2133:
reached to the edge of the known universe. Nor is it an accident that one of the earliest religions of this type, Zoroastrianism, appeared in the largest empire of the mid-first millennium BCE, that of the
Achaemenids, and at the hub of trade routes that were weaving Afro-Eurasia into a single world system. Indeed, most of the universal religions appeared in the hub region between Mesopotamia and northern India. They included Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism in Persia, Buddhism in India, Confucianism in China, and Judaism, Christianity and Islam in the Mediterranean world.
634:, forgotten by Jaspers' time, and which Stuart-Glennie termed "the moral revolution". Stuart-Glennie and Jaspers both claimed that the Axial Age should be viewed as an objective empirical fact of history, independently of religious considerations. Jaspers argued that during the Axial Age, "the spiritual foundations of humanity were laid simultaneously and independently in China, India, Persia, Judea, and Greece. And these are the foundations upon which humanity still subsists today."
2278:
economic ties to the land and the urban vocations, be they in trade, craft, industry, or the ritual and educational fields. This phenomenon was also very closely connected with the development of many free economic resources—partially even land and manpower resources—not bound to ascriptive social units, the concomitant development of widespread internal and external, relatively free, market activities, and the accumulation of relatively mobile capital.
651:
1139:(Chung-kuo). The new geopolitical setting of China changed less in the following two millennia than it did in the Axial Age. The Axial Age formed two major geopolitical systems, a wider China and a much vaster Indo-Mediterranean system. The two were separated from each other by Tibet which limited their political and military contacts but both systems were linked by the
2132:
Not until the first millennium BCE do the first universal religions appear. Though associated in practice with particular dynasties or empires, they proclaimed universal truths and worshiped all-powerful gods. It is no accident that universal religions appeared when both empires and exchange networks
1129:
and Max
Ostrovsky demonstrated that the Age is even more Axial in historical and geopolitical senses. Jaspers, in fact, noted the tip of the iceberg. Pre-Axial cultures, he wrote, were dominated by the river valley civilizations while by the end of the Axial Age rose universal empires which dominated
1025:
on the relation between coinage and early Greek thought, Graeber argues that an understanding of the rise of markets is necessary to grasp the context in which the religious and philosophical insights of the Axial Age arose. The ultimate effect of the introduction of coinage was, he argues, an "ideal
572:, in a striking parallel development, without any obvious admixture between these disparate cultures. Jaspers identified key thinkers from this age who had a profound influence on future philosophies and religions, and identified characteristics common to each area from which those thinkers emerged.
1772:
Hermits and wandering thinkers in China, ascetics in India, philosophers in Greece and prophets in Israel all belong together schools which are termed academies by sinologists: the sophists and philosophers of Hellas travelled about in similar fashion and Buddha passed his entire life in wandering
1162:
called the
Jaspers thesis "a baggy monster, which tries to bundle up all sorts of diversities over four very different civilisations, only two of which had much contact with each other during the six centuries that (after adjustments) he eventually singled out, between 800 and 200 BCE". Jaspers
1150:
researched religious evolution in the Axial Age, arguing that religions and religious change in general are essentially biosocial adaptations to changing environments. Ostrovsky suggests increased fertility in the rainy zones of the
Eurasian temperate belt. He regards the Axial belt of civilizations
1134:
comes at the peak of the Axial Age and conquers
Mesopotamia and Egypt. Both cease to be civilizations in themselves and become provinces in a completely new form of imperial system which stretches from India to Greece. Thus the Bronze Age civilizations are succeeded by Axial civilizations with their
2831:(1999). "Religion in Modernity as a New Axial Age: Secularization or New Religious Forms?". Oxford University Press: Sociology of Religion Vol. 60 No. 3. pp. 303–333. A general model of analysis of the relations between religion and modernity, where modernity is conceived as a new axial age.
1117:
has been published in 2019: generally the authors contested the existence of an "identifiable Axial Age confined to a few
Eurasian hotspots in the last millennium BCE" but tended to accept “axiality” as a cluster of traits emerging time and again whenever societies reached a certain threshold of
2277:
The emergence of this specific type of Axial Age breakthrough was connected with the special mode of disintegration of the tribal communities and of construction of new collectivities and institutional complexes. In the economic field, we find a growing occupational differentiation between the
575:
The historical validity of the Axial Age is disputed. Some criticisms of
Jaspers include the lack of a demonstrable common denominator between the intellectual developments that are supposed to have emerged in unison across ancient Greece, the Levant, India, and China; lack of any radical
1016:
was invented. What's more, the three parts of the world where coins were first invented were also the very parts of the world where those sages lived; in fact, they became the epicenters of Axial Age religious and philosophical creativity." Drawing on the work of classicist
637:
Jaspers identified a number of key thinkers as having had a profound influence on future philosophies and religions, and identified characteristics common to each area from which those thinkers emerged. Jaspers held up this age as unique and one to which the rest of the
600:, "The notion that in significant parts of Eurasia the middle centuries of the first millennium BCE mark a significant transition in human cultural history, and that this period can be referred to as the Axial Age, has become widely, but not universally, accepted."
857:
and other leading scholars who once supported much earlier dates for
Zarathustra/Zoroaster have recently changed their position on when he likely lived, so that there is an emerging consensus regarding him as a contemporary or near-contemporary of Cyrus the Great.
