237: 4235: 4234: 4229: 4228: 4222: 4219: 4215: 4214: 4209: 4208: 4202: 4193: 4191: 4187: 4183: 4179: 4178:measure words 4175: 4171: 4170:topic–comment 4167: 4162: 4160: 4146: 4128: 4118: 4114: 4110: 4106: 4102: 4098: 4094: 4090: 4086: 4082: 4078: 4073: 4071: 4069:diànzǐyóujiàn 4057: 4043: 4028: 4025: 4020: 4006: 3996: 3982: 3972: 3962: 3952: 3938: 3927: 3918: 3915: 3911: 3906: 3905: 3901: 3898: 3894: 3885: 3884: 3881:'stone-head' 3880: 3877: 3873: 3864: 3863: 3859: 3856: 3852: 3843: 3842: 3838: 3835: 3831: 3822: 3821: 3817: 3814: 3811: 3810: 3807: 3800: 3795: 3794: 3789: 3788:Yuen Ren Chao 3779: 3775: 3772: 3768: 3765: 3760: 3759: 3755: 3751: 3748: 3744: 3741: 3732: 3731: 3727: 3723: 3720: 3716: 3713: 3708: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3696: 3689: 3680: 3679: 3675: 3671: 3668: 3664: 3661: 3652: 3651: 3647: 3643: 3640: 3636: 3633: 3628: 3627: 3623: 3618: 3615: 3612: 3611: 3608: 3605: 3600: 3596: 3592: 3582: 3572: 3567: 3565: 3560: 3557: 3555: 3551: 3550: 3542: 3536: 3521: 3518: 3514: 3511: 3507: 3504: 3499: 3495: 3491: 3488: 3484: 3481: 3477: 3474: 3469: 3465: 3462:low, falling 3461: 3458: 3454: 3451: 3447: 3444: 3435: 3431: 3427: 3424: 3420: 3417: 3413: 3411:'assassinate' 3410: 3405: 3401: 3398:high, rising 3397: 3394: 3390: 3387: 3383: 3380: 3375: 3371: 3365:high, falling 3364: 3361: 3360: 3358: 3355: 3351: 3348: 3344: 3341: 3332: 3328: 3322: 3317: 3304: 3298: 3296: 3295:checked tones 3292: 3283: 3277: 3273: 3264: 3255: 3253: 3249: 3246:high falling 3245: 3242: 3238: 3235: 3226: 3222: 3218: 3215: 3211: 3208: 3199: 3195: 3192:high, rising 3191: 3188: 3184: 3181: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3165: 3161: 3158: 3149: 3145: 3128: 3106: 3102:The syllable 3095: 3086: 3077: 3068: 3059: 3056: 3050: 3048: 3037: 3033: 2985: 2975: 2971: 2967: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2934: 2932: 2928: 2910: 2906: 2902: 2892: 2890: 2889: 2884: 2883: 2878: 2877: 2872: 2871: 2866: 2861: 2859: 2845: 2834: 2830: 2821: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2799: 2792:(also called 2791: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2775: 2773: 2759: 2745: 2735: 2729: 2723: 2713: 2711: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2683: 2680: 2677: 2674: 2671: 2668: 2667: 2666: 2664: 2663: 2658: 2648: 2638: 2628: 2618: 2608: 2598: 2588: 2578: 2568: 2558: 2550: 2542: 2538: 2535: 2533: 2530: 2528: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2512: 2509: 2507: 2504: 2502: 2499: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2482: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2457: 2456: 2455: 2453: 2446: 2442: 2437: 2428: 2426: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2409: 2407: 2403: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2381: 2325: 2318: 2309: 2299: 2297: 2287: 2286: 2281: 2271: 2270: 