1155:. It shifted northward during the Middle Ages due to climatic change and after the Seafaring Revolution penetrated to the temperate North America. "But from historical point of view, it is the same imperial belt which first appeared in the Axial Age."
591:
Despite these criticisms, the Axial Age continues to be an influential idea, with many scholars accepting that profound changes in religious and philosophical discourse did indeed take place but disagreeing as to the underlying reasons. To quote
783:
each comprised multiple small states engaged in internal and external struggles. The three regions all gave birth to, and then institutionalized, a tradition of travelling scholars, who roamed from city to city to exchange ideas. After the
1167:, where he says that one of the puzzles of the Axial Age is precisely that of a similar phenomenon simultaneously occurring in three civilizations which had no contact with each other. In 2013, another comprehensive critique appears in
1003:, for example, are found across much of Eurasia, and date back many millennia before the first empires. What some regard as the emergence of religion is more likely the emergence of institutionalized and codified religion.
618:), published in 1949. The simultaneous appearance of thinkers and philosophers in different areas of the world had been remarked by numerous authors since the 18th century, notably by the French Indologist
2303:
779:
foundations within a framework of a changing social environment. Jaspers argues that the characteristics appeared under similar political circumstances: China, India, the Middle East and the
2225:
849:, another of Jaspers' examples, is one of the first monotheistic religions. William W. Malandra and R. C. Zaehner, suggest that Zoroaster may indeed have been an early contemporary of
2851:. New York: Random House. A novel narrated by the fictional grandson of Zoroaster in 445 BCE, describing encounters with the central figures of the Axial Age during his travels.
1130:
history for centuries since. With the researches of Kulke and
Ostrovsky the whole iceberg emerged. Universal empires do not come by the end of the Axial Age. The first of them,
1080:
in 1975, and
Jaspers' suggestion that the period was uniquely transformative generated important discussion among other scholars, such as Johann Arnason. Religious historian
1049:
1326:
Mullins, Daniel Austin; Hoyer, Daniel; Collins, Christina; Currie, Thomas; Feeney, Kevin; François, Pieter; Savage, Patrick E.; Whitehouse, Harvey; Turchin, Peter (2018).
843:(c. 6th century BCE) were in contention and Confucianism and Taoism arose during this era, and in this area it remains a profound influence on social and religious life.
1428:
2859:
1854:
831:
Many of the cultures of the Axial Age have been considered second-generation societies because they developed on the basis of societies which preceded them.
2864:
Lambert. Dr. Whitaker's research received a grant award from the U.S. National Science Foundation in association with the American Sociological Association.
1882:
1125:
Besides time, usage of the term has expanded beyond the original field. A philosopher, Jaspers focused on philosophical development of the Age. Historians
1135:
universal empires. Before forming another universal empire, the Chinese civilization expands at the peak of the Axial Age, turning the original core into
2854:
764:
Jaspers had a particular interest in the similarities in circumstance and thought of its figures. Similarities included an engagement in the quest for
557:. It refers to broad changes in religious and philosophical thought that occurred in a variety of locations from about the 8th to the 3rd century BCE.
2456:
Ecological Revolution: The Political Origins of Environmental Degradation and the Environmental Origins of Axial Religions; China, Japan, Europe
1043:
967:, constituting a new spiritual awakening and a shift of perception from societal to individual values. Thinkers and teachers like the Buddha,
2195:
2307:
893:(24th Tirthankara in the 5th century BCE), known as a fordmaker of Jainism and a contemporary with the Buddha, lived during this age.
705:
taught a challenging view of the world as a struggle between good and evil; in Ancient Israel the prophets made their appearance from
2026:
576:
discontinuity with "preaxial" and "postaxial" periods; and exclusion of pivotal figures that do not fit the definition (for example,
1817:(17 November 2017). "Origins of Globalization in the Framework of the Afroeurasian World-System History". In Hall, Thomas D. (ed.).
1470:
523:
436:
2329:
2713:
2694:
2119:
2089:
1949:
1894:
1794:
1480:
1218:
2253:
Eisenstadt, Shmuel N. (2012). "Introduction: The Axial Age Breakthrough in Ancient Greece". In Eisenstadt, Shmuel N. (ed.).
745:. Everything implied by these names developed during these few centuries almost simultaneously in China, India and the West.
2915:
2875:
2862:: The Political Origins of Environmental Degradation and the Environmental Origins of Axial Religions; China, Japan, Europe
1444:
327:
239:
757:, a deep breath bringing the most lucid consciousness". It has also been suggested that the Axial Age was a historically
619:
1498:"Sociology's Missed Opportunity: John Stuart-Glennie's Lost Theory of the Moral Revolution, Also Known as the Axial Age"
2679:
2664:
2646:
2264:
2053:
2441:
Ostrovsky, Max (2006). The Hyperbola of the World Order, (Lanham: University Press of America) Ostrovsky, Max (2006).
413:
322:
2572:
2237:
2205:
2010:
1866:
1828:
1758:
1724:
1689:
1595:
1026:
division of spheres of human activity that endures to this day: on the one hand the market, on the other, religion".