2265: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2244: 2242: 2238: 2234: 2229: 2228: 2221: 2220: 2213: 2212: 2206: 2201: 2199: 2194: 2193:Ancient Greek 2190: 2185: 2183: 2182:vowel harmony 2179: 2175: 2171: 2167: 2163: 2158: 2155: 2151: 2147: 2143: 2136: 2132: 2131: 2125: 2120: 2116: 2106: 2104: 2100: 2095: 2093: 2079: 2075: 2061: 2056: 2054: 2050: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2023: 2021: 2020: 2015: 2014: 2009: 2008: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1987: 1986:Northern Song 1977: 1975: 1971: 1967: 1963: 1959: 1953: 1949: 1939: 1937: 1932: 1928: 1924: 1919: 1918: 1912: 1908: 1907: 1902: 1898: 1894: 1890: 1885: 1883: 1879: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1853: 1848: 1847: 1842: 1841: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1825:, during the 1817: 1811: 1805: 1801: 1791: 1789: 1788:Shang dynasty 1783: 1773: 1771: 1766: 1762: 1761:Austroasiatic 1758: 1757:Indo-European 1754: 1750: 1746: 1742: 1738: 1728: 1726: 1722: 1718: 1714: 1710: 1706: 1702: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1686: 1682: 1681:of Mandarin. 1680: 1676: 1675: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1658: 1657: 1652: 1651:sound changes 1648: 1644: 1634: 1633:Shang dynasty 1630: 1626: 1621: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1539: 1535: 1531: 1508: 1506: 1502: 1498: 1494: 1491:majority and 1490: 1486: 1482: 1472: 1462: 1456: 1448: 1440: 1436: 1432: 1424: 1414: 1409: 1407: 1403: 1395: 1393: 1389: 1379: 1377: 1373: 1365: 1363: 1359: 1345: 1343: 1339: 1331: 1329: 1325: 1322: 1318: 1313: 1309: 1305: 1301: 1296: 1291: 1289: 1285: 1280: 1275: 1273: 1269: 1264: 1252: 1250: 1247: 1243: 1240: 1236: 1228: 1226: 1223: 1219: 1216: 1212: 1203: 1200: 1197: 1194: 1193: 1189: 1187: 1183: 1175: 1173: 1169: 1161: 1159: 1155: 1147: 1145: 1141: 1138: 1134: 1126: 1124: 1120: 1117: 1113: 1103: 1101: 1097: 1094: 1090: 1084: 1079: 1077: 1073: 1065: 1063: 1059: 1051: 1049: 1045: 1035: 1033: 1029: 1021: 1019: 1015: 1001: 999: 995: 987: 985: 981: 978: 974: 969: 965: 961: 958: 954: 948: 942: 940: 936: 931: 919: 917: 914: 910: 907: 903: 894: 891: 890: 886: 884: 881: 877: 874: 870: 864: 855: 853: 849: 839: 837: 833: 825: 823: 819: 811: 809: 805: 802: 798: 790: 788: 784: 781: 777: 767: 765: 761: 758: 754: 748: 743: 741: 737: 729: 727: 723: 715: 713: 709: 699: 697: 693: 685: 683: 679: 665: 663: 659: 651: 649: 645: 642: 638: 633: 629: 625: 622: 618: 613: 608: 606: 602: 597: 592: 590: 586: 582: 577: 569: 565: 561: 557: 553: 551: 545: 520: 515: 511: 507: 505: 504: 499: 495: 491: 488: 483: 478: 473: 465: 460: 455: 452: 447: 442: 437: 434: 429: 424: 418: 414: 410: 408: 404: 402: 398: 394: 392: 388: 387: 385: 383: 379: 373: 365: 358: 355: 352: 351: 349: 343: 338: 332: 329: 327: 324: 322: 319: 317: 314: 312: 309: 307: 304: 302: 299: 298: 296: 292: 286: 281: 278: 276: 273: 271: 268: 266: 263: 261: 258: 256: 253: 251: 248: 246: 243: 241: 238: 236: 233: 232: 231: 229: 225: 219: 216: 214: 211: 210: 208: 202: 192: 189: 188: 187: 184: 183: 182: 179: 178: 177: 173: 167: 159: 156: 155: 154: 151: 150: 149: 145: 141: 135: 131: 125: 119: 116: 114: 111: 109: 106: 104: 101: 99: 96: 95: 92: 88: 84: 78: 73: 69: 64: 58: 53: 48: 45: 41: 37: 33: 19: 15881: 15626:Chetty Malay 15368:Chaoshan Min 15346:Southern Min 15285:Sino-Tibetan 15166:Sabah Bisaya 15046:Kinabatangan 14951:Bukar–Sadong 14811:Pahang Malay 14607:Austronesian 14242: 14211:Chitty Malay 14206:Bazaar Malay 14019:Shanghainese 13964:Japonic Sign 13790:Sino-Tibetan 13491:Austronesian 13340:GX = Guangxi 13328: 13326:Tibetan Sign 13316: 13302:Chinese Sign 13168:Creole/Mixed 13037:Southeastern 13025:Southwestern 12988:Northeastern 12973:Varieties of 10960:Hanyu Pinyin 10950:Romanization 10857:Semi-cursive 10702:Old Mandarin 10659:Stroke count 10586: 10579: 10501:Old National 10344:Unclassified 9249:Southwestern 9082:Northeastern 9064:Major groups 9053: 9044: 8961: 8949:. Retrieved 8938: 8934: 8912:, Berkeley, 8906:Jerry Norman 8901: 8863: 8844: 8831:. Retrieved 8821: 8798:ScienceDaily 8796: 8763:(1): 27–43. 8760: 8756: 8733: 8729: 8710: 8691: 8669: 8650: 8631: 8606: 8602: 8595:Tsu-lin, Mei 8576: 8557: 8536: 8515: 8496: 8443: 8439: 8409: 8390: 8371: 8349: 8330: 8308: 8284: 8260: 8241:. Retrieved 8234:the original 8229: 8225: 8196: 8184:. Retrieved 8179: 8175: 8161: 8141: 8129:. Retrieved 8123: 8103: 8088:. Retrieved 8068: 8064: 8041: 8022: 8003: 7947: 7943: 7911: 7907: 7870: 7866: 7839: 7811: 7807: 7781: 7774: 7734:(1): 45–98. 7731: 7727: 7699: 7676: 7654: 7634:12 September 7632:. Retrieved 7628:the original 7623: 7613: 7602:(in Chinese) 7597: 7585: 7573:. Retrieved 7568: 7559: 7547: 7535:. Retrieved 7531:the original 7519: 7507: 7495: 7483: 7472: 7460:. Retrieved 7456:the original 7444: 7437:Huang (2014) 7432: 7415: 7403: 7391: 7371: 7362: 7358: 7345: 7337: 7332: 7323: 7314: 7302: 7281: 7273: 7261: 7249: 7237: 7225: 7213: 7196: 7191:, p. 7. 7184: 7157: 7145: 7133: 7121: 7109: 7097: 7085: 7073:. Retrieved 7069:the original 7058: 7046: 7034: 7022: 7010: 6983: 6971: 6955: 6928: 6916: 6904: 6892: 6880: 6868: 6856: 6844: 6832: 6820: 6808: 6796: 6784: 6772: 6760: 6748: 6736: 6724: 6712: 6700: 6688: 6676: 6664: 6652: 6640: 6628: 6616: 6604: 6592: 6587:, p. 1. 6580: 6568: 6556: 6544: 6532: 6520: 6493: 6481:. Retrieved 6476: 6467: 6462:, p. 3. 6451: 6434: 6426: 6403: 6386: 6376: 6363: 6351: 6343: 6317: 6311: 6292: 6285: 6276: 6271:for details. 6258: 6249: 6240: 6231: 6222: 6146: 6128: 6124: 6121: 6077: 6067: 6047: 6009:Jiǎng Jièshí 5972:Mao Tse-tung 5795: 5772: 5769: 5758: 5754:Hanyu Pinyin 5751: 5743:Latin script 5739:Romanization 5737: 5729: 5707:Romanization 5700: 5694: 5690: 5666: 5652:, including 5643: 5636: 5619: 5609: 5599: 5589: 5579: 5569: 5551: 5488: 5473: 5457: 5450: 5414:The Chinese 5413: 5355: 5331: 5321: 5308: 5289: 5279:; 'wireless' 5276: 5257: 5244: 5225: 5213: 5194: 5182: 5176:'IT circles' 5163: 5150: 5139: 5115: 5105: 5098: 5088: 5078: 5068: 5058: 5044: 5034: 5024: 5014: 5004: 4998: 4984: 4970: 4956: 4936: 4926: 4912: 4906: 4899: 4889: 4871: 4857: 4847: 4835:luóji, luójí 4833: 4819: 4809: 4795: 4781: 4771: 4764:proper nouns 4761: 4750: 4732: 4714: 4688: 4678: 4665: 4640: 4619: 4598: 4577: 4558: 4516: 4493: 4482:Please help 4470:may contain 4469: 4442: 4432: 4394: 4380: 4370: 4356: 4346: 4332: 4318: 4308: 4294: 4280: 4266: 4260: 4252: 4240: 4238: 4231: 4225: 4223: 4211: 4205: 4203: 4199: 4163: 4156: 4142: 4124: 4111:to indicate 4074: 4067: 4053: 4039: 4029: 4016: 4002: 3992: 3978: 3968: 3958: 3948: 3934: 3928: 3924: 3919:'foodstuff' 3791: 3785: 3598: 3588: 3578: 3568: 3547: 3544: 3492:low, rising 3288: 3281: 3169:high, level 3051: 3047:pitch accent 3043: 3034: 2986: 2952:, or even a 2935: 2924: 2886: 2880: 2874: 2868: 2864: 2862: 2855: 2841: 2835: 2831: 2827: 2824:Nomenclature 2782:Shanghainese 2776: 2769: 2755: 2741: 2731: 2687: 2660: 2654: 2548: 2513:, including 2488:Shanghainese 2486:, including 2479:Central Asia 2461:, including 2449: 2444: 2441:China proper 2410: 2390:Jerry Norman 2387: 2293: 2283: 2277: 2267: 2261: 2250: 2245: 2202: 2186: 2159: 2139: 2128: 2096: 2089: 2071: 2057: 2046: 2024: 2019:Menggu Ziyun 2017: 2011: 2005: 1998:Old Mandarin 1983: 1955: 1922: 1913:such as the 1911:rhyme tables 1904: 1886: 1860: 1850: 1844: 1838: 1835:Western Zhou 1816:oracle bones 1813: 1785: 1734: 1683: 1672: 1654: 1622: 1570:Shanghainese 1562:Southern Min 1527: 1478: 1458: 1434: 1433: 1430: 1328:Hanyu Pinyin 1215:Southern Min 1164:Zung1 man4*2 1123:Romanization 1100:Romanization 984:Hanyu Pinyin 938: 873:Southern Min 787:Romanization 764:Romanization 648:Hanyu Pinyin 547: 501: 157: 148:Sino-Tibetan 44: 15636:Sabah Malay 15631:Cocos Malay 15520:Minangkabau 15471:archipelago 15341:Pu-Xian Min 15319:Eastern Min 15269:Significant 15111:Murik Kayan 14821:Reman Malay 14816:Perak Malay 14801:Orang Kanaq 14741:Kedah Malay 14736:Judeo-Malay 14617:Kayan–Murik 14420:Minangkabau 12834:Fuyu Kyrgyz 12633:Tai Hongjin 12319:Muak Sa-aak 11029:Xiao'erjing 10891:Punctuation 10884:Traditional 10837:Oracle bone 10821:Logographic 10717:Proto-Hakka 10692:Eastern Han 10687:Old Chinese 10549:Classifiers 10516:Northern Wu 10444:Singaporean 9650: [ 9638: [ 9626: [ 9614: [ 9602: [ 8823:Throughline 8713:. Longman. 8243:17 November 7537:15 February 7462:15 February 7451:粵普之爭為你中文解毒 7408:Kane (2006) 7374:(in German) 7340:, July 2009 7242:Mair (1991) 7202:Bailey 1973 7189:Mair (1991) 6897:Sohn (2001) 6498:Mair (1991) 6058:Yale system 5955:Sun Yat-sen 5654:seal script 5558:pictographs 5418:centers on 5416:orthography 5342:wasei-kango 4705:), such as 4606:'computer' 4174:classifiers 4055:shǒuményuán 3690:'recognize' 3522:low, level 3428:mid, level 3362:high, level 2946:monophthong 2940:that has a 2788:also speak 2496:Wenzhounese 2421:Pearl River 2282:), and 2184:in Korean. 2142:Han dynasty 2037:, known as 1992:and Mongol 1800:Old Chinese 1643:Old Chinese 1489:Han Chinese 1306:Han writing 1239:Eastern Min 906:Eastern Min 562:instead of 411:Singapore: 316:Xiao'erjing 181:Old Chinese 170:Early forms 68:traditional 66:written in 16012:Categories 15909:Vietnamese 15894:Sinosphere 15769:Vietnamese 15759:Sri Lankan 15717:Indonesian 15674:Immigrants 15621:Baba Malay 15541:Philippine 15534:Philippine 15515:Mandailing 15469:Indonesian 15256:Umaʼ Lasan 15146:Punan Batu 15091:Lun Bawang 14836:Semaq Beri 14691:Peninsular 14674:Nationwide 14666:Indigenous 14637:Sama–Bajaw 14632:Philippine 14622:Land Dayak 14476:Vietnamese 14393:Mandailing 14365:Indonesian 14323:Indo-Aryan 14201:Baba Malay 14063:Vietnamese 14051:Indonesian 13871:Fuzhounese 13731:Kanakanavu 13410:Portuguese 13355:XZ = Tibet 13346:MC = Macau 13286:Zhangzhung 13030:Sichuanese 12957:Vietnamese 12354:Hmong-Mien 12233:Waxianghua 12014:Khroskyabs 11302:Indigenous 11190:Prefecture 11165:Portuguese 10980:Wade–Giles 10879:Simplified 10774:Vernacular 10767:in Vietnam 10620:Simplified 10607:Biaoxingma 10554:Honorifics 10489:Historical 10434:Philippine 10424:Sichuanese 10351:Badong Yao 10055:Shao–Jiang 9926:Philippine 9734:Xiangxiang 9729:Shuangfeng 9474:Taizhou Wu 9257:Sichuanese 8980:1246726702 8898:Qiu, Xigui 8609:: 86–110. 8182:(1): 56–71 7114:Kuo (2005) 6477:Ethnologue 6436:Ethnologue 6414:References 5985:Mao Zedong 5979:Máo Zédōng 5808:Wade–Giles 5805:Characters 5761:Wade–Giles 5562:ideographs 5535:See also: 5519:Hui people 5476:rime books 5405:Wang Xizhi 5046:baa1 si6,2 5036:dik1 si6,2 5016:kaa1 tung1 4977:soft power 4917:) and 4891:so1 faa3,2 4876:) and 4507:See also: 4496:April 2024 4476:irrelevant 4196:Vocabulary 3624:Cantonese 3595:homophones 3539:See also: 3045:two-toned 2960:(a single 2954:triphthong 2927:morphology 2876:vernacular 2726:See also: 2698:Waxianghua 2541:Taishanese 2515:Fuzhounese 2492:Suzhounese 2477:spoken in 2471:Sichuanese 2402:Taishanese 2295:gam1 gwat1 2174:Vietnamese 2113:See also: 1878:inflection 1827:Late Shang 1765:inflection 1709:logography 1376:Wade–Giles 1032:Wade–Giles 696:Wade–Giles 405:Malaysia: 72:simplified 70:(top) and 16002:Hong Kong 15990:Singapore 15810:By states 15664:Esperanto 15601:Chavacano 15414:Malayalam 15409:Dravidian 15336:Hainanese 15295:Cantonese 15231:Tombonuwo 15196:Sembakung 15016:Kalabakan 14966:Daro-Matu 14706:Cheq Wong 14644:Tai-Kadai 14561:Malaysian 14405:Baweanese 14378:Banjarese 14311:Malayalam 14306:Dravidian 14261:Hainanese 14256:Cantonese 14226:Singdarin 14046:Malaysian 14009:Cantonese 13981:Auxiliary 13650:Ketagalan 13568:Favorlang 13415:Cantonese 13266:Tocharian 13200:Qoqmončaq 13152:Cantonese 13106:Shaojiang 13079:Hainanese 13008:Zhongyuan 13003:Jiao-Liao 12937:Esperanto 12839:Ili Turki 12546:Khamnigan 12411:Kiong Nai 12182:Zitsadegu 11160:Mongolian 11150:Cantonese 10918:Taiwanese 10908:Cantonese 10752:Classical 10712:Proto-Min 10647:Microsoft 10506:Cantonese 10482:Phonology 10463:Cantonese 10454:Singdarin 10439:Malaysian 10429:Taiwanese 10333:Rongjiang 10323:Yongjiang 10319:Southern 10304:Northern 10278:Luo–Guang 10187:Hong Kong 10182:Guangzhou 10138:Taiwanese 10131:Changting 10065:Zhanjiang 9979:Zhongshan 9946:Malaysian 9941:Singapore 9906:Zhangzhou 9858:Zhongshan 9751:Yong–Quan 9647:Jing-Zhan 9577:Xuancheng 9554:Jiangshan 9433:Changzhou 9354:Junjiahua 9207:Guanzhong 9090:Changchun 8951:27 August 8890:209828119 8833:27 August 8777:1754-7075 8730:Putonghua 8470:0027-8424 8085:1996-4617 7966:0002-7294 7928:1749-818X 7895:144374994 7887:0143-4632 7766:201097561 7758:1430-0532 7716:143663395 7484:The Paper 7090:Li (2010) 6419:Citations 6041:Confucius 6028:K'ung Tsu 5886:Pei-ching 5830:Chung-kuo 5681:shorthand 5560:, simple 5499:syllabary 5424:morphemes 5026:gei1 lou2 4859:xiēsīdǐlǐ 4752:Sàibǎiwèi 4690:hànbǎobāo 4650:Bluetooth 4472:excessive 4339:Silk Road 4255:loanwords 4249:Loanwords 4218:CC-CEDICT 4041:hànbǎobāo 3613:Character 3571:compounds 3381:'history' 3309:Character 3133:Character 2962:consonant 2950:diphthong 2895:Phonology 2814:Hong Kong 2810:Guangdong 2778:Diglossia 2743:pǔtōnghuà 2710:Guangdong 2519:Hainanese 2417:Guangzhou 2351:Guangzhou 2302:Varieties 2279:dim2 sam1 2109:Influence 2099:Hong Kong 2091:pǔtōnghuà 1972:with the 1958:diglossia 1936:diasystem 1818:dated to 1749:Himalayas 1671:known as 1582:New Xiang 1578:Cantonese 1503:as their 1485:languages 1231:Tiong-bûn 1178:Zung men* 1129:Chung-Vun 1054:Jhong-wún 1039:Chung-wen 922:Háng-ngṳ̄ 828:Hon3 jyu5 503:Glottolog 487:ISO 639-3 451:ISO 639-2 433:ISO 639-1 359:Singapore 331:ʼPhags-pa 228:Varieties 118:Singapore 113:Indonesia 91:Sinophone 16063:Sinology 15954:Language 15899:Japanese 15749:Nepalese 15734:Japanese 15712:Filipino 15659:Tanglish 15611:Manglish 15606:Kristang 15505:Javanese 15500:Buginese 15488:Madurese 15478:Acehnese 15443:Gujarati 15271:minority 15241:Tringgus 15206:Serudung 15036:Kendayan 15006:Jangkang 14888:Malaysia 14776:Mah Meri 14766:Kristang 14693:Malaysia 14587:Families 14553:Official 14456:Japanese 14451:Filipino 14441:Armenian 14415:Javanese 14410:Buginese 14373:Acehnese 14333:Gujarati 14221:Singlish 14216:Kristang 14157:Mandarin 14140:Official 14124:National 14031:Japanese 14026:Filipino 13840:Southern 13808:Mandarin 13696:Southern 13677:Sakizaya 13617:Saisiyat 13555:Northern 13509:Atayalic 13500:Formosan 13403:Official 13210:Tangwang 13190:Macanese 13185:Lingling 13118:Northern 13101:Northern 13064:Southern 12983:Mandarin 12910:Minority 12870:Sarikoli 12783:Tungusic 12744:Naxi Yao 12689:Cao Miao 12613:Ningming 12513:Mongolic 12489:Dzao Min 12484:Biao Min 12441:Qo Xiong 12436:Pingtang 12132:Dongwang 12074:Tshobdun 11999:Guiqiong 11601:Sangkong 11376:Muangphe 11338:Mondzish 11292:numerous 11283:Counties 11130:Regional 11114:Official 11002:Bopomofo 10931:Phonetic 10923:Two-cell 10852:Clerical 10762:in Japan 10757:Adoption 10745:Official 10736:Literary 10611:Boshiamy 10588:Xiehouyu 10544:Numerals 10521:Mandarin 10449:Standard 10409:Standard 10283:Qin–Lian 10273:Yong–Xun 10258:Gao–Yang 10204:Jiujiang 10192:Malaysia 10126:Tingzhou 10077:Wenchang 10038:Jianyang 10028:Northern 9987:Sanxiang 9901:Quanzhou 9884:Southern 9853:Manjiang 9717:Changsha 9677:Nanchang 9672:Chang–Du 9569:Xuanzhou 9559:Qingtian 9513:Wencheng 9459:Jiangyin 9454:Jinxiang 9444:Shaoxing 9438:Hangzhou 9418:Shanghai 9359:Qinjiang 9267:Minjiang 9239:Xinjiang 9197:Dongping 9161:Jiaoliao 9100:Shenyang 9073:Mandarin 9004:Archived 8945:Archived 8900:(2000), 8785:53981784 8690:(2000). 8597:(1970). 8488:31061123 8370:(1984). 8329:(1988). 8307:(2004). 8281:(1967). 8259:(1994). 8217:(1991). 7992:Archived 7938:(1966). 7838:(1984). 7802:(2000). 7700:Language 7675:(1992). 7575:28 April 7569:BBC News 7383:(1988). 6314:Fu Maoji 6141:See also 6074:Bopomofo 5916:T'ai-pei 5860:T'ai-wan 5837:Zhōngguó 5814:Meaning 5790:T'ai-pei 5507:Cyrillic 5480:Sanskrit 5238:'e-home' 4958:gāo'ěrfū 4928:xiāngbīn 4901:mo1 daa2 4540:délǜfēng 4478:examples 4413:Sanskrit 4105:articles 3662:'actual' 3549:morpheme 3475:'market' 3316:Jyutping 3159:'mother' 2882:regional 2865:topolect 2800:, or an 2557:Mandarin 2459:Mandarin 2431:Grouping 2249:include 2170:Japanese 1891:and the 1751:and the 1691:and the 1618:analytic 1554:Mandarin 1538:dialects 1480:Zhōngwén 1342:Bopomofo 1255:Dṳng-ùng 1158:Jyutping 1150:Jūng mán 1107:Tson ven 1068:Jūng-wén 998:Bopomofo 990:Zhōngwén 822:Jyutping 771:Hoe nyiu 662:Bopomofo 626:language 568:Help:IPA 510:sini1245 395:Taiwan: 375:Malaysia 306:Bopomofo 235:Mandarin 108:Malaysia 80:(bottom) 77:Zhōngwén 15940:Portals 15921:Spanish 15916:English 15729:Persian 15697:Burmese 15692:Bengali 15682:African 15593:Creoles 15551:Maranao 15510:Kerinci 15453:Punjabi 15373:Teochew 15351:Hokkien 15278:Chinese 15226:Timugon 15186:Sekapan 15106:Momogun 15101:Melanau 15081:Lengilu 15071:Lahanan 15031:Kelabit 15021:Kanowit 15011:Kajaman 14956:Bukitan 14926:Bintulu 14916:Berawan 14841:Semelai 14751:Kenaboi 14716:Jah Hut 14661:Natives 14627:Malayic 14566:English 14446:Burmese 14388:Angkola 14353:Sinhala 14343:Punjabi 14328:Bengali 14286:Teochew 14281:Hokkien 14276:Hokchew 14271:Henghwa 14251:Sinitic 14243:Chinese 14147:English 14004:English 13944:Zhao'an 13939:Raoping 13888:Pu-Xian 13863:Eastern 13799:Sinitic 13764:Batanic 13687:Taivoan 13672:Qauqaut 13667:Makatao 13660:Luilang 13645:Kavalan 13436:English 13281:Xianbei 13276:Tuyuhun 13246:Old Yue 13224:Extinct 13205:Sanqiao 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