2687:
From the Axial Age to the Moral Revolution: John Stuart-Glennie, Karl Jaspers, and a New Understanding of the Idea
1472:
From the Axial Age to the Moral Revolution: John Stuart-Glennie, Karl Jaspers, and a New Understanding of the Idea
1012:
has pointed out that "the core period of Jasper's Axial age ... corresponds almost exactly to the period in which
928:
period. It has been argued that this development in monotheism relates to the axial shifts described by Jaspers.
1679:
899:, also of the sramana tradition of India, was another of the world's most influential philosophies, founded by
477:
230:
422:
111:
800:
emerged in China. In other regions, the scholars largely developed extant religious traditions; in India,
394:
389:
2895:
2105:
1113:, wherein relationships between religion, secularism, and traditional thought are changing. A collective
988:
516:
275:
840:
631:
77:
1561:– Vol. 1: The New Philosophy of History. London: Longmans, Green, and Company, pp. vii–viii.
2510:
1074:
Wider acknowledgement of Jaspers' work came after it was presented at a conference and published in
2900:
785:
639:
313:
2790:(2015), "Increased Affluence Explains the Emergence of Ascetic Wisdoms and Moralizing Religions",
1101:
Usage of the term has expanded beyond Jaspers' original formulation. Yves Lambert argues that the
408:
403:
220:
1941:
1842:
This is the Axial Age period, the period of the emergence of the second generation civilizations.
285:
669:
were living in China, all the schools of Chinese philosophy came into being, including those of
1328:"A Systematic Assessment of "Axial Age" Proposals Using Global Comparative Historical Evidence"
1055:
981:
939:(3rd century AD), which would later become a major influence on the Western world through both
509:
267:
201:
23:
2114:. California World History Library. Vol. 2. University of California Press. p. 319.
2041:
2910:
1585:
789:
99:
1712:
384:
1327:
1247:
1102:
374:
304:
225:
211:
87:
83:
2753:(1982), "The Axial Age: The Emergence of Transcendental Visions and the Rise of Clerics",
761:
period, when "old certainties had lost their validity and new ones were still not ready".
623:
8:
2506:
1159:
1098:
covers much of this Axial Age through the fictional perspective of a Persian adventurer.
569:
369:
253:
186:
1251:
2817:
2783:
2770:
2739:
2349:
1910:
1823:. World-Systems Evolution and Global Futures. Chan, Switzerland: Springer. p. 55.
1661:
1517:
1365:
1184:
1076:
913:
accounts for its hard shift away from idolatry/polytheism (which was more common among
900:
427:
299:
130:
2602:, Bullock, Michael (Tr.) (1st English ed.), London: Routledge & Keegan Paul,
991:
notes that the first "universal religions" appeared in the age of the first universal
560:
According to Jaspers, during this period, universalizing modes of thought appeared in
2905:
2809:
2774:
2750:
2709:
2690:
2675:
2660:
2642:
2622:
2603:
2568:
2260:
2233:
2201:
2115:
2085:
2049:
2006:
1945:
1890:
1862:
1824:
1790:
1754:
1720:
1708:
1685:
1665:
1591:
1521:
1476:
1369:
1357:
1265:
1214:
1147:
1088:, and the theory has been the focus of numerous academic conferences. In literature,
1068:
1034:
874:
870:
627:
290:
244:
2357:
1146:
Several scholars supposed ecological prime trigger for the rise of this Axial belt
2799:
2762:
2341:
1814:
1653:
1509:
1347:
1339:
1306:
1296:
1255:
1143:
creating a trans-Eurasian trade belt stretching from the Pacific to the Atlantic.
1093:
1071:
analyses economic circumstances relating to the coming of the Axial Age in Greece.
910:
878:
593:
455:
116:
2639:
Convenient Myths: The Axial Age, Dark Green Religion, and the World That Never Was
2330:"Religion in Modernity as a New Axial Age: Secularization or New Religious Forms?"
1536:
1384:
Convenient Myths: The Axial Age, Dark Green Religion, And The World That Never Was
1301:
1284:
1236:"When did societies become modern? 'Big history' dashes popular idea of Axial Age"
1173:
Convenient Myths: The Axial Age, Dark Green Religion, and the World That Never Was
2821:
2560:
2254:
2109:
2059:
1969:
1935:
1818:
1750:
1744:
1641:
1119:
1110:
1081:
1059:
provided a background for the importance of the period, and notes parallels with
1018:
996:
850:
765:
472:
154:
2406:, (ed. Eisenstadt, Samuel, Albania: New York State University Press), p 390-391.
1559:
In the Morningland: Or, the Law of the Origin and Transformation of Christianity
2701:
2470:(Scientific Studies of Religion: Inquiry and Explanation), Bloomsbury Academic.
1260:
1235:
1131:
1000:
846:
813:
772:
class of religious leaders and thinkers in China, India and the Mediterranean.
718:
191:
2804:
2766:
1537:"The Axial Age, The Moral Revolution, and the Polarization of Life and Spirit"
658:
Jaspers presented his first outline of the Axial age by a series of examples:
2889:
2738::2: Wisdom, Revelation and Doubt: Perspectives on the First Millennium BCE.
2582:
2169:
2084:. Collected Works. Vol. 18. Columbia: The University of Missouri Press.
2077:
1810:
1657:
1513:
1361:
1343:
1126:
1060:
1009:
960:
925:
749:
Jaspers described the Axial Age as "an interregnum between two ages of great
465:
140:
31:
2432:, (ed. Eisenstadt, Samuel, Albania: New York State University Press), p 326.
2063:
689:
and, like China, ran the whole gamut of philosophical possibilities down to
2834:
2828:
2813:
2787:
2595:
2515:
1965:
1931:
1740:
1497:
1269:
1152:
1106:
1006:
940:
936:
797:
776:
554:
162:
135:
16:
Age of religious and philosophical change from the 8th to 3rd centuries BCE
2468:
Religious Evolution and the Axial Age: From Shamans to Priests to Prophets
654:
Jaspers argued that the Axial Age gave birth to philosophy as a discipline
2743:
2634:
2578:. A semi-historic description of the events and milieu of the Axial Age.
1285:"Between facts and myth: Karl Jaspers and the actuality of the axial age"
1168:
948:
944:
921:
866:
702:
690:
674:
341:
336:
206:
56:
2428:
Kulke, Herman (1986). "The historical background of India's Axial Age,"
2402:
Kulke, Herman (1986). "The historical background of India's Axial Age,"
2844:
2353:
1914:
1644:(2010), "Anthropology, multiple modernities and the axial age debate",
1352:
1311:
1089:
1022:
976:
972:
968:
917:
903:, or the Buddha, who lived c. 5th century BCE; its spread was aided by
886:
854:
758:
742:
738:
730:
726:
694:
682:
357:
167:
120:
95:
41:
630:(1870). He was unaware of the first fully nuanced theory from 1873 by
1140:
1030:
932:
662:
597:
585:
460:
45:
2345:
650:
2565:
The Great Transformation: The Beginning of our Religious Traditions
1158:
The validity of the concept has been called into question. In 2006
914:
896:
890:
805:
801:
780:
714:
698:
678:
581:
172:
69:
769:
2879:
2839:
Discovering God: A New Look at the Origins of the Great Religions
1820:
Comparing Globalizations: Historical and World-Systems Approaches
882:
862:
825:
821:
809:
754:
666:
2626:
2607:
1785:
Pollard, Elizabeth; Rosenberg, Clifford; Tignor, Robert (2011).
2259:. SUNY series in Near Eastern Studies. SUNY Press. p. 31.
992:
904:
817:
793:
750:
710:
706:
686:
565:
561:
496:
1437:
Internet-Beiträge zur Ägyptologie und Sudanarchäologie (IBAES)
2706:
The Age of the Sages: The Axial Age in Asia and the Near East
1050:
The Religion of India: The Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism
734:
722:
670:
577:
979:
contributed to such awakenings which Plato would later call
622:. Jaspers explicitly cited some of these authors, including
2200:(First hardcover ed.). UK: Routledge. pp. 80–81.
1013:
608:
Jaspers introduced the concept of an Axial Age in his book
1937:
Jains in the World: Religious Values and Ideology in India
1325:
2781:
1889:. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 23–24.
2003:
Living Religions: An Encyclopedia of the World's Faiths
2042:"The End of an Age: Idolatry as Obsolete Superstition"
1784:
1587:
The Way to Wisdom : An Introduction to Philosophy
2283:
1400:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press. p. 1.
2657:
The Origins and Diversity of Axial Age Civilizations
2430:
The Origins and Diversity of Axial Age Civilizations
2404:
The Origins and Diversity of Axial Age Civilizations
2256:
The Origins and Diversity of Axial Age Civilizations
1717:
The Origins and Diversity of Axial Age Civilizations
1590:. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. p. 98.
1039:
The Origins and Diversity of Axial Age Civilizations
1105:was a Second Axial Age, including thinkers such as
2621:] (in German) (1st ed.), MĂĽnchen: Piper,
2536:
2483:, (Lanham: University Press of America), p 94, 96.
2380:, ed. D.Hoyer and J. Reddish, Beresta books, 2019
924:for idolatry which was said to occur in the early
603:
2419:, (Lanham: University Press of America), p XXII.
2887:
2670:Joas, Hans, and Robert N. Bellah, eds. (2012),
2082:Order and History (Volume V): In Search of Order
1919:. München: Manya Verlag. pp. 11, 56–57, 59.
1289:International Journal of Philosophy and Theology
2552:
2496:, (Lanham: University Press of America), p 112.
2046:God versus Gods: Judasim in the Age of Idolatry
1875:
1809:
1033:played an important role in Jaspers' thinking.
2445:, (Lanham: University Press of America), p 46.
1861:. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
1044:The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism
2708:(1st ed.), Minneapolis: Fortress Press,
1703:
1701:
1468:
1431:[Axial age as happening and history]
1422:
1420:
553:) is a term coined by the German philosopher
517:
2111:Maps of Time: An Introduction to Big History
2070:
1847:
1163:himself had already noted this on page 2 of
609:
548:
1859:An Introduction to Ancient Iranian Religion
999:. This conclusion overlooks the fact that
931:Jaspers' axial shifts included the rise of
2749:
2505:
2301:
2295:
2252:
2223:
2193:
2187:
2027:"Rude Travel: Down The Sages Vir Sanghavi"
1887:Three Testaments: Torah, Gospel, and Quran
1707:
1698:
1417:
1395:
1233:
1227:
920:) by mythologizing the eradication of the
524:
510:
2803:
2559:
2460:
2289:
2104:
1640:
1634:
1628:
1618:
1351:
1310:
1300:
1259:
834:
681:and a host of others; India produced the
2162:
2076:
1909:
1853:
1429:"Achsenzeit als Ereignis und Geschichte"
1282:
1276:
985:, or a remembering of things forgotten.
959:In addition to Jaspers, the philosopher
649:
2612:
2594:
2581:
2327:
2219:
2217:
2156:
2144:
2138:
1739:
1677:
1671:
1624:
1583:
1426:
1208:
2888:
2700:
2633:
2542:
2321:
2000:
1964:
1534:
1495:
1414:, Routledge Revivals, 2011, p. 2.
1404:
2782:Baumard, Nicolas; Hyafil, Alexandre;
2039:
1881:
721:; Greece witnessed the appearance of
2615:Vom Ursprung und Ziel der Geschichte
2214:
1930:
1749:. Routledge Classics. Translated by
611:Vom Ursprung und Ziel der Geschichte
2174:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
2048:. Mosaica Press. pp. 263–264.
1213:. Abingdon: Routledge. p. 10.
943:and secular thought throughout the
861:Jainism propagated the religion of
788:(8th to 5th centuries BCE) and the
620:Abraham Hyacinthe Anquetil-Duperron
13:
2876:The Axial Age and Its Consequences
2724:
2672:The Axial Age and Its Consequences
2005:. London: IB Tauris. p. 115.
1475:. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 88.
1398:The Axial Age and Its Consequences
1211:Introducing Philosophy of Religion
995:and of the first all-encompassing
828:and other classical philosophies.
645:
14:
2927:
2869:
2641:, Waco: Baylor University Press,
2567:(1st ed.), New York: Knopf,
1789:. New York: Norton. p. 162.
1678:Neville, Robert Cummings (2002).
873:by propounding the principles of
2689:, New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
2589:, Brooklyn: Melville House Press
2494:The Hyperbola of the World Order
2481:The Hyperbola of the World Order
2443:The Hyperbola of the World Order
2417:The Hyperbola of the World Order
1396:Bellah, Robert N.; Joas (2012).
1084:explored the period in her book
907:, who lived late in the period.
2878:, a 2008 conference in Erfurt,
2655:Eisenstadt, S. N., ed. (1986).
2523:
2499:
2486:
2473:
2448:
2435:
2422:
2409:
2396:
2383:
2378:Seshat History of the Axial Age
2371:
2246:
2150:
2098:
2033:
2019:
1994:
1989:, Encyclopædia Britannica, 2006
1987:Britannica Concise Encyclopedia
1978:
1958:
1924:
1903:
1803:
1778:
1733:
1605:
1577:
1564:
1551:
1528:
1489:
604:Origin of the idea of Axial Age
2619:The origin and goal of History
2600:The Origin and Goal of History
2232:. UK: Routledge. p. 251.
1971:The Cambridge History of India
1746:The Origin and Goal of History
1572:The Origin and Goal of History
1502:Journal of Classical Sociology
1462:
1389:
1386:, 2013, Baylor, pp. 1–40.
1376:
1319:
1202:
1165:The Origin and Goal of History
1037:argues in the introduction to
775:Individual thinkers each laid
616:The Origin and Goal of History
1:
2755:European Journal of Sociology
2466:Stephen K. Sanderson (2018).
2230:Encyclopedia of Social Theory
1974:. Cambridge University Press.
1787:Worlds Together, Worlds Apart
1302:10.1080/21692327.2015.1136794
1190:
1151:as the embryo of the present
2553:General and cited references
2040:Klein, Reuven Chaim (2018).
1916:Jainism Today and Its Future
1719:. SUNY Press. pp. 1–2.
1557:Stuart-Glennie J. S., 1873,
1332:American Sociological Review
1195:
954:
792:(5th to 3rd centuries BCE),
7:
2916:Religion in ancient history
1684:. SUNY Press. p. 104.
1178:
10:
2932:
2611:. Originally published as
2587:Debt: The First 5000 Years
2531:Origin and Goal of History
2391:Origin and Goal of History
2224:Szakolczai, Arpad (2006).
2194:Szakolczai, Arpad (2003).
1681:Religion in Late Modernity
1613:Origin and Goal of History
1412:Origin and Goal of History
1261:10.1038/d41586-019-03785-w
841:Hundred Schools of Thought
632:John Stuart Stuart-Glennie
2805:10.1016/j.cub.2014.10.063
2767:10.1017/s0003975600003908
2001:Fisher, Mary Pat (1997).
1041:that Weber's work in his
935:(c. 4th century BCE) and
2197:The Genesis of Modernity
1658:10.1177/1463499610386659
1514:10.1177/1468795X17691434
1427:Metzler, Dieter (2009).
1344:10.1177/0003122418772567
1115:History of the Axial Age
1086:The Great Transformation
963:referred to this age as
786:Spring and Autumn period
640:history of human thought
2685:Halton, Eugene (2014),
2492:Ostrovsky, Max (2006).
2479:Ostrovsky, Max (2006).
2415:Ostrovsky, Max (2006).
2304:"Axial Transformations"
1942:Oxford University Press
1753:. Abingdon: Routledge.
1627:, p. 51 quoted in
1535:Halton, Eugene (2019).
1524:– via Philpapers.
1496:Halton, Eugene (2017).
965:The Great Leap of Being
853:living around 550 BCE.
737:—of the tragedians, of
2841:. New York: HarperOne.
2613:Jaspers, Karl (1949),
2511:"The axis of goodness"
2328:Lambert, Yves (1999).
2226:"Historical sociology"
1646:Anthropological Theory
1584:Jaspers, Karl (2003).
1469:Eugene Halton (2014).
1209:Meister, Chad (2009).
1021:and literary theorist
835:Thinkers and movements
768:and the rise of a new
747:
725:, of the philosophers—
655:
610:
549:
2860:Ecological Revolution
2334:Sociology of Religion
2310:on September 27, 2007
1443:: 169. Archived from
1137:Country in the Middle
790:Warring States period
660:
653:
112:Age of the human race
2507:MacCulloch, Diarmaid
2454:Whitaker M. (2009).
2029:. 13 September 2013.
1815:Korotayev, Andrey V.
1773:from place to place.
1067:. In the same book,
564:, India, China, the
2784:Morris, Ian Matthew
2302:Strath, Bo (2005).
1883:Brown, Brian Arthur
1450:on 16 December 2013
1252:2019Natur.576..189S
1234:Spinney L. (2019).
1160:Diarmaid MacCulloch
1118:scale and level of
1029:German sociologist
642:might be compared.
187:Classical antiquity
2896:Ancient philosophy
2751:Eisenstadt, Shmuel
1911:Zydenbos, Robert J
1743:(28 March 2021) .
1185:Ancient philosophy
975:, Parmenides, and
901:Siddhartha Gautama
656:
628:Ernst von Lasaulx
547:, from the German
2715:978-0-8006-9921-5
2695:978-1-349-49487-3
2674:, Belknap Press,
2509:(17 March 2006).
2121:978-0-520-23500-7
2091:978-0-8262-1261-0
1951:978-0-19-513234-2
1896:978-1-4422-1492-7
1855:Malandra, William
1811:Grinin, Leonid E.
1796:978-0-393-91847-2
1482:978-1-137-47350-9
1283:Smith A. (2015).
1246:(7786): 189–190.
1220:978-0-203-88002-9
1148:Stephen Sanderson
1069:Shmuel Eisenstadt
1065:Order and History
1035:Shmuel Eisenstadt
871:Indian philosophy
869:) and influenced
824:; and in Greece,
624:Victor von StrauĂź
570:Greco-Roman world
534:
533:
486:
485:
478:Political history
103:
91:
61:
57:Pleistocene epoch
2923:
2855:Mark D. Whitaker
2824:
2807:
2777:
2718:
2651:
2629:
2610:
2590:
2577:
2561:Armstrong, Karen
2546:
2540:
2534:
2527:
2521:
2520:
2503:
2497:
2490:
2484:
2477:
2471:
2464:
2458:
2452:
2446:
2439:
2433:
2426:
2420:
2413:
2407:
2400:
2394:
2387:
2381:
2375:
2369:
2368:
2366:
2365:
2356:. Archived from
2325:
2319:
2318:
2316:
2315:
2306:. Archived from
2299:
2293:
2287:
2281:
2280:
2274:
2273:
2250:
2244:
2243:
2221:
2212:
2211:
2191:
2185:
2184:
2182:
2181:
2166:
2160:
2154:
2148:
2142:
2136:
2135:
2129:
2128:
2106:Christian, David
2102:
2096:
2095:
2074:
2068:
2067:
2037:
2031:
2030:
2023:
2017:
2016:
1998:
1992:
1990:
1982:
1976:
1975:
1962:
1956:
1955:
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1807:
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1782:
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1769:
1767:
1751:Bullock, Michael
1737:
1731:
1730:
1705:
1696:
1695:
1675:
1669:
1668:
1642:Thomassen, Bjorn
1638:
1632:
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1609:
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1581:
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1393:
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1380:
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1355:
1323:
1317:
1316:
1314:
1304:
1280:
1274:
1273:
1263:
1231:
1225:
1224:
1206:
997:trading networks
922:Evil Inclination
911:Rabbinic Judaism
877:(non-violence),
613:
552:
526:
519:
512:
501:
495:
456:Age of Discovery
363:
362:
131:Earliest records
117:Recorded history
93:
81:
53:
51:
40:
19:
18:
2931:
2930:
2926:
2925:
2924:
2922:
2921:
2920:
2901:Historical eras
2886:
2885:
2872:
2867:
2792:Current Biology
2734:(Spring 1975).
2727:
2725:Further reading
2722:
2716:
2649:
2575:
2555:
2550:
2549:
2541:
2537:
2528:
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2500:
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2388:
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2372:
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2361:
2346:10.2307/3711939
2326:
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2313:
2311:
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2103:
2099:
2092:
2075:
2071:
2056:
2038:
2034:
2025:
2024:
2020:
2013:
1999:
1995:
1984:
1983:
1979:
1963:
1959:
1952:
1929:
1925:
1908:
1904:
1897:
1880:
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1835:
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1831:
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1324:
1320:
1281:
1277:
1232:
1228:
1221:
1207:
1203:
1198:
1193:
1181:
1111:Albert Einstein
1082:Karen Armstrong
1056:Ancient Judaism
1019:Richard Seaford
989:David Christian
957:
851:Cyrus the Great
837:
648:
646:Characteristics
606:
530:
499:
493:
488:
487:
482:
442:
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49:
38:
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2884:
2883:
2871:
2870:External links
2868:
2866:
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2832:
2826:
2779:
2761:(2): 294–314,
2747:
2728:
2726:
2723:
2721:
2720:
2714:
2698:
2683:
2680:978-0674066496
2668:
2665:978-0887060960
2659:. SUNY Press.
2653:
2648:978-1602589964
2647:
2631:
2592:
2583:Graeber, David
2579:
2573:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2548:
2547:
2535:
2529:Karl Jaspers,
2522:
2498:
2485:
2472:
2459:
2447:
2434:
2421:
2408:
2395:
2389:Karl Jaspers,
2382:
2370:
2340:(3): 303–333.
2320:
2294:
2290:Armstrong 2006
2282:
2266:978-1438401942
2265:
2245:
2238:
2213:
2206:
2186:
2170:"Karl Jaspers"
2161:
2149:
2147:, p. 224.
2137:
2120:
2097:
2090:
2078:Voegelin, Eric
2069:
2055:978-1946351463
2054:
2032:
2018:
2011:
1993:
1977:
1957:
1950:
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1902:
1895:
1874:
1867:
1846:
1829:
1802:
1795:
1777:
1759:
1732:
1725:
1713:"Introduction"
1709:Eisenstadt, SN
1697:
1690:
1670:
1633:
1631:, p. 367.
1629:Armstrong 2006
1617:
1611:Karl Jaspers,
1604:
1596:
1576:
1563:
1550:
1527:
1508:(3): 191–212.
1488:
1481:
1461:
1416:
1410:Karl Jaspers,
1403:
1388:
1375:
1338:(3): 596–626.
1318:
1295:(4): 315–334.
1275:
1226:
1219:
1200:
1199:
1197:
1194:
1192:
1189:
1188:
1187:
1180:
1177:
1007:Anthropologist
956:
953:
847:Zoroastrianism
839:In China, the
836:
833:
814:Zoroastrianism
753:, a pause for
719:Deutero-Isaiah
647:
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602:
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2830:
2827:
2823:
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2811:
2806:
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2797:
2793:
2789:
2788:Boyer, Pascal
2785:
2780:
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2601:
2597:
2596:Jaspers, Karl
2593:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2574:0-676-97465-1
2570:
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2444:
2438:
2431:
2425:
2418:
2412:
2405:
2399:
2392:
2386:
2379:
2374:
2360:on 2012-07-26
2359:
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2239:0-415-29046-5
2235:
2231:
2227:
2220:
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2209:
2207:0-415-25305-5
2203:
2199:
2198:
2190:
2175:
2171:
2165:
2159:, p. 249
2158:
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2047:
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2022:
2014:
2012:1-86064-148-2
2008:
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1997:
1988:
1981:
1973:
1972:
1967:
1966:Rapson, E. J.
1961:
1953:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1938:
1933:
1932:Cort, John E.
1927:
1918:
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1892:
1888:
1884:
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1868:0-8166-1114-9
1864:
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1830:9783319682198
1826:
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1774:
1762:
1760:9781000357790
1756:
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1742:
1741:Jaspers, Karl
1736:
1728:
1726:0-88706-094-3
1722:
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1691:0-7914-5424-X
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1442:
1439:(in German).
1438:
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1399:
1392:
1385:
1382:Iain Provan,
1379:
1371:
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1127:Hermann Kulke
1123:
1121:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1103:Enlightenment
1099:
1097:
1096:
1092:in his novel
1091:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1078:
1072:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1061:Eric Voegelin
1058:
1057:
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1051:
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1027:
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1010:David Graeber
1008:
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1001:Venus statues
998:
994:
990:
986:
984:
983:
978:
974:
970:
966:
962:
961:Eric Voegelin
952:
950:
947:and into the
946:
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934:
929:
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926:Second Temple
923:
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829:
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819:
815:
812:; in Persia,
811:
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766:human meaning
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594:Robert Bellah
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466:Postmodernity
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32:Human history
30:
29:
25:
21:
20:
2911:Karl Jaspers
2858:
2848:
2838:
2835:Rodney Stark
2829:Yves Lambert
2798:(1): 10–15,
2795:
2791:
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2754:
2735:
2731:
2705:
2702:Muesse, Mark
2686:
2671:
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2638:
2635:Provan, Iain
2618:
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2516:The Guardian
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2398:
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2377:
2373:
2362:. Retrieved
2358:the original
2337:
2333:
2323:
2312:. Retrieved
2308:the original
2297:
2285:
2276:
2270:. Retrieved
2255:
2248:
2229:
2196:
2189:
2178:. Retrieved
2173:
2164:
2157:Graeber 2011
2152:
2145:Graeber 2011
2140:
2131:
2125:. Retrieved
2110:
2100:
2081:
2072:
2045:
2035:
2021:
2002:
1996:
1986:
1985:"Mahavira",
1980:
1970:
1960:
1936:
1926:
1915:
1905:
1886:
1877:
1858:
1849:
1841:
1834:. Retrieved
1819:
1805:
1786:
1780:
1771:
1764:. Retrieved
1745:
1735:
1716:
1680:
1673:
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1645:
1636:
1625:Jaspers 1953
1620:
1612:
1607:
1586:
1579:
1574:, p. 1.
1571:
1570:Jaspers K.,
1566:
1558:
1553:
1544:
1540:
1530:
1505:
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1471:
1464:
1452:. Retrieved
1445:the original
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1094:
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1064:
1054:
1048:
1042:
1038:
1028:
1005:
987:
980:
964:
958:
941:Christianity
937:Neoplatonism
930:
909:
895:
867:Tirthankaras
860:
845:
838:
830:
798:Confucianism
774:
763:
748:
661:
657:
636:
615:
607:
590:
574:
559:
555:Karl Jaspers
543:
542:
537:
536:
535:
500:
375:Contemporary
370:Early modern
181:
136:Protohistory
88:Contemporary
82:
55:
54:
50:
2543:Provan 2013
1547:(2): 56–71.
1353:10871/36086
1312:2066/155741
1169:Iain Provan
949:Renaissance
945:Middle Ages
703:Zarathustra
701:; in Iran,
691:materialism
626:(1859) and
342:Renaissance
2890:Categories
2845:Gore Vidal
2364:2017-08-24
2314:2006-06-14
2272:2015-06-28
2180:2006-06-14
2127:2013-12-29
1652:(4): 333,
1454:17 January
1191:References
1120:complexity
1090:Gore Vidal
1023:Marc Shell
977:Anaxagoras
973:Heraclitus
969:Pythagoras
918:Israelites
887:asceticism
865:(previous
855:Mary Boyce
743:Archimedes
739:Thucydides
731:Heraclitus
727:Parmenides
709:by way of
695:scepticism
683:Upanishads
675:Chuang Tse
568:, and the
550:Achsenzeit
473:Futurology
414:South Asia
314:South Asia
231:South Asia
168:Bronze Age
163:Copper Age
121:Common Era
96:10,000 BCE
42:Prehistory
2775:146491719
2744:i20024322
2080:(2000) .
2064:27322748M
1666:143930719
1522:152276051
1370:150014307
1362:0003-1224
1196:Citations
1141:Silk Road
1031:Max Weber
982:anamnesis
955:Reception
933:Platonism
816:; in the
777:spiritual
663:Confucius
598:Hans Joas
586:Akhenaten
538:Axial Age
461:Modernity
428:West Asia
409:East Asia
328:West Asia
305:East Asia
245:West Asia
226:East Asia
182:Axial Age
84:Neolithic
78:Timelines
46:Stone Age
2906:Iron Age
2857:(2009).
2849:Creation
2847:(1981).
2837:(2007).
2814:25496963
2732:Daedalus
2704:(2013),
2637:(2013),
2627:49057321
2608:53001441
2598:(1953),
2585:(2011),
2563:(2006),
2108:(2004).
1968:(1955).
1934:(2001).
1913:(2006).
1885:(2012).
1857:(1983).
1836:14 March
1766:14 March
1711:(1986).
1541:Existenz
1270:31822841
1179:See also
1171:'s book
1095:Creation
1077:Daedalus
915:Biblical
897:Buddhism
891:Mahavira
863:sramanas
806:Buddhism
802:Hinduism
781:Occident
715:Jeremiah
699:nihilism
679:Lieh Tzu
582:Muhammad
544:Axis Age
447:See also
291:Americas
276:Timeline
173:Iron Age
70:Holocene
24:a series
22:Part of
2880:Germany
2393:, p. 6.
2354:3711939
1248:Bibcode
1014:coinage
993:empires
883:samsara
826:Sophism
822:Judaism
810:Jainism
759:liminal
755:liberty
667:Lao-Tse
404:Oceania
300:Oceania
221:Oceania
155:Ancient
100:Present
2820:
2812:
2773:
2742:
2712:
2693:
2678:
2663:
2645:
2625:
2606:
2571:
2533:, p. 2
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1664:
1615:, p. 2
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1268:
1240:Nature
1217:
1132:Persia
905:Ashoka
885:, and
875:ahimsa
818:Levant
808:, and
794:Taoism
751:empire
711:Isaiah
707:Elijah
687:Buddha
584:, and
566:Levant
562:Persia
541:(also
497:Future
437:Europe
385:Africa
358:Modern
337:Europe
286:Africa
254:Europe
202:Africa
2822:44291
2818:S2CID
2771:S2CID
2740:JSTOR
2617:[
2350:JSTOR
1662:S2CID
1518:S2CID
1448:(PDF)
1433:(PDF)
1366:S2CID
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770:Ă©lite
735:Plato
723:Homer
671:Mo Ti
578:Jesus
2810:PMID
2710:ISBN
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2676:ISBN
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2643:ISBN
2623:LCCN
2604:LCCN
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2234:ISBN
2202:ISBN
2116:ISBN
2086:ISBN
2050:ISBN
2007:ISBN
1946:ISBN
1891:ISBN
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1838:2023
1825:ISBN
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1768:2023
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1592:ISBN